9 SA6 Actuators 2015

Sensors & Actuators
Actuators
2014-2015 Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento

Outline
• Mechanical actuators
• Electromechanical actuators
• Electric motors
• Piezo actuators
2014-2015 Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 1

Actuators
• An electrical signal generates an action:

– Heat actuators (resistive heaters).
– Light actuators: Incandescent light bulbs or fluorescent
lamps, LEDs, LCDs.
– Sound actuators: Speakers
– Mechanical actuators: relays, solenoids and motors.
• Mechanical actuators: generation of motion:

– Non electric.
– Electric.

Non electric mechanical actuators
• An action generated by non electrical form of energy:

– rotary motion converted to linear motion or to rotary
motion with a different angular velocity;
– air pressure used to create motion (pneumatic actuator);
– liquid pressure used to create motion (hydraulic actuator).

Electric mechanical actuators
• Electrical energy transformed into mechanical energy,

producing motion:
– Electromagnetic actuators:
• relay;
• solenoid;
• motor.
– Piezoelectric actuators.

Relay (1)
• A relay is an electromechanical device actuated by energizing

a wire coil which magnetically attracts an armature to
physically open and close a circuit.
• When the circuit is open, no power is conducted across the
contacts.
• When the circuit is closed, power is conducted to the load with
virtually no voltage drop.

Relay (2)
• Relays have two circuits:

– A control circuit (in green) with a coil.
– A load circuit (in red) with a switch.
[Source: K. Sullivan]
• The coil controls the operation of the switch.

Relay operation
• Current flowing though the control circuit (pin 1 and 3) creates
a magnetic field which causes the switch (pin 1 and 2) to close.
relay on
relay off [Source: K. Sullivan]

• When current stops flowing, no magnetic field exists and the
switch opens.

Relay design
• Normally open: the switch remains open until the relay is

energized (on).
De-energized (off) Energized (on) De-energized (off) Energized (on)
• Normally closed: the switch remains closed until the relay is

energized (on).

Relay contact variations
Single pole, single throw Single pole, double throw
SPST SPDT
Double pole, single throw Double pole, double throw
DPST SPDT

Example of application
• PLC operating a relay within the output module connecting the

control voltage to the output port and hence to the solenoid.
Internal relay contact
Common port PLC Output port
Control Voltage (+)
Load
(solenoid)

Commercial relays

Solenoid
• Solenoid is an actuator for linear motion.

• A coil wound around a cylindrical tube with a plunger (piston
like cylinder) that is free to move or slide “IN” and “OUT” of
the coils body.
[Source: societyofrobots]
• Current flow through the solenoid coil winding creates a

magnetic field that applies a force to the shaft attracting or
repelling it.
Magnetic field in a solenoid
• If the coil is long when compared with its diameter, magnetic

field:
nI
B
L
B - approximate field in the center.

I – electric current
n – number of turns
L – length of the wire
 – permeability of the material

Working principle
[Source: societyofrobots]
• In this example, the plunger is normally outside the solenoid forced

by the spring.
• When energized, the plunger moves inside the core of the coil
assembly.
• When the magnetic field is turned off, the spring returns the plunger
to its original
Solenoid types
• In pull type solenoids, the plunger is normally outside the

solenoid forced by the spring. When energized, the force pulls
the plunger into the solenoid.
• In push type solenoids, the spring forces the plunger into the
solenoid, but when energized the plunger is pushed out.

Applications
• Electronically activated door locks

• Pneumatic or hydraulic control valves
• Robotics
• Automotive engine management
• Irrigation valves to water.

Solenoid valve
• A solenoid valve is a combination of two basic functional

units: a solenoid and a valve body containing one or more
orifices.
• Flow through an orifice is shut off or allowed by the
movement of the core when the solenoid is energized or de-
energized.
[Source: reackoneup]

Rotary solenoids
• Most solenoids are linear devices.

• However, rotational solenoids are also available which
produce an angular or rotary motion.

Electric motor
• Electrical energy is converted to mechanical energy by the

interaction between two magnetic attractive/repulsive forces.
• Magnetic fields can be created:
– by electric currents flowing through windings, usually
wrapped around a laminated soft iron core;
– by permanent magnets.
• Motion in a motor is the result of the continuous alignment of

south poles of the rotor with north poles of the stator.

