See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/311451823

Computer Fundamentals and ICT

Book · January 2017

CITATIONS READS
0 38,049

4 authors, including:

M. Shamim Kaiser Muhammad Arifur Rahman

Jahangirnagar University The University of Sheffield
110 PUBLICATIONS   242 CITATIONS    17 PUBLICATIONS   10 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Advance machine learning for Biological data processing View project

PHY/MAC layer attack detection system using neuro-fuzzy algorithm for IoT network View project

All content following this page was uploaded by M. Shamim Kaiser on 06 December 2016.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Computer Fundamentals and ICT

M. Lutfar Rahman, Ph.D

Former Vice-Chancellor and Professor Emeritus, Daffodil International University, Dhaka.
Former Vice-Chancellor, Rangpur University, Rangpur.
Former Professor, Computer Science and Engineering, University of Dhaka, Dhaka.

M. Shamim Kaiser, Ph.D

Institute of Information Technology, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka.

M. Arifur Rahman, Ph.D

Department of Physics, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka.

M. Alamgir Hossain, Ph.D

Director, Anglia Ruskin IT Research Institute
Faculty of Science & Technology
Anglia Ruskin University, UK
ii

© 2016 by the authors

All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in

any form or by any means electronically or mechanically,
including photocopying, recording or any information storage
or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from
the authors.
ISBN:

Published by
Daffodil International University Press

First Published in Dhaka

 iii

We dedicate this book to

Our wives,
Parents, families, colleagues

But above all

Our students

Without the support of everyone mentioned above, it would have been impossible to write
this book
iv

Preface
We welcome the readers to the very dynamic fields of Computer Science and Engineering
(CSE) as well as Information and Communication Technology (ICT). ICT incorporates
computers, electronic communications and the Internet as well as the various services and
applications of computers and communications for numerous applications. On the other
hand, Computer Science and Engineering mainly focuses on computer hardware, software
and creating applications of computers.

This book is mainly based on the authors’ classroom experience. Clear and friendly texts,
simple and step-by-step presentations of topics aid easy comprehension of the subject matter.
With all the latest information and several key pedagogical attributes, the book is an
invaluable learning tool for the students of engineering, technology, natural sciences,
business, social sciences, arts and humanity. The book covers basic ideas of computers,
hardware, software, computer networks, information security, computer graphics, ICT and
social networking.

Approach
The book, “Computer Fundamentals and ICT”, covers two fundamental issues: computer
fundamentals with applications, and ICT with social networking. Readers of different
disciplines will learn fundamentals of computers and hardware components, fundamentals of
software engineering, common application software, networking principle, elementary
network security threats with protection, ICT services and applications and social
networking.

Organization
The book consists of 22 chapters. Chapter 1 focuses on the basic components of a computer,
its classification, applications and ICT fundamentals. Chapter 2 includes number systems
and codes, and Chapter 3 covers fundamentals of digital logic, shift registers and counters.
Microcomputer and its organization and architecture are included in Chapter 4 while Chapter
5 covers mostly used input and output devices. Chapter 6 covers microprocessors, arithmetic
logic unit and the evolution of microprocessors. Memory and storage devices are included in
Chapter 7. Introduction to software with classification, basics of programming languages,
application packages are discussed in Chapter 8. System software and basics of software
development are covered in Chapter 9 and 10 respectively. Chapter 11 focuses on popular
word processors with their features and desktop publishing. Chapter 12 includes worksheets
and working with formulas and macros. Database and database management systems are
presented in Chapter 13. The presentation packages and programming language C are
discussed in Chapters 14 and 15 respectively. Chapter 16 includes the basics of computer
networks, and Chapter 17 covers Internet services and protocols. Chapter 18 includes
Graphics and Multimedia, and Chapter 19 discusses computer and information security.
Chapter 20 includes E-Commerce and E-Governance. Information systems, social
networking and mobile apps are covered in Chapters 21and 22.
 v

Instructor’s Resources
Instructor’s teaching material has been prepared to assist teaching with the book. This
material includes power point presentations for each lesson, which are available at
www.compfunds.info. The website is regularly updated with new features and contents.

Acknowledgments
Without the support of many people and web-resources, it would have been impossible to
develop this book. We are grateful to the authors and publishers of the resources. We would
like to acknowledge the contributions of Shamim Al Mamum, Nusrat Zenia and Fariha
Afsana of Jahangirnagar University, and Syed Nazmus Sakib of Institute of Energy,
University of Dhaka for reviewing some materials of the book.

Our thanks go to a number of people of Daffodil International University (DIU). We are

grateful to Professor Dr. Yusuf Mahbubul Islam, Vice Chancellor, Dr. S.M. Mahbub Ul
Haque Majumder, Pro-Vice Chancellor, Professor Dr. Engr. A. K. M. Fazlul Hoque,
Registrar, Mr. Mohamed Emran Hossain, Director of Administration, and Dr. Md. Milan
Khan, Librarian and Director of DIU Press for their help and cooperation. Special thanks are
for Mr. Md. Sabur Khan, Chairman, Board of Trustees of DIU for his enthusiasm and
encouragement for publication of the book from the DIU Press.

Last and most obviously not the least, is the brace of our friends and families who really
supported us during the preparation of the manuscript. We are sure that they will be happy to
see the published work and feel that their sacrifice is worth it. We are grateful to them.

Authors
December 2016
vi

Authors’ Biography
Professor M. Lutfar Rahman is Emeritus Professor and Former Vice Chancellor of
Daffodil International University, Dhaka, Bangladesh. He was founding Vice-Chancellor of
Begum Rokeya University, Rangpur, Bangladesh and founding Chairman of the Department
of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Dhaka. Professor Rahman obtained
MSc in Physics in Bangladesh and MSc and PhD in Electronic and Electrical Engineering in
England. He has teaching and research experience in Microprocessor Applications,
Computer Networks, Information Security and Bangla Language Processing. He has over
100 research papers to his credit and he authored/co-authored sixteen books on Electronics,
Communications and Computer Engineering. Professor Rahman has contributions for
expansion of Computer Science education and research in Bangladesh. He initiated a
number of national and international conferences and worked as Editor of a number of research journals. He received
awards from several national and international institutions and societies for contributions to education and research. He
is member of a number of professional societies and is currently President of Bangladesh Electronics Society.

Dr. M. Shamim Kaiser received the B.Sc (Honors) and M. S degrees in Applied Physics
Electronics and Communication Engineering from the University of Dhaka, Bangladesh 2002
and 2004 respectively, and the Ph.D. degree in Telecommunications from the Asian Institute
of Technology (AIT) Pathumthani, Thailand, in 2010. In 2005, he joined in the Department
of ETE, Daffodil International University as a Lecturer, in 2010 he worked in the Department
of EEE, Eastern University of Bangladesh and the Department of MNS, BRAC University,
Dhaka as Assistant Professor. Since 2011, he has been with Institute of Information
Technology of Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka as Assistant Professor and became an
Associate Professor in 2015. His current research interests include Multi-hop cellular
network; Wireless sensor network; Cognitive radio network, Renewable Energy, Big Data
Analytics and Cyber Security. He has authored more than 90 papers in different peer-reviewed journals and
conferences. Dr. Kaiser is a Life Member of Bangladesh Electronic Society; Bangladesh Physical Society; Bangladesh
Computer Society. He is also a member of IEEE, USA and IEICE, Japan and volunteer of IEEE Bangladesh Section.

Dr. M. Arifur Rahman is an Assistant Professor of Jahangirnagar University, Bangladesh

and a researcher at ML@SITraN, University of Sheffield, UK. He pursued his Ph.D. from
the Department of Computer Science, University of Sheffield. Earlier he completed his
Masters in Human Language Technology and Interfaces from University of Trento, Italy and
B.Sc. from the Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Jahangirnagar University.
He received two gold medals; one from The President and another from the Prime Minister
of Bangladesh for his outstanding performance at the undergraduate level. He is working
towards Machine Learning in Computational Biology and major area of interest includes
Data Science, Genomic Data Analysis and Gaussian process. He also authored a book titled
“Fundamentals of Communication” and a number of international journal and conference papers. Dr. Rahman was also
serving as a visiting Assistant Professor at Daffodil International University, Dhaka, Bangladesh. He is a life member of
Bangladesh Electronics Society and International Society for Computational Biology.

