Course: Higher Education (828)

Level: M.A/M.Ed
Semester: Spring, 2018
Assignment No: 2
Q No: 1 comparatively discuss the systems of Higher Education in India and
Malaysia. Higher education system in India:
India has one of the largest Higher Education systems in the world. In India Higher education starts after
passing the higher Secondary or 12th standard. It takes 3 years for completing a B.A. (Bachelor of Arts),
B.Sc. (Bachelor of Science) or B.Com. (Bachelor of Commerce), pass or honors degree from a college or
Recognized Institute in India, pursuing an engineering course would take four years and five years it
depends on Stream (with six months of additional compulsory internship) and for completing a bachelor of
medicine or bachelor of law degree. Postgraduate courses generally two (2) years duration.
But there are some courses like Master of Computer Application (MCA) that are of three (3) years duration.
The Universities and its colleges are the main institutes of higher education in India. There are at present
227 Universities in India recognized by government of India. Indian Government is responsible for major
policy relating to higher education in the country. It provides grants to UGC and establishes central
universities in the country. The l Government is also responsible for declaration of Education Institutions as
‘Deemed to be University’ on the recommendation of the UGC. The State Governments are responsible for
establishment of State Universities and colleges, and provide plan grants for their development and non-
plan grants for their maintenance.
Governing Goals of Higher education:
It is necessary to recognized that the present approach towards higher education is governed by the
“National policy on Education” of 1986 and Program of Action of 1992, .The 1986 policy and Action Plan of
1992 was based on the two land marks report namely ,the “University Education Commission” of 1948-49
(popularly known as Radhakrishnan Commission ), and the “Education Commission” of 1964-66,
( popularly known as Kothari Commission Report).These two landmark reports in fact laid down the basic
framework for the National policy for higher education in the country. The University Education Report had
set goals for development of higher education in the country.
Academic year:
In India School and Colleges and Institute Academic Year are mainly starts in the month of July and end
April but Universities Academic Year are mainly starts in the month of August and end April.
Scholarship Description:
The objective of the scheme is to support NDA cadets from humble financial background undergoing training at
the National Defense Academy, Khadakwasla, Pune. The Scholarship is to provide financial assistance to the
underprivileged cadets hailing from Goa who have opted to serve the country by joining the Defense Services.
Following are the Top 20 Colleges in India:
IIT Kanpur 2. IIT Bombay.3 IIT Madras.4 IIT Kharagpur.5 Institute of technology, Banaras Hindu
University, Varanasi.6 IIT Guwahati.7 NIT Warangal.8 NIT Trichy.9 Thapar Institute of Engineering &
Technology, Patiala.10 Netaji Subhas Institute of Technology (DIT), New Delhi.11 NIT Suratkal.12 Motilal
Nehru National Institute of Technology, Allahabad.13 Punjab Engineering College, Chandigadh.14
International Institute of Information Technology, Hyderabad.15 Birla Institute of Technology & Science,
Pilani.16 IIT Roorkee.17 NIT Rourkela.18 NIT Kurukshetra.19 Indian Institute of information Technology,
Allahabad.20 Delhi College of Engineering, New Delhi.
Apart from the several hundred state universities, there is a network of research institutions that provide
opportunities for advanced learning and research leading up to a PhD in branches of science, technology
and agriculture. Several have won international recognition. 25 of these institutions come under the
umbrella of the CSIR - Council of Scientific and Industrial Research and over 60 fall under the ICAR -
Indian Council of Agricultural Research. In addition, the DAE - Department of Atomic Energy, and other
ministries support various research laboratories.
The Indian Institutes of Technology
The Indian Institutes of Technology are among the most prestigious institutions within the hard sciences. Indian
Institute of Science is the premier research institute in the field of science and engineering. There are several
thousand colleges (affiliated to different universities) that provide undergraduate science, agriculture,
commerce and humanities courses in India. Amongst these, the best also offer post graduate courses while
some also offer facilities for research and PhD studies. Technical education has grown rapidly in recent
years. With recent capacity additions, it now appears that the nation has the capability to graduate over
500,000 engineers (with 4-yr undergraduate degrees) annually, and there is also a corresponding
increase in the graduation of computer scientists (roughly 50,000 with post-graduate degree). In addition,
the nation graduates over 1.2 million scientists. Furthermore, each year, the nation is enrolling at least
350,000 in its engineering diploma
programs (with plans to increase this by about 50,000). Thus, India's annual enrollment of scientists,
engineers and technicians now exceeds 2 million.