Brushed/brushless motors (1)
• Brushes: mechanical commutator contacts to deliver current to

the windings.
• Example: brushed DC motor.
commutator
brush
brush
Brushes
[Source: Wikipedia ] [Source: electronicdesign.com ]

Brushed/brushless motors (2)
• In brushless motors, the commutator is replaced by an

electronic digital switching circuit.
• Example: Stepper motor.
Vcc
b0 b2 b4
T1 T2 T3
IA
IB
IC
b1 b3 b5
T4 T5 T6
Iph

AC and DC motors
• DC motors (for position-control applications)

– Brushed DC motor.
– Brushless DC (BLDC) motor.
Stepper motor (digital actuator).
• AC motors (primarily for high-power applications)

– Induction or asynchronous motor.
– Synchronous motor.

Electric motor types
Electric motors
AC DC
Asynchronous Synchronous Variance reluctance
Induction Sinusoidal Brushless Reluctance SR Stepper
Permanent magnet
SR – Switched Reluctance
Surface PM
Interior PM
[source: Freescale ]
Wound Field
AC induction motor (1)
• AC voltage applied to the stator creates a rotating magnetic

field.
• The rotating magnetic field induces an alternating e.m.f. into
the rotor conductors, generating a current.
• This induced current in the rotor interacts with the magnetic
field of the stator producing a force that results in a torque to
turn the rotor.
• The rotor speed is less than the rotating speed of the magnetic
field (synchronous speed): asynchronous motor.

AC induction motor (2)
• When the rotor is at rest and power is applied to the stator, the
stator magnetic field rotates at the synchronous speed Ns.
• The stator magnetic field is cutting the rotor at the synchronous
speed. The interaction between the rotate magnetic field in the
stator and the magnetic field in the rotor due to the induced
current put the rotor to rotate.
• As the rotor is rotating, the rate at which stator flux cuts the
rotor is the difference between synchronous speed and actual
rotor speed.
• The ratio of actual flux cutting the rotor to synchronous speed is
defined as slip.

AC induction motor: stator
Stator: the stationary part of the electromagnetic circuit.
[Source: electrical-knowhow]
• Made of thin metal sheets, called laminations (to reduce

energy losses) punched and clamped together to form a hollow
cylinder with slots.
• Coils of insulated wires are inserted into these slots.

Squirrel cage rotor
• Winding made of metal bars connected together (short circuit) at
each end by a metal ring. No insulation required between the core
and the bars.
[Source: mpoweruk]

Wound rotor
• A set of windings not short-circuited, that are terminated to a set of
slip rings, permitting to add resistors and contactors.
Rotor
windings
Slip rings
[Source: openticle]
Single and three phase induction motors
• Single phase used in home appliances (smaller loads).

• Three-phase used in industrial motion control systems.
[source: Freescale]
• Example: three-phase stator (outermost) with the winding

displaced by 120°.

Three-phase induction motor
• Two poles stator:

– One set of windings, two coils per phase.
– The three phase power curve is made up of three single
phase sine waves separated by 120º or 1/3 of a cycle.
[Source: P. Girão, 2006]

Working principle
Three phase AC induction motor with 2 poles:

• Phase shift: 120º.
• Rotating field cycle:
1 rotation per period.
1
N s  rot/s
T
N s  60 f s rpm
2
s  Ns
60
[Source: P. Girão, 2006]

Synchronous speed (1)
• Four poles stator:
– Two set of windings.
– Four coils per phase.
1 period rotation of magnetic field

360º 180º
[Source: allaboutcircuits]
N s  60 f rpm N s  30 f rpm
[Source: quora.com]
Synchronous speed (2)
• Three phase AC induction motor
fs fs - frequency of the AC voltage (Hz)

N s  120 (rpm)
p
p - number of poles on the stator
• Rotating field cycle:
2
s  Ns
60

Slip
• The magnetic field rotates at angular speed s.
• The rotor runs slower than the speed of the stator field, at
angular speed .
• The rate at which stator flux cuts the rotor is r = s-.
• The ratio of actual flux cutting the rotor to synchronous speed
is defined as slip:
r s   
s   1
s s s
s ≠ 0, motor is rotating
s = 1, motor stopped.