Professor M. Alamgir Hossain received his PhD degree in 1995 from the Department of
Automatic Control and Systems Engineering, University of Sheffield, UK. He is currently
serving as the Director of the Anglia Ruskin IT Research Institute in Anglia Ruskin
University, Cambridge, UK. Prior to this he also served in Northumbria University at
Newcastle, University of Bradford, Sheffield University, Sheffield Hallam University and
University of Dhaka (as Chairman of the CSE). He has extensive research experience in
computational intelligence, cyber security, decision support systems, digital diagnosis, real-
time and adaptive algorithm design. Prof. Hossain has led many large EU funded projects as
an International lead investigator, worth over £14 million. He acted as a
conference/programme chair and IPC member of over 30 international conferences. With a publication in Nature, he has
published over 275 refereed research articles, contributed in 12 books, received the "F C Williams 1996" award for an
IET journal and 'Best Paper Awards' for five conference papers (CSBio2010, IEEE CIS2012, SKIMA 2012, PACBB
2013 and SKIMA 2014) as an author/co-author.
 vii

Contents at a glance

Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers and ICT

Chapter 2: Number Systems and Codes
Chapter 3: Digital Logic Fundamentals
Chapter 4: Microcomputer Systems
Chapter 5: Input and Output Devices
Chapter 6: Microprocessors
Chapter 7: Memory and Storage Devices
Chapter 8: Computer Software
Chapter 9: System Software and Operating Systems
Chapter 10: Software Development
Chapter 11: Word Processing and Desktop Publishing
Chapter 12: Spreadsheet
Chapter 13: Database and DBMS
Chapter 14: Presentation Packages
Chapter 15: Programming language C
Chapter 16: Computer Networks
Chapter 17: Internet Services and Protocols
Chapter 18: Graphics and Multimedia
Chapter 19: Computer security
Chapter 20: E-commerce and E-governance
Chapter 21: Information system
Chapter 22: Social Networking and Mobile Apps
viii

Table of Contents

Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers and ICT 1

Lesson 1.1 Introduction to Computers 2
1.1.0 Objectives 2
1.1.1 Basics of a Computer System 2
1.1.2 Components of a Computer 3
1.1.3 Characteristics of Computers 5
1.1.4 Classification of Computers 6
1.1.5 Key Points 11
1.1.6 Practice Set 13
Lesson 1.2 Introduction to ICT 15
1.2.0 Objectives 15
1.2.1 Basics of ICT 15
1.2.2 Components of an ICT System 15
1.2.3 Example of an ICT System 16
1.2.4 ICT Services and Application 17
1.2.5 Key Points 19
1.2.6 Practice Set 20

Chapter 2: Number Systems and Codes 21

Lesson 2.1 Number Systems 22
2.1.0 Objectives 22
2.1.1 Number Systems 22
2.1.2 Converting form Decimal to base r System 25
2.1.3 Key Points 28
2.1.4 Practice Set 28
Lesson 2.2 Binary Arithmetic 30
2.2.0 Objectives 30
2.2.1 Binary Number 30
2.2.2 Binary Arithmetic 30
2.2.3 Key Points 37
2.2.4 Practice Set 37
Lesson 2.3 Codes 39
2.3.0 Objectives 39
2.3.1 Data, Information and Codes 39
 ix

2.3.2 Numeric Data Representation 39

2.3.3 BCD Code 41
2.3.4 EBCDIC 42
2.3.5 ASCII 42
2.3.6 Unicode 43
2.3.7 Key Points 44
2.3.8 Practice Set 45

Chapter 3: Digital Logic Fundamentals 47

Lesson 3.1 Logic Fundamentals 48
3.1.0 Objectives 48
3.1.1 Introduction 48
3.1.2 Logic Gates 49
3.1.3 Boolean Theorems 51
3.1.4 De Morgan’s Theorem 53
3.1.5 Universality of NAND or NOR Gates 53
3.1.6 Key Points 55
3.1.7 Practice Set 55
Lesson 3.2 Karnaugh Map 58
3.2.0 Objectives 58
3.2.1 Karnaugh Map 58
3.2.2 Two-variable K-map 58
3.2.3 Three-variable K-map 60
3.2.4 Key Points 61
3.2.5 Practice Set 62
Lesson 3.3 Shift Registers and Counters 63
3.3.0 Objectives 63
3.3.1 Latch and Clock Signal 63
3.3.2 Flip-Flops 65
3.3.3 Shift Register 68
3.3.4 Counter 69
3.3.5 Key Points 70
3.3.6 Practice Set 71

Chapter 4: Microcomputer Systems 73

Lesson 4.1 Microcomputer Fundamentals 74
x

4.1.0 Objectives 74
4.1.1 Microcomputer Components 74
4.1.2 Microprocessor 75
4.1.3 Memory 76
4.1.4 Input/Output (I/O) Devices 77
4.1.5 Programs 77
4.1.6 Personal Computers (PCs) and PC Clones 78
4.1.7 Servers and Disk Arrays 78
4.1.8 Key Points 79
4.1.9 Practice Set 79
Lesson 4.2 Microcomputer Organization 81
4.2.0 Objectives 81
4.2.1 Motherboard and Its Components 81
4.2.2 Adapter Boards 86
4.2.3 Hardware Organization inside a PC Casing 87
4.2.4 PC Power Supply 88
4.2.5 Key Points 88
4.2.6 Practice Set 89
Lesson 4.3 Bus Organization Architecture 91
4.3.0 Objectives 91
4.3.1 Buses 91
4.3.2 Local Bus and Subassembly 92
4.3.3 Primary Buses 92
4.3.4 Chipset 93
4.3.5 Types of Microcomputer Buses 94
4.3.6 Key Points 95
4.3.7 Practice Set 96

Chapter 5: Input and Output Devices 99

Lesson 5.1 Input Output Operation 100
5.1.0 Objectives 100
5.1.1 I/O Interfaces 100
5.1.2 I/O Methods 102
5.1.3 Key Points 102
5.1.4 Practice Set 103
Lesson 5.2 Input Devices 104
 xi

5.2.0 Objectives 104

5.2.1 Keyboards 104
5.2.2 Reading Devices 105
5.2.3 Pointing Devices 106
5.2.4 Scanning Devices 109
5.2.5 Other Input Devices 110
5.2.6 Key Points 111
5.2.7 Practice Set 112
Lesson 5.3 Output Devices 113
5.3.0 Objectives 113
5.3.1 Monitors 113
5.3.2 Printers 116
5.3.3 Voice output system 121
5.3.4 Other peripheral devices 121
5.3.5 Key Points 123
5.3.6 Practice Set 124

Chapter 6: CPU and Microprocessors 127

Lesson 6.1 Microprocessors 128
6.1.0 Objectives 128
6.1.1 Microprocessor 135
6.1.2 Instruction Execution 129
6.1.3 Internal Organization of a Microprocessor 130
6.1.4 User-Visible Registers 130
6.1.5 Control and Status Registers 131
6.1.6 Key Points 133
6.1.7 Practice Set 134
Lesson 6.2 ALU and Control 136
6.2.0 Objectives 136
6.2.1 Arithmetic Logic Unit 136
6.2.2 Control Unit 137
6.2.3 Machine Cycle 138
6.2.4 Instruction Execution Cycle 139
6.2.5 Key Points 140
6.2.6 Practice Set 140
xii

Lesson 6.3 Evolution of Microprocessor 142

6.3.0 Objectives 142
6.3.1 Classification Based On Characteristics 142
6.3.2 Generation of Microprocessors 145
6.3.3 Microprocessors Specifications 147
6.3.4 Parallel Processing 148
6.3.5 Key Points 148
6.3.6 Practice Set 149

Chapter 7: Memory and Storage Devices 151

Lesson 7.1 Memory Basics 152
7.1.0 Objectives 152
7.1.1 Classification of Memory 152
7.1.2 Properties of Memory Devices 153
7.1.3 Memory Capacity 154
7.1.4 Memory Hierarchies 155
7.1.5 Key Points 156
7.1.6 Practice Set 156
Lesson 7.2 Primary or Main Memory and ROM 158
7.2.0 Objectives 158
7.2.1 Random Access Memory 158
7.2.2 Different Types of RAM Modules 159
7.2.3 Cache Memory 160
7.2.4 Read Only Memory 161
7.2.5 Different Types of ROM 162
7.2.6 Solid State Storage Devices 163
7.2.7 Key Points 165
7.2.8 Practice Set 166
Lesson 7.3 Secondary or Auxiliary Memory 167
7.3.0 Objectives 167
7.3.1 Secondary or Auxiliary Memory 167
7.3.2 Magnetic Storage Devices 167
7.3.3 Hard Drive 168
7.3.4 CD,CD audio and CD-ROM 169
7.3.5 Digital Versatile Disk (DVD) 170
7.3.6 USB Key 171
 xiii

