6 Exercises Solutions 2010 PDF

M A T E R I A L I N S P I R A T I O N
6 Exercises with
Worked Solutions
Cambridge
University
Version MFA 10
Adapted from the Solution Manual to Materials selection in mechanical design, 4th edition,
Prof. Mike Ashby Engineering Department, University of Cambridge, CB2 1PZ.
Exercises with worked solutions
Contents
E1. Introduction to exercises
E2. Material evolution in products
E3. Devising concepts
E4. Using material properties
E5. Using material selection charts
E6. Translation: constraints and objectives
E7. Deriving and using material indices
E8. Multiple constraints and objectives
E9. Selecting material and shape
E10. Hybrid materials
E11. Selecting processes
E12. Materials and the environment
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E1 Introduction to exercises
These exercises are designed to develop facility in selecting 3. A request for a selection based on one material index alone (such
materials, processes and shape, and in devising hybrid materials when
no monolithic material completely meets the design requirements. as M = E 1 / 2 / ρ ) is correctly answered by listing the subset of
Each exercise is accompanied by a worked solution. They are materials that maximize this index. But a request for a selection of
organized into the twelve sections listed on the first page. materials for a component – a wing spar, for instance (which is a
light, stiff beam, for which the index is M = E 1 / 2 / ρ ) – requires
The early exercises are easy. Those that follow lead the reader
more: some materials with high E 1 / 2 / ρ such as silicon carbide,
through the use of material properties and simple solutions to
mechanics problems, drawing on data and results contained in the are unsuitable for obvious reasons. It is a poor answer that
CES EduPack and the booklet “Useful Approximate Solutions to ignores common sense and experience and fails to add further
Standard Problems”; the use of material property charts; techniques for constraints to incorporate them. Students should be encouraged
the translation of design requirement to identify constraints and to discuss the implications of their selection and to suggest further
objectives; the derivation of indices, screening and ranking, multi- selection stages.
objective optimization; coupled choice of material and shape; devising
hybrids; and the choice of materials to meet environmental criteria.
All the materials selection problems can be solved using the

Three important points. Standard databases in the CES EduPack software, which is
1. Selection problems are open-ended and, generally, under- particularly effective when multiple criteria and unusual indices are
specified; there is seldom a single, correct answer. The proper involved. This version of the solution manual has been written such
answer is a sensible translation of the design requirements into that it can be completed without having to refer to the book Materials
material constraints and objectives, applied to give a short-list of Selection in Mechanical Design, 4th edition. The original solution
potential candidates with commentary suggesting what supporting manual for the book can be found on the Granta Design website.
information would be needed to narrow the choice further. Hint: When using the CES EduPack, you can avoid manually
2. The positioning of selection-lines on charts is a matter of calculating the average values of material properties (they tend to
judgement. The goal is to place the lines such that they leave an span a range) by going to ToolsÆOptionsÆNumbers and checking
adequately large "short list" of candidates (aim for 4 or so), drawn, the “Display data ranges as average values” checkbox.
if possible, from more than one class of material.

E2 Material evolution in products
E2.1. Use Google to research the history and uses of one of the
following materials
Tin
Glass
Cement
Titanium
Carbon fiber
Present the result as a short report of about 100 - 200 words (roughly
half a page).
Specimen answer: tin. Tin (symbol Sn), a silver-white metal, has a

long history. It was traded in the civilisations of the Mediterranean as
early as 1500 BC (the Old Testament of the Christian bible contains
many references to it). Its importance at that time lay in its ability to
harden copper to give bronze (copper containing about 10% tin), the key
material for weapons, tools and statuary of the Bronze age (1500 BC –
500 BC). Today tin is still used to make bronze, for solders and as a
corrosion resistant coating on steel sheet (“tin plate” ) for food and drink
containers – a “tinnie”, to an Australian, is a can of beer. Plate glass is
made by floating molten glass on a bed of liquid tin (the Pilkington
process). Thin deposits of tin compounds on glass give transparent,
electrically conducting coatings used for frost-free windshields and for
panel lighting.
E2.2 Research the evolution of material use in

• Writing implements (charcoal, “lead” (graphite), quill pens, steel
nib pens, gold plus osmium pens, ball points..)
• Watering cans (wood – galvanized iron – polypropylene)
• Bicycles (wood – bamboo – steel, aluminum, magnesium,
titanium – CFRP)
• Small boat building (wood – aluminum – GFRP)
• Book binding (Wood – leather – cardboard – vinyl)

E3 Devising concepts
These two examples illustrate the way in which concepts are Concept Embodiment
generated. The left-hand part of each diagram describes a physical
principle by which the need might be met; the right-hand part
elaborates, suggesting how the principle might be used.
Electric fan pulling air stream through
paper or cloth filter in portable unit
C1 Entrain in air stream
and filter
Central pump and filter linked to
E3.1 Concepts and embodiments for dust removers. The need for rooms by ducting
a “device to remove household dust” has many established
solutions. You can read about the various ways this problem has
been solved in the last 100 or more years by searching the Centrifugal turbo-fan with surrounding
Internet. dust collector, in portable unit
C2 Entrain in air
Now is the time for more creative thinking. Devise as many stream,
concepts to meet this need as you can. Nothing, at the concept Central turbo-fan with centrifugal
stage, is too far-fetched; decisions about practicality and cost dust collector linked to rooms by ducting
come later, at the detailed stage. List concepts and outline
embodiments as block diagrams like this:
Centrifugal turbo-fan, injected water
spray to wash air stream, in portable unit
C3 Entrain in air
stream,
Concept Embodiment Central turbo-fan , water spray to wash
air stream, linked to rooms by ducting
Electric fan pulling air stream through Axial fan drawing air stream between
paper or cloth filter in portable unit
charged plates, in portable unit
C1 Entrain in air stream
and filter
C4 Entrain in air
Central pump and filter linked to stream, trap
rooms by ducting Central fan with electrostatic collector,
linked to rooms by ducting
C5 Trap dust on Reel-to-reel single sided adhesive tape

adhesive strip running over flexible pressure-pad
Answer. Design problems are open-ended; there are always

alternative solutions. Here are some for dust removers.

E3.2 Cooling power electronics. Microchips, particularly those for
Concept Embodiment
power electronics, get hot. If they get too hot they cease to
function. The need: a scheme for removing heat from power
microchips. Devise concepts to meet the need and sketch an Massive, with sufficient heat capacity to absorb heat
embodiment of one of them, laying out your ideas in the way over work cycle without significant increase in
suggested in exercise E3.1.
C1 Conduction
Compact, requiring back-up by coupling to convection,
Answer. Four working principles are listed below: thermal conduction, evaporation or radiation
convection by heat transfer to a fluid medium, evaporation
exploiting the latent heat of evaporation of a fluid, and radiation, Free convection not requiring fan or pump.
best achieved with a surface with high emissivity.
The best solutions may be found by combining two of these: C2 Convection
conduction coupled with convection (as in the sketch – an often- Forced convection with fan or pump
used combination) or radiation coupled with evaporation (a
possibility for short-life space structures).
Unconfined, such as a continuous spray of volatile fluid
C3 Evaporation
Confined, utilising heat-pipe technology
Radiation to ambient, using high emissivity coatings
C4 Radiation
Radiation to cooled surface, from high emissivity
surface to highly absorbent surface

E4 Using material properties E4.3 A thick-walled tube has an inner radius ri = 10 mm and an outer
“Useful Approximate Solutions to Standard Problems” (UASSP) is a radius ro = 15 mm. It is made from polycarbonate, PC. What is the
booklet available to instructors and students via Granta’s Teaching maximum torque that the tube can carry without the onset of yield?
Resources. This and the data in the CES EduPack can be used to Retrieve the (mean) yield strength σ y of PC, the expression for the
solve the questions in this chapter.
torque at onset of yield from UASSP, 6 and that for the polar moment of a
thick walled tube from UASSP, 2 to find out.
E4.1 A cantilever beam has a length L = 50 mm, a width b = 5 mm and
a thickness t = 1 mm. It is made of an aluminum alloy. By how much
will the end deflect under and end-load of 5 N? Use data from the CES Answer. The torque at the onset of yield for a thick walled tube is
EduPack for the (mean) value of Young’s modulus of aluminum alloys,
the equation for the elastic deflection of a cantilever from UASSP, 3 Kσ y π
and for the second moment of a beam from UASSP, 2 to find out. Tf = with K = ( ro4 − ri4 )
2 ro 2
Answer. The deflection δ of a cantilever under an end load F is, from The mean yield strength of σ y of PC from the CES EduPack is 65 MPa.
UASSP, 3,
Inserting the data from the question gives a torque at the onset of yield of
F L3 bt3 T f = 138 N.m.
δ = with I =
3EI 12
The mean Young’s modulus E for aluminum is 75 GPa. Inserting the
data from the question results in an end deflection δ = 6.7 mm. E4.4 A round bar, 20 mm in diameter, has a shallow circumferential
notch with a depth c = 1 mm with a root radius r = 10 microns. The bar
is made of a low carbon steel with a yield strength of σ y = 250 MPa. It is
E4.2 A spring, wound from stainless steel wire with a wire diameter
loaded axially with a nominal stress, σ nom (the axial load divided by the
d = 1mm, has n = 20 turns of radius R = 10 mm. How much will it
extend when loaded with a mass P of 1 kg? Assume the shear un-notched area). At what value of σ nom will yield first commence at the
modulus G of stainless steel to be 3/8 E where E is Young’s modulus root of the notch? Use the stress concentration estimate of UASSP, 9 to
(from the data in the CES EduPack), and use the expression for the find out.
extension of springs from UASSP, 6 to find out.
Answer. The stress concentration caused by notch of depth c and root
Answer. The extension u of a spring under a force F = Pg = 9.81 N radius r is
1/ 2
(here g is the acceleration due to gravity) is σ max ⎛c⎞
= 1 + α⎜ ⎟ with α ≈ 2 for tension
σ nom ⎝r⎠
64 F R 3 n
u = Yield first starts when σ max = σ y . Inserting the data from the question
Gd4
gives a nominal stress for first yield of 11.9 MPa. Stress concentrations
Young’s modulus for stainless steel is 200 GPa, so shear modulus can be very damaging – in this example, a cyclic stress of only ± 12 MPa
G ≈ 76 GPa. Inserting the data gives a deflection u = 10.4 mm. will ultimately initiate a fatigue crack at the notch root.

E4.5 An acrylic (PMMA) window is clamped in a low carbon steel Answer. The crack length is small compared with the width of the
frame at T = 20 C. The temperature falls to T = -20 C, putting the window, so the appropriate choice of equation describing crack
window under tension because the thermal expansion coefficient of instability is
PMMA is larger than that of steel. If the window was stress-free at
20C, what stress does it carry at -20 C? Use the result that the bi-axial Cσ π a ≥ K 1c with C = 1.0
stress caused by a bi-axial strain difference ∆ε is
Inserting the data we find the length of the shortest crack that is just
E∆ε unstable:
σ =
1 −ν
2
2 ⎛ K 1c ⎞
where E is Young’s modulus for PMMA and Poisson’s ratio ν = 0.33 . 2a = ⎜ ⎟⎟ = 2.1 mm, using (K 1c ) PMMA = 1.15 MPa.m1/2
π ⎜⎝ σ ⎠
You will find data for expansion coefficients in Table A7, and for moduli
in UASSP, 5. Use mean values. Thus the 0.5mm crack will not propagate.
Answer. The strain difference caused by difference in thermal E4.7 A flywheel with a radius R = 200 mm is designed to spin up to
expansion, α , when the temperature changes by ∆T is 8000 rpm. It is proposed to make it out of cast iron, but the casting
(
∆ε = α PMMA − α Low C steel ∆T) shop can guarantee only that it will have no crack-like flaws greater
than 2a = 2 mm in length. Use the expression for the maximum
From the CES EduPack, stress in a spinning disk in UASSP, 7, that for the stress intensity at a
small enclosed crack from UASSP, 10 and data for cast iron from the
α PMMA = 117x 10-6/C and α Low C steel = 12.3 x 10-6/C CES EduPack to establish if the flywheel is safe. Take Poisson’s ratio
ν for cast iron to be 0.33.
giving ∆ε = 4.2 x 10-3. The modulus of PMMA from the CES
EduPack is E = 3.0 GPa. The equation given in the question then
Answer. The maximum tensile stress in a spinning disk is
predicts a tensile stress in the window of σ = 19 MPa. (3 +ν ) ρ ω 2 R 2
σ max = , and K 1 = σ max πa ≤ K 1c
8
for a contained crack. Here ω = 2 π W / 60 radians/sec when W is
the rotational velocity in rpm. Inserting the data from the question and
E4.6 The PMMA window described in Exercise 4.5 has a contained the mean values for density ρ = 7150 kg/m3 and K 1c = 38 MPa.m1/2
crack of length 2a = 0.5 mm. If the maximum tensile stress that is from the CES EduPack, we find the maximum that the rotational
anticipated in the window is σ = 20 MPa, will the crack propagate? velocity that will just cause the cracks to propagate is 4350 radians/s,
Choose an appropriate equation for crack propagation from UASSP, 10 or 41,600 rpm. The flywheel is safe.
and data for the fracture toughness K 1c of PMMA from the CES
EduPack to calculate the length of crack that is just unstable under this
tensile stress.

E4.8 You wish to assess, approximately, the thermal conductivity λ of E4.9 It is proposed to replace the cast iron casing of a power tool with
polyethylene (PE). To do so you block one end of a PE pipe with a wall one with precisely the same dimension molded from nylon. Will the
thickness of x = 3 mm and diameter of 30 mm and fill it with boiling material cost of the nylon casing be greater or less than that made of
water while clutching the outside with your other hand. You note that cast iron? Use data from the CES EduPack to find out.
the outer surface of the pipe first becomes appreciably hot at a time t ≈
18 seconds after filling the inside with water. Use this information, plus
data for specific heat C p and density ρ of PE, to estimate λ for PE. Answer. If the dimensions of the cast iron and nylon cases are the
same, the volume of material required to make them are equal. Thus
How does your result compare with the listed value in the CES
the cheaper option is the one with the lower material cost per unit
EduPack?
volume C v , where
Answer. The distance x that heat diffuses in a time t is Cv = ρ C m

approximately
and ρ is the material density and C m the material cost per kg. Data
λ
x = 2at with a = from the CES EduPack are assembled below, using the means of the
ρCp
ranges..
( a is the thermal diffusivity). Inserting the data from the question and
the mean values ρ = 950 kg/m3 and C p = 1850 J/kg/K, we find λ ≈ Density Price Cost per unit
kg/m3 $/kg vol $/m3
0.44 W/m.K. The result given in the CES EduPack for the thermal
conductivity of PE is 0.403 – 0.435 W/m.K. Cast iron 7150 0.66 4719
Nylon 1130 3.45 3900
Surprisingly, the nylon casing has a lower material cost than that made
of cast iron.