Analysis of induction motor
• Analysis of the induction motor can be done using an electric model
based on the transformer model.
E1
k
E2
I2
k
I 2
stator rotor
• Induced voltage and current in the rotor windings (E2, I2) depends
on the magnitude of the magnetic field in the stator (E1, I1) and the
frequency of flux variation ( r = s-I).

Transformer equivalent model (1)
• Under stationary conditions the equivalent circuit for the

induction motor is identical to that of a transformer with the
secondary short circuited.
• The difference between transformers and induction motors is
the relative movement between rotor and stator.

• Equivalent model of stator winding per phase:

R1 – stator winding resistance
X1 – stator winding reactance
R0 – core loss resistance

XM – magnetizing reactance
• Equivalent model of the rotor:
R2 – rotor resistance
X2 – rotor reactance

• In a transformer primary and secondary voltages and currents

have the same frequency in : E1 I2
k k
E2 I 2
s r
• In the model of an induction motor: s  r = s s

• Model with s in primary and r in secondary:

E1 I2
k k
E2 I 2
X 2  sX 2
E 2  sE2
• Model with in both sides of the transformer with s:
Faraday’s Law
 B
emf  
t

E1 I2
k k
E2 
I2
sE2   jsX 2  R2 I 2
 R2 
E2   jX 2   I 2
 s 

I2 E1
k k
I 2 E2
• Analysis referred to the primary E1 kE2 E R 

  k 2 2  k 2  2  jX 2 
I 2 I 2 k I2  s 
R2 X 2  k 2 X 2
R2  k 2
s
E1
 R2  jX 2

I2
Power (1)
• Power loss (dissipated in the windings) per phase:
Ploss  R1 I12  R0 I 02  R2 I 22

Power (2)
• Power delivered to the motor per phase:
k2X2
R2
k2
s
R2 2
Pin  Vs I1  R1 I12  R0 I 02  k 2 I 2
s

Power (3)
• Power delivered to the load per phase:
Pout  Pin  Ploss Ploss  R1 I12  R0 I 02  R2 I 22
R R2 2
Pout  2 k 2 I 22  R2 I 22 Pin  R1 I12  R0 I 02  k 2 I 2
s s
I2
k
R2 2 1 s
Pout  I 2  R2 I 22 Pout  R2 I 22
I 2 s s
1 s
• For the three phases Pout  3  R2 I 22
s

Torque
• Torque (T)

    s 1  s 
Pout
Pout  T    T  s  1
 s
1 s
3R2 I 22
P s
T  out 
  s 1  s 
3R2 I 22
Pout
T 
 s s

Commercial AC induction motors.
• Primarily for high power applications
[Source: Dytrade] [Source: kailidamotors] [Source: eHow]

Synchronous AC motor
• Synchronous motors are constant-speed motors.

• Speed of the motor in synchronism with line frequency
(synchronous speed).
• Like the asynchronous motor, the synchronous motor consists

of a stator and a rotor separated by an air gap.
• However, unlike asynchronous motor, the magnetic flux in the
rotor is created by permanent magnets or by the currents from
an outside source of direct current (electromagnets).

Stator of synchronous AC motor
• Similar to the AC induction rotor.

• A housing, a magnetic circuit, generally comprising silicon
steel laminations, and windings that produce a rotating
magnetic field.
[Source: . electrical-knowhow.]

Rotor of synchronous AC motor
• Permanent magnets Windings powered
by external DC source
(brushed or brushless).
[source: leeson.com] [source: processmodeling.org]
• Usually a second winding, the damper winding, to produce torque

for motor starting.
Commercial synchronous AC motor
[Source: .Hansen smart] [Source: indiamart] [Source: Texas Instrument]
• More expensive than induction motors but offering higher

efficiency.
• Used for large motor drives.

Rotor structure (1)
• Salient pole (for low speed)
[source: electrical-knowhow.com] [source: Chee Mun ONG]

Rotor structure (2)
• Round or cylindrical (high speed)
[source: electrical-knowhow.com] [source: Chee Mun ONG]

Working principle (1)
Rotor stopped:
• Currents in the stator windings create a rotating field.
• The DC current in the rotor produces a static field (brushed or
brushless).
• Magnetic fields interact.