7.3.7 Network-attached Storage 172

7.3.8 Key Points 172
7.3.9 Practice Set 173

Chapter 8: Computer Software 175

Lesson 8.1 Introduction and Classifications 176
8.1.0 Learning Objective 176
8.1.1 Software 176
8.1.2 Classification of Software 177
8.1.3 Few Software Technology 179
8.1.4 Key Points 180
8.1.5 Practice Set 181
Lesson 8.2 Programming Languages 183
8.2.0 Learning Objective 183
8.2.1 Computer Languages 183
Common High Level Programming
8.2.2 187
Languages
8.2.3 Other High Level Programing Languages 191
8.2.4 Key Points 191
8.2.5 Practice Set 192
Lesson 8.3 Application Packages 194
8.3.0 Learning Objective 194
8.3.1 Introduction 194
8.3.2 Examples of Package Program 194
8.3.3 Advantages of Package Programs 195
8.3.4 Popular Package Programs 197
8.3.5 Key Points 202
8.3.6 Practice Set 203

Chapter 9: System Software and Operating System 205

Lesson 9.1 System Software 206
9.1.0 Learning Objective 206
9.1.1 System Software 206
9.1.2 Compiler and Interpreter 207
9.1.3 Text Editor 209
9.1.4 Testing, Debugging and Diagnostic Program 209
xiv

9.1.5 Key Points 210

9.1.6 Practice Set 210
Lesson 9.2 Introduction to Operating System 212
9.2.0 Objectives 212
9.2.1 The Tasks of Operating System 212
9.2.2 Operating System Characteristics 214
9.2.3 Types of Operating System 214
9.2.4 File Management 216
9.2.5 Key Points 221
9.2.6 Practice Set 221
Lesson 9.3 Processing and Services 223
9.3.0 Objectives 223
9.3.1 Types of Processing 223
9.3.2 Types of Services 226
9.3.3 Key Points 228
9.3.4 Practice Set 228
Lesson 9.4 Operating System 230
9.4.0 Objectives 230
9.4.1 Introduction 230
9.4.2 Earlier Microcomputer Operating System 230
9.4.3 Microsoft Windows System 232
9.4.4 Unix and Linux System 235
9.4.5 Key Points 236
9.4.6 Practice Set 237

Chapter 10: Software Development 239

Lesson 10.1 Introduction to Software Development 240
10.1.0 Objectives 240
10.1.1 Software Crisis 240
10.1.2 System and Related Items 241
10.1.3 System Development Cycle 242
10.1.4 Key Points 245
10.1.5 Practice Set 245
Lesson 10.2 System Analysis 247
10.2.0 Objectives 247
10.2.1 Preliminary Investigation 247
 xv

10.2.2 System Analysis 249

10.2.3 System Requirement 253
10.2.4 Report to Management 254
10.2.5 Key Points 254
10.2.6 Practice Set 255
Lesson 10.3 System Design 256
10.3.0 Objectives 256
10.3.1 Introduction 256
10.3.2 Preliminary Design 256
10.3.3 Prototyping 257
10.3.4 CASE Tools 258
10.3.5 Detail Design 259
10.3.6 Key Points 261
10.3.7 Practice Set 261

Lesson10.4 System Development 263

10.4.0 Objectives 263
10.4.1 Components of System Development Process 263
10.4.2 Scheduling Activities 263
10.4.3 Programming 264
10.4.4 Testing the System 268
10.4.5 Key Points 269
10.4.6 Practice Set 269
Lesson10.5 System Implementation 271
10.5.0 Objectives 271
10.5.1 Introduction 271
10.5.2 Implementation Phases 271
10.5.3 Problems Encountered in SDLC 274
10.5.4 Key Points 274
10.5.5 Practice Set 275

Chapter 11: Word Processing and Desktop Publishing 277

Lesson 11.1 Word Processing 278
11.1.0 Objectives 278
11.1.1 Introduction 278
11.1.2 Features of Word Processors 279
xvi

11.1.3 Microsoft Word 281

11.1.4 Open Office.org Writer 282
11.1.5 Using MS Word 284
11.1.6 Key Points 289
11.1.7 Practice Set 290
Lesson 11.2 Desktop Publishing 292
11.2.0 Objectives 292
11.2.1 Introduction 292
11.2.2 Features of DTP Packages 293
11.2.3 Popular DTP Packages 293
11.2.4 Key Points 295
11.2.5 Practice Set 295

Chapter 12: Spreadsheets 297

Lesson 12.1 Exploring the Worksheets 298
12.1.0 Objectives 298
12.1.1 Introduction 298
12.1.2 Features of Spreadsheets 298
12.1.3 Widely Used Spreadsheets 299
12.1.4 Key Points 301
12.1.5 Practice Set 301
Lesson 12.2 Microsoft Excel 303
12.2.0 Objectives 303
12.2.1 Microsoft Excel 303
12.2.2 Office Logo Button 304
12.2.3 Home Tab 306
12.2.4 Insert Tab 308
12.2.5 Page Layout Tab 308
12.2.6 Formula Tab 309
12.2.7 Data Tab 310
12.2.8 Review Tab 311
12.2.9 View Tab 311
12.2.10 Key Points 312
12.2.11 Practice Set 312
Lesson 12.3 Working with Formula and Macro 314
12.3.0 Objectives 314
 xvii

12.3.1 Manipulating Data 314

12.3.2 Calculations 317
12.3.3 Chart 321
12.3.4 Macros 322
12.3.5 Key Points 324
12.3.6 Practice Set 324

Chapter 13: Databases and DBMS 327

Lesson 13.1 Introduction to Database 328
13.1.0 Objectives 328
13.1.1 Basic Concept 328
13.1.2 Database Management Systems 330
Benefits and Limitation of Database
13.1.3 331
Management
13.1.4 Key Points 332
13.1.5 Practice Set 333
Lesson 13.2 Database Software 335
13.2.0 Objectives 335
13.2.1 Database Management Software 335
13.2.2 Type of Database 337
13.2.3 Data Resource Management 339
13.2.4 Key Points 340
13.2.5 Practice Set 340
Lesson 13.3 Database Structure 343
13.3.0 Objectives 343
13.3.1 Introduction 343
13.3.2 Hierarchical Structure 343
13.3.3 Network Structure 344
13.3.4 Relational Structure 344
13.3.5 Multidimensional Structure 345
13.3.6 Object Oriented Structure 345
13.3.7 Key Points 347
13.3.8 Practice Set 347
Lesson 13.4 Database Access and Development 349
13.4.0 Objectives 349
13.4.1 Database Access 349
13.4.2 Database Development 351
xviii

13.4.3 Key Points 352

13.4.4 Practice Set 353

Chapter 14: Presentation Packages 355

Lesson 14.1 Introduction to Presentation Package 356
14.1.0 Objectives 356
14.1.1 Presentation and Presentation Program 356
14.1.2 Features of Presentation Software 357
14.1.3 Some Popular Presentation Software 357
14.1.4 Key Points 358
14.1.5 Practice Set 358
Lesson 14.2 Working with a Presentation Packages 360
14.2.0 Objectives 360
14.2.1 Microsoft Office 360
14.2.2 Main Features In PowerPoint 2007 361
14.2.3 Creating and Saving Presentation 362
14.2.4 Adding slides and themes 364
14.2.5 Text and Font 366
14.2.6 Bullet Number and Nested Lists 368
14.2.7 Adding Video and Audio 369
14.2.8 ClipArt and SmartArt 370
14.2.9 Table and Chart 372
14.2.10 Slide Transitions and Animations 373
14.2.11 Slide Show 375
14.2.12 Key Points 377
14.2.13 Practice Set 377

Chapter 15 Programing Language C 379

Lesson 15.1 Overview of C 380
15.1.0 Objectives 380
15.1.1 Programming Language 380
15.1.2 Uses of C 381
15.1.3 A Brief History of C 382
15.1.4 Key Points 382
15.1.5 Practice Set 383
 xix

Lesson 15.2 Running C Programs 385

15.2.0 Objectives 385
15.2.1 The Edit-Compile-Link-Execute Process 385
15.2.2 Using Microsoft C 387
15.2.3 Unix System 387
15.2.4 Integrated Development Environment 388
15.2.5 Key Points 390
15.2.6 Practice Set 391
Lesson 15.3 Structure of C Programs 393
15.3.0 Objectives 393
15.3.1 C's Character Set 393
15.3.2 Keywords 393
15.3.3 Identifiers 394
15.3.4 The form of a C program 394
15.3.5 Key Points 396
15.3.6 Practice Set 396
Lesson 15.4 Your First C Program 398
15.4.0 Objectives 398
15.4.1 First C Program 398
15.4.2 Key Points 401
15.4.3 Practice Set 402

Chapter 16: Computer Networks 403

Lesson 16.1 Computer Network Fundamentals 404
16.1.0 Objectives 404
16.1.1 Introduction 404
16.1.2 Transmission Media 405
16.1.3 Network Devices 408
16.1.4 Network Architecture 409
16.1.5 Key Points 410
16.1.6 Practice Set 411
Lesson 16.2 LAN and WAN 413
16.2.0 Objectives 413
16.2.1 Introduction 413
16.2.2 LAN Topology 414
16.2.3 Network Interface Cards and Protocols 416
xx