Higher Secondary Board reveals
2008 data from Maharashtra's Higher Secondary Board reveals that .87 million passed the school leaving
exam and enrolled in college for undergraduate studies. Adding enrolment in polytechnic programs and
graduates from other boards puts Maharashtra's total at close to a million and its college enrolment ratio at
roughly 39%. States like Tamil Nadu, Haryana and Kerala also have comparably high tertiary enrollment
ratios. In Andhra Pradesh, the tertiary enrolment rate is now approaching 25%.
Across the country, tertiary enrollment rates have been increasing at a rate between 5-10% in the last
decade, which has led to a doubling of the tertiary enrolment rate to near 20%. (However, outdated
government data does not yet capture this trend, which can be seen from analyzing individual state data.)
International league tables produced in 2006 by the London-based Times Higher Education
Supplement(THES) confirmed Jawaharlal Nehru University (JNU)'s place among the world's top
200 universities. Likewise, THES 2006 ranked JNU's School of Social Sciences at the 57th position
among the world's top 100 institutes for social sciences. University of Calcutta
The University of Calcutta was the first multi-disciplinary university of modern India. According to The
Times Higher Education Supplement's survey of the world's top arts and humanities universities, dated
November 10, 2005, this university, ranked 39, was the only Indian university to make it to the top 50 list in
that year. Other research institutes are the Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics, the Asiatic Society, and the
Indian Statistical Institute.
The National Law School of India University is highly regarded, with some of its students being awarded
Rhodes Scholarships to Oxford University, and the All India Institute of Medical Sciences is consistently
rated the top medical school in the country. Indian Institutes of Management (IIMs) are the top
management institutes in India. The private sector is strong in Indian higher education. This has been
partly as a result of the decision
by the Government to divert spending to the goal of universalisation of elementary education. Within a
decade different state assemblies has passed bills for private universities, including Birla Institute of
Technology and Science, Amity University, Xavier Labour Relations Institute and many more.
Problem statement
Driven by market opportunities and entrepreneurial zeal, many institutions are taking advantage of the lax
regulatory environment to offer 'degrees' not approved by Indian authorities, and many institutions are
functioning as pseudo non-profit organizations, developing sophisticated financial methods to siphon off
the 'profits'. Regulatory authorities like UGC and AICTE have been trying very hard to extirpate the
menace of private universities which are running courses without any affiliation or recognition. Students
from rural and semi urban background often fall prey to these institutes and colleges. One the
fundamental weaknesses of the system are lack of transparency and recommendations have been made
to mandate high standards of data disclosures by institutions on performance.
Higher Education in Malaysia
The higher education sector is responsible for the operation of higher education institutions (HEIs) in
Malaysia and is under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE). The education sector
has always enjoyed the highest national development budget which symbolises the commitment of the
Malaysian government towards education.
Malaysia's HEIs (i.e. public universities, private higher educational institutions, polytechnics and community
colleges) housed more than a million students in 2011, of which about 93,000 were international students
from more than 100 countries. In contrast, there were about 89,686 Malaysian students (27,003 receiving
sponsorship and 62,683 self-funded) who were studying overseas in 2011.
With a multi-ethnic population of about 28.3 million, Malaysia had 20 public universities, 53 private universities
and six foreign university branch campuses; 403 active private colleges, 30 polytechnics and 73 public
community colleges in 2011. These HEIs offer a wide range of tertiary qualifications at affordable prices.
The quality of higher education is assured through the Malaysian Qualifications Agency (MQA) which
undertakes the implementation of the Malaysian Qualifications Framework. MQA is also responsible for
quality assurance and the accreditation of courses and other related functions, covering both public and
private higher educational institutions.
The provision of higher education is well regulated. Below are some of the legislation :
1. The Education Act 1996 (Act 550)
2. The Private Higher Educational Institutions Act, 1996 (amended 2009)
3. The National Council of Higher Education Act, 1996
4. Malaysian Qualifications Agency Act 2007 (replacing the previous namely National Accreditation
Board Act 1996 which has been repealed)
5. The Universities and University Colleges (Amendment) Act, 1996 (amended 2009)
6. The National Higher Education Fund Corporation Act, 1997 (Amendment 2000)
Both the Universities and University Colleges Act and the Private Higher Educational Institutions Act are
currently under review.