Rotor stopped:
• The force of attraction between stator poles and rotor poles
produces a torque in clockwise direction.
[source: K. Vasudevan]
• The rotor cannot move due to its mechanical inertia: not self
starting.
[source: K. Vasudevan]
• North and south poles in the stator at any location change with
time: a south pole becomes a north pole after half a cycle
(1/2f).
• Poles experience a force of attraction and a force of repulsion.
• Rotor does not start, there is a vibration.

• Synchronous motor can be started as an induction motor:

– A damper winding (starting winding) is mounted on the
rotor.
– The rotor winding is left unexcited.
– The motor starts as an induction motor.
– The motor speeds up and approaches synchronous speed.
– The rotor poles are then excited from a DC source.
– The rotor runs at synchronous speed.

• Rotor into rotation:

– Poles in rotor and stator get attracted and try to maintain
this alignment.
– A situation of balance is attained when the rotor speed is
equal to the speed of the rotating field.

• Rotor into rotation in the direction of the rotating field:

– The field of the rotor is delayed relative to rotating field by
an angle.
– The value of the angle depends on the mechanical load in
the rotor, increasing with it.
– While this angle does not reach half angle between poles
synchronism can exist.

Equivalent model (1)
Rotor Stator (per phase)
• Resistance and inductance of rotor windings (X1 and R1 ).

• Resistance and inductance of stator windings per phase (XA and RA ).
• No voltage is induced in the rotor by the stator field (rotation at the same
speed).
• A voltage (EA) is induced in the stator winding by the rotor static field:
depends upon rotor speed and current in the rotor (I1).

Equivalent circuit (3)
E A  V  jX A I A  R A I A  0
• Phasor diagram of tree-phase synchronous motor per phase.

 jX A I A
E A  V  jX A I A  R A I A  RA I A
EA V
IA

Equivalent circuit (3)
E A  V  jX A I A  R A I A
• In a synchronous motor, the value of XA is 10 to 100 times

greater than RA.
• RA can be neglected unless we are interested in efficiency or
heating effects.
• Neglecting RA: V 
EA  jX A I A
E A  V  jX A I A
IA
90º

Power (1)
• Input power (cos : motor power factor)
V
Pin  V I A cos 

EA  jX A I A
IA
90º
• Neglecting losses, the electromagnetic power (amount of

power being converted from the electrical into the mechanical
power):
Pem  Pin

Power (2)
Pin  V I A cos  V
   jX A I A 
IA 90º
EA
90º
X A I A cos  E A sin 
EA
Pin  V I A cos   V sin  E A sin   X A I A cos 
XA
EA
EA I A cos   sin 
Pem  V sin  XA
XA

DC motors
• The stator:
– permanent magnet (PM DC motor ).
– or electromagnets (wound-field DC motor).
• Rotor (armature):
– electric windings, generating a magnetic field when
energized by the external DC current.

Commercial DC motors
[source: Galco] [source: nmbtc]
[source: music.columbia.edu]

Types of DC motors
• DC motors

Working principle of a DC motor
• The stator magnetic poles attract the opposite poles of the

rotor.
• The rotor will rotate until poles are aligned with the stator
poles. When the rotor reaches alignment, the brushes move
across the commutator contacts and energize the next winding.
• Brushless DC motor substitute mechanical contacts (brushes

and commutator) by control electronics.

Stepper motor (1)
• DC motors (for position-control applications)

Stepper motor.
• AC motors (primarily for high-power applications)

– Induction or asynchronous motor.
– Synchronous motor.

Commercial stepper motors
[Source: Jameco] [Source: Haydonkerk ]
[source: Wikipedia]

Stepper motor (2)
• This type of motor moves in a discreet way, a step at a time.

• It can be considered as a digital version of an electric motor.
• It is easily controlled with microprocessors.
• Used in position applications (ex: floppy disk).

• Can be used in open loop positioning control, without
feedback loop.

Stepper motor components
• Stator with multiple windings or phases energized with a DC

current.
• Rotor that can either be magnetized or non-magnetized
depending on the type of motor.