16.2.4 Network Software 416

16.2.5 Cabling Equipment 417
16.2.6 WAN Characteristics 418
16.2.7 Bandwidth and Switching 419
16.2.8 The Cloud 420
16.2.9 Key Points 421
16.2.10 Practice Set 421

Chapter 17: Internet Service and Protocols 423

Lesson 17.1 Basics of the Internet 424
17.1.0 Objectives 424
17.1.1 Evolution of Internet 424
17.1.2 OSI and TCP/IP Stack 425
17.1.3 How the Internet Works 427
17.1.4 Key Points 429
17.1.5 Practice Set 429
Lesson 17.2 Internet Fundamental 431
17.2.0 Objectives 431
17.2.1 Internet Services 431
17.2.2 Internet Address 432
17.2.3 Electronic Mail 433
17.2.4 The World Wide Web 434
17.2.5 Internet Access 434
17.2.6 Key Points 436
17.2.7 Practice Set 437
Lesson 17.3 Implementation of Internet Services 439
17.3.0 Objectives 439
17.3.1 Hyper Text Markup Language 439
17.3.2 Designing Web Site 440
17.3.3 Domain and Hosting 441
17.3.4 Key Points 442
17.3.5 Practice Set 442

Chapter 18: Graphics and Multimedia 445

Lesson 18.1 Fundamentals of Graphics 446
18.1.0 Objectives 446
 xxi

18.1.1 Computer Graphics 446

18.1.2 Pixel and Vector Graphics 447
18.1.3 Concepts and Principals of Computer Graphics 448
18.1.4 Major Graphic File Format 448
18.1.5 Graphics Software 450
18.1.6 Computer Animation 451
18.1.7 Virtual Reality 451
18.1.8 Computer Graphics Applications 452
18.1.9 Key Points 453
18.1.10 Practice Set 454
Lesson 18.2 Introduction to Multimedia 455
18.2.0 Objectives 455
18.2.1 Basic Concepts of Multimedia 455
18.2.2 Components of a Multimedia System 456
18.2.3 Multimedia software 458
18.2.4 Authorware 458
18.2.5 Applications of multimedia 459
18.2.6 Key Points 460
18.2.7 Practice Set 461

Chapter 19: Computer Security 463

Lesson 19.1 Computer Security Issues 464
19.1.0 Objectives 464
19.1.1 Computer Security 464
19.1.2 Computer Virus 466
19.1.3 Worm and Trojan Horse 467
19.1.4 Network Security 468
19.1.5 Network Attacks 468
19.1.6 Key Points 469
19.1.7 Practice Set 470
Lesson 19.2 Protective Measures 473
19.2.0 Objectives 473
19.2.1 Hackers and Scanners 473
19.2.2 Virus and Spyware Protection Software 473
19.2.3 Defense-against Network Attack 474
19.2.4 Backup 476
19.2.5 Key Points 477
xxii

19.2.6 Practice Set 478

Chapter 20: E-Commerce and E-Governance 479

Lesson 20.1 E-Commerce 480
20.1.0 Objectives 480
20.1.1 Electronic Commerce 480
20.1.2 Benefits and Limitation of E-commerce 481
20.1.3 Categories of E-commerce 483
20.1.4 Barriers of E-Commerce 485
20.1.5 Electronic Payment System and security 486
20.1.6 Key Points 488
20.1.7 Practice Set 488
Lesson 20.2 E-Governance 490
20.2.0 Objectives 490
20.2.1 E-Government 490
20.2.2 Main Focus of E-Government 491
Advantages and Disadvantages of E-
20.2.3 491
Government
20.2.4 E-Government Portals and Platforms 492
20.2.5 E-Governance 493
20.2.6 Common Model of E-Governance 493
20.2.7 Key Points 494
20.2.8 Practice Set 494

Chapter 21: Information System 497

Lesson 21.1 Basics of Information System 498
21.1.0 Objectives 498
21.1.1 Information System 498
21.1.2 Types of Information System 499
21.1.3 Information Systems Technology 501
21.1.4 Information Systems Hardware 504
21.1.5 Key Points 507
21.1.6 Practice Set 508
Lesson 21.2 Ethical Issues in Information System 509
21.2.0 Objectives 509
21.2.1 Introduction 509
 xxiii

21.2.2 Ethics: Basic Principles 510

21.2.3 Computer Ethics and Ethics for professionals 510
21.2.4 Computer Crime and Abuse 511
21.2.5 Software Licenses 513
21.2.6 Professional Codes of Conduct 513
21.2.7 Key Points 514
21.2.8 Practice Set 514

Chapter 22: Social Networking and Mobile Apps 517

Lesson 22.1 Social Networking 518
22.1.0 Objectives 518
22.1.1 Introduction 518
22.1.2 Benefits and Disadvantages 519
20.1.3 Types of Social Networking Services 520
20.1.4 Some Popular Social Networks 521
20.1.5 Key Points 523
20.1.6 Practice Set 524
Lesson 22.2 Mobile Apps 526
22.2.0 Objectives 526
22.2.1 Introduction 526
22.2.2 Basics of App Development 527
22.2.3 Platform of Mobile Apps 528
22.2.4 Types of Mobile Apps 529
22.2.5 MADLC Model 530
22.2.6 Mobile Application Manager 532
22.2.7 App Wrapping 532
22.2.8 Key Points 532
22.2.9 Practice Set 533
 Chapter 4
Microcomputer System

Lesson 4.1: Microcomputer Fundamentals

Lesson 4.2: Microcomputer Organization

Lesson 4.3: Bus Organization

74 Computer Fundamentals and ICT

Lesson 4.1
Microcomputer Fundamentals

4.1.0 Learning Objectives

On completion of this lesson, you will know
ü Main components of a microcomputer
ü Functions and characteristics of processor, memory and I/O devices
ü Types of programs and basic input/output system (BIOS)
ü Personal computers, clones, servers and workstations
ü Chronological events for the developments of microcomputers

4.1.1 Microcomputer Components

A microcomputer is a computer in which a microprocessor is used as its central processing
unit (CPU). Compared to mainframes and minicomputers, microcomputers are small in size.
A microcomputer consists of five key components: microprocessor as its CPU, memory,
input/output (I/O) devices, storage (secondary memory) and programs.
Figure 4.1.1 shows the basic components of a microcomputer. Before the advent of
integrated circuits (ICs), components of a computer were housed on separate boards or even
in separate units made up of many boards. Today, the majority of the circuits of the
microcomputer are housed on a single printed circuit board called the motherboard.
The usual components on the motherboard include the main processor and its support
circuits, memory, I/O interface and a bus system which enables the CPU to communicate
with the other components that are not integrated with the motherboard.
Chapter 4: Microcomputer System 75

Primary storage

Secondary storage Processor Input /output

Secondary
Memoery

Programs

Figure 4.1.1: Basic components of a microcomputer.

The processor is the brain of the microcomputer. It executes instructions of the programs.
The processor performs arithmetic and logical operations. In the microcomputer, the main
processor is a microprocessor. Memory is the workspace of the microcomputer.
The size of the memory sets a practical limit of work that can be undertaken in a
microcomputer. The variety of tools that can be used at any time is largely determined by the
size of the memory of the microcomputer.
The input/output (I/O) refers to the communication between a microcomputer and its outside
world, that is, a human, or another information processing system. The inputs are the signals
or data received by the microcomputer, and outputs are the signals or data sent from it. I/O
devices are used by a person (or other systems) to communicate to a computer.
A storage device is a hardware device capable of storing information. Two types of storage
devices used in computers: a primary storage device such as random-access-memory
(RAM) and a secondary storage device such as a hard disk drive. A hard disk drive is the
computer’s reference library, filing, cabinet and toolbox all in one. The computer keeps data
in the secondary memory, when they are not in use in computer RAM.
The programs bring a computer in life, make it go and turn it into a powerful working tool.
They tell the computer what to do, when to do and how to do.

4.1.2 Microprocessor
The microprocessor integrates the functions of the central processing unit (CPU) of a
computer into one semiconductor chip or integrated circuit (IC). It has the capability of
reading and writing information to the computer’s memory. Both the program instructions
that the processor carries out and the data on which the processor works are stored in the
memory. Microprocessor processes a series of commands or instructions and communicates
with outside devices, controlling most of the operation of the micro-computer.
76 Computer Fundamentals and ICT

When a micro-computer is turned on, the microprocessor gets the first instruction from the
basic input/output system (BIOS) that comes with the computer as a part of its memory.
After that, either the BIOS, or the operating system, or an application program drives the
microprocessor giving it instructions to perform. Figure 4.1.2 and 4.1.3 show Intel 4004 and
Intel Core i7 microprocessor chips respectively.