E5. Using material selection charts E5.2 Use a Young’s modulus – Density (E-ρ) chart to identify
The 20 exercises in this section involve the simple use of the charts materials with both a modulus E > 50 GPa and a density ρ <
that can be created using the CES EduPack to find materials with given 2000 kg/m3.
property profiles. This involves first creating the chart, then applying the
appropriate box or line selection and reading off the materials that lie
on the appropriate side of the line. It is a good idea to present the Answer. There are only three materials with modulus E > 50 GPa
results as a table. You can copy this table from the CES EduPack. and density ρ < 2000 kg/m3.
The software offers links to processes, allows a wider search by using Material Comment
the Level 3 database, and gives access to supporting information via Cast and Wrought Magnesium is the lightest of all common
the “Search Web” function. Magnesium alloys structural metals – only beryllium is lighter,
but it is very expensive and its oxide is
toxic.
E5.1 A component is at present made from a brass, a copper alloy. CFRP – carbon- CFRP is both lighter and stiffer than
fiber reinforced magnesium. That is one reason it is used
Use a Young’s modulus – Density (E-ρ) chart to suggest three
plastic for competition cars and bikes.
other metals that, in the same shape, would be stiffer. “Stiffer”
means a higher value of Young’s modulus.
E5.3 Use a Young’s Modulus-Density (E-ρ) chart to find (a) metals
that are stiffer and less dense than steels and (b) materials (not
Answer. Metals that are stiffer than brass are listed in the table. just metals) that are both stiffer and less dense than steel.
Material Comment
Steels The cheapest stiff, strong structural metal, Answer. (a) No metals in Figure 4.3 are both stiffer and less dense
widely used. than steel, though nickel alloys come close. (b) Several ceramics
Nickel alloys More expensive than steel qualify: Boron carbide, B4C, silicon carbide, SiC, silicon nitride
Tungsten alloys Refractory (high-melting) and relatively Si3N4, aluminium nitride AlN and alumina Al203.
expensive
Material Comment
Alumina Al203 Alumina is the most widely used of all
Silicon nitride Si3N4 technical ceramics (spark plugs, circuit
Boron carbide, B4C boards…) All ceramics are brittle – they
Silicon carbide, SiC have low values of fracture toughness K1c
Aluminium Nitride, and toughness G1c .
AlN

E5.4 Use a E-ρ chart to identify metals with both E > 100 GPa and E5.5 Use a E-ρ chart to identify materials with both E > 100 GPa
E/ρ > 0.02 GPa/(kg/m3). and E 1 / 3 / ρ > 0.003 (GPa)1/3/(kg/m3). Remember that, on
taking logs, the index  M = E 1 / 3 / ρ becomes
Answer. The chart shows the selection. The metals that lie in the Log ( E ) = 3 Log ( ρ ) + 3 Log ( M )
search area are listed in the table.
and that this plots as a line of slope 3 on the chart, passing
Material Comment
through the point E = 27 when ρ = 1000 in the units on the chart.
Steels Cheap, widely used. Stiff structural material.
Nickel alloys More expensive than steel Answer. The chart shows the selection. The materials that lie in the
Titanium alloys Titanium alloys are very expensive. search area are listed in the table. No metals survive.
Material Comment
CFRP Carbon-fiber composites excel in stiffness
at low weight.
Boron carbide, B4C Boron carbide is exceptionally stiff, hard
and light; it is used for body armour.
1/3
E /ρ = 0.003
E/ρ =
0.02
Search area Search area

E = 100 E = 100
Slope 3
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E5.6 Use a E-ρ chart to establish whether woods have a higher E 5.8 Use a modulus-strength E − σ f chart to find materials that
specific stiffness E/ρ than epoxies.
have E > 10 GPa and σ f ≥ 1000 MPa.
Answer. Parallel to the grain, woods have much higher specific

stiffness than epoxies. Perpendicular to the grain, woods have Answer. The strongest steels, titanium alloys (Ti-alloys) and carbon
about the same value as epoxies. fiber reinforced polymers (CFRP) meet these limits.
Material E/ρ (GPa/(kg/m3) x 103 Material Comment
Woods parallel to the grain 8 - 29 High strength steels
Woods transverse to the grain 0.7 – 4.0 High strength nickel alloys All have σ f above 1000 MPa,
Epoxies 1.8 – 2.5 Titanium alloys a very large value
CFRP
E5.7 Do titanium alloys have a higher or lower specific strength E5.9 Are the fracture toughness, K1c, of the common polymers
(strength/density, σ f / ρ ) than the best steels? This is important polycarbonate, ABS, or polystyrene larger or smaller than the
engineering ceramic alumina, Al2O3? Are their toughness
when you want strength at low weight (landing gear of aircraft,
mountain bikes). Use a σ f / ρ chart to decide. G1c = K12c / E larger or smaller? A K1c –E chart will help.
Answer. The guide line for σ f / ρ on the strength – density chart of Answer. Most polymers have a lower fracture toughness, K1c, than
Figure 4.4, if drawn through titanium alloys shows that they have a alumina. Their toughness, G1c = K12c / E , however, are much
much the higher specific strength than any steel, even though the larger. Even the most brittle of polymers, polystyrene, has a
best steel are as strong.. toughness G1c that is nearly ten times greater than that of
Material σ f /ρ (MPa/(kg/m3)) x 103 alumina. The values in the table are read using the K1c axis to
Titanium alloys 54 - 270 read off values of fracture toughness, and the G1c = K 12c / E
Steels 32 - 190 contours to read off values of toughness.
2
Material K1c (MPa.m1/2) G1c (kJ/m )
Polycarbonate 2.1 – 4.6 0.5 - 8
ABS 1.2 – 4.3 1-8
Polystyrene 0.7 – 1.1 0.25 – 0.7
Alumina, Al2O3 3.3 – 4.8 0.04 – 0.07

E 5.10 Use a fracture toughness-modulus chart to find materials that polymers have, additionally, K 1c > 1 MPa.m1/2 . This makes them
have a fracture toughness K 1c greater than 100 MPa.m1/2 and a attractive for snap-together parts that must flex without failing.
Leather has a particularly high value of resilience, K 1c / E .
toughness G1c = K 12c / E (shown as contours on Figure 4.7)
greater than 10 kJ/m3.
E 5.12 One criterion for design of a safe pressure vessel is that it
should leak before it breaks: the leak can be detected and the
Answer. The table lists the results. Only metals have both high pressure released. This is achieved by designing the vessel to
fracture toughness K 1c and high toughness G1c . That is one tolerate a crack of length equal to the thickness t of the pressure
reason that they are used for pressure vessels (boilers, submarine vessel wall, without failing by fast fracture. The safe pressure p is
hulls, gas containers etc). then
Material Comment
4 1 ⎛⎜ K Ic
2 ⎞
⎟
High strength steels All have high K 1c and high G1c p ≤
High strength nickel alloys π R ⎜⎝ σ f ⎟⎠
where σ f is the elastic limit, K 1c is the fracture toughness, R is

E5.11 The elastic deflection at fracture (the “resilience”) of an elastic-
brittle solid is proportional to the failure strain, ε fr = σ fr / E , the vessel radius. The pressure is maximized by choosing the
material with the greatest value of
where σ fr is the stress that will cause a crack to propagate:
K K 12c
σ fr = 1c M =
πc σy
Here K 1c is the fracture toughness and c is the length of the
Use a K 1c − σ f chart to identify three alloys that have particularly
longest crack the materials may contain. Thus
high values of M.
1 ⎛ K 1c ⎞
ε fr = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
πc⎝ E ⎠ Answer. Alloys with high values of K 12c / σ y , read from the chart, are
Materials that can deflect elastically without fracturing are listed below
therefore those with large values of K 1c / E . Use a K1c –E chart
Material Comment
to identify the class of materials with K 1c > 1 MPa.m1/2 and high Low alloy steels Traditional material for pressure vessels.
values of K 1c / E . Stainless steels Used for nuclear pressure vessels.
Copper alloys Small boilers are made of copper.
Tin Tin is used in storage tanks for pharmaceutical
Answer. Polymers and foams both have large K 1c / E allowing them chemical solutions
to flex without fracturing. They have much higher values K 1c / E Nickel alloys Reactors for chemical engineering and turbine
than metals or ceramics, and thus large fracture strains. Only combustion chambers are made of nickel based
alloys.

E5.13 A material is required for the blade of a rotary lawn- E5.14 Use a Thermal conductivity-Electrical resistivity ( λ − ρ e ) chart to
mower. Cost is a consideration. For safety reasons, the designer find three materials with high thermal conductivity, λ , and high electrical
specified a minimum fracture toughness for the blade: it is K 1c > resistivity, ρ e .
30 MPa m1/2. The other mechanical requirement is for high
hardness, H, to minimize blade wear. Hardness, in applications Answer. Aluminum nitride is the best choice. The next best are
like this one, is related to strength: alumina and silicon carbide.
H ≈ 3σ y
Material Comment
where σ f is the strength. Use a K 1c − σ f chart to identify three
Aluminum nitride, AlN Favored material for heat sinks requiring
materials that have K > 30 MPa m1/2 and the highest possible
1c Alumina, Al2O3
this combination of properties.
strength. To do this, position a " K 1c " selection line at 30 MPa All meet the requirements
Silicon nitride, Si3N4
m1/2 and then adjust a "strength" selection line such that it just
admits three candidates. Use a strength — cost per volume chart
to rank your selection by material cost, hence making a final
E5.15 The window through which the beam emerges from a high-
selection.
powered laser must obviously be transparent to light. Even then, some
of the energy of the beam is absorbed in the window and can cause it to
heat and crack. This problem is minimized by choosing a window
Answer. Applying the property limit K 1c > 30 MPam1/2, and reading material with a high thermal conductivity λ (to conduct the heat away)
of materials with σ f > 800 MPa, gives three groups of materials. and a low expansion coefficient α (to reduce thermal strains), that is, by
Chart 4.19 identifies the price of each of these per unit volume. seeking a window material with a high value of
The steels are far cheaper than the other two. M = λ /α
Material Comment
High-strength steels Traditional material for blades Use a α − λ chart to identify the best material for an ultra-high powered
Nickel alloys Meets the requirements, but more laser window.
expensive than steel
Titanium alloys Meets the requirements, but MUCH more
expensive than steel.

Answer. The chart shows three transparent materials with high λ / α :
soda glass, silica glass and alumina, which, in single crystal form E5.17 (a) Use a Young’s modulus-Relative cost (E – Cv,R) chart to find
(sapphire) or ultra-fine grained form (“Lucalox”) is transparent and hard.
the cheapest materials with a modulus, E, greater than 100 GPa.
Diamond, not shown on the chart, has an exceptionally high value: it
has been used for ultra high-powered laser windows. (b) Use a Strength-Relative cost ( σ f − C R ) chart to find the cheapest
materials with a strength, σ f , above 100MPa.
Material Comment
Soda glass Answer. (a) The two cheap classes of material that meet the
M = 3 x 105 W/m; poor resistance to thermal
pulse
constraints are cast irons and carbon steels.
(b) Cast irons and steels are again the best choice. It is because
Silica glass M =2 x 106 W/m; much better than soda glass of their high stiffness and strength at low cost that they are so
Alumina (sapphire) M = 3 x 106 W/m; a little better than silica widely used.
glass
(Diamond) M = 3 x 108 W/m; outstanding
E5.16 Use a Maximum service temperature (Tmax) chart to find

polymers that can be used above 2000 C.
Answer. The chart shows just two classes of polymer with maximum
service temperatures greater than 2000C. They are listed below.
Material Comment
Polytetrafluorethylene, PTFE (Teflon) is used as non-stick
PTFE coatings for cooking ware, easily surviving
the temperatures of baking and frying.
Silicone elastomers Silicones are polymers with a Si-O-Si chain
structure instead of the C-C-C chain of
polyolefins. They are more stable than
carbon-based polymers, but expensive.

E6. Translation: constraints and objectives
course, minimizing mass and cost are both objectives, and then trade-
Translation is the task of re-expressing design requirements in terms off methods are needed.
that enable material and process selection. Tackle the exercises by
They come later. For now use judgement to choose the single most
formulating the answers to the questions in this table. Don’t try to
important objective and make all others into constraints.
model the behavior at this point (that comes in later exercises). Just
think out what the component does, and list the constraints that this Two rules-of-thumb, useful in many “translation” exercises. Many
imposes on material choice, including processing requirements. applications require sufficient fracture toughness for the component
can survive mishandling and accidental impact during service; a totally
brittle material (like un-toughened glass) is unsuitable. Then a
Function • What does component do? necessary constraint is that of “adequate toughness”. This is achieved
Constraints • What essential conditions must be by requiring that the fracture toughness K 1c > 15 MPa.m 1 / 2 . Other
met? applications require some ductility, sufficient to allow stress
redistribution under loading points, and some ability to bend or shape
Objective • What is to be maximized or the material plastically. This is achieved by requiring that the (tensile)
minimized?
ductility ε f > 2% .
Free • What parameters of the problem is
variables the designer free to change? The CES EduPack software can be used to impose the constraints
and to rank the survivors using the objective.
Here it is important to recognize the distinction between constraints and

objectives. As the table says, a constraint is an essential condition that
must be met, usually expressed as a limit on a material or process
attribute. An objective is an quantity for which an extremum (a
maximum or minimum) is sought, frequently cost, mass or volume, but
there are others, several of which appear in the exercises below. Take
the example of a bicycle frame. It must have a certain stiffness and
strength. If it is not stiff and strong enough it will not work, but it is
never required to have infinite stiffness or strength. Stiffness and
strength are therefore constraints that become limits on modulus,
elastic limit and shape. If the bicycle is for sprint racing, it should be as
light as possible – if you could make it infinitely light, that would be best
of all. Minimizing mass, here, is the objective, perhaps with an upper
limit (a constraint) on cost. If instead it is a shopping bike to be sold
through supermarkets it should be as cheap as possible – the cheaper
it is, the more will be sold. This time minimizing cost is the objective,
possible with an upper limit (a constraint) on mass. For most bikes, of

E6.1 A material is required for the windings of an electric air-furnace Function • Scissors
capable of temperatures up to 1000oC. Think out what attributes a Constraints • High hardness
material must have if it is to be made into windings and function 1/ 2
• Adequate toughness: K 1c > 15 MPa .m
properly in a furnace. List the function and the constraints; set the
objective to “minimize cost” and the free variables to “choice of • Good wear resistance
material”. • Able to be forged
Objective • Minimize material cost
Free variables • Choice of material
Answer. If the material is to be used as windings it must be able to be
drawn to wire and wound to a coil. It must conduct electricity and
be able to operate at 1000oC in air. The constraints are tabulated E6.3 A material is required for a heat exchanger to extract heat
below. from geo-thermally heated, saline, water at 120oC (and thus
under pressure). List function and constraints; set the objective
Function • High temperature furnace winding to “minimize cost” and the free variables to “choice of material”.
Constraints • Maximum service temperature, Tmax > 1000 C
• Able to be rolled or drawn to wire
• Good electrical conductor Answer. The obvious constraints here are those on service-
• Good resistance to oxidation at elevated temperature, corrosion resistance, the ability to conduct heat
temperature well and strength. There are manufacturing constraints too: if
Objective • Minimize material cost the heat exchanger is to be made from tubes or folded sheet, the
Free variables • Choice of material material must be available in these forms, and have sufficient
ductility to allow manufacture.
E6.2 A material is required to manufacture office scissors. Paper is an Function • Heat exchanger
abrasive material, and scissors sometimes encounter hard Constraints • Maximum service temperature, Tmax > 120 C
obstacles like staples. List function and constraints; set the • Good thermal conductor
objective to “minimize cost” and the free variables to “choice of • Resistance to corrosion in salt water:
material”. good/excellent
• Sufficient strength to support the pressure of
the super-heated water
Answer. To resist abrasive wear the scissors must have blades of • Ability to be rolled to sheet or tube
high hardness. In cutting, they will sooner or later encounter a • Adequate ductility to allow shaping, ε f > 2%
staple or other hard obstruction that would chip a brittle blade – Objective • Minimize material cost
some toughness is required. These two parameters help reduce
wear, but there are other factors that influence it, so it is sensible
to specify good wear resistance. Finally, the scissors must be
formed – if the handles are integral with the blades, they must be
forged or stamped from sheet, requiring the ability to be processed
in this way.

E6.4 A C-clamp is required for the processing of electronic Function • C-clamp of low thermal inertia
components at temperatures up to 450 oC. It is essential that the
clamp has as low a thermal inertia as possible so that it reaches
that temperature quickly, and it must not charge-up when exposed • Sufficient strength to carry clamping loads
without failure
to an electron beam. The time t it takes a component of thickness
• Electrical conductor (to prevent charging)
x to reach thermal equilibrium when the temperature is suddenly
changed (a transient heat flow problem) is Objective • Maximise the thermal diffusivity, a of the
material
x2 Free variables • Choice of material
t≈
2a
where the thermal diffusivity a = λ / ρ C p and λ is the thermal

conductivity, ρ the density and C p the specific heat. E6.5 A furnace is required to sinter powder-metal parts. It
operates continuously at 650 oC while the parts are fed through
List function, constraints and objective; set the free variables to on a moving belt. You are asked to select a material for furnace
“choice of material”. insulation to minimize heat loss and thus to make the furnace as
energy-efficient as possible. For reasons of space the
insulation is limited to a maximum thickness of x = 0.2 m. List
the function, constraints, objective and free variable.
Answer. This is a problem involving steady-state heat flow. The

heat lost by conduction per unit area of insulation per second, q,
is
∆T
q =λ
x
Figure E1
where λ is the thermal conductivity, x the insulation thickness
and ∆T the temperature difference between the interior of the
furnace and its surroundings. The aim is to minimize q, leading
Answer. If the C-clamp is to reach temperature quickly it must,
(via the equation) to the objective of minimizing the thermal
according to the equation given in the question, be made of a
conductivity of the insulation material. There are two
material with as high a thermal diffusivity, a as possible. It carries
constraints: one on thickness, the other on service temperature.
loads, so it must have adequate strength, and it must not charge
up, so it must be an electrical conductor.