Working principle of stepper motor
• Rotor rotates in order to minimize its magnetic reluctance.

rotor
stator

Types of Stepper Motors
• Permanent Magnet (PM).

• Variable Reluctance (VR).
• Hybrid: combining characteristics from PM and VR

VR stepper motor (1)
• Rotor made of soft iron with teeth and slots, not magnetized.
[source: wisc-online]
• Rotor teeth are attracted to the energized stator poles to reduce

reluctance of the magnetic flux between stator poles, rotating
the rotor.
• The stator poles in each pair, located in front of each other, are
energized at the same time (coils in series). The way coils are
wound the poles have opposite polarity.

• Rotor teeth become aligned with stator poles: the rotor turns so
that the magnetic flux lines pass through the iron teeth rather than
through the air slots between them.

• To step the motor (CCW) A and A´ are de-energized and B and

B´ energized.
• The rotor teeth closest to the B coils will align themselves with
the B poles.
• The next step is to de-energize coils B B´ and to energize C C´.

PM stepper motor (1)
• Rotor with permanent magnets.

• Stator with electromagnets (windings).

Outer rotor
Pancake stepper motor

Inner rotor
Inner rotor
[Source: Solarbotics]

Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor (1)
• This motor has a magnetized rotor.

• To rotate the motor, current is flowing in each phase of the
stator sequentially.
• Current flow generates magnetic polarity on each stator inner
rotor.
A A
B’ B B’ B
[source: Freescale ]
A’ A’

Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor (2)
• This motor has a magnetized rotor.

• To rotate the motor, current is flowing in each phase of the
stator sequentially
• Current flow generates magnetic polarity on each stator
A A
D’ B D’ B
C’ C C’ C
B’ D B’ D
A’ A’

Full Step Stepper Motor
A
B’ B
A’
• The two phases alternate on and off and also reverse polarity:
commutation sequence has 4 steps (90º).
• When the rotor aligns with one of the stator poles, the second
phase is energized.

Half Step Stepper Motor
• The main difference is that the second phase is turned on

before the first phase is turned off: commutation sequence has
8 steps (45 º).
[Source: Freescale ]

Phases, poles and step angle (1)
• Full step
S N
N S
[Source: M. lawford]
360 º
Step angle 
• 2 poles in rotor . 2 N ph N r
• 1 phase in the stator.
• When the current in the phase (A1 A2) changes the direction the
rotor moves 180º.

• Full step S
S N
360 º
• 2 poles in rotor. Step angle 
2 N ph N r
• 2 phase in the stator.
• When the phase changes (A1 A2  B1 B2) the rotor moves 90º.

• Full step S S
S N
N N
• 2 poles in rotor. Step angle 

360 º
• 3 phase in the stator. 2 N ph N r
• When the phase changes (A1 A2  B1 B2) the direction the rotor
moves 60º.

• Improving the resolution:

step 1 2 step
360 º
Step angle 
2 N ph N r
step 3 4 step
• Nr poles in rotor and m phases in the stator:

360 º
Step angle 
2 N ph N r
• Lab assignment:
360 360
 12º  5º
2  3 5 2  3  12

Piezo actuators
• A piezoelectric actuator converts an electrical signal into a

controlled linear displacement.
• If displacement is prevented, a useable force will develop.
• Piezoelectric actuators are used to finely adjust machining

tools, lenses, mirrors, or other equipment.

Advantages of piezo actuators
• No rotating parts.
• Unaffected by magnetic fields.
• Fast response without delay.
• Compact design.
• High mechanical power density.
• Consumes power only when motion is generated,.
• Very high acceleration rates.
• Very high power generation.