Figure 4.1.2: Intel 4004, the first general-purpose, commercial microprocessor

Figure 4.1.3: Intel Core i7 chip

4.1.3 Memory
The processor finds programs and data from memory when it does its assigned task. The
microcomputer’s memory is just a temporary space like a chalkboard where the computer
scribbles while work is being done. Unlike human memories, computer’s main memory is
not a permanent repository. The computer’s main memory simply provides a place where
computing can happen.
The processor makes a vital distinction between programs and data. In memory, there is no
difference between programs and data.
Anything can be quickly written to the memory, and the writing can be changed by writing
over it. Unlike a chalkboard, the computer’s memory does not have to be erased before
Chapter 4: Microcomputer System 77

something new can be written on it; the act of writing automatically erases what was in the
memory before. Reading information from the memory is simple and straightforward as
reading anything written on paper. Both the processor and the I/O devices have the
capability of reading and writing data from and to the main memory. Figure 4.1.4 shows
computer memories: RAM and hard disk.

Figure 4.1.4: Computer memory: RAM and hard disk

4.1.4 Input/output (I/O) Devices

In general, the I/O devices are a bridge between a user and a microcomputer. A
microcomputer gets what the user types on the keyboard, a user can see what the computer
writes on the printer or displays on the screen.
The disk storage is a special category of I/O that is intended for a computer’s own use.
Information on a disk can be read and written only by the computer and it cannot be read and
written directly by users.
The microprocessor and the main memory make up a closed world and the I/O devices open
the world to the users. The computer communicates through I/O devices. These devices
include keyboard, display screen, mouse, printer, floppy diskette drive, a hard disk drive,
compact disk (CD) drive, digital video disc or digital versatile disc (DVD), Blu-ray disc
(BD), joystick, scanner bar codes, touch screen and digital camera etc.

4.1.5 Programs
Programs tell a computer what to do. There are two different kinds of programs: system
programs and application programs. The system software is designed to operate
the computer hardware. It provides and maintains a platform for running application
software. The most basic type of system software is: the basic input/output system (BIOS)
which provides basic functionality to operate and control the hardware connected to or built
into the computer. The operating system (prominent examples being Microsoft Windows,
78 Computer Fundamentals and ICT

Mac OS and Linux), allows the parts of a computer to work together by performing tasks
like transferring data between memory and disks or rendering output onto a display device. It
also provides a platform to run high-level system software and application software. Utility
software helps to analyze, configure, optimize and maintain the computer.
The term system software is also used to designate software development tools, such as
a compiler, linker, loader and debugger.
Application software, also known as an application program, is computer software designed
to help the users to perform singular or multiple related tasks. It helps to solve problems in
the real world. Examples of application software include enterprise software, accounting
software, office suites, graphics software, media players, etc.

4.1.6 Personal Computers (PCs) and PC Clones

A personal computer (PC) is a general-purpose microcomputer whose capabilities and
original sales price make it useful for individuals. It is intended to be operated directly by
an end-user with no intervening computer operator. PCs include any type of computer that is
used in a "personal" manner. A personal computer may be a desktop computer, a laptop, a
notebook, a tablet PC, or a handheld PC (also called a palmtop).
The term “PC” generally refer to computers based on the Intel family of microprocessors
and compatible with Apple Computer’s Macintosh and other non-Intel systems. This started
with IBM’s original PC which is based on the Intel 8088 processor and labeled the “PC”
when it reached the market in the early 1980s.
PCs sold today do not come from IBM at all. Most are designed, build and sold by a number
of manufacturers who offer a wide range of PCs for business, education and home use.
These machines are called PC clone because they were made to look, like an IBM PC. The
name clone seems to stay with these machines, though manufacturers have moved to their
own directions.

4.1.7 Servers and Disk Arrays

Servers and disk arrays are the network configurations of personal computers. Networks
enable multiple computers and their users to share processing power, disk storage, printers
and other peripheral devices.
Most of the computers mentioned before can function as a server or as the controller for a
disk array. Personal computers are evolving in such a way that the difference between clients
(or workstations) and servers are diminishing. A server is usually a high end PC having a lot
of memory and several large disks for storage and is dedicated to managing network traffic,
Chapter 4: Microcomputer System 79

storing common programs or data for users across the network, or directing communications
via telephones or dedicated links outside the local network.
A disk array is a special kind of server that uses a large portion of its processor power simply
to manage I/O for a collection of disk drivers. A regular PC may contain one or two hard
drives with several gigabytes (GBs) or terabytes (TB) of storages where as a disk array may
contain many times more storage space for programs and data.

4.1.8 Key points

• A microcomputer is a computer in which a microprocessor is its central processing
unit (CPU).
• A microcomputer consists of five key components: microprocessor, memory,
input/output (I/O) devices, storage (secondary memory) and programs
• A personal computer (PC) is a general-purpose microcomputer whose capability and
price makes it affordable for individuals.
• A personal computer may be a desktop computer, a laptop, a notebook, a tablet PC,
or a handheld PC.
• A disk array is a special kind of server that uses a large portion of its processor
power simply to manage I/O for a collection of disk drivers.
• A disk array may contain many times more storage space for programs and data.

4.1.9 Practice Set

Multiple Choice questions
1. When a microcomputer is turned on, microprocessor gets first instructions
from_________.
a. hard disk
b. cache
c. keyboard
d. BIOS
2. The microprocessor integrates the functions of the ________ into a chip or IC.
a. CPU
80 Computer Fundamentals and ICT

b. ALU
c. Keyboard
d. RAM
3. The processor finds programs and data from _________ when it does its assigned
task.
a. ALU
b. CPU
c. memory
d. Permanent program
4. I/O devices are also called
a. Peripheral devices
b. Electronic devices
c. Electro-mechanical devices
d. Memory devices

Review Questions
1. Explain basic parts of a microcomputer.
2. What is a program? Distinguish between system programs and application programs.
3. Distinguish between PC and PC clone.
4. What are I/O devices? List common I/O devices.
5. What is a disk array? Write down the main application of a disk array.

Analytical Question
1. Briefly describe the functions of the processor, memory and I/O devices of a
microcomputer.
2. Write a short note on (a) microprocessor (b) memory.
Chapter 4: Microcomputer System 81

Lesson 4.2
Microcomputer Organization

4.2.0 Learning Objectives

On completion of this lesson, you will know
ü The motherboard and its main components
ü Adaptor boards and their functions
ü Types and characteristics of SCSI adapters
ü Other adapters used in microcomputers

4.2.1 Motherboard and its Components

A motherboard is the main printed circuit board (PCB) in many modern micro-computers. It
contains the CPU, support chips, device controllers, memory and also expansion shots and
computer’s internal bus. All other features and peripherals are plugged into the motherboard.
The motherboard is also known as the main board or system board or logic board on Apple
computers.
Figure 4.2.1 shows a typical motherboard. Some of its major components are described
below.
Integrated Components: The motherboard includes some on-board components. They are
integrated into its printed circuitry.
Chipset: The chipset is a collection of integrated electronic circuits. It coordinates data
transfers between the various components, including the processor and memory. As the
chipset is integrated into the motherboard, it is important to choose a motherboard which
includes a recent chipset, in order to maximize the computer's upgradeability.
82 Computer Fundamentals and ICT

Some chipsets include a graphic or audio chip. In this case, it is not necessary to install a
graphics card or sound card in the microcomputer.

Integrated components

Audio
Input-output connector
Chip

PCI expansion slots

Motherboard
Power supply connector Processor socket

Chipset 1

Chipset
2 Power supply
connector
AGP slot RAM slots

CMOS
BIOS Battery

Jumper
Case, fan and power supply connector

Figure 4.2.1: A typical motherboard.