Answer. The objective is to minimize the radius of curvature at the
contact. This is limited by the hardness H and modulus E of the
Function • Insulation for energy-efficient furnace materials. The objective is met by seeking materials with:
Constraints • Maximum service temperature, Tmax > 650 C maximum hardness H to enable the smallest possible area of
• Insulation thickness x ≤ 0.2 m contact without damage, and maximum modulus E to minimize
elastic flattening of the contact. In a later exercise we return to
Objective • Minimize thermal conductivity λ
this problem of two objectives, treating it by trade-off methods.
Free variables • Choice of material Here we choose maximizing hardness as the primary objective,
since deficiency here results in a damaged bearing. We then
E6.6 Ultra-precise bearings that allow a rocking motion make use of treat modulus as a constraint, together with the other obvious
knife-edges or pivots. As the bearing rocks, it rolls, translating constraints suggested by the design requirements.
sideways by a distance that depends on the radius of contact. Function • Rocking bearing
The further it rolls, the less precise is its positioning, so the smaller Constraints • Maximum service temperature, Tmax > 100 C
the radius of contact R the better. But the smaller the radius of • Good electrical conductor
contact, the greater is the contact pressure (F/A). If this exceeds • Good resistance to fluorine gas
the hardness H of either face of the bearing, it will be damaged. • High modulus, E
Elastic deformation is bad too: it flattens the contact, increasing
Objective • Maximize hardness H of bearing faces
the contact area and the roll.
A rocking bearing is required to operate in a micro-chip fabrication
unit using fluorine gas at 100oC, followed by e-beam processing
requiring that all structural parts of the equipment can be earthed E6.7 The standard CD (“Jewel” case) cracks easily and, if broken, can
to prevent stray charges. Translate the requirements into material scratch the CD. Jewel cases are made of injection molded
selection criteria, listing function, constraints, objective and free polystyrene, chosen because it is transparent, cheap and easy to
variable. mold. A material is sought to make CD cases that do not crack so
easily. The case must still be transparent, able to be injection
molded, and able to compete with polystyrene in cost.
Answer. The question expresses constraints on transparency,
moldablity and fracture toughness (it must be greater than that of
polystyrene). Given these, the cheapest material is the best
choice.
Function • Improved CD case

Constraints • Optically transparent
• Fracture toughness greater than that of
polystyrene
• Able to be injection molded
Objective • Minimize material cost
Figure E2

E6.8 A storage heater captures heat over a period of time, then
releases it, usually to an air stream, when required. Those for
domestic heating store solar energy or energy from cheap off-peak
electricity and release it slowly during the cold part of the day.
Those for research release the heat to a supersonic air stream to
test system behavior in supersonic flight. What is a good material
for the core of a compact storage material capable of
temperatures up to 120oC?
Answer. When a material is heated from room temperature To to a
working temperature T, it absorbs heat Q per unit volume where
Q = C p ρ ( T − To )
and C p is the specific heat of the material of the core (in J/kg.C)
and ρ is its density (in kg/m3). Thus the most compact storage
heater is one made from a material with a high C p ρ . Even a
small storage heater contains a considerable quantity of core (that
is why they are heavy), so it is probable that an objective will be to
minimize its cost per unit volume. If, however, space were critical,
maximizing C p ρ might become the objective.
Function • Core for compact storage heater

• High heat capacity per unit volume C ρ
p
Objective • Minimize material cost per unit volume

E7. Deriving and using material indices To avoid this, shadow masks are made of Invar, a nickel alloy
The exercises in this section give practice in deriving indices. with a near-zero expansion coefficient between room temperature
and 150˚C. It is a consequence of shadow-mask technology that
(a) Start each by listing function, constraints, objectives and free the glass screen of the CRT curves inward on all four edges,
variables; without having those straight, you will get in a mess. increasing the probability of reflected glare.
Then write down an equation for the objective. Consider whether it
contains a free variable other than material choice; if it does, Sony’s ‘Trinitron’ technology overcame this problem and allowed
identify the constraint that limits it, substitute, and read off the greater brightness by replacing the shadow mask by an aperture
material index. grill of fine vertical wires, each about 200 µm in thickness, that
allows the intended beam to strike either the red, the green or the
(b) If the CES EduPack software is available, use it to apply the blue phosphor to create the image. The glass face of the
constraints and rank the survivors using the index (start with the Trinitron tube was curved in one plane only, reducing glare.
Level 2 database). Are the results sensible? If not, what constraint
has been overlooked or incorrectly formulated? The wires of the aperture grill are tightly stretched, so that they
remain taut even when hot – it is this tension that allows the
greater brightness. What index guides the choice of material to
E7.1 Aperture grills for cathode ray tubes (Figure E3). There are make them? The table summarises the requirements.
two types of cathode ray tube (CRT). In the older technology,
colour separation is achieved by using a shadow mask: a thin
metal plate with a grid of holes that allow only the correct beam to Function • Aperture grill for CRT
strike a red, green or blue phosphor. A shadow mask can heat up Constraints • Wire thickness and spacing specified
and distort at high brightness levels (‘doming’), causing the beams • Must carry pre-tension without failure
to miss their targets, and giving a blotchy image. • Electrically conducting to prevent charging
• Able to be drawn to wire
Objective • Maximize permitted temperature rise without
loss of tension
Answer.
The model. A thin, taut wire slackens and sags when the strain
due to thermal expansion,
ε th = α∆T
exceeds the elastic strain caused by the pre-tension,
σ
ε pt = .
E
Figure E3

Here α is the thermal expansion coefficient of the wire, ∆T the
The final choice, using this database, is stainless steel or
temperature rise caused by the electron beams that strike it, σ tungsten. If the selection is repeated using the more detailed
the tensile pre-stress in the wire and E its modulus. We wish to Level 3 database, carbon fiber emerges as a potential candidate.
maximize the brightness, and thus ∆T . Carbon fibre of the desired diameter is available; it conducts well,
The tension is limited by the elastic limit of the wire, σ f . Inserting both electrically and thermally, it has high strength and – best of
this and writing all – it has almost zero thermal expansion along the fiber
direction.
ε pt ≥ ε th
as the condition that the wire remains taut gives
σf E7.2 Material indices for elastic beams with differing constraints
∆T = . (Figure E4). Start each of the four parts of this problem by listing
Eα the function, the objective and the constraints. You will need the
The result could hardly be simpler. To maximize the brightness, equations for the deflection of a cantilever beam with a square
maximize cross-section t x t, given in UASSP, 3. The two that matter are
σf that for the deflection δ of a beam of length L under an end load
M = . F:
Eα
There is a second requirement. The wires must conduct, F L3
otherwise they would charge up, distorting the image. We
δ =
3 EI
therefore require, also, that the material be a good electrical and that for the deflection of a beam under a distributed load f
conductor and that it is capable of being rolled or drawn to wire. per unit length:
The selection. Applying the constraints listed in the table above 1 f L4

δ =
to the CES EduPack Level 1 or 2 database and ranking the 8 EI
survivors by the index M leads to the selection listed below.
where I = t 4 / 12 . For a self-loaded beam f = ρ A g where ρ is
Material Comment
the density of the material of the beam, A its cross-sectional area
and g the acceleration due to gravity.
High Carbon steel Carbon steel is ferro-magnetic, so will interact
with the scanning magnetic fields – reject. (a) Show that the best material for a cantilever beam of given length
Commercially pure Extracting titanium from its oxide is difficult L and given (i.e. fixed) square cross-section (t x t) that will
Titanium making it an expensive option deflect least under a given end load F is that with the largest
value of the index M = E, where E is Young's modulus (neglect
Tungsten alloys A logical choice – tungsten has a high melting self-weight). (Figure E4a.)
point and is routinely produced as fine wire
(b) Show that the best material choice for a cantilever beam of given
Nickel-based alloys Many nickel alloys are weakly ferromagnetic –
reject for the same reason as carbon steel
length L and with a given section (t x t) that will deflect least
under its own self-weight is that with the largest value of M =
E/ρ, where ρ is the density. (Figure E4b.)
(c) Show that the material index for the lightest cantilever beam of Answer.
length L and square section (not given, i.e., the area is a free The model. The point of this problem is that the material index
variable) that will not deflect by more than δ under its own weight is depends on the mode of loading, on the geometric constraints
M = E / ρ 2 . (Figure E4c.) and on the design objective.
(d) Show that the lightest cantilever beam of length L and square (a) The table lists the design requirements for part (a) of the
section (area free) that will not deflect by more than δ under an problem.
end load F is that made of the material with the largest value of Function • End-loaded cantilever beam
M = E 1 / 2 / ρ (neglect self weight). (Figure E4d.) Constraints • Length L specified
• Section t x t specified
• End load F specified
Objective • Minimize the deflection, δ
Free variables • Choice of material only
The objective function is an equation for the deflection of the

beam. An end-load F produces a deflection δ of
F L3
δ =
3 EI
where E is the modulus of the beam material and I = t 4 / 12
is the second moment of the area, so that the deflection
becomes
F L3 ⎛ 1 ⎞
δ = 4 ⎜ ⎟
t4 ⎝ E ⎠
The magnitude of the load F and the dimensions L and t are
all given. The deflection δ is minimized by maximizing
M1 = E
Figure E4 (b) The design requirements for part (b) are listed below
Function • Self-loaded cantilever beam
Constraints • Length L specified
• Section t x t specified
Objective • Minimize the deflection, δ
Free variables • Choice of material only

The beam carries a distributed load, f per unit length, where Substituting for t (the free variable) from the second equation
into the first, gives
f = ρ gt2
where ρ is the density of the beam material and g is the 3 g L5 ⎛⎜ ρ 2 ⎞⎟

m=
2δ ⎜ E ⎟
acceleration due to gravity. Such a load produces a deflection ⎝ ⎠
(UASSP, 3)
The quantities L and δ are given. The mass is minimized by
3 f L4 3 g L4 ⎛ ρ ⎞ maximizing
δ = = ⎜ ⎟
2 E t4 2t2 ⎝ E ⎠ E
M3 =
(the objective function). As before, t and L are given. The ρ2
deflection is minimized by maximizing
E (d) The design requirements for part (d) are listed below
M2 =
ρ Function • End-loaded cantilever beam
Constraints • Length L specified
• End-load F specified
(c) The design requirements for part (c) are listed below
• Maximum deflection, δ , specified
Function • Self-loaded cantilever beam Objective • Minimize the mass, m
Constraints • Length L specified Free variables • Choice of material
• Maximum deflection, δ , specified
• Section area A = t 2
Objective • Minimize the mass, m
The section is square, but the dimension t is free. The objective
• Section area A = t 2 function is
m = t2L ρ
The beam deflects under its own weight but now the section can The deflection is, as in part (a)
be varied to reduce the weight provided the deflection does not
exceed δ , as in the figure. The objective function (the quantity to F L3 ⎛ 1 ⎞
δ = 4 ⎜ ⎟
be minimized) is the mass m of the beam t4 ⎝ E ⎠
Using this to eliminate the free variable, t, gives
m = t2 L ρ
1/ 2
⎛ F L5 ⎞ ⎛ ρ ⎞
m = 2⎜ ⎟ ⎜
⎜ 1/ 2
⎟
⎟
⎜ δ ⎟ ⎝E ⎠
⎝ ⎠

The quantities F , δ and L are given. The mass is minimized by E7.3 Material index for a light, strong beam (Figure E5). In
maximizing stiffness-limited applications, it is elastic deflection that is the
active constraint: it limits performance. In strength-limited
E1/ 2 applications, deflection is acceptable provided the component
M4 = does not fail; strength is the active constraint. Derive the material
ρ
index for selecting materials for a beam of length L, specified
From a selection standpoint, M3 and M4 are equivalent. strength and minimum weight. For simplicity, assume the beam to
have a solid square cross-section t x t. You will need the equation
The selection. Applying the three indices to the CES EduPack for the failure load of a beam (UASSP, 4). It is
Level 1 or 2 database gives the top-ranked candidates listed
below. Iσ f
Ff =
ym L
Index Material choice
where y m is the distance between the neutral axis of the beam
Metals: tungsten alloys, nickel alloys, steels.
High M1 = E Ceramics: SiC, Si3N4, B4C, Al2O3 and AlN, but of and its outer filament and I = t 4 / 12 = A 2 / 12 is the second
course all are brittle. moment of the cross-section. The table itemizes the design
Metals: aluminum, magnesium, nickel and requirements.
E titanium alloys and steels all have almost the
High M 2 = same value of E / ρ
ρ
Composites: CFRP
All technical ceramics
E Metals: aluminum and magnesium alloys superior
High M 3 = to all other metals.
ρ2 Composites: CFRP excels Figure E5
Ceramics: SiC, Si3N4, B4C, Al2O3 and AlN
E1/ 2
High M 4 =
ρ
Function • Beam
Constraints • Length L is specified
• Beam must support a bending load F
without yield or fracture
Objective • Minimize the mass of the beam
Free variables • Cross-section area, A
• Choice of material

Answer.
The selection. Applying the constraint on K 1c and ranking by the
The model. The objective is to minimize the mass, giving the
objective function index M using the CES EduPack Level 1 or 2 database gives the
top-ranked candidates listed below.
m = ALρ
Material Comment
Inverting the equation given in the question leads to an expression CFRP Exceptionally good, mainly because of
for the area A that will support the design load F: its very low density.
2/3 Metals: titanium,
⎛ F L⎞ aluminum and Here the light alloys out-perform steel
A = ⎜6 ⎟ magnesium alloys
⎜ σf ⎟
⎝ ⎠
Substituting A into the objective function gives the mass of the
beam that will just support the load F f : E7.4 Material index for a cheap, stiff column (Figure E6).
In the last two exercises the objective has been that of minimizing
⎡ ⎤ weight. There are many others. In the selection of a material for a
5/ 3 ⎢ ρ ⎥
m = (6 F ) L
2/3
⎢ 2/3 ⎥ spring, the objective is that of maximizing the elastic energy it can
⎢⎣ σ f ⎥⎦ store. In seeking materials for thermal-efficient insulation for a
furnace, the best are those with the lowest thermal conductivity and
The mass is minimized by selecting materials with the largest heat capacity. And most common of all is the wish to minimize
values of the index cost. So here is an example involving cost.
σ 2/3
f
M= Columns support compressive loads: the legs of a table; the pillars
ρ
of the Parthenon. Derive the index for selecting materials for the
cheapest cylindrical column of specified height, H, that will safely
support a load F without buckling elastically. You will need the
If the cantilever is part of a mechanical system it is important that it equation for the load Fcrit at which a slender column buckles. It is
have sufficient fracture toughness to survive accidental impact
loads. For this we add the requirement of adequate toughness:
n2 π 2E I
Fcrit =
K 1c > 15 MPa.m 1 / 2 H2
where n is a constant that depends on the end constraints and
I = π r 4 / 4 = A 2 / 4π is the second moment of area of the
column(see UASSPfor both). The table lists the requirements.

The selection. The loading here is compressive, so brittle
materials are viable candidates. Since some are also very cheap,
Function • Cylindrical column they dominate the selection. Applying the index M to the CES
Constraints • Length L is specified EduPack Level 1 or 2 database gives the top-ranked candidates
• Column must support a listed below.
compressive load F without
buckling
Material Comment
Objective • Minimize the material cost
Ceramics: brick, The low cost and fairly high modulus
of the column
concrete, cement and makes these the top-ranked candidates.
Free variables • Cross-section area, A stone
• Choice of material Wood Exceptional stiffness parallel to the grain,
and cheap.
Carbon steel, cast iron Steel out-performs all other metals when
Figure E6 strength at low cost is sought.
Answer.
The model. A slender column uses less material than a fat one,
and thus is cheaper; but it must not be so slender that it will buckle E7.5 Indices for stiff plates and shells (Figure E7). Aircraft and
under the design load, F. The objective function is the cost space structures make use of plates and shells. The index
depends on the configuration. Here you are asked to derive the
C = A H ρ Cm material index for
Where C m is the cost/kg of the material* of the column. It will (a) a circular plate of radius a carrying a central load W with a
prescribed stiffness S = W / δ and of minimum mass, and
buckle elastically if F exceeds the Euler load, Fcrit , given in the
question. Eliminating A between the two equations, using the (b) a hemispherical shell of radius a carrying a central load W with
definition of I, gives: a prescribed stiffness S = W / δ and of minimum mass, as shown
1/2
⎛4F⎞ ⎛C ρ⎞ in the figures.
C ≥ ⎜ ⎟ H 2 ⎜⎜ m ⎟⎟
⎝ nπ ⎠ ⎝ E 1/2 ⎠
The material cost of the column is minimized by choosing

materials with the largest value of the index
E1 2
M=
Cm ρ
*
Cm is the cost/kg of the processed material, here, the material in the form of a
circular rod or column.

