M. Sc.

Examination by course unit 2009

ASTM116 Astrophysical Plasmas

Duration: 3 hours

Date and time: 19 May 2009, 1815h–2115h

Apart from this page, you are not permitted to read the contents of this question
paper until instructed to do so by an invigilator.

The paper has two Sections and you should attempt both Sections. Please read care-
fully the instructions given at the beginning of each Section.

Calculators are NOT permitted in this examination. The unauthorized use of a

calculator constitutes an examination offence.
A formula section and description of notational conventions is provided at the start
of this examination paper. You may quote from this section without proof any formula
you require, unless the question specifically requires you to do otherwise.
Complete all rough workings in the answer book and cross through any work which
is not to be assessed.
Candidates should note that the Examination and Assessment Regulations state
that possession of unauthorized materials by any candidate who is under examination
conditions is an assessment offence. Please check your pockets now for any notes that
you may have forgotten that are in your possession. If you have any, then please raise
your hand and give them to an invigilator now.
Exam papers must not be removed from the examination room.
Examiner(s): D. Burgess

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Numerical answers where required may be determined approximately, to within

factors ∼ 5, or left in terms of trigonometric or other transcendental functions.
You may quote the following results unless the question specifically asks you to
derive it. All notation is standard. Vectors are denoted by boldface type, e.g., A, while
scalars, including the magnitude of a vector, are in italics, e.g., |E| = E.
(i) The Lorentz force on a particle of charge q moving in electric and magnetic fields
E and B respectively is given by
F = q(E + v × B)

(ii) Maxwell’s Equations

∂B
∇×E = −
∂t
1 ∂E
∇ × B = µ0 j +
c2 ∂t
ρq
∇·E =
ε0
∇·B = 0
where µ0 ε0 = 1/c2 .
(iii) The electric and magnetic fields E and B as measured in a laboratory frame are
related to the fields E0 and B0 measured in a frame moving relative to the laboraty
frame at a velocity u by the transformation laws

E0k = Ek
B0k = Bk
E⊥ + u × B
E0⊥ = q
1 − (u2 /c2 )
u×E
B⊥ − 2
B0⊥ = q c
1 − (u /c2 )
2

(iv) The MHD equations for a plasma with electrical conductivity σ:

∂ρ
+ ∇ · (ρV) = 0
∂t
!
∂ 1
ρ + V · ∇ V = −∇p + (∇ × B) × B
∂t µ0
!
∂
pρ−γ


+V·∇ = 0
∂t
∂B 1 2
= ∇ × (V × B) + ∇ B
∂t µ0 σ
E + V × B = j/σ

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 ASTM116 (2009) Page 3

(v) Divergence of a vector in spherical coordinates:

1 ∂ 2 1 ∂ 1 ∂Aφ
∇·A = 2
(r Ar ) + (Aθ sin θ) +
r ∂r r sin θ ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ

(vi) The following vector identities and relations

a · (b × c) = b · (c × a) = c · (a × b)
∇ · (a × b) = b · (∇ × a) − a · (∇ × b)
∇ × (a × b) = a (∇ · b) + (b · ∇) a − b (∇ · a) − (a · ∇) b
 2
B
(∇ × B) × B = (B · ∇) B − ∇
2
∇ × (∇ × B) = ∇ (∇ · B) − ∇2 B
a × (b × c) = (a · c) b − (a · b) c
(a × b) × c = (a · c) b − (b · c) a

(vii) The following numerical values of physical constants and parameter values:

Name symbol value

Electronic Charge e 1.6 × 10−19 C
Electron volt eV 1.6 × 10−19 Joules
Electron mass me 9.1 × 10−31 kg
Proton mass mp 1.67 × 10−27 kg
Permeability of free space µ0 4π × 10−7 Henry/m
Permittivity of free space ε0 8.85 × 10−12 Farad/m
Speed of light in vacuo c 3 × 108 m/s
Earth Radius Re 6371 km
Astronomical Unit AU 1.5 × 1011 m
Solar Radius R 6.96 × 108 m

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PART A. Each question carries 10 marks. You should attempt ALL questions.

Question 1
Describe in one or two sentences the definition, physical meaning and importance of
each of the following terms:

(a) Electron plasma frequency

(b) Parker spiral of interplanetary magnetic field

[10 marks.]

Question 2
Magnetic reconnection is described as an important process in astrophysical plasmas.
Describe briefly, in about 2-3 sentences, what it is, and why it is important.
Sketch the configurations of both the Sweet-Parker and Petschek models of reconnec-
tion, indicating the flow and field directions. What are the key differences between these
two models?
[10 marks.]

Question 3
From the MHD equations with finite conductivity derive the equation for the time evo-
lution of the magnetic field ∂B
∂t .
The solar wind is a flow with high magnetic Reynolds number Rm . Define Rm , and hence
explain the implication of the above statement for the behaviour of the magnetic field?
[10 marks.]

Question 4
Show that

vx = v⊥ sin(Ωct), vy = v⊥ cos(Ωct)

are solutions for the velocity components of the equations of motion of a charged particle
(mass m, charge q) in a static uniform magnetic field B = (0, 0, B) entirely in the z direction.
The electric field is zero; v⊥ is a constant, and Ωc = qB/m.
By integration, show that this implies that the particle undergoes circular motion in
space, and find the radius of gyration rL .
[10 marks.]

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Question 5
Define the magnetic moment of a particle in terms of its pitch angle and energy. What
important property does the magnetic moment have, and under what conditions?
The figure below shows a profile of the magnetic field amplitude B along a field line
in the solar wind. Electrons are observed at a certain energy at point P to be isotropic in
vk − v⊥ velocity space, as shown in the diagram.
Sketch the form of the velocity space distribution you would expect at points Q and R
considering only the particles seen at P, and give explanations for what you show.
Discuss, with explanations, whether the distribution at P is consistent with your expec-
tations.
(The energy of the particles is such that they may travel freely from P to Q to R, without
appreciably changing their energy.)