BIOS: The basic input/output system (BIOS) is the basic program used as an interface
between the operating system (OS) and the motherboard. A computer motherboard
inevitably contains a BIOS chip in the form of an on-board PROM, EPROM or flash
memory. When the computer is powered on, it performs diagnostic tests on the computer
hardware devices. It searches for other BIOS's on the plug-in boards, and takes care of them.
It then loads the operating system and passes control to the OS.
The BIOS can be configured using an interface called BIOS setup. It can be accessed when
the computer is booting just by pressing a key (DEL/F2). In reality, the BIOS setup is only
used as an interface for configuration; the data are stored in the CMOS memory.
CMOS, Clock and Battery: The real time clock (RTC) is a circuit which synchronizes
system signals. When the computer is turned off, the power supply stops providing
Chapter 4: Microcomputer System 83

electricity to the motherboard. The complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS)

circuitry, or sometimes called the BIOS CMOS, saves some system information, such as the
time, the system date, and a few essential system settings. The CMOS is kept powered by a
battery, or a battery located on the motherboard. When the computer is turned on again, the
system is still on the right time.
System and Expansion Buses: These are the primary buses (not shown in Figure 4.2.1) of a
PC. The system bus allows the processor to communicate with the RAM. The expansion
bus allows various motherboard components (USB, serial, and parallel ports, cards inserted
in PCI connectors, hard drives, CD-ROM and CD-RW drives, etc.) to communicate with one
another.
Recent motherboards generally include a number of onboard multimedia and networking
devices such as integrated network card, integrated graphics card, integrated sound card and
upgraded hard drive controllers.
Processor Socket: The processor is the computer's brain. It runs programs using a set of
instructions. The processor is characterized by its frequency and the rate at which it executes
instructions. This means that a 1 GHz processor carries out 1000 million operations per
second. The motherboard has a slot into which the processor is inserted. This slot is called
the processor socket or slot.
• Slot: A rectangular connector into which the processor is mounted vertically.
• Socket: In addition to being the general term, it also refers more specifically to a
square-shaped connector with many small connectors into which the processor is
directly inserted.
Modern CPUs generate a lot of heat and thus require a cooling fan or heat sink.
RAM connectors: Random Access Memory (RAM) is used to store data while the computer
is running. However, the contents are wiped out as soon as the computer is switched off or
restarted, as opposed to mass storage devices such as hard drives, which keep information
safe even while turned off. This is why RAM is called volatile memory. RAM is extremely
fast when compared to mass storage devices like hard drives. RAM comes in the form of
modules which plug into motherboard connectors.
Expansion slots: Expansion slots are compartments into which expansion cards can be
inserted. These are cards which give the features to the PC. There are several types of slots:
• ISA (Industry Standard Architecture) slot: These are used for inserting ISA cards.
The slowest ones are 16-bit.
• VLB (Vesa Local Bus) slot: Bus formerly used for installing graphics cards.
• PCI slot (Peripheral Component Inter Connect): It is used for connecting PCI
cards, which are much faster than ISA cards and run on 32 bits.
• AGP (Accelerated/Advanced Graphic Port) slot: A fast port for a graphics card.
84 Computer Fundamentals and ICT

• PCI Express (Peripheral Component InterConnect Express) slot: Faster bus

architecture than AGP and PCI buses.
• AMR (Audio Modem Riser) slot: This type of slot is used for connecting mini-cards
to PCs which are built for it.
Standard Computer Ports: The motherboard has same basic sets of input/output
ports. Most commonly used ports are:
• Serial Ports: Serial port hardware usually consists of a Universal Asynchronous
Receiver/Transmitter (UART). It is an asynchronous port which transmits one bit of
data at a time. A DB9 serial port adheres to the RS-232 interface standard. It has 9
pins as shown in Figure 4.2.2. The connector is "D" shaped, and easy to recognize.

Figure 4.2.2: Serial Port

• Parallel port: Parallel port carries data on more than one wire, as opposed to the
serial port, which uses only one wire. Parallel ports use a 25-pin female DB
connector. Parallel ports are directly supported by the motherboard through a direct
connection or through a dangle. A DB25 parallel port adheres to the RS-232C
interface standard. It has 25 pins as shown in Figure 4.2.3. The connector is "D"
shaped, and easy to recognize. DB-25 is normally used in older computers, and not
much used in modern computers.

Figure 4.2.3: DB-25 parallel connector

• USB port (1.1, low-speed, or 2.0, high-speed): USB stands for Universal Serial
Bus. It is very popular because of the features like plug-and-play, i.e., the port is
automatically detected by the system. It is possible to insert and unplug a USB
device without affecting the functioning of a computer.
• RJ45 and RJ11 Connectors (Network and Modem Ports): RJ-45 connector is
commonly used as an Ethernet networking port. Devices that normally use RJ-45
ports include NICs, hubs, switches, and routers. There are basically three types of
cable connections. These are straight-through cable (e.g., PC to switch connection
cable), crossover cable (e.g., PC to PC connection cable) and rollover cable (e.g., PC
to console port connection of a router). The RJ-11 Connector is a 4-wire connector,
commonly used with a modem.
• VGA Connector (called SUB-D15): It is used for connecting a monitor. This
connector interfaces with the built-in graphics.
Chapter 4: Microcomputer System 85

• Audio ports: There are typically three audio ports on modern computers. These are:
the green speaker port for headphone or desktop speaker, the pink microphone port
for a small microphone and the yellow speaker out for connecting home stereo
system. This connector interfaces to the built-in sound card.

• Keyboard/Mouse Controller and Ports: A motherboard generally contains a

keyboard and a mouse controller device and connection ports. The keyboard is
attached to the motherboard through a serial interface cable called PS/2 Interface as
shown in Figure 4.2.4. The keyboard clock and data interface signals attach to a
micro-controller chip on the motherboard. This chip in turn attaches to the main
microprocessor bus.

Figure 4.2.4: PS/2 Interface

• PCM CIA Interface Cards (PC Cards): PCMCIA stands for Personal Computer
Memory Card International Association. Some of the frequently used PC Card types
include LAN card; Wireless LAN card; Modem card; ATA flash disk card; IEEE
1394/Firewire; USB etc.
• FireWire/IEEE1394: FireWire/IEEE1394 port provides data rates up to 400 Mbps.
The standard is most suitable for transferring high volumes of information including
video, and voice data. Some of the important features of IEEE 1394 standard are:
based on open licensing system, plug and play, digital transmission with data rates
of 100, 200, or 400 mega bits per second (Mbps), compatible with lower speed USB.
It also supports both asynchronous and isochronous data transfer.
• Floppy controller: The floppy drive connects to the computer via a 34-pin ribbon
cable, which in turn connects to the motherboard. A floppy controller is used to
control the floppy drive.
• IDE controller: This industry standard defines two common types of hard drives:
EIDE and SCSI. The majority of the PCs use EIDE drives. SCSI drives show up in
high end PCs such as network servers or graphical workstations. The EIDE drive
connects to the hard drive via a 2-inch-wide, 40-pin ribbon cable, which in turn
connects to the motherboard. An IDE controller is responsible for controlling the
hard drive.
86 Computer Fundamentals and ICT

4.2.2 Adapter Boards

An adapter board is a PCB that plugs into an expansion bus slots to provide added
capabilities. The common adapters for the microcomputer include display adapters, memory
expansion adapters, input-output adapters and adapters for the other devices such as internal
modems, CD-COMs or network interface cards. One adapter can often support different
devices. For example, an input-output adapter may support one parallel port, a game or
joystick port, and several serial ports. Some microcomputers incorporate many of the
functions previously performed by individual adapters on the motherboard.
Multi-I/O Port Adapter Board: The board supports a number of peripheral interface
adapters. Typically, all the device adapters and ports on the multi-I/O port boards are
integrated into a single chip called a super I/O chip. The adapter functions which may be
included in the multi-I/O boards are floppy disk drive (FDD) and port, IDE adapter and port
for hard disk drive (HDD), two serial communication (COM) ports for standard
asynchronous transfer protocols, game controller adapter and port, and parallel printer
adapter and port etc.
Display Adapter: A display adapter card is an expansion card whose function is to interpret
the data stream of the system bus and format it into a data stream that a monitor can
understand and display. Other modern high performance video cards are used for more
graphically demanding purposes, such as PC games. In some microcomputers, display
adapter is integrated in the motherboard.
A display adapter can be integrated on the motherboard. However, limitation to this
integrated graphics chip often occurs with early machines. Modern low-end to mid-range
motherboards often include a graphics chipset. This graphics chip usually has a small
quantity of embedded memory and takes some of the system's main RAM, reducing the total
RAM available. This is usually called integrated graphics or on-board graphics, and has low-
performance and undesirable for 3D applications.
The basic types of video adapters are Video Graphics Array (VGA) and Super VGA
(SVGA). They can display information in text-form or in graphical form. Extended Graphics
Array (XGA) and its variants can produce high resolution and high color display.
SCSI Host Adapter: A small computer system interface (SCSI) host adapter is a device that
is used to connect one or more peripheral device to a computer bus as shown in Figure 4.2.5.
Devices connected in this way are said to be daisy chain, and each device must have a
unique identifier or priority number.
A SCSI host adapter can be installed in an IBM compatible computer as a single expansion
board. SCSI is often used to connect hard disks, tape drives, CD-ROM drives, mass storage
media, scanners and printers. Figure 4.2.5 shows an arrangement for the SCSI port on an
IBM compatible computer.
There are several different SCSI interface definition, these are
Chapter 4: Microcomputer System 87

• SCSI-1: An 8-bit interface with a maximum data transfer rate of 5 Mbps.