Use the two results listed below for the mid-point deflection δ of a Inserting this into the equation for the mass gives
plate or spherical shell under a load W applied over a small
central, circular area. 1/ 3
⎛ 3 S a2 ⎞ ⎡ ρ ⎤
m = π a2 ⎜ ⎢ 1 / 3 ⎥ f (ν )
⎟
3 W a2 ⎛ 3 +ν ⎞ ⎜ 4π ⎟ ⎣E ⎦
Circular plate: δ = ( 1 −ν 2 ) ⎜ ⎟ ⎝ ⎠
4π E t3 ⎝ 1 +ν ⎠
The lightest plate is that made from a material with a large value of
Wa the index
Hemispherical shell δ = A ( 1 −ν 2 )
Et2
in which A ≈ 0.35 is a constant. Here E is Young’s modulus, t is
E1/ 3
the thickness of the plate or shell and ν is Poisson’s ratio. M1 =
ρ
Poisson’s ratio is almost the same for all structural materials and
can be treated as a constant. The table summarizes the
requirements. (a) The hemispherical shell The objective again is to minimize the
Function • Stiff circular plate, or
mass, m
• Stiff hemispherical shell
m = 2π a 2 t ρ
Constraints • Stiffness S under central load W specified
• Radius a of plate or shell specified Inverting the second equation in the question gives, for the shell,
Objective • Minimize the mass of the plate or shell
1/ 2
⎛ Sa ⎞
Free variables • Plate or shell thickness, t t = ⎜A ⎟ f 2 (ν )
• Choice of material ⎝ E ⎠
where f 2 (ν ) as before is a function of ν , and thus a constant.
Answer.
Inserting this into the equation for the mass gives
(a) The plate. The objective is to minimize the mass, m
⎡ ρ ⎤
m = π a2 t ρ m = 2 π a 2 ( A S a )1 / 2 ⎢ ⎥ f (ν )
⎣ E1/ 2 ⎦
where ρ is the density of the material of which the plate is made.
The thickness t is free, but must be sufficient to meet the The lightest shell is that made from a material with a large value of
constraint on stiffness. Inverting the first equation in the question the index
gives, for the plate,
E1/ 2
⎛ 3 S a2 ⎞
1/ 3 M2 =
ρ
t =⎜ ⎟ f 1 (ν )
⎜ 4π E ⎟
⎝ ⎠
where f 1 (ν ) is simply a function of ν , and thus a constant.

The index for the shell differs from that for the plate, requiring a
different choice of material. This is because the flat plate, when loaded,
deforms by bending. The hemispherical shell, by contrast, carries
membrane stresses (tension and compression in the plane of the shell
wall), and because of this is much stiffer. Singly-curved shells behave
like the plate, doubly-curved shells like the hemisphere.
The selection. Applying the three indices to the CES EduPack
Level 1 or 2 database gives the top-ranked candidates listed
below.
Index Material choice

Natural materials: wood and plywood
E1/ 3
High M 1 = Composites: CFRP
ρ Figure E8
Metals: aluminum and magnesium alloys
E1/ 2 The time to reach thermal equilibrium is reduced by making the
High M 2 = superior to all other metals. section x thinner, but it must not be so thin that it fails in service.
ρ Composites: CFRP Use this constraint to eliminate x in the equation above, thereby
Ceramics: SiC, Si3N4, B4C and AlN deriving a material index for the clamp. Use the fact that the
clamping force F creates a moment on the body of the clamp of
M = F L , and that the peak stress in the body is given by
E7.6 The C-clamp in more detail (Figure E8). Exercise E4.4
introduced the C-clamp for processing of electronic components. x M
σ =
The clamp has a square cross-section of width x and given depth 2 I
b. It is essential that the clamp have low thermal inertia so that it
reaches temperature quickly. The time t it takes a component of where I = b x 3 / 12 is the second moment of area of the body.
thickness x to reach thermal equilibrium when the temperature is The table summarizes the requirements.
suddenly changed (a transient heat flow problem) is
Function • C-clamp of low thermal inertia
x2
t ≈ Constraints • Depth b specified
2a • Must carry clamping load F without failure
Objective • Minimize time to reach thermal equilibrium
where the thermal diffusivity a = λ / ρ C p and λ is the thermal
Free variables • Width of clamp body, x
conductivity, ρ the density and C p the specific heat. • Choice of material

Answer. The clamp will fail if the stress in it exceeds its elastic E7.7 Springs for trucks. In vehicle suspension design it is desirable
limit σ f . Equating the peak stress to σ f and solving for x gives to minimize the mass of all components. You have been asked to
select a material and dimensions for a light spring to replace the
1/ 2 steel leaf-spring of an existing truck suspension. The existing
⎛ FL ⎞
x = ⎜6 ⎟ leaf-spring is a beam, shown schematically in the figure. The
⎜ bσ f ⎟ new spring must have the same length L and stiffness S as the
⎝ ⎠
Inserting this into the equation for the time to reach equilibrium existing one, and must deflect through a maximum safe
gives displacement δmax without failure. The width b and thickness t are
free variables.
F L ⎛⎜ 1 ⎞⎟
t =3
b ⎜⎝ a σ f ⎟⎠
The time is minimized by choosing materials with large values of
the index
M = aσ f .
Additional constraints on modulus E > 50 GPa (to ensure that the
clamp is sufficiently stiff) on fracture toughness K 1c > 18 MPa.m 1 / 2
(to guard against accidental impact) and on formability will, in
practice, be needed. Figure E9
The selection. Applying the constraint on K 1c and formability, Derive a material index for the selection of a material for this
and ranking by the index M using the CES EduPack Level 1 or 2 application. Note that this is a problem with two free variables: b
database gives the top-ranked candidates listed below. and t; and there are two constraints, one on safe deflection δmax and
the other on stiffness S. Use the two constraints to fix free
variables. The table catalogs the requirements.
Material Comment Function • Leaf spring for truck
Aluminum alloys The obvious candidate – good thermal Constraints • Length L specified
conductor, adequately stiff and strong, and easy
• Stiffness S specified
to work.
• Maximum displacement δ max specified
Copper alloys Here the high thermal diffusivity of copper is
dominating the selection. Objective • Minimize the mass
Free variables • Spring thickness t
• Spring width b

Equations (2) and (3) can now be solved for t and b, and these
You will need the equation for the mid-point deflection of an elastic substituted back into (1). The result is
beam of length L loaded in three-point bending by a central load F:
⎛ ⎞
⎜ρE⎟
1 F L3 2
m = 9 S δ max L⎜ ⎟
δ =
48 E I ⎜ σ 2f ⎟
⎝ ⎠
and that for the deflection at which failure occurs The mass of the spring is minimized by maximizing the index
2
1σf L σ 2f
δ max = M =
6 tE ρE
where I is the second moment of area; for a beam of rectangular Additional constraints on fracture toughness K 1c > 15 MPa.m 1 / 2
section, I = b t 3 / 12 and E and σ f are the modulus and failure (to guard against accidental impact) and on formability will, in
stress of the material of the beam. (See UASSP.) practice, be needed.
The selection. Applying the constraint on K 1c and formability,
and ranking by the index M using the CES EduPack Level 1 or 2
Answer.
database gives the top-ranked candidates listed below.
The model. The objective function – the quantity to be minimized
– is the mass m of the spring:
Material Comment
m = bt L ρ (1) Elastomers (rubber) Oops! we have missed a constraint here.
Elastomers excel as light springs, but the
where ρ is its density. The length L is fixed. The dimensions b constraint on thickness t and depth b in this
and t are free. There are two constraints. The first is a required application translates via equation (2) into an
stiffness, S. From the first equation given in the question additional constraint on modulus:
E > SL3 / 4bt 3 .
F EI E bt3
S = = 48 = 4 (2) Titanium alloys An expensive solution, but one that is lighter
δ L3 L3 than steel.
CFRP CFRP makes exceptionally good light springs.
The second constraint is that of a maximum allowable
High carbon steel The standard solution, but one that is heavier
displacement δ max without damage to the spring, given in the than the others above.
question as
2
1σf L
δ max = (3)
6 tE

E7.8 Fin for a rocket (Figure E10). A tube-launched rocket has If the heating time is small compared with the characteristic time
stabilizing fins at its rear. During launch the fins experience hot for heat to diffuse through the fin, a quasi steady-state exists in
gas at T g = 1700oC for a time t = 0.3 seconds. It is important that which the surface temperature adjusts itself such that the heat
the fins survive launch without surface melting. Suggest a entering from the gas is equal to that diffusing inwards by
material index for selecting a material for the fins. The table conduction. This second is equal to
summarizes the requirements. (Ts − Ti )
q =λ
x
where λ is the thermal conductivity, Ti is the temperature of the
(cold) interior of the fin, and x is a characteristic heat-diffusion
length. When the heating time is short (as here) the thermal front,
after a time t, has penetrated a distance
x ≈ (2a t )1 / 2
Figure E10
where a = λ / ρ C p is the thermal diffusivity. Substituting this
Function • High heat-transfer rocket fins value of x in the previous equation gives
Constraints • All dimensions specified (Ts − Ti )
• Must not suffer surface melting during ( )
q = λ ρ C p 1/ 2
exposure to gas at 1700 C for 0.3 sec. 2t
Objective • Minimize the surface temperature rise where ρ is the density and C p the specific heat of the material
during firing
of the fin.
• Maximize the melting point of the material
Proceed by equating the two equations for q, solving for the
Free • Choice of material
variables surface temperature Ts to give the objective function. Read off
the combination of properties that minimizes Ts ; it is the index for
the problem.
This is tricky. Heat enters the surface of the fin by transfer from
the gas. If the heat transfer coefficient is h, the heat flux per unit The selection is made by seeking materials with large values of
area is the index and with a high melting point, Tm . If the CES software
q = h ( T g − Ts ) is available, make a chart with these two as axes and identify
materials with high values of the index that also have high melting
where Ts is the surface temperature of the fin – the critical points.
quantity we wish to minimize. Heat is diffuses into the fin surface
by thermal conduction.

Answer. Equating the equations and solving for T s gives
h Tg t + λ ρ C p Ti
Ts =
h t + λ ρCp
When t = 0 the surface temperature Ts = Ti and the fin is completely

cold. When t is large, Ts = T g and the surface temperature is equal to
the gas temperature. For a given t, Ts is minimized by maximizing
λ ρ C p . The first index is therefore
M1 = λ ρ C p
and index that often appears in problems involving transient heat flow.
Melting is also made less likely by choosing a material with a high
melting point Tm . The second index is therefore
M 2 = Tm
The selection. The figure shows the two indices, created using the
CES EduPack Level 2 database. The top-ranked candidates are listed
below.
Material Comment
Silicon carbide, SiC Silicon carbide out-performs all metals except
tungsten, and is much lighter. If used, its
brittleness would have to be reckoned with..
Copper alloys The exceptional thermal conductivity of copper
is dominating here – it is able to conduct heat
away from the surface quickly, limiting the
surface heating.
Aluminum alloys An attractive choice, since Al-alloys are also
light
Aluminum – Silicon This metal matrix composite has almost the
carbide MMC thermal conductivity of aluminum and is stiffer
and stronger.

E8 Multiple constraints and objectives E8.1 Multiple constraints: a light, stiff, strong tie (Figure E11).
Over-constrained problems are normal in materials selection. Often it A tie, of length L loaded in tension, is to support a load F, at
is just a case of applying each constraint in turn, retaining only those minimum weight without failing (implying a constraint on strength)
solutions that meet them all. But when constraints are used to or extending elastically by more than δ (implying a constraint on
eliminate free variables in an objective function, the “active constraint” stiffness, F / δ ). The table summarises the requirements.
method must be used. The first three exercises in this section illustrate
problems with multiple constraints.
The remaining two concern multiple objectives and trade-off methods.
When a problem has two objectives – minimizing both mass m and
cost C of a component, for instance – a conflict arises: the cheapest
solution is not the lightest and vice versa. The best combination is Figure E11
sought by constructing a trade-off plot using mass as one axis, and
cost as the other. The lower envelope of the points on this plot defines
the trade-off surface. The solutions that offer the best compromise lie Function • Tie rod
on this surface. To get further we need a penalty function. Define the
penalty function Constraints • Must not fail by yielding under force F
• Must have specified stiffness, F/δ
Z = C + αm • Length L and axial load F specified
where α is an exchange constant describing the penalty associated Objective • Minimize mass m
with unit increase in mass, or, equivalently, the value associated with a Free variables • Section area A
unit decrease. The best solutions are found where the line defined by • Choice of material
this equation is tangential to the trade-off surface. (Remember that
objectives must be expressed in a form such that a minimum is sought;
then a low value of Z is desirable, a high one is not.)
When a substitute is sought for an existing material it is better to work (a) Establish two performance equations for the mass, one for
with ratios. Then the penalty function becomes each constraint, from which two material indices and one coupling
equation linking them are derived. Show that the two indices are
C m ρ ρ
Z* = + α* M1 = and M2 =
Co mo E σy
in which the subscript “o” means properties of the existing material and and that a minimum is sought for both.
the asterisk * on Z* and α* is a reminder that both are now (b) Use the CES EduPack to produce a graph which has the
dimensionless. The relative exchange constant α* measures the indices as axes, to identify candidate materials for the tie (i)
fractional gain in value for a given fractional gain in performance. when δ /L = 10-3 and (ii) when δ /L = 10-2, like in Figure E12.

Figure E12
Answer. The derivation of performance equations and the indices they contain is laid out here:
Objective Constraints Performance equation Index

Substitute for A
F E A F ⎛ρ⎞ ρ
Stiffness constraint = m1 = L2 ⎜ ⎟ M1 = (1)
δ L δ ⎝E⎠ E
m= AL ρ
Substitute for A
⎛ ρ ⎞ ρ
Strength constraint F = σ y A m2 = L F ⎜ ⎟ M2 = (2)
⎜σ y ⎟ σy
⎝ ⎠

(The symbols have their usual meanings: A = area, L= length, Coupling Material choice Comment
ρ = density, F/δ =stiffness, E = Young’s modulus, σ y = yield condition
strength or elastic limit.) L/δ = 100 Ceramics: boron carbide, These materials are
silicon carbide available as fibers as well
The coupling equation is found by equating m1 to m2, giving as bulk.
L/δ = 1000 Composites: CFRP; after If ductility and toughness
⎛ ρ ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = L ⎛⎜ ρ ⎞⎟ that, Ti, Al and Mg alloys are also required, the
⎜σ y ⎟ δ ⎝E⎠ metals are the best choice.
⎝ ⎠
defining the coupling constant Cc = L/δ. The chart below shows
the positions of the coupling line when L/δ = 100 and when L/δ = The use of ceramics for a tie, which must carry tension, is
103 (corresponding to the required values of δ /L in the question) normally ruled out by their low fracture toughness – even a small
and the materials that are the best choice for each. flaw can lead to brittle failure. But in the form of fibers both boron
carbide and silicon carbide are used as reinforcement in
composites, where they are loaded in tension, and their stiffness
and strength at low weight are exploited.
Coupling
lines The CES EduPack software allows the construction of charts
with axes that are combinations of properties, like those of ρ / E
and ρ / σ y shown here, and the application of a selection box to
identify the optimum choice of material.
δ
= 10 - 3
L
δ
= 10 -2
L

E8.2 Multiple constraints: a light, safe, pressure vessel (Figure where ∆p , the pressure difference across this wall, is fixed by the
E13) When a pressure vessel has to be mobile; its weight
design. The first constraint is that the vessel should not yield –
becomes important. Aircraft bodies, rocket casings and liquid-
natural gas containers are examples; they must be light, and at the that is, that the tensile stress in the wall should not exceed σy. The
same time they must be safe, and that means that they must not second is that it should not fail by fast fracture; this requires that
fail by yielding or by fast fracture. What are the best materials for the wall-stress be less than K 1c / π c , where K 1c is the fracture
their construction? The table summarizes the requirements. toughness of the material of which the pressure vessel is made
and c is the length of the longest crack that the wall might contain.
Use each of these in turn to eliminate t in the equation for m; use
the results to identify two material indices
ρ ρ
M1 = and M2 =
σy K 1c
and a coupling relation between them. It contains the crack length,

c.
(b) Use the EduPack to produce a graph with the two material
Figure E13 indices as axes, like in Figure E14. The coupling equation
expresses the relationship between M1 and M2 and therefore Log
M1 and Log M2 and can be plotted as a straight line on the Log
Function • Pressure vessel M1–Log M2 chart. Determine the gradient and intercept of this line
Constraints • Must not fail by yielding and plot it for first c= 5mm and then c= 5 µm. Identify the lightest
• Must not fail by fast fracture. candidate materials for the vessel for each case. M1 and M2 need
• Diameter 2R and pressure to be minimised to find the lightest material.
difference ∆p specified
Objective • Minimize mass m
Free variables • Wall thickness, t
(a) Write, first, a performance equation for the mass m of the

pressure vessel. Assume, for simplicity, that it is spherical, of
specified radius R, and that the wall thickness, t (the free variable)
is small compared with R. Then the tensile stress in the wall is
∆p R
σ =
2t

Figure E14

Answer. The objective function is the mass of the pressure vessel:
m = 4 π R 2t ρ
The tensile stress in the wall of a thin-walled pressure vessel (UASSP, 11) is
∆p R
σ=
2t
Equating this first to the yield strength σ y , then to the fracture strength K 1c / πc and substituting for t in
the objective function leads to the performance equations and indices laid out below.
Objective Constraints Performance equation Index
∆pR ⎡ρ⎤ ρ
Yield constraint σ= ≤σy m1 = 2 π ∆ p.R 3 ⋅ ⎢ ⎥ M1 = (1)
2 t ⎣ σy ⎦ σy
Substitute for t
m = 4 π R 2t ρ
∆pR K 1c ⎡ ρ ⎤ ρ
Fracture constraint σ= ≤ m 2 = 2 π ∆p ⋅ R 3 (π c )1 / 2 ⎢ ⎥ M2 = (2)
2 t πc ⎣ K 1c ⎦ K 1c
Substitute for t
The coupling equation is found by equating m1 to m2, giving a relationship between M1 and M2:
M 1 = ( πc)1/2 M 2
On the (logarithmic) graph of the material indices, the coupling line therefore is log M1 = log (π c)1/2 + log M2
The position of the coupling line depends on the detection limit, c1 for cracks, through the term (π c)1/2.