R
P
Q v perp

v parallel

[10 marks.]

PART B continues on next page — PLEASE TURN OVER.

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PART B. Each question carries 25 marks. You may attempt all questions but
only marks for the best TWO questions will be counted.
Question 6
A coronal hole is a region on the solar surface of open field lines which behaves as a
funnel of area A(r). A simple model for the expansion and flow of the solar wind in a coronal
hole can be constructed by assuming an isothermal plasma obeying the ideal gas pressure
law p = 2nkB T , zero magnetic field and all quantities depending only on radius r. The mass
density and number density are related by ρ = nm, where m is the mean mass of a particle.

(a) Show that the flow velocity V in the coronal hole is governed by:
 
2 2kB T 1 dV 2kB T 1 dA GM
V − = − 2 .
m V dr m A dr r

Ensure that you state clearly any additional assumptions you make. [12 marks.]

(b) Assuming that the area of the coronal hole is given by A = Drα , find the critical radius
rc at which the right hand side of the above equation is zero. What special property
does the solar wind solution have at that point? [7 marks.]

(c) By considering the position rc relative to the solar surface at R , what (approximate)
constraint can you deduce on the value of α? [6 marks.]
[Use the following values: kB = 1.4 10−23 J/K, G = 7 10−11 m3 kg−1 s−2 , M = 2 1030
kg, m = 2 10−27 kg, T = 5000 K. ]
[25 marks in total.]

Question 7
An incompressible plasma of uniform density ρ0 obeys the MHD equations with finite
electrical conductivity σ. The magnetic field is given in cartesian coordinates by

 (Bx (z), 0, 0) z>0
B= ,
(−Bx (−z), 0, 0) z<0


where Bx is a function of z.
Consider the case of static annihilation where the plasma flow speed is zero.

(a) Sketch the configuration of the field, and show that the governing equation is given by

∂Bx 1 ∂2 Bx
= .
∂t µ0 σ ∂z2

You may use results from earlier questions. [5 marks]

(b) If the form of Bx at t = 0 is a discontinuity at z = 0 where the direction changes

abruptly, but the magnitude B0 remains constant, then the solution for later time is
given by

2
Z ξ
2
 µ σ 1/2 z
0
Bx = B0 √ e−u du, where ξ= .
π 0 t 2

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Show that this solution satisfies the governing equation. Sketch the solution at some
different times to show the evolution of the solution.
The following result will be useful:
Z b 
d ∂b
f (u) du = f (b)
ds 0 ∂s
where b is a function of s. [10 marks]
(c) Describe the role of magnetic reconnection in either solar flares, or solar wind-magnetospheric
coupling. Illustrate your answers with sketches where appropriate. [10 marks]
[25 marks in total.]
Question 8 Consider small amplitude waves in a plasma with a static, uniform background
magnetic field B0 . In the linear approximation a quantity Q = Q0 + Q1 where Q0 is the
background equilibrium value and Q1 is the perturbation value, and Q1 << Q0 .
In this approximation, consider waves in a cold incompressible plasma (i.e., p0 = 0,
ρ1 = 0), with a wave vector parallel to the background field (so k · B0 = kB0 ), and with a
magnetic perturbation transverse to the background field, i.e., k · B1 = 0.
(a) Linearize the ideal MHD equations under these assumptions, and hence, by assuming
plane wave solutions of the form Q1 = δQei(k·x−ωt) , derive a set of equations relating
the velocity and magnetic perturbations to the wave vector k and the frequency ω.
[12 marks]
(b) From the system of equations you have found, show that there is a solution with a
dispersion relation given by
B2
ω2 = 0 k2 .
µ0 ρ0
What is the phase and group speed of this wave?
In reaching this result show that velocity perturbation is transverse, and also that it is
anti-parallel to the magnetic perturbation. [8 marks]
(c) A magnetic wave is observed in the solar wind. What tests can be carried out to
determine if it is the type of wave discussed above?
If it is, then how can its direction of propagation be determined from a single point
measurement? [5 marks]
[25 marks in total.]
Question 9 In astrophysical plasmas, particles can be energized impulsively in some con-
fined region. A model for the propagation of particles close to such a region can be con-
structed as follows: Assume a static, uniform magnetic field in the z direction (B = Bb z), and
zero electric field. Particles are released from the half-plane z = 0, x ≥ 0, for times t ≥ 0.
(a) The edge of the particle region can be studied by calculating the trajectories of parti-
cles, velocity v, mass m, charge q, released at the origin (x = y = z = 0) at time t = 0
with initial speed V0 , pitch angle α and assuming that V0,y ≡ vy (t = 0) = 0.
Solve the particle equations of motion to find the particle position as a function of time
assuming the above initial conditions. You will need to find the cartesian components
of the velocity at time t = 0. [13 marks]

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(b) Suppose that particles are released continuously starting at time t = 0 with some finite
range of speeds V1 −V2 and the full range of pitch angle.
Consider an observer on the z axis (x = y = 0) at some distance z = D from the origin.
What would be seen in terms of the evolution in time of the velocities and pitch angles
of particles arriving at the observer’s position? When would particles first be seen?
Sketch the evolution of the velocity distribution in vk − v⊥ space as time increases.
[6 marks]

(c) For the same assumed distribution of released particles, consider an observer who
moves at fixed z = D parallel to the x-y plane, at some long time after the particle
release starts.
What would be seen in terms of the distribution in velocity space as the observer
moved from negative to positive x? At what position would the observer first see
particles from the release region? [6 marks]
[25 marks in total.]

End of Paper

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