• SCSI-2: A 16-bit or 32-bit wide interface with a maximum data transfer rate of 10-
20 Mbps. It is also called fast SCSI.
• Wide Fast SCSI: A 16-bit data bus with a maximum data transfer rate of 20 Mbps.
• SCSI-3: It has increased the number of connected peripherals from 7 to 127,
increased cable lengths, added support for a serial interface, and supports a fiber
optic interface. It has a maximum data transfer rate of 100 Mbps

SCSI Host Adaptor

External chain

CD-ROM

Internal chain

Hard disk

Scanner
Hard disk

Figure 4.2.5: SCSI Host Adapter

4.2.3 Hardware Organization inside a PC Casing

Casing: The case (or chassis) of a microcomputer is a metallic box which houses various
internal components as shown in Figure 4.2.6. Cases also have other uses, such as blocking
noise produced by the computer, and protection from electromagnetic radiation. There are
norms for guaranteeing such protection in a manner compliant with existing regulation.
88 Computer Fundamentals and ICT

Figure 4.2.6: Casing

A case houses all of the computer's internal electronic components. Sometimes, a computer's
electronics can reach very high temperatures. For this reason, a case with good ventilation,
has as many fans as possible, as well as air vents are required. It is recommended to choose a
case which includes at least an air intake in the front, a removable air filter, and an air outlet
in the rear.

4.2.4 PC Power Supply

PC power supplies deliver required DC power to the electronic sub-systems, including
Motherboard, Hard drive, CDROM drive, Keyboard, Mouse, and others. PC power supplies
work by converting the AC mains power supply to required DC power supplies. The PC
power supply always provides a 5 Volt standby (5VSB) voltage to the computer and certain
other peripherals.

4.2.5 Key-points
• A motherboard is the central printed circuit board (PCB) in many modern
microcomputers.
• The basic input/output system (BIOS) is the basic program used as an interface
between the operating system (OS) and the motherboard.
• The chipset is an integrated electronic circuit. It coordinates data transfers between
the various components, including the processor and memory.
• The chipset is integrated into the motherboard and a motherboard with a recent
chipset is helpful to maximize the computer's upgradeability.
• The real time clock (RTC) is a circuit which synchronizes system signals.
• The system bus allows the processor to communicate with the RAM.
• The microprocessor is the computer's brain. It runs programs using a set of
instructions.
Chapter 4: Microcomputer System 89

• RAM is used to store data while the computer is running.

• VLB slots are used for installing graphics cards.
• PCI slots are used for connecting PCI cards, which are much faster than ISA cards
and run on 32 bits.
• AGP slot is a fast port for a graphics card.
• Serial port hardware usually consists of a Universal Asynchronous
Receiver/Transmitter (UART).
• Parallel port carries data on more than one wire, as opposed to the serial port, which
uses only one wire.
• RJ-45 connector is commonly used for Ethernet networking ports. Devices that
normally use RJ-45 ports include NICs, hubs, switches, and routers.
• A motherboard generally contains a keyboard and a mouse controller device and
connection ports.
• PCMCIA stands for Personal Computer Memory Card International Association.
PCMCIA standards were developed for small, credit card-sized devices, called PC
Cards.
• FireWire/IEEE1394 port provides data rates up to 400 Mb/sec. The standard is most
suitable for transferring high-volume of information, including video and voice data.
• Floppy drive connects to the computer via a 34-pin ribbon cable, which in turn
connects to the motherboard.
• Display card is also known as video card, video adapter, graphics accelerator card,
or graphics card.

4.2.6 Practice Set

Multiple Choice questions
1. The hard drive attaches to a microcomputer through ______________
a. IDE port
b. Parallel port
c. Centronics Port
d. COM port
2. Which one is known as modem port?
a. RJ11
b. RJ18
c. RJ34
90 Computer Fundamentals and ICT

d. RJ45
3. Which one is known as network port?
a. RJ11
b. RJ18
c. RJ34
d. RJ45
4. SCSI means
a. Small communication system interface
b. Small computer system interface
c. Small computer support interface
d. None of these
5. IDE means
a. Intelligent drive electronics
b. Intelligent delay electronics
c. Intelligent data electronics
d. None of these
Review Questions
1. Define the terms: computer bus, adapter, port and expansion slots
2. What is a processor socket?
3. Explain two types of power supplies used in microcomputers.
4. Distinguish between serial and parallel ports.
5. What are the main features of USB port and IEEE 1394 port?
Analytical Questions
1. Explain SCSI Host adapter with an illustration.
2. Explain motherboard and its components in details
3. Write a short note on Expansion slot.
4. Explain multi I/O port adaptor board.
5. Write a note on Display adapter cards.
Chapter 4: Microcomputer System 91

Lesson 4.3
Bus Organized Architecture

4.3.0 Learning Objectives

On completion of this lesson, you will know
ü Basics of buses.
ü Address, data and control buses and their functions.
ü Internal bus and expansion bus and their functions.
ü Chipset and its functions.
ü Types of computer buses.

4.3.1 Buses
In computing, a bus is a set of physical connections, which can be shared by multiple
hardware components for communication with one another. The purpose of a bus is to
reduce the number of "pathways" needed for communication between the components, by
carrying out all communications over a common data channel.
A bus is characterized by the amount of information that can be transmitted at once. This
amount (bits) corresponds to the number of physical lines over which data are sent
simultaneously. A 32-wire ribbon cable can transmit 32 bits in parallel. The term "width" is
used to refer to the number of bits that a bus can transmit at once.
Additionally, the bus speed is also defined by its frequency (expressed in Hertz), the number
of data bits sent or received per second. Each time that data are sent or received is called
a cycle.
This way it is possible to find the maximum transfer speed of the bus, the amount of data
which it can transport per unit of time, by multiplying its width by its frequency. A bus with
a width of 16 bits and a frequency of 133 MHz, therefore, has a transfer speed equal to
16×133.106 = 2128×106 bit/s, or 2128×106/8 or 266×106 bytes/s or 266×106 /1000 =
266×103 KB/s or 259.7×103 /1000, that is, 266 MB/s
92 Computer Fundamentals and ICT

4.3.2 Local Bus and Bus Subassembly

The microcomputer has three local buses, these are: Address bus; Data bus and Control bus.
The buses connect the CPU to each of the memory and I/O devices. When the CPU sends
data to a device or memory it is called WRITE operation and when the CPU receives data is
called READ operation. The functions of buses are described now.
Address Bus: The address bus is an internal channel from the CPU to a memory or I/O
devices across which the addresses of data (not the data) are transmitted. The number of
lines in the address bus determines the amount of memory that can be directly addressed as
each line carries one bit of the address. With an n-line address bus, a processor can address
up to 2n unique locations. A computer with a 32-bit address bus can directly address 4GB of
physical memory, while one with 36 bits can address 64GB.
When the CPU wants to communicate (READ or WRITE) with certain memory location or
I/O device, it places the appropriate address on its address output. These addresses are then
decoded to select the desired memory location or I/O device. This decoding process usually
requires addressing decoder circuits.
Data Bus: The data bus is bidirectional and data can flow to and from the CPU through it.
The data bus can be either input or output depending on whether the CPU performs a READ
or a WRITE operation. During READ operation the data bus receives data that have been
placed on the data bus by the memory or I/O device. During WRITE operation the data bus
acts as the output and the data are sent to selected memory location or I/O device.
Control Bus: The control bus consists of a set of lines carrying signals that is used to
synchronize the activities of separate microcomputer elements. Some of these control signals
are sent by the CPU to the other components to tell them the type of operation in progress.
The I/O devices can send control signals to the CPU. READ/WRITE, RESET, INTERRUPT
are examples of control signals used in a microcomputer.

4.3.3 Primary Buses

Based on how buses are used for transfer of data, primary buses are divided into two
categories: internal bus and expansion bus:
1. The internal bus, sometimes called the front-side bus (FSB), allows the processor to
communicate with the system's central memory, i.e., RAM.
2. The expansion bus (sometimes called the input/output bus) allows motherboard
components (USB, serial, and parallel ports, cards inserted in PCI connectors, hard
drives, CD-ROM and CD-RW drives, etc.) to communicate with one another.
Chapter 4: Microcomputer System 93

However, it is mainly used to add new devices using expansion slots connected to
the input/output bus.

4.3.4 Chipset
A chipset is the component which routes data between the microcomputer's buses, so that all
the components can communicate with each other. The chipset originally was made up of a
large number of electronic chips, hence the name. It generally has two components:
NorthBridge and SouthBridge. Figure 4.3.1 shows a typical bus system.

CPU

Processor Bus L2 Cache

AGP Bus AGP

North
Bridge Memory Bus RAM

PCI Bus

South LAN SCSI

Bridge

ISA USB IDE

Figure 4.3.1: A typical bus system.