The figure shows the appropriate chart with two coupling lines, one
Coupling line,
for c = 5 mm and the other for c = 5µm. c = 5 microns
The resulting selection is summarised in the table.
Coupling line,
c = 5 mm
Coupling condition Material choice Comment

from Figure E14
Titanium alloys These are the standard
Crack length Aluminium alloys materials for pressure
c ≤ 5 mm Steels vessels. Steels appear,
despite their high density,
( πc = 0.125 ) because their toughness
and strength are so high
CFRP Ceramics, potentially, are
Crack length Silicon carbide attractive structural
c ≤ 5 µm Silicon nitride materials, but the difficulty
Alumina of fabricating and
−3
( πc = 3.96 x 10 ) maintaining them with no
flaws greater than 5 µm is
enormous
Note: using the EduPack will reveal a wider range of candidate

materials along the coupling lines.
In large engineering structures it is difficult to ensure that there are

no cracks of length greater than 1 mm; then the tough engineering
alloys based on steel, aluminum and titanium are the safe choice. In
the field of MEMS (micro electro-mechanical systems), in which films
of micron-thickness are deposited on substrates, etched to shapes
and then loaded in various ways, it is possible – even with brittle
ceramics – to make components with no flaws greater than 1 µm in
size. In this regime, the second selection given above has
relevance.

E8.3 A cheap column that must not buckle ⎛C ρ ⎞ ⎡C ρ ⎤
or crush (Figure E15). The best choice of M 1 = ⎜⎜ m ⎟⎟ and M2 = ⎢ m ⎥
material for a light strong column depends ⎝ σc ⎠ ⎣ E 1/2 ⎦
on its aspect ratio: the ratio of its height H where C m is the material cost per kg, ρ the material density, σ c
to its diameter D. This is because short, fat
columns fail by crushing; tall slender its crushing strength and E its modulus.
columns buckle instead. Derive two (b) Data for six possible candidates for the column are listed in
performance equations for the material cost the Table. Use these to identify candidate materials when F = 105
of a column of solid circular section and N and H = 3m. Ceramics are admissible here, because they have
specified height H, designed to support a high strength in compression.
load F large compared to its self-load, one
using the constraints that the column must
not crush, the other that it must not buckle. Figure E15 Data for candidate materials for the column
The table summarizes the needs.
Material Density ρ Cost/kg Modulus Compression
3
(kg/m ) Cm ($/kg) E (MPa) strength
σ c (MPa)
Function • Column Wood (spruce) 700 0.5 10,000 25
Constraints • Must not fail by compressive crushing Brick 2100 0.35 22,000 95
• Must not buckle Granite 2600 0.6 20,000 150
• Height H and compressive load F specified. Poured concrete 2300 0.08 20,000 13
Cast iron 7150 0.25 130,000 200
Objective • Minimize material cost C Structural steel 7850 0.4 210,000 300
Free variables • Diameter D Al-alloy 6061 2700 1.2 69,000 150
(c) Use the EduPack to produce a graph with the two indices as
(a) Proceed as follows
axes. Express M2 in terms of M1 and plot coupling lines for
(1) Write down an expression for the material cost of the column – its selecting materials for a column with F = 105 N and H = 3m (the
mass times its cost per unit mass, Cm. same conditions as above), and for a second column with F = 103
N and H = 20m.
(2) Express the two constraints as equations, and use them to
substitute for the free variable, D, to find the cost of the column
that will just support the load without failing by either mechanism
(3) Identify the material indices M1 and M2 that enter the two equations
for the mass, showing that they are

Answer. This, and exercises E 8.1 and E 8.2 illustrate the method of
solving over-constrained problems. This one concerns materials for a
light column with circular section which must neither buckle nor crush
under a design load F.
The cost, C, is to be minimised
π
C = D 2 H Cm ρ
4
where D is the diameter (the free variable) and H the height of the
column, Cm is the cost per kg of the material and ρ is its density. The
column must not crush, requiring that
4F
≤ σc
π D2
where σc is the compressive strength. Nor must it buckle:
π 2 EI
F≤
H2
The right-hand side is the Euler buckling load in which E is Young’s
Figure E16 modulus. The second moment of area for a circular column is
π 4
I= D
64
The subsequent steps in the derivation of performance equations are
laid out on the next page:

Objective Constraint Performance equation
Substitute for D
π D2 ⎡C ρ ⎤
Crushing constraint Ff ≤ σc C1 = F H ⎢ m ⎥ (1)
4 ⎣ σc ⎦
π
C = D 2 H Cm ρ
4
Substitute for D
π 2 EI π 3 D4 E 2 ⎡C ρ ⎤
Buckling constraint F ≤ = C2 = F 1/2 H 2 ⎢ m ⎥ (2)
H2 64 H 2 π 1/2 ⎣ E 1/2 ⎦
⎡C ρ ⎤
The first performance equation contains the index M 1 = ⎢ m ⎥ , the second, the index
⎣ σc ⎦
⎡C ρ ⎤ ~
M 2 = ⎢ m ⎥ . This is a min-max problem: we seek the material with the lowest (min) cost C
1/2
⎣E ⎦
which itself is the larger (max) of C1 and C2. The two performance equations are evaluated in
~
the Table, which also lists C = max ( C 1 , C 2 ). for a column of height H = 3m, carrying a load F =
105 N. The cheapest choice is concrete.
Material Density ρ Cost/kg Modulus Compressio C1 C2 ~

C
(kg/m3) Cm ($/kg) E (MPa) n $ $
$
strength
σc (MPa)
Wood (spruce) 700 0.5 10,000 25 4.2 11.2 11.2
Brick 2100 0.35 22,000 95 2.3 16.1 16.1
Granite 2600 0.6 20,000 150 3.1 35.0 35.0
Poured concrete 2300 0.08 20,000 13 4.3 4.7 4.7
Cast iron 7150 0.25 130,000 200 2.6 16.1 16.1
Structural steel 7850 0.4 210,000 300 3.0 21.8 21.8
Al-alloy 6061 2700 1.2 69,000 150 6.5 39.5 39.5

The coupling equation is found by equating C1 to C2 giving
1/ 2 1/ 2
π 1/2 ⎛ F ⎞ π 1/2 ⎛ F ⎞
M2 = ⋅ ⎜⎜ ⎟
⎟ ⋅M1 log M 2 = log M 1 + log ⋅⎜ ⎟
2 ⎝H2 ⎠ 2 ⎝ H2 ⎠
It contains the structural loading coefficient F/H2. Two positions for the coupling line are shown, one
corresponding to a low value of F/H2 = 0.011 MN/m2 (F = 105 N, H = 3 m) and to a high one F/H2 =
2.5 MN/m2 (F = 107 N, H = 2 m), with associated solutions. Remember that, since E and σ c are
measured in MPa, the load F must be expressed in units of MN. The selection is listed in the table.
Couplin
g
Large F/H2
Small F/H2

E8.4 An air cylinder for a truck (Figure E17). Trucks rely on
compressed air for braking and other power-actuated systems. The air where ρ is the density, σy the yield strength and Cm the cost per kg
is stored in one or a cluster of cylindrical pressure tanks like that shown of the material, and the subscript “o” indicates values for mild
here (length L, diameter 2R, hemispherical ends). Most are made of steel.
low-carbon steel, and they are heavy. The task: to explore the
potential of alternative materials for lighter air tanks, recognizing the
there must be a trade-off between mass and cost – if it is too (b) Explore the trade-off between relative cost and relative mass,
expensive, the truck owner will not want it even if it is lighter. The table considering the replacement of a mild steel tank with one made,
summarizes the design requirements. first, of low alloy steel, and, second, one made of filament-wound
CFRP, using the material properties in the table below. Define a
Function • Air cylinder for truck relative penalty function
Constraints • Must not fail by yielding
m C
• Diameter 2R and length L specified, so the Z* = α* +
ratio Q = 2R/L is fixed. mo Co
Objectives • Minimize mass m
where α* is a relative exchange constant, and evaluate Z* for α* =
• Minimize material cost C
1 and for α* = 100.
Free variables • Wall thickness, t
Material Density ρ Yield strength Price per /kg
3
(kg/m ) σc (MPa) Cm ($/kg)
Mild steel 7850 314 0.66
Low alloy steel 7850 775 0.85
CFRP 1550 760 42.1
(c) Use the EduPack to produce a graph with axes of m/mo and C/Co,
like the one in Figure E18 below. Mild steel (here labelled “Low
carbon steel”) lies at the co-ordinates (1,1).
Sketch a trade-off surface and plot contours of Z* that are

Figure E17
approximately tangent to the trade-off surface for α* = 1 and for α*
= 100. What selections do these suggest?
(a) Show that the mass and material cost of the tank relative to one
made of low-carbon steel are given by
m ⎛ ρ ⎞⎛ σ y ,o ⎞ C ⎛ ρ ⎞⎛ σ y ,o ⎞
=⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ and = ⎜ Cm ⎟⎜ ⎟
mo ⎜σ y ⎟⎜ ρ o ⎟ Co ⎜ σ y ⎟⎜ C m ,o ρ o ⎟
⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠

⎛ ρ ⎞
m = 2πR 2 L p ( 1 + Q )⎜ ⎟
⎜σ y ⎟
⎝ ⎠
The material cost C is simply the mass m times the cost per kg of the
material, Cm, giving
⎛C ρ ⎞
C = C m m = 2πR 2 L p ( 1 + Q )⎜ m ⎟
⎜ σy ⎟
⎝ ⎠
from which the mass and cost relative to that of a low-carbon steel
(subscript “o”) tank are
m ⎛ ρ ⎞⎛ σ y ,o ⎞
=⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ and
mo ⎜σ y ⎟⎜ ρ o ⎟
⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠
C ⎛ ρ ⎞⎛ σ y ,o ⎞
= ⎜ Cm ⎟⎜ ⎟
Co ⎜ σ y ⎟⎜ C m ,o ρ o ⎟
⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠
(b) To get further we need a penalty function:. The relative penalty
function
m C
Z* = α* +
mo Co
Figure E18 This is evaluated for Low alloy steel and for CFRP in the table below, for
α* = 1 (meaning that weight carries a low cost premium) – Low alloy
Answer. (a) The mass m of the tank is steel has by far the lowest Z*. But when it is evaluated for α* = 100
(meaning that weight carriers a large cost premium), CFRP has the
m = 2πR L t + 4π R 2 t = 2πR L t ( 1 + Q ) lowest Z*.
where Q, the aspect ratio 2R/L, is fixed by the design requirements. The (c) The figure shows the trade-off surface. Materials on or near this
surface have attractive combinations of mass and cost. Several are
stress in the wall of the tank caused by the pressure p must not exceed σ y ,
better low-carbon steel. Two contours of Z* that just touch the trade-off
is the yield strength of the material of the tank wall, meaning that line are shown, one for α* = 1, the other for α* = 100 – they are curved
because of the logarithmic axes.
pR
σ = ≤σy The first, for α* = 1 identifies higher strength steels as good choices.
t
This is because their higher strength allows a thinner tank wall. The
Substituting for t, the free variable, gives contour for α* = 100 touches near CFRP, aluminum and magnesium
alloys – if weight saving is very highly valued, these become attractive
solutions.
Material Density ρ Yield strength Price per /kg Z *, Z *,
3 * *
(kg/m ) σc (MPa) Cm ($/kg) α =1 α = 100
Mild steel 7850 314 0.66 2 101
Low alloy steel 7850 775 0.85 1.03 45.6
CFRP 1550 760 42.1 5.2 13.4
Z* with α* = 1 Z* with α* = 100

*
E8.5 Insulating walls for freezers

(Figure E19). Freezers and Use the CES EduPack to plot the thermal conductivity λ of
refrigerated trucks have panel- foams against their elastic compliance 1 / E (the reciprocal of
walls that provide thermal their Young’s moduli E, since we must express the objectives in a
insulation, and at the same form that requires minimization). The numbers in brackets are
time are stiff, strong and light the densities of the foams in Mg/m3. The foams with the lowest
(stiffness to suppress vibration, thermal conductivity are the least stiff; the stiffest have the
strength to tolerate rough highest conductivity. Explain the reasoning you would use to
usage). To achieve this the select a foam for the truck panel using a penalty function.
panels are usually of sandwich
construction, with two skins of
steel, aluminum or GFRP
(providing the strength)
separated by, and bonded to,
a low density insulating core. C Ceramic Metal foams
In choosing the core we seek c foams
to minimize thermal
conductivity, λ, and at the
Figure E19
same time to maximize
stiffness, because this allows
thinner steel faces, and thus a
lighter panel, while still
maintaining the overall panel Polymer
stiffness. The table foams
summarizes the design
requirements.
Function • Foam for panel-wall insulation

Constraint • Panel wall thickness specified.
Objectives • Minimize foam thermal conductivity, λ
• Maximize foam stiffness, meaning Young’s
modulus, E
Figure E20

Answer. The steps in making a reasoned choice are as follows. Ceramic foams are brittle. This probably rules them out for the truck
(1) Sketch the trade-off surface: the low λ vs. low 1/E body because is exposed to impact loads. But in other applications
envelope of the data, as shown below. The foams that lie on ceramic foams – particularly glass foams – are viable.
or near the surface are a better choice than those far from it.
This already eliminates a large number of foams and identifies
the family from which a choice should be made. Note that
most metal foams are not a good choice; only if the highest
stiffness is wanted is the metal foam Aluminium-SiC (1.0) an
attractive choice.
CCeramic Metal foams
e foams
(2) If it is desired to go further, it is necessary to construct a
penalty function:
Penalty line
⎛1⎞ for α1/α2 = 100
Z = α1 λ + α 2 ⎜ ⎟
⎝E⎠
Z is to be minimized, so α 1 is a measure of the value Polymer
associated with reducing heat flow; α 2 a measure of the value foams
associated with reducing core compliance. Rearranging the Penalty line
equations gives
for α1/α2 = 0.1
Z α2 ⎛1⎞
λ = − ⎜ ⎟
α1 α1 ⎝E⎠
If the axes were linear, this equation would be that of a family
of straight, parallel, lines on the λ vs. 1/E diagram, of slope
−α 2 / α 1 , each line corresponding to a value of Z / α 1 . In fact
the scales are logarithmic, and that leads instead to a set of
curved lines. One such line is sketched below for values
α 2 / α 1 = 0.01 (meaning that thermal insulation is considered
very important, and stiffness less important) and for α 2 / α 1 =
100 (meaning the opposite). The foam nearest the point at
which the penalty lines are tangent to the trade-off surface is
the best choice. In the first example PVC foam with a density
of about 0.1 Mg/m3 is the best choice, but in the second a
ceramic or even a metal foam is a better choice.