Types of piezo actuators
• Stack actuators
Discrete ceramic disks, rings or plates
with thin metal leaf electrodes
interlaced between the ceramics.
[Source: APC Internations]
• Stripe actuators
(also called bending actuators)
Two thin layers of piezoelectric
ceramic bonded together

Bibliography (1)
• K.R. Sullivan, Understanding relays. Available at: http://www.autoshop101.com/forms/hweb2.pdf
• Linear Solenoid. http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/io/io_6.html
• Solenoid Design and operation, Bicron Electronics company. Available
at:http://www.sal.wisc.edu/PFIS/docs/rss-vis/archive/public/Product%20Manuals/bicron/soldesop.pdf
• Motor Types and Their Control, Summary of key motor types and control, Freescale. Available at:
http://cache.freescale.com/files/32bit/doc/brochure/BBMTRCNTRLART.pdf
• Induction Asynchronous machines. Available at:
http://www.ece.msstate.edu/~donohoe/ece3183asynchronous_synchronous_machines.pdf
• Rakesh Parekh, AC Induction Motor Fundamentals, Application Note AN887, Microchip Technology,
2003.
• Application basics of operation of three-phase induction motors, Technical manual, Rockwell
Automation,1996.
• T. Flack, Electric Power – Lectures 11 and 12, Cambridge Unversity.
• Motor specifications, Wermac. Available at: http://www.wermac.com/acm_2.pdf
• M.V.Bakshi U.A.Bakshi, Electrical Machines – III, Technical Publications Pune, 2009
• P. Girão, Sensores e Actuadores, Slides LEEC/MEEC, IST. 2003/2004.

Bibliography (2)
• S. Shahl, Synchronous Motors , Available at: http://www.uotechnology.edu.iq/dep-
eee/lectures/3rd/Electrical/Machines%202/III_SM.pdf
• Classification of Electric Motors - Part Four. Available at: http://www.electrical-
knowhow.com/2012/05/classification-of-electric-motors-part_22.html
• Terry Bartelt, The Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor, Wisc-online. Available at:
http://www.wisc-online.com/objects/ViewObject.aspx?ID=IAU14208
• Stepper Motor Basics, Industrial Circuits Application Note.,Solarbotics. Available at:
http://www.solarbotics.net/library/pdflib/pdf/motorbas.pdf
• university-logo
• Marc McComb, Introduction to Stepper Motors, Microchip Web Seminars. Available at:
www.microchip.com/stellent/groups/SiteComm_sg/documents/DeviceDoc/en543047.pdf
• Mark Lawford, Actuators: Stepper Motors. Available at:
http://www.cas.mcmaster.ca/~lawford/3TB4/slides/Stepper.pdf
• Piezo actuators: types and applications, APC International. Available at:
https://www.americanpiezo.com/piezo-theory/actuators.html.

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Sensors & Actuators

2014-2015 Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento

2014-2015 Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 1

• An electrical signal generates an action:

• Mechanical actuators: generation of motion:

2014-2015 Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 2

• An action generated by non electrical form of energy:

2014-2015 Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 3

• Electrical energy transformed into mechanical energy,

2014-2015 Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 4

• A relay is an electromechanical device actuated by energizing

2014-2015 Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 5

• Relays have two circuits:

• The coil controls the operation of the switch.

2014-2015 Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 6

relay off [Source: K. Sullivan]

2014-2015 Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 7

• Normally open: the switch remains open until the relay is

De-energized (off) Energized (on) De-energized (off) Energized (on)

• Normally closed: the switch remains closed until the relay is

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Single pole, single throw Single pole, double throw

Double pole, single throw Double pole, double throw

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• PLC operating a relay within the output module connecting the

Common port PLC Output port

Control Voltage (+)

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• Solenoid is an actuator for linear motion.

• Current flow through the solenoid coil winding creates a

• If the coil is long when compared with its diameter, magnetic

B - approximate field in the center.

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• In this example, the plunger is normally outside the solenoid forced

• In pull type solenoids, the plunger is normally outside the

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• Electronically activated door locks

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• A solenoid valve is a combination of two basic functional

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• Most solenoids are linear devices.

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• Electrical energy is converted to mechanical energy by the

• Motion in a motor is the result of the continuous alignment of

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• Brushes: mechanical commutator contacts to deliver current to

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• In brushless motors, the commutator is replaced by an

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• DC motors (for position-control applications)

Stepper motor (digital actuator).

• AC motors (primarily for high-power applications)

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Induction Sinusoidal Brushless Reluctance SR Stepper

• AC voltage applied to the stator creates a rotating magnetic

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Stator: the stationary part of the electromagnetic circuit.

• Made of thin metal sheets, called laminations (to reduce

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• Single phase used in home appliances (smaller loads).

• Example: three-phase stator (outermost) with the winding