• NorthBridge (also called the memory controller) is in charge of controlling transfers

between the processor and the RAM, and it is located physically near the processor.
It is sometimes called the Graphic and Memory Controller Hub (GMCH).
• SouthBridge (also called the input/output controller or expansion controller) handles
communications between peripheral devices. It is also called the ICH (I/O Controller
Hub). The term bridge is generally used to designate a component which connects
two buses.
94 Computer Fundamentals and ICT

4.3.5 Types of Microcomputer Buses

Processor Bus: The processor bus is a communications path between the CPU and the main
bus. It is also used for communications between the CPU and the processor support chipset.
The processor support chipset, such as an external memory cache and the bus controller chip
found on some microcomputers. The size of the processor bus matches the size of the data
words used by the CPU.
Backside Cache Bus: Conventional processors use level 2 cache on the motherboard and
connect it using the standard memory bus arrangement. To achieve better performance,
many newer processors use a dedicated high-speed bus to connect the processor to the level
2 cache. Such a bus is called backside cache bus.
Memory Bus: The memory bus transfers data between the RAM and the CPU. This bus can
be the processor bus or will be implemented by a dedicated chipset that controls the
memory bus. In most computers that have another board clock that is faster than 16MHz, a
special memory controller chipset controls the memory bus.
Expansion Bus: Expansion buses, also called peripheral buses, are buses that have
connectors that allow adding expansion cards (peripherals) to a computer.
ISA Bus: Industry Standard Architecture (ISA) bus was first appeared in 1981. The ISA bus
permitted bus mastering, i.e. it enabled controllers connected directly to the bus to
communicate directly with the other peripherals without going through the processor. One of
the consequences of bus mastering is a direct memory access (DMA). However, the ISA bus
only allows hardware to address the first 16 megabytes of RAM.
Up until the end of the 1990s, almost all PC computers were equipped with the ISA bus, but
it was progressively replaced by the PCI bus, which offered a better performance.
MCA Bus: The Micro Channel Architecture (MCA) bus is an improved proprietary bus
designed by IBM in 1987 to be used in their PS/2 line of computers. This 16 to 32-bit bus
was incompatible with the ISA bus and could reach a throughput of 20 Mbps.
EISA Bus: The Extended Industry Standard Architecture (EISA) bus was developed in 1988
by a consortium of companies (AST, Compaq, Epson, Hewlett-Packard, NEC, Olivetti,
Tandy, Wyse and Zenith) in order to compete with the MCA proprietary bus that was
launched by IBM the previous year. The EISA connectors were deeper and the additional
rows of contacts were placed below the rows of ISA contacts. Thus, it was possible to plug
an ISA expansion board into an EISA connector.
Local Bus: Traditional I/O buses, such as ISA, MCA our EISA buses, are directly connected
to the main bus and are forced to work at the same frequency. However, some I/O
peripherals need a very low bandwidth while other needs higher bandwidths. Therefore,
there are bottlenecks on the bus. In order to solve this problem, the "local bus" architecture
offers to take advantage of the system bus, or front side bus (FSB), by interfacing directly
with it.
Chapter 4: Microcomputer System 95

VLB Bus: In 1992, the VESA local bus (VLB) was developed by the VESA (Video
Electronics Standard Association under the aegis of the company NEC) in order to offer a
local bus dedicated to graphics systems. The VLB is a 16-bit ISA connector with an added
16-bit connector. The VLB bus is a 32-bit bus initially intended to work with a bandwidth of
33 MHz (the bandwidth of the first PC 486s at that time).
PCI Bus: The Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) bus was developed by Intel in
1992. It is an intermediate bus located between the processor bus and the I/O bus. At least 3
or 4 PCI connectors are generally present on motherboards and can generally be recognized
by their standardized white color. The PCI interface uses in 32 bits with a 124-pin connector
or in 64 bits with a 188-pin connector.
AGP Bus: The AGP bus (short for Accelerated Graphics Port) was released in 1997 for Slot
One chipsets, and then was later released for Super 7 chips to manage graphical data flow,
which had grown too large to be handled by a PCI bus. The AGP bus is directly linked to the
processor's FSB (Front Side Bus) and uses the same frequency, for increased bandwidth. The
AGP interface was developed specifically to connect with the video card, by opening a direct
memory access (DMA) channel to the graphics board, bypassing the input-output controller.
Cards which employ this graphics, bus theoretically require less on-board memory; because
they can directly access graphical data stored in central memory, their cost is hypothetically
lower. Recent motherboards are built with a general AGP connector which can be identified
by its brown color.
The PCI Express Bus
The PCI Express bus (PCI-E) is an interconnect bus that allows to add expansion boards to a
microcomputer. It is also called Third Generation I/O (3GIO). The PCI Express bus was
developed in 2002. PCI bus runs in parallel interface, whereas PCI Express bus runs
in serial interface. The PCI-E bus offers much higher bandwidth than the PCI bus.
PCI-E connectors are not compatible with older PCI connectors. They vary in size and
require less electricity. One of the interesting characteristics of the PCI-E bus is that it is hot
pluggable, i.e. it can be plugged in or unplugged without turning off or restarting the
machine.
USB/Firewire: The Universal Serial Bus (USB) is a way of connecting devices like
cameras, scanners and printers to a microcomputer. It uses a thin wire to connect to the
devices, and many devices can share that wire simultaneously. Firewire is another bus, used
today, mostly for video cameras and external hard drives

4.3.6 Key-points
• The address bus (sometimes called the memory bus) transports memory addresses of
the memory location to read or write data. It is a unidirectional bus.
96 Computer Fundamentals and ICT

• The data bus transfer instructions coming from or going to the processor; it is a
bidirectional bus.
• The control bus transports orders and synchronization signals from the control unit
to other hardware components. It is a bidirectional bus.
• The memory controller is also called the Graphic and Memory Controller Hub
(GMCH).
• Conventional processors use level-2 cache on the motherboard and connect it using
the standard memory bus arrangement.
• Expansion buses, also called peripheral buses, are buses that have connectors that
allow adding expansion cards (peripherals) to a computer.
• Traditional I/O buses, such as ISA, MCA our EISA buses, are directly connected to
the main bus and they are forced to work at the same frequency.
• Micro Channel Architecture (MCA) bus is an improved proprietary bus designed by
IBM in 1987 for its PS/2 line of computer.
• Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) bus is an intermediate bus located
between the processor bus and the I/O bus.
• The AGP bus is directly linked to the processor's FSB (Front Side Bus) and uses the
same frequency, for increased bandwidth.
• The PCI Express bus is an interconnect bus that allows to add expansion boards to a
computer.
• Universal Serial Bus (USB) is a way of connecting cameras, scanners and printers to
a computer.
• Firewire is another bus used mostly for video cameras and external drives.

4.3.7 Practice Set

Multiple Choice Questions
1. A 32-wire ribbon cable can transmit ___________.
a. 32 bits in series
b. 32 bits in parallel
c. 16 bits in parallel
d. None
2. The ____________ is also called _____________. It is ______________bus.
a. Control bus; command bus; a bidirectional
b. Memory bus; command bus; a bidirectional
c. Control bus; command bus; a unidirectional
d. Memory bus; command bus; a unidirectional
Chapter 4: Microcomputer System 97

3. Conventional processors use _______________on the motherboard and connect it

using the standard memory bus arrangement.
a. level 2 cache
b. level 1 cache
c. level 0 cache
d. None
4. The memory bus transfers data between the ______and the ________.
a. CPU; Hard disk
b. CPU; USB
c. CPU; RAM
d. None of above
5. AGP interface was developed specifically to connect the___________.
a. Audio card
b. Video card
c. Sound card
d. None
6. Firewire is a kind of bus used mostly for _____________.
a. video cameras
b. external drives
c. both of above
d. none of the above

7. The data bus transfers instructions ___________ the processor.

a. only coming from
b. only going to
c. coming from or going to
d. none

8. The full form of USB is ___________.

a. Universal Series Bus
b. Universal Serial Bus
c. United Serial Bus
d. United Series Bus

9. ISA, MCA our EISA buses, which are directly connected to the main bus and they
are forced to work at ___________.
a. it’s own frequency
b. same frequency
 98 Computer Fundamentals and ICT

c. any frequency
d. none of the above

Questions for short answers

1. What do you understand by system bus?
2. List popular system buses for microcomputers.
3. Give the main characteristics of the PCI and PCI Express bus systems.
4. Distinguish among ISA, MCA, EISA.
5. A bus with a width of 16 bits operates at a frequency of 133 MHz. Find its transfer
speed.
Analytical questions
1. Draw bus organized architecture of a microcomputer and explain its operation.
2. Give the main characteristic of address bus, data bus and control bus of a
microcomputer.
3. Explain PCI/ISA/AGP bus systems.

View publication stats