E9. Selecting material and shape Answer.
The examples in this section relate to the analysis of material and (a) The shape-efficiency factor for elastic bending for the square
shape of Chapters 9 and 10 of Materials Selection for Mechanical box section is
Design 3rd Edition. They do not use the CES EduPack, but help 1h
develop important knowledge of the influence of shape on material φ Be = = 16.7
selection, and so have been left in here for completeness. They cover 2 t
the derivation of shape factors, of indices that combine material and That for the tube is
shape, and the use of the 4-quadrant chart arrays to explore material 3 r
φ Be = = 12.5
and shape combinations. π t
The box is more efficient than the tube of the same m/L, and both
are much stiffer in bending than a solid square section of the same
E9.1 Shape factors for tubes (Figure E21). area (and thus mass per unit length).
(a) Evaluate the shape factor φ Be for stiffness-limited design in (b) The shape-efficiency factor for bending failure for the square
bending of a square box section of outer edge-length h = 100mm box section is
and wall thickness t = 3mm. Is this shape more efficient than one h
made of the same material in the form of a tube of diameter 2r = φ Bf = = 5.8
t
100mm and wall thickness t = 3.82 mm (giving it the same mass
That for the tube is
per unit length, m/L)? Treat both as thin-walled shapes.
3 r
f φ Bf = = 4.33
(b) Make the same comparison for the shape factor φ B for 2π t
strength-limited design. The box is more efficient than the tube, and both are roughly 5
times stronger in bending than a solid square section of the same
area (and thus mass per unit length).
Figure E21

E9.2 Deriving shape factors for stiffness-limited design (Figure
(b) The second moment of area, I, of the channel (central figure)
E22). Derive the expression for the shape-efficiency factor φ Be for about the axis shown as a dotted line is
stiffness-limited design for a beam loaded in bending with each of
I =
(10t )3 .5t −
(8t )3 .4t = 246 t 4
the three sections listed below. Do not assume that the thin-wall 12 12
approximations is valid.
Its cross section area is A = 18 t 2
(a) a closed circular tube of outer radius 5t and wall thickness t, from which
(b) a channel section of thickness t, overall flange width 5t and 12 I
overall depth 10 t, bent about its major axis; and
φBe = = 9.11
A2
(c) a box section of wall thickness t, and height and width h1 = 10t.
(c) The second moment of area, I, of the square box-section

(right-hand figure) about the axis shown as a dotted line is
h1 / 2 h2 / 2
I = 2 ∫ y 2 h1 dy − 2 ∫ y 2 h2 dy
0 0
=
1 4
12
(
h 1 − h 42 ) =
2 3
th
3 1
and
Figure E22
A = h12 − h22 ≈ 4 h1 t
Answer.
(a) The shape factor for elastic bending of a tubular beam (left- Assembling these results, and inserting h1 = 10t gives
hand figure) is defined by 1 h1
φ Be = =5
12 I 2 t
φ Be =
A2
where I is the second moment of area and A is the area. The
second moment of area, I, of the tube about the axis shown as a
dotted line is
π π
I = (5 t )4 − (4 t )4 = 92.25 π t 4
4 4
Its cross section area is A = π (5 t )2 − π (4 t )2 = 9 π t 2
12 I
from which φ Be = = 4.35
A2

E9.3 Deriving shape factors for strength-limited design.
6Z
f from which φ Bf = = 3.87
(a), (b) and (c) Determine the shape-efficiency factor φ B for A3 / 2
strength limited design in bending, for the same three sections
shown as Figure 29 of Exercise E9.2. You will need the results (c) The second moment, Z, of the box-section about the axis
for I for the sections derived in E9.2. shown as a dotted line is
I
(d) A beam of length L, loaded in bending, must support a Z =
specified bending moment M without failing and be as light as 10 t
possible.. Show that to minimize the mass of the beam per unit 6Z
length, m/L, one should select a material and a section-shape to from which φ Bf = = 4.47
maximize the quantity A3 / 2
2/3
⎛⎜ φ f σ ⎞⎟
B f ⎠ (d) The beam of length L, loaded in bending, must support a
M = ⎝ specified load F without failing and be as light as possible. Its
ρ
mass m is
where σ f is the failure stress and ρ the density of the material of m = AL ρ (1)
f
where A is the area of its cross section. Failure occurs if the load
the beam, and φ B is the shape-efficiency factor for failure in exceeds the moment
bending. M = Zσ f (2)
Answer. where Z is the section modulus . Replacing Z by the shape-
f
(a) The section modulus, Z, of the tube about the axis shown as factor φ B = 6 Z / A 3 / 2 gives
a dotted line is
σf f
Z =
I
=
I
= 18.45 π t 3 M = φ A3 / 2 (3)
y max r 6 B
Substituting this into equation (1) for the mass gives
(here y max is the distance of the outer surface from the neutral
axis),from which ρ
6Z m = (6 M )2 / 3 L
φ Bf = = 2.31 ⎛⎜ φ f σ ⎞⎟
2/ 3
(4)
A3 / 2 ⎝ B f ⎠
The best material-and-shape combination is that with the
(b) The second moment, Z, of the channel about the axis shown
greatest value of the index
as a dotted line is
I
Z = = 49.2 t 3 ⎛⎜ φ f σ ⎞⎟ 2 / 3
5t ⎝ B f ⎠
M =
ρ

E9.4 Determining shape factors from stiffness data. The elastic
(b) A steel truss bridge shown in Figure E23 has a span L and is simply
shape factor measures the gain in stiffness by shaping, relative
supported at both ends. It weighs m tonnes. As a rule of thumb,
to a solid square section of the same area. Shape factors can
bridges are designed with a stiffness SB such that the central deflection
be determined by experiment. The mass m of a beam of
δ of a span under its self-weight is less than 1/300 of the length L (thus
length L and prescribed bending stiffness S B with a section of 2
S B ≥ 300 mg / L where g is the acceleration due to gravity, 9.81 m/s ).
efficiency φ Be is
Use this information to calculate the minimum shape factor φ Be of the
1/ 2 ⎡ ⎤
⎛ 12 S B ⎞ ⎢ ρ ⎥ three steel truss bridge spans listed in the table. Take the density ρ of
m = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ L5 / 2
C
⎝ 1 ⎠ ( ) ⎢
⎢ φe E
⎣ B
1 / 2 ⎥
⎥
⎦
steel to be 7900 kg/m3 and its modulus E to be 205 GPa. The constant
C1 = 384/5 = 76.8 for uniformly distributed load (UASSP, 3).
where C1 is a constant that depends on the distribution of load
on the beam. Inverting the equation gives
⎛ 12 L5 S ⎞ ⎛ ρ 2 ⎞ Bridge and construction date* Span L Mass m
φ Be = ⎜ B ⎟⎜ ⎟ (m) (tonnes)
⎜ C m2 ⎟ ⎜ E ⎟
⎝ 1 ⎠⎝ ⎠ Royal Albert bridge, Tamar, Saltash UK (1857) 139 1060
Thus if the bending stiffness S B , mass m and length L are Carquinez Strait bridge, California (1927) 132 650
measured, and the modulus E and density ρ of the material of Chesapeake Bay bridge, Maryland USA (1952) 146 850
*Data from the Bridges Handbook.
the beam are known, φ Be can be calculated.
(a) Calculate the shape factor φ Be from the following

experimental data, measured on an aluminum alloy beam
loaded in 3-point bending (for which C1 = 48 – see UASSP,
3) using the data shown in the table
Figure E23
Attribute Value
Beam stiffness SB 7.2 x 105 N/m
Mass/unit length 1 kg/m
m/L
Beam length L 1m
Beam material 6061 aluminum alloy
Material density ρ 2670 kg/m3
Material modulus E 69 GPa

Answer.
(a) Inserting the data given in the question into the equation for E9.5 Deriving indices for bending and torsion.
φ Be given in the example gives (a) A beam, loaded in bending, must support a specified bending
moment M* without failing and be as light as possible. Section
shape is a variable, and “failure” here means the first onset of
φ Be = 18.6 plasticity. Derive the material index. The table summarizes the
requirements.
(b) The shape factor is given in terms of m, L and SB by the
equation given in the question. Substituting S B ≥ 300 mg / L
Function • Light weight beam
gives Constraints • Specified failure moment M*
⎛ 3600 L4 g ⎞ ⎛ ρ 2 ⎞ • Length L specified
φ Be = ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
Objective •
⎜ C1 m ⎟ ⎜ E ⎟ Minimum mass m
⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠ Free variables • Choice of material
Inserting C1 = 384/5 (UASSP, 3) and the data from the table gives • Section shape and scale
the results shown below.
Bridge and construction date* F = mg A = m / Lρ φ Be (b) A shaft of length L, loaded in torsion, must support a specified
6
(10 N) torque T* without failing and be as cheap as possible. Section
(m2)
shape is a variable and “failure” again means the first onset of
Royal Albert bridge, Tamar, 10.6 0.97 49.3 plasticity. Derive the material index. The table summarizes the
Saltash UK (1857) requirements.
6.5 0.62 65.4
Carquinez Strait bridge,
California (1927) 8.5 0.74 74.8
Function • Cheap shaft
Chesapeake Bay bridge,
Maryland USA (1952) Constraints • Specified failure torque T*
• Length L specified
Objective • Minimum material cost C
The results show that “structured structures” (trusses, rib-stiffened Free variables • Choice of material
structures) can offer very large shape efficiencies. Note how the • Section shape and scale
efficiency has grown over time.

Answer. f
(a) The mass m of a beam of length L and section area A is Replacing Q by the shape-factor φT for torsion gives
m = A Lρ (1) τf
T = φ f A3 / 2 (7)
where ρ is the density of the material of which the beam is made. 4.8 T
Failure occurs if the bending moment exceeds the value Substituting this into equation (5) for the material cost of the shaft
M = Zσ f (2) gives
f ⎡ ⎤
Replacing Z by the shape-factor φ B for bending of a beam
( )2/3 ⎢ Cm ρ ⎥
gives m = 4.8 T * L ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎛ f 2/ 3 ⎥
⎢ ⎜ φT τ f ⎞⎟
σf (8)
⎥
M = φ f A3 / 2 (3) ⎣⎝ ⎠ ⎦
6 B Approximating τ f by σ f / 2 , we find that the material-and-shape
Substituting this into equation (1) for the mass of the beam gives
combination with the lowest associated material cost is that with
⎡ ⎤
the greatest value of the index
( )
⎢ ⎥
2 / 3 ρ
m = 6 M* L⎢ ⎥
⎢⎛ f 2/3 ⎥
⎢ ⎜ φ B σ f ⎞⎟
(4) ⎛⎜ φ f σ ⎞⎟ 2 / 3
⎥
⎣⎝ ⎠ ⎦ ⎝ T f
⎠
The best material-and-shape combination is that with the greatest M4 =
Cm ρ
value of the index
⎛⎜ φ f σ ⎞⎟ 2 / 3
B f ⎠
M3 = ⎝
ρ
(b) The shaft, loaded in torsion, must support a specified load F

without failing and be as light as possible. The material cost C of
a shaft of length L and section area A is
. C = A L Cm ρ (5)
where Cm is the cost per kg and ρ is the density of the material
of which the shaft is made. Failure occurs if the torque T
exceeds the moment
T = Qτ f (6)
where τ f is the shear stress at which plasticity first starts.

E9.6 Use of the four segment chart for stiffness-limited design Answer.
(a) Use the 4-segment chart for stiffness-limited design on the (a) The method is shown in the question. The results appear on
next page to compare the mass per unit length, m/L, of a section the chart on the following page. The CFRP beam with m/L of
with EI = 105 Nm2 made from about 4 kg/m is significantly (factor about 2) lighter than one made
of steel or softwood.
(i) structural steel with a shape factor φ Be of 20, modulus E = 210
GPa and density ρ = 7900 kg/m3 (b) Direct calculation of E * / ρ * with E * = E / φ Be and
ρ * = ρ / φ Be is shown in the table.

(ii) carbon fiber reinforced plastic with a shape factor φ Be of 10,
modulus E = 70 GPa and density ρ = 1600 kg/m3, and
E* = E / φBe ρ* = ρ / φ Be E* / ρ*
Material
(iii) structural timber with a shape factor φ Be of 2, modulus E = 9 2
(N/m ) (kg/m ) 3
(N/m2 )1/2/(kg/m3)
9
GPa and density ρ = 520 kg/m3. Steel 10.5 x 10
9
395 259
CFRP 7.0 x 10 160 523
The schematic Figure E24 illustrates the method. Softwood 4.5 x 109 260 258
The higher the value of E* / ρ* the lighter is the beam. The

ranking is the same as that arrived at in Part (a).
Figure E24
(b) Show, by direct calculation, that the conclusions of part (a) are
consistent with the idea that to minimize mass for a given stiffness
one should maximize E * / ρ * with E * = E / φ Be and ρ * = ρ / φ Be .

E9.7 Use of the four segment chart for strength Answer.
(a) Use the 4-segment chart for strength-limited design on the (a) The method is shown in the question. The results appear on
next page to compare the mass per unit length, m/L, of a section
with Z σ f = 104 Nm (where Z is the section modulus) made from the chart on the next page. The steel section is the heaviest
f ( m / L ≈ 9 kg/m). The titanium alloy is the lightest ( m / L ≈ 2.5

(i) mild steel with a shape factor φ B of 10, strength σ f = 200
kg/m).
MPa and density ρ = 7900 kg/m3
2/3
(ii) 6061 grade aluminum alloy with a shape factor φ B of 3,
f (b) Direct calculation of ⎛⎜ φ Bf σ f ⎞⎟ / ρ gives the values shown in
⎝ ⎠
strength σ f = 200 MPa and density ρ = 2700 kg/m3, and
the table.
f
(iii) a titanium alloy with a shape factor φ B of 10, , strength σ f =
480 MPa and density ρ = 4420 kg/m3.
2/3
σf ρ φ Bf ⎛⎜ φ f σ ⎞ /ρ
The schematic Figure E25 illustrates the method. Material
⎝ B f ⎟⎠
(MPa) (kg/m3)
(MPa)2/3/(kg/m3)
Steel 200 7900 10 2 x 10-2
6061 Al alloy 200 2700 3 2.6 x 10-2
Ti alloy 480 4420 10 6.4 x 10-2
2/3
Figure The higher the value of ⎛⎜ φ Bf σ ⎞
f ⎟⎠ / ρ the lighter is the beam.
⎝
The ranking is the same.
(b) Show, by direct calculation, that the conclusions of part (a)

are consistent with the idea that to minimize mass for a given
2/ 3
⎛⎜ φ f σ ⎞⎟
⎝ B f ⎠
stiffness one should maximize .
ρ

E9.8 A light weight display stand (Figure E26). The figure Material Modulus E Tube radius r Wall thickness/tube
shows a concept for a lightweight display stand. The stalk must (GPa) radius, t/r
support a mass m of 100 kg, to be placed on its upper surface at a
Aluminum alloys 69 25 mm 0.07 to 0.25
height h, without failing by elastic buckling. It is to be made of
Steel 210 30 mm 0.045 to 0.1
stock tubing and must be as light as possible. Use the methods of Copper alloys 120 20 mm 0.075 to 0.1
Chapter 11 to derive a material index for the tubular material of the Polycarbonate (PC) 3.0 20 mm 0.15 to 0.3
stand that meets these requirements, and that includes the shape Various woods 7 - 12 40 mm Solid circular sections
of the section, described by the shape factor only
12 I
φ Be = Answer. The objective function is the mass. The mass m of the
A2
tubular stalk is
where I is the second moment of area and A
m = Ah ρ (1)
is the section area. The table summarizes
the requirements. where ρ is the density and A the section area of the tube. The
constraint is that the stalk should not buckle. The buckling load
. for a slender column of height h is
e 2
n2π 2 E I n2π 2 E φB A
Figure E26 Fcr = = (2)
h2 h2 12
where E is Young’s modulus, I is the second moment of area of

the tube and n is a constant that depends on the end constraint
(n = 1/2 in this instance – UASSP, 5). Substituting for A from
Function • Light weight column equation (2) into equation (1) gives
Constraints • Specified buckling load F
• Height h specified 2 3 h 2 1/2 ρ
m = ⋅F (3)
Objective • Minimum mass m π (Eφ B )1/2
e

The best choice of tubing for the stalk is that with the greatest
• Section shape and scale value of
( Eφ Be )1/2
Cylindrical tubing is available from stock in the following materials M=
and sizes. Use this information and the material index to identify ρ
the best stock material for the column of the stand.

The shape factor for a thin-walled tube is calculated from the
bending moment of inertia, Ixx (“UASSP, 2):
Ixx = π r3 t (4)
where r is the tube radius and t the wall thickness; the area A of the
section is 2π rt.
Its shape factor is

12 I 3 r
φ Be = = (5)
A2 π t
(Note that, for a solid section, φ Be = 0.95 ≈ 1 ). The selection can

be made by evaluating and comparing the quantity
M = ( Eφ Be )1/2 / ρ for each of the materials and sections, as
shown.
Material E ρ (kg/m3) M
(GPa)
φ Be 1/2 3
(GPa /Mg/m )
Aluminum alloys 71 2700 4 - 14 6.2 - 11.7
Steel 210 7900 10 - 21 5.8 - 8.2
Copper alloys 120 8900 10 - 13 3.9 – 4.4
Polycarbonate (PC) 3 1200 3.3 - 6.7 2.6 – 3.7
Various woods 8-15 500 - 800 1 3.5 – 7.7
Aluminum offers the highest index and thus the lightest stalk.
Steel is the next best choice, then wood.

E9.9 Microscopic shape: tube arrays (Figure E27). Calculate the Answer. The unit cell of the structure is shown as a hexagon on the
e , when a solid is formed into
gain in bending efficiency, ψ B right-hand part of the figure. The area As of solid in the unit cell,
equal to its relative density ρ / ρ s , is
small, thin-walled tubes of radius r and wall thickness t that
are then assembled and bonded into a large array, part of which As = 6 π r t
is shown in the figure. Let the solid of which the tubes are made and the relative density of the array, ρ / ρ s , is
have modulus Es and density ρ s . Express the result in terms ρ As t
of r and t. = = 1.8
ρs 6 tan( 60 ) r 2 r
If an initially solid, square section, beam of edge length bs is
formed into an array like that of the figure, with an outer, square,
profile, the edge-length of this new square is
1/ 2
⎛ρ ⎞
b = ⎜⎜ s ⎟⎟ bs
⎝ ρ ⎠
The apparent modulus of the tube array parallel to the axis of the
tubes is
⎛ ρ ⎞
E = ⎜⎜ ⎟E s
⎟
⎝ ρs ⎠
and the second moment of area of the tube array is
2
Figure E27 b4 ⎛ ρ ⎞
I = = ⎜⎜ ⎟ bs
⎟
12 ⎝ ρs ⎠
Thus the bending efficiency is
EI ρ r
ψ Be = = s = 0.56
Es I s ρ t

E9.10 The structural efficiency of foamed panels (Figure E28). Answer. The panel, initially solid and of thickness t, is foamed to a
Calculate the change in structural efficiency for both bending height h at constant area. The density falls from ρ s to
stiffness and strength when a solid flat panel of unit area and
thickness t is foamed to give a foam panel of unit area and t
ρ = ρs
thickness h, at constant mass. The modulus E and strength h
σ f of foams scale with relative density ρ / ρ s as
and the modulus and strength fall from Es to σ f ,s
2 3/ 2
⎛ ρ ⎞ ⎛ ρ ⎞ 2 3/ 2
E = ⎜⎜ ⎟
⎟ Es and σ f = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ σ f ,s ⎛t⎞ ⎛t⎞
⎝ ρs ⎠ ⎝ ρs ⎠ E = Es ⎜ ⎟ and σ f = σ f ,s ⎜ ⎟
⎝h⎠ ⎝h⎠
where E, σ f and ρ are the modulus, strength and density of the The bending stiffness per unit area changes from Ss to S, so
foam and Es , σ f ,s and ρ s those of the solid panel. that
S EI h 1
ψ Be = = = =
So Es I s t (ρ / ρ s )
(using I s = t 3 / 12 and I = h 3 / 12 per unit width). Foaming
imparts a shape-efficiency factor for stiffness equal to the
reciprocal of the relative density.
Following the same procedure for strength (using
Z s = t 2 / 12 and I = h 2 / 6 per unit width) gives
Zσ f h 1
ψ Bf = = =
Z s σ f ,s t (ρ / ρ s )1 / 2
The shape-efficiency factor for strength is equal to the reciprocal
Figure E28 of the square root of the relative density.

E10. Hybrid materials
The examples in this section relate to the design of hybrid materials
described in Chapters 11 and 12. The first three involve the use of
bounds for evaluating the potential of composite systems. The fourth is
an example of hybrid design to fill holes in property space. Then comes
one involving a sandwich panel. The next three make use of the
charts for natural materials. The last is a challenge: to explore the
potential of hybridizing two very different materials.
E10.1 Concepts for light, stiff composites.

Figure E29 is a chart for exploring stiff composites with light alloy
or polymer matrices. A construction like that allows the potential
of any given matrix-reinforcement combination to be assessed.
Four matrix materials are shown, highlighted in red. The materials
shown in gray are available as fibers (f), whiskers (w) or particles
(p). The criteria of excellence (the indices E / ρ , E 1 / 2 / ρ and
E 1 / 3 / ρ for light, stiff structures) are shown; they increase in
value towards the top left. Use the chart to compare the
performance of a titanium-matrix composite reinforced with (a)
zirconium carbide, ZrC, (b) Saffil alumina fibers and (c) Nicalon
silicon carbide fibers. Keep it simple: use equations 11.1 – 11.2
to calculate the density and upper and lower bounds for the
modulus at a volume fraction of f = 0.5 and plot these points.
Then sketch arcs of circles from the matrix to the reinforcement to Figure E29
pass through them. In making your judgement, assume that f =
0.5 is the maximum practical reinforcement level.

Answer. The adjacent figure shows the result. The guide lines have
been moved to pass through titanium, allowing the performance
of each composite system to be assessed. A vertical, broken,
line through each of the bound-envelopes marks the f = 0.5
point. The Ti-ZrC composite system offers little or no gain in
performance because the composite trajectory lies almost
parallel to the guide-lines. By contrast, Ti-Saffil composites offer
gains. Best of the lot is Ti-Nicalon. These composites have a
trajectory that lies almost normal to the guide-lines, offering the
greatest increase in all three criteria of excellence.
E10.2 Use the chart of Figure E29 to explore the relative potential of
Magnesium – E-glass-fiber composites and Magnesium –
Beryllium composites for light, stiff structures.
Answer. The adjacent figure shows the result. Mg – E-glass offers

almost no gain in performance. Mg – Be, if it could be made,
offers very considerable gains.

E10.3 Concepts for composites with tailored thermal properties.
Figure E30 is a chart for exploring the design of composites with
desired combinations of thermal conductivity and expansion, using
light alloy or polymer matrices. A construction like that allows the
potential of any given matrix-reinforcement combination to be
assessed. One criterion of excellence (the index for materials to
minimize thermal distortion, λ / α ) is shown; it increases in value
towards the bottom right. Use the chart to compare the
performance of a magnesium AZ63 alloy-matrix composite
reinforced with (a) alloy steel fibers, (b) silicon carbide fibers, SiC
(f) and (c) diamond-structured carbon particles. Use the equations
below to calculate the upper and lower bounds for α and λ at a
volume fraction of f = 0.5 and plot these points. Then sketch
curves linking matrix to reinforcement to pass through the
outermost of the points. In making your judgement, assume that f
= 0.5 is the maximum practical reinforcement level.
Thermal Expansion Coefficient
α~u = fαr (1 + vr ) + (1 − f )αm(1 + vm) − αL[ fvr + (1 − f )vm]

Erαrf + Emαm(1 − f )
α~L =
Erf + Em(1 − f )
Thermal Conductivity
~
λ u = fλr + (1 − f )λm
Figure E30
~ λr + 2λm − 2 f (λm − λr )
λ L = λm
λr + 2λm + f (λm − λr )
Subscript ‘u’: upper bound; subscript ‘L’: lower bound

Answer. The figure shows the result. Mg-alloy steel composites
perform less well than magnesium itself. By contrast, Mg-SiC
composites offer gains (and are currently available). Even
bigger gains lie with Mg-diamond composites. These are not as
outrageous as they might sound: particulate industrial diamond is
produced in large quantities for cutting tools, rock drills, grinding
and polishing. Using it for a reinforcement in a composite for
very high performance applications is perfectly practical.

E10.4 Sandwich panels. An aircraft quality sandwich panel has
the characteristics listed in the table.
(a) Use the data below to calculate the equivalent density, Panel
flexural modulus and strength (use the plastic section
modulus).
(b) Plot these on a modulus / density and a modulus /
strength chart. Do the flexural properties of the panel lie
in a region of property space not filled by monolithic
materials?
Data for glass fiber / aluminum honeycomb sandwich panel
Face material 0.38 mm glass fiber / epoxy

Core material 3.2 mm cell, 97.8 kg/m3, 5052 Alu honeycomb
Panel weight per unit area, ma 2.65 kg/m2
Panel length, L 510 mm
Panel width, b 51 mm
Panel thickness, d 10.0 mm

2
Flexural stiffness EI 67 N.m
Failure moment M f 160 Nm
Panel
Answer.
m
(a) The equivalent density ρ~ is ρ~ = a = 265 kg / m 3
d
~ ~ 12 EI
The equivalent modulus E is E = = 15.8 GPa
bd3
t 4M f
The equivalent strength σ f is σ~ f = = 125 MPa
bd2
(b) See opposite. Yes, the flexural properties of the panel lie in an
area of property space not occupied by monolithic materials.

E10.5 Natural hybrids that are light, stiff and strong. Answer. The comparisons are shown in two the figures on the next
For this project use the CES EduPack Level 3 Database, and under ‘subset’ page.
select “All materials” (instead of “All bulk materials”). Then create a custom (a) The comparison for stiffness, using the criterion of
subset which includes natural materials (under Hybrids), natural fibers and
particulates, and the materials featured in the question. excellence, E 1 / 2 / ρ , is highlighted. The nearer a material lies
to this line, the better is its performance. Natural materials are
extraordinarily efficient by this measure. CFRP is comparable
(a) Plot aluminum alloys, steels, CFRP and GFRP onto a E − ρ chart for with the best of them, but the other man-made materials
compare poorly with those of nature.
the custom subset of materials you created above, where E is
Young’s modulus and ρ is the density. How do they compare, using
the flexural stiffness index E 1 / 2 / ρ as criterion of excellence? (b) The comparison for strength, using criterion of excellence,
σ 2f / 3 / ρ , is highlighted. Again, natural materials excel. CFRP
(b) Do the same thing for strength, using the flexural strength index alone competes with wood, bamboo and palm.
σ 2f / 3 / ρ (where σ f is the failure stress) as criteria of excellence.
The table lists the necessary data.
Material Young’s modulus Density ρ Strength,

E (GPa) (kg/m3) σ f (MPa)
Aluminum alloy 74 2700 335
Steel 210 7850 700
CFRP 100 1550 760
GFRP 21 1850 182

CFRP Steel
CFRP
Steel
Al-alloy Al-alloy
GFRP
GFRP

E10.6 Natural hybrids that act as springs.
For this project use the CES EduPack Level 3 Database, and under CFRP
Spring steel
‘subset’ select “All materials” (instead of “All bulk materials”). Then
create a custom subset which includes natural materials (under
Hybrids), natural fibers and particulates, and the materials featured in
the question. Cu 2% Be
The table lists the moduli and strengths of spring materials. Plot these
onto a copy of the E − σ f chart for the materials in the custom subset
you created above, and compare their energy-storing performance with
that of natural materials, using the σ 2f / E as the criterion of choice.
Here σ f is the failure stress, E is Young’s modulus and ρ is the
density.
Material Modulus Strength Density

(GPa) (MPa) (kg/m3)
Spring steel 206 1100 7850
Copper-2%Beryllium 130 980 8250
CFRP filament wound 68 760 1580
Answer. The comparison is shown on the adjacent figure. The

criterion of excellence, σ 2f / E , is highlighted. The nearer a
material lies to this line, the better is its performance. The best
man-made spring materials have a performance that is
comparable with that of antler, but falls short of that offered by
silks of various types. If the criterion for light springs, σ 2f / ρ E is
used instead, the natural materials rank even more highly.

E10.7 Finding a substitute for bone. Find an engineering material Answer. The modulus and density of compact bone match closely
that most closely resembles the longitudinal strength of compact bone those of magnesium and glass fiber reinforced epoxy, GFRP.
(cortical bone (L)) in its strength/weight ( σ f / ρ ) characteristics by These materials work well for external braces. For
prostheses, bio-compatibility is important. This leads to the
plotting data for this material onto a σ f − ρ chart for engineering used of cobalt and titanium-based alloys even though the
materials. Here σ f is the failure stress and ρ is the density. match of mechanical properties is very poor. Efforts are
underway to develop a bio-compatible
polyethylene/hydroxyapatite composites with a near perfect
match of properties. Hydroxyapatite is a natural ceramic that
is found in real bone – it appears on the charts for natural
materials.
Cortical
bone (L)
E10.8 Creativity: what could you do with X? The CES EduPack

can produce a wide variety of materials property charts. These
can be used as the starting point for “what if…?” exercises. As a
challenge, use any chart or combination of charts to explore
what might be possible by hybridizing any pair of the materials
listed below, in any configuration you care to choose.
(a) Cement
(b) Wood
(c) Polypropylene
(d) Steel
(e) Copper.

E11. Selecting processes Answer. (a) The function and constraints are listed in the table.
Answer.
(a) The shape-efficiency factor for elastic bending for the
The exercises of this section use the process selection feature of the Function
square box •
section Shape
(from an elevator
Table 9.3)quadrant
is
CES EduPack. Constraints • Material
1 hclass: aluminum or magnesium alloy
e
Each exercise has two parts, labeled (a) and (b). The first involves • φShape
B = 2 class:
= 163D-solid
.7
t
translation (i.e. converting a description of needs and wants into a list • Mass: 5 kg
of go no-go criteria . The second uses the CES EduPack to select
That for the tube
•
is Minimum section: 5 mm
appropriate processes for the respective function. (Use the Tree e 3 r 0.5 mm, (0.05mm on bearing
• φTolerance:
function to match processes to their appropriate material classes). B = π t = 12.5
surfaces)
The box is more• efficient
Surface than
roughness: 10 µm
the tube (1 µm
of the on bearing
same m/L, and
surfaces)
both are much stiffer
•
in bending than a solid
Planned batch size of 100 - 200
square section of
E11.1 Elevator control quadrant (Figure E31). The quadrant the same area (and thus mass per unit length).
Objective --
sketched here is part of the control system for the wing-elevator of
a commercial aircraft. It is to be made of a light alloy (aluminum or Free variables • Choice of process
magnesium) with the shape shown in the figure. It weighs about 5 (b) The shape-efficiency factor for bending failure for the
kg. The minimum section thickness is 5 mm, and – apart from the square box section (from Table 9.3) is
(b) These constraints are applied in the CES EduPack. The
bearing surfaces – the requirements on surface finish and material constraint limits the f h to those shown in the first
precision are not strict: surface finish ≤ 10 µm and precision ≤ 0.5 φ Bselection
= = 5.8
column of the next table. The shape t constraint eliminates two,
mm. The bearing surfaces require a surface finish ≤ 1 µm and a leaving
That for those in the
the tube is second column. All of these can meet the
precision ≤ 0.05 mm. A production run of 100 – 200 is planned. constraints on size and section, which are not restrictive. The
3 on the
r body are not met by
(a) Itemize the function and constraints, leave the objective blank φ Bf =
tolerance and roughness constraints = 4.33
and enter “Choice of process” for the free variable. sand casting, though it is worth asking 2π if tthey have been over-
specified.
The Those
box is more on the
efficient bearing
than surfaces
the tube, and bothare
aremuch more
roughly 5 times
(b) Use the CES EduPack restrictive – only machining
stronger in bending than a solid from
squaresolid achieves
section them.area
of the same The
(and thus
to apply the constraints and answer herelength).
is not to reject the others, but to add a finishing
mass per unit
identify in more detail the step, shown at the bottom of Mass range and Tolerance charts.
viable processes. The result is the list shown in the third column. Economics are
important here – the Economic batch-size chart suggests that
only the three listed in the last column are economic at a batch
size of 100 – 200.
The conclusion: explore investment casting (with additional
The processes surviving the machining steps) and numerically controlled machining from
successive applications of solid.
the constraints on the Figure E31
quadrant:

Processes Processes that Processes Processes that
E11.2 Casing for an electric plug (Figure E32). The electric plug
passing the survive the meeting the are economic is perhaps the commonest of electrical products. It has a
material shape tolerance at a batch of number of components, each performing one or more
constraint. constraint constraint 100 - 200 functions. The most obvious are the casing and the pins,
Sand casting Sand casting FAILS though there are many more (connectors, a cable clamp,
Die casting Die casting Die casting plus FAILS fasteners, and, in some plugs, a fuse). The task is to
machining investigate processes for shaping the two-part insulating
Investment Investment Investment Investment casing, the thinnest part of which is 2 mm thick. Each part
casting casting casting plus casting plus weighs about 30 grams and is to be made in a single step from
machining machining a thermoplastic or thermosetting polymer with a planned batch
Low pressure Low pressure Low pressure FAILS
size of 5 x 104 – 2 x 106. The required tolerance of 0.3 mm
casting casting casting plus
machining and surface roughness of 1 µm must be achieved without
Forging Forging Forging plus FAILS using secondary operations.
machining
(a) Itemize the function and constraints, leave the objective
Extrusion FAILS
blank and enter “Choice of process” for the free variable.
Sheet forming FAILS
Powder Powder Powder FAILS (b) Use the CES EduPack to identify possible processes to
methods methods methods make the casing
Machine from Machine from Machine from Machine from
solid solid solid solid
Figure E32

Answer. (a) The table lists the function and constraints. E11.3 Ceramic valves for taps (Figure E33). Few things are more
Function • Shape an electric plug casing irritating than a dripping tap. Taps drip because the rubber
washer is worn or the brass seat is pitted by corrosion, or both.
Constraints • Material class: thermoplastic or thermosetting
polymer
Ceramics have good wear resistance, and they have excellent
• Shape class: 3D-solid
corrosion resistance in both pure and salt water. Many
household taps now use ceramic valves.
• Mass: 0.03 kg
• Minimum section: 2 mm The sketch shows how they work. A ceramic valve consists of
• Tolerance: 0.3 mm two disks mounted one above the other, spring-loaded so that
• Surface roughness: 1µm their faces are in contact. Each disk has a diameter of 20 mm, a
• Planned batch size of 5 x104 – 2 x106 thickness of 3 mm and weighs about 10 grams. In order to seal
Objective -- well, the mating surfaces of the two disks must be flat and
Free variables • Choice of process smooth, requiring high levels of precision and surface finish;
typically tolerance < 0.02 mm and surface roughness < 0.1 µm.
The outer face of each has a slot that registers it, and allows the
(b) Using CES EduPack to apply the constraints gives the upper disc to be rotated through 90o (1/4 turn). In the “off”
selection shown in the table below. position the holes in the upper disc are blanked off by the solid
part of the lower one; in the “on” position the holes are aligned. A
Selection using CES Comment
EduPack
production run of 105 –106 is envisaged.
Injection molding The selection is identical with that derived (a) List the function and constraints, leave the objective blank
Compression molding from the charts, but the software also and enter “Choice of process” for the free variable.
delivers data files containing supporting (b) Use the CES EduPack to identify possible
information for each process. processes to make the casing.
Figure E33

Answer. (a) The table lists the function and constraints.
Function • Shape a ceramic valve
Constraints • Material class: technical ceramic
• Shape class: prismatic
• Mass: 0.01 kg
• Minimum section: 3 mm
• Tolerance: 0.02 mm
• Surface roughness: 0.1µm
• Planned batch size of 105 –106
Objective --
Free variables • Choice of process
(b) Applying the constraints as shown into the EduPack,

eliminating processes that fail a constraint, leaves only one
candidate: powder methods. The tolerance and roughness
requirements for the mating faces require a subsequent grinding,
lapping or polishing step.

E11.4 Shaping plastic bottles
(b) Applying the constraints and eliminating processes that fail a
(Figure E34). Plastic bottles
constraint leaves only two candidates: blow molding and injection
are used to contain fluids as
molding.
various as milk and engine
oil. A typical polyethylene
bottle weighs about 30 grams
and has a wall thickness of
about 0.8 mm. The shape is
3-D hollow. The batch size is
large (1,000,000 bottles).
What process could be used
to make them?
(a) List the function and Figure E34

constraints, leave the
objective blank and enter “Choice of process” for the free variable.
(b) Use the CES EduPack to identify possible processes to make

the casing.

Function • Shape a polyethylene bottle
Constraints • Material class: Polyethylene (or thermoplastic)
• Shape class: 3-D hollow
• Mass: 0.02 – 0.04 kg
• Minimum section: 0.7 - 1 mm
• Tolerance: 1 mm
• Surface roughness: 10 µm
• Planned batch size of > 106
Objective --

E11.5 Car hood (bonnet) (Figure E35). As weight-saving assumes
greater importance in automobile design, the replacement of steel
parts with polymer-composite substitutes becomes increasingly Function • Shape a car hood
attractive. Weight can be saved by replacing a steel hood with Constraints • Material class: Thermosetting composite
one made from a thermosetting composites. The weight of the • Shape class: Dished sheet
hood depends on the car model: a typical composite hood weighs • Mass: 8 – 10 kg
is 8 - 10 kg. The shape is a dished-sheet and the requirements on
• Minimum section: 3 mm
tolerance and roughness are 1 mm and 2 µm, respectively. A • Tolerance: 1 mm
production run of 100,000 is envisaged.
• Surface roughness: 2 µm
• Planned batch size of 100,000
(a) List the function and constraints, leave the objective blank and Objective --
enter “Choice of process” for the free variable. Free variables • Choice of process
(b) Use the CES EduPack to identify possible processes to make (b) Applying the constraints and eliminating processes that fail a
the casing. constraint leaves resin transfer molding as the prime choice.
Figure E35

E11.6 Selecting joining processes. Answer. (a) Applying CES EduPack to the problem gives the
selection shown in the below.
(a) Use CES EduPack to select a joining process to meet the
following requirements. Selection using CES EduPack Comment
Level 1 or 2
Brazing
Friction welding
Function • Create a permanent butt joint between steel There are many ways to
Friction-stir welding
plates make a permanent watertight
Gas – metal arc (MIG) welding
Constraints • Material class: carbon steel Gas-tungsten arc (TIG) welding joint in steel.
• Joint geometry: butt joint Manual metal arc (MMA) welding
• Section thickness: 8 mm Power (electron, laser) beam welding
• Permanent
• Watertight
(b) Applying CES EduPack to the problem gives the selection
Objective -- shown in the below.
Selection using CES EduPack Comment
Level 1 or 2
(b) Use CES EduPack to select a joining process to meet the Snap fit
following requirements. Threaded fasteners
Flexible adhesives All are practical
Rigid adhesives
Function • Create a watertight, demountable lap joint
between glass and polymer
Constraints • Material class: glass and polymers
• Joint geometry: lap joint
• Section thickness: 4 mm
• Demountable
• Watertight
Objective --

E11.7 Selecting surface treatment processes. Answer. (a) Applying CES EduPack to the problem gives the
selection shown in the below.
(a) Use CES EduPack to select a surface treatment process to meet
the following requirements. Selection using CES EduPack Comment
Level 1 or 2
Carburizing and carbonitriding
Function • Increase the surface hardness and wear Nitriding
resistance of a high carbon steel component Induction and flame hardening There are many ways to
Laser surface hardening increase the surface hardness
Constraints • Material class: carbon steel of carbon steel.
• Purpose of treatment: increase surface Electro plating
hardness and wear resistance Vapor metallizing
Objective --
Free variables • Choice of process (b) Applying CES EduPack to the problem gives the selection
shown in the below.
(b) Use CES EduPack to select a surface treatment process to
meet the following requirements. Selection using CES EduPack Comment
Level 1 or 2
Cubic printing
Function • Apply color and pattern to the curved Pad printing
surface of a polymer molding Electroless plating All are practical
Constraints • Material class: thermoplastic Electrophoretic and Autophoretic
• Purpose of treatment: aesthetics, color painting
Organic-solvent based painting
• Curved surface coverage: good or very Vitreous enameling
good Water-based painting
Objective --

E12. Materials and the environment Material Embodied energy* CO2* Embodied energy CO2
MJ/kg kg/kg MJ/chair kg/chair
E12.1. Use the CES EduPack to produce a E − H p ρ chart to find the Cast iron 17.3 1.02 147 8.7
polymer with a modulus E greater than 1 GPa and the lowest Polypropylene 95 2.7 152 4.3
embodied energy per unit volume.
* Mean values from the data in the CES EduPack
Answer. The construction is shown opposite. The polymer with a

modulus greater than 1 GPa and the lowest embodied energy is
polypropylene, PP.
E12.2. A maker of polypropylene (PP) garden furniture is concerned

that the competition is stealing part of his market by claiming that the
“traditional” material for garden furniture, cast iron, is much less energy
and CO2 intensive than the PP. A typical PP chair weighs 1.6 kg; one
made of cast iron weighs 8.5 kg. Use the data in the CES EduPack to
find out who is right – are the differences significant if the data for
embodied energy are only accurate to +- 20%? If the PP chair lasts 5
years and the cast iron chair lasts 25 years, does the conclusion
change?
Answer. The table lists mean values of embodied energy and carbon
footprint, per kg, for the two materials. The last two columns show the
values per chair. If the difference in lifetime is ignored, the two chairs
do not differ significantly in embodied energy, but they do in carbon
release. If the longer life of the cast iron chair is recognized by dividing
the values by the life in years (to give energy and carbon per chair-
year) the cast iron chair wins easily.
The Modulus – Embodied energy chart: the one for stiffness at
minimum embodied energy.

E12.3 Identical casings for a power tool could be die-cast in Establish an appropriate material index for selecting materials for
aluminum or molded in ABS or polyester GFRP. Use the CES energy-economic forks. Model the eating implement as a beam of
EduPack to produce a embodied-energy per unit volume bar-chart fixed length L and width w, but with a thickness t that is free,
to decide which choice minimizes the material embodied energy, loaded in bending, as in the figure. The objective-function is the
assuming the same volume of material is used for each casing. volume of material in the fork times its energy content, H p ρ , per
Answer. The embodied energy /m3, H p ρ , (where H p is the energy unit volume ( H p is the embodied energy per kg, and ρ the
per kg and ρ the density) bar chart shows that ABS has the lower density). The limit on flexure imposes a stiffness constraint
embodied energy per unit volume. For a casing using the same (UASSP, 3). Use this information to develop the index.
volume of material, ABS requires only one fifth of the energy of
Flexure, in cutlery, is an inconvenience. Failure – whether by
aluminum.
plastic deformation or by fracture – is more serious: it causes loss-
of-function; it might even cause hunger. Repeat the analysis,
Material Embodied energy/m3,
deriving an index when a required strength is the constraint.
H p ρ , MJ/m3
ABS 1 x 105
GFRP Answer. The objective is for the energy content, mHp, to be
2.4x 105
minimized. The free variable is the thickness t of the shaft of the
Aluminum 5.5x 105 fork; all other dimensions are fixed. There are two alternative
constraints, first, that the fork should not flex too much, second,
E12.4 Disposable knives and forks (Figure E37). Disposable knives that it should not fail.
and forks are ordered by an environmentally-conscious pizza-
house. The shape of each (and thus the length, width and profile)
are fixed, but the thickness is free: it is chosen to give enough Function • Environmentally friendly disposable forks
bending-stiffness to cut and impale the pizza without excessive Constraints • Length L specified
flexure. The pizzeria-proprietor wishes to enhance the greenness • Width b specified
of his image by minimizing the energy-content of his throw-away
• Stiffness S specified, or
tableware, which could be molded from polystyrene (PS) or
• Failure load F is specified
stamped from aluminum sheet.
Objective • Minimize the material energy-content
Free variables • Shaft thickness t
Figure E37
The resulting indices are Answer. The objective function for the energy of the panel, H , is the
σ 2y / 3 volume Lbh times the embodied energy of the material per unit volume,
E1/ 2
M1 = and M2 = ρHp :
H pρ H pρ
H = bhLρ H p
The selection can be implemented using the CES EduPack software,
by making a chart with the stiffness index as one axis and the strength Its failure load F must be at least F * , where
index as the other. The materials that best meet both criteria lie at the Iσy
top right F = C2 ≥ F*
hL
E12.5. Show that the index for selecting materials for a strong panel Here C 2 is a constant that depends only on the distribution of the loads
with the dimensions shown in Figure E.38, loaded in bending, with and I is the second moment of area, which, for a rectangular section, is
minimum embodied energy content is that with the largest value of
b h3
σ 1y / 2 I =
M = 12
H pρ
We can reduce the energy H by reducing h , but only so far that the
where H p is the embodied energy of the material, ρ its density and stiffness constraint is still met. Combining the last two equations and
solving for h gives
σ y its yield strength. To do so, place a constraint on failure load F
1. / 2
⎛ 12 F * L ⎞
requiring that it exceed a chosen value F * where h≥⎜ ⎟
⎜ C2b σ y ⎟
Iσy ⎝ ⎠
F = C2 > F*
hL Using this to eliminate h in the objective function gives
where C2 is a constant and I is the second moment of area of the 1/ 2
⎛ 12 F * L3 b ⎞ ρHp
panel H ≥ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ C2 ⎟ σ 1y / 2
b h3 ⎝ ⎠
I =
12 .
The quantities F * , L , b and C 2 are all specified; the only freedom of
choice left is that of the material. The best materials for a strong panel
with the lowest embodied energy are those with the smallest values of
ρHp
Mp =
σ 1y / 2
Figure E38
E12.6. The makers of a small electric car wish to make bumpers out of
a molded thermoplastic. Which index is the one to guide this
selection if the aim is to maximize the range for a given battery
storage capacity? Plot it on a Strength / Density chart, and make
a selection.
Answer. The use-energy of any vehicle, be it gasoline or electric

powered, increases with the mass of the vehicle. The bumper
contributes to this mass. Maximizing range for a given battery
capacity means minimizing mass. The function of the bumper is to
sustain bending loads. The required index is
σ 2y / 3
M =
ρ
This is plotted on the strength – density chart below, picking up the

slope of 1.5 from the guide line at the lower right. The selection line
is position such that a few polymers remain above it – they are the
best choice. They are:
• Polycarbonate, PC
• Polyamide (nylon) PA and
• Polyetheretherketone PEEK
In practice bumpers are made of blends of Polycarbonate with other
polymers such as Polypropylene or Polyamide, or of fiber reinforced
thermosets such as Polyester. PEEK is too expensive for
applications such as this.

E12.7. Energy-efficient floor joists . Floor joists are beams loaded in Answer. (a) The index for an energy-efficient beam with a specified
bending. They can be made of wood, of steel, or of steel-reinforced stiffness, modified to include shape, is
concrete, with the shape factors listed below. For a given bending
stiffness and strength, which of these carries the lowest production- ( φ Be E)1/2
energy burden? The relevant data are listed. M1 =
H pρ
(a) Start with stiffness. Derive the material index for stiffness-
where E is the modulus, ρ the density, Hp the energy content
limited, shaped beams of minimum mass. Adapt this to make
the index for stiffness-limited, shaped beams of embodied per unit weight, and φ Be is the shape factor for stiffness controlled
energy by multiplying density ρ by embodied energy /kg, H p . design. The first Table shows values of M1 for the wood, the
Use the modified index to rank the three beams. concrete and the shaped steel beam. Wood wins.
Material E H pρ φ Be
M1
(b) Repeat the procedure, this time for strength, creating the (GPa) (GPa1/2/GJ/m3)
3
appropriate index for strength-limited shaped beams at (GJ/m )
minimum energy content by adapting equation 9.28. Wood 10 5.25 2 0.86
Concrete 35 14.5 2 0.57
Steel 210 238 15 0.23
What do you conclude about the relative energy-penalty of design
with wood and with steel?
(b) The index for an energy efficient beam of prescribed strength
is, f
2/3
Material Density Modulus Strength Energy Hp ⎛⎜ φ f σ ⎞⎟
φ Be φ Bf
ρ kg/m3 E GPa σ f MPa MJ/kg ⎝ B f ⎠
M2 =
H pρ
Soft wood 700 10 40 7.5 2 1.4
Reinforced 2900 35 10 5 2 1.4 f
concrete Where φ B is the shape factor for failure in bending. The next
Steel 7900 210 200 30 15 4 table shows that, as before, wood is the most efficient material.
Material σf H pρ φ Be
M2
3 (MPa2/3/GJ/m3)
(MPa) (GJ/m )
Wood 40 5.25 1.4 2.8
Concrete 10 14.5 1.4 0.4
Steel 200 238 4 0.36

This is one of six CES EduPack teaching resource books. All are
available free of charge to users with a maintained CES EduPack license.
Book 1: Getting Started with CES EduPack
Book 2: Material and Process Selection Charts
Book 3: Useful Approximate Solutions for Standard Problems
Book 4: PowerPoint Lectures

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Exercises with worked solutions

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All the materials selection problems can be solved using the

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Specimen answer: tin. Tin (symbol Sn), a silver-white metal, has a

E2.2 Research the evolution of material use in

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C5 Trap dust on Reel-to-reel single sided adhesive tape

Answer. Design problems are open-ended; there are always

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Radiation to ambient, using high emissivity coatings

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Answer. The distance x that heat diffuses in a time t is Cv = ρ C m

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Search area Search area

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Answer. Parallel to the grain, woods have much higher specific

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where σ f is the elastic limit, K 1c is the fracture toughness, R is

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E5.16 Use a Maximum service temperature (Tmax) chart to find

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Here it is important to recognize the distinction between constraints and

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where the thermal diffusivity a = λ / ρ C p and λ is the thermal

Answer. This is a problem involving steady-state heat flow. The

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Function • Improved CD case

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Function • Core for compact storage heater

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The selection. Applying the constraints listed in the table above 1 f L4

The objective function is an equation for the deflection of the

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where ρ is the density of the beam material and g is the 3 g L5 ⎛⎜ ρ 2 ⎞⎟

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The material cost of the column is minimized by choosing

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Index Material choice

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When t = 0 the surface temperature Ts = Ti and the fin is completely

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Objective Constraints Performance equation Index

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and a coupling relation between them. It contains the crack length,

(a) Write, first, a performance equation for the mass m of the

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