The internationalisation of the higher education sector is a high priority for MOHE. Efforts have been made
to improve the world ranking of Malaysian universities; to have 150,000 international students by 2015; to
create more 'Malaysian Chairs' at universities abroad; and to collaborate and cooperate with world-
renowned universities on research and academic matters.
Malaysia's first rating system, SETARA (Rating System for Higher Education Institutions in Malaysia) was
implemented in 2009 to measure the performance of undergraduate teaching and learning in universities
and university colleges in Malaysia. The SETARA result was measured using a six-tier category with Tier 6
identified as Outstanding and Tier 1 as Weak.
Subsequently, another rating system was introduced in 2011. My QUEST (Malaysian Quality Evaluation System
for Private Colleges) was used to evaluate private colleges in Malaysia in terms of the quality of students,
programmes, graduates, resources and governance. The MyQUEST rating categorised an institution as either
excellent, good, or weak. The institutions would also receive a rating based on their level of achievement which
ranged from 1 star (poor) to 6 stars (excellent). These two rating systems serve as a reliable reference for
students and parents in their selection of institutions and programmes of study offered by various HEIs.
Features of the Education System in Malaysia
Malaysia is known for its well organised system of education. Primary as well as secondary and tertiary
education is well structured and students from within the nation as well as international locations apply and
study here.
Higher Education in Malaysia
Students can only enter university following completion of the matriculation programme. Students of
matriculation programme receive sponsorship by the Ministry of Education and those who obtain the CGPA
of 2.00 or grade C or above may be admitted to public institutions of higher learning.
Public Institutions
Public institutions of higher education can be one choice for students who go in for higher studies in
Malaysia. This institution is managed by Student Admission Management Division of the Department of
Higher Education. Another choice is to go in for polytechnic colleges. These colleges are managed by the
Student Intake Division, Department of Polytechnic Colleges. Admission of students into community
colleges is managed by the Student Intake Division of the Department of Community Colleges/DCC.
Foreign Universities
The “overseas branches” of foreign universities offer the same courses and awards as the main university.
Twinning programmes have also become popular wherein the local universities in Malaysia form a
partnership with foreign universities. Malaysian universities offer undergraduate and postgraduate courses
and admission requirements for universities include STPM (Sijil Tinggi Pelajaran Malaysia) exams or a
foreign degrees such as the A-levels.
Private Universities
There are a growing number of private universities in Malaysia as the demand for higher education is on
the rise. Students apply directly at the Malaysian private or public university of their choice given that the
institution has been approved by the Malaysian Ministry of Higher Education. Public universities can take
international students, yet public institutions have to be licensed by the Immigration Department of the
Ministry of Home Affairs in Malaysia.
Ranking of Educational Institutions
Once the university of choice has received license and approval, application can be made at the respective
university for student passes. Malaysia is the top educational destination for tertiary as well as higher
education. It has been ranked 11th worldwide by UNESCO as an educational institutions. Close to 75,000
international students studied in Malaysia in 2009. The number is much higher now.

Q No: 2 Explain the reasons of Wastage in Higher Education. Give suggestions to minimize
wastage in higher education in Pakistan.
Meaning of Wastage:
While clarifying the meaning of the word in education Hartog Committee remarked the following:
"By wastage we mean premature withdrawal of children from schools at any stage before completion of the
primary courses".
This statement does not mean there is no wastage in the Secondary Course and Higher Course. Any
student, who receives education at any stage, is expected to complete his education with the prescribed
period. If one withdraws from the course before completion, then that individual or individuals are deemed
to be wastage to the course.
In Primary Education, the main objective is the attainment of stable literary through five year schooling. If a
child entering school leaves it or is withdrawn from school before completing class V, it leads to wastage in
education. So wastage is premature withdrawal of children from schools. A rough and ready method to
measure wastage is to compare diminution in enrolment from class to class in series of years.
Such students do not complete the study of their curriculum and consequently the time, money and energy
expended on such students prove to be sheer wastage. Hence the most popular use of the word "Wastage"
in education means the wastage of time, effort and money.
Meaning of Stagnation:
The students at every stage of education are expected to pass the examination after finishing the whole
course. But it has been found that in general practice many students are not able to pass the examinations
in one class or in more than one class within the prescribed period.
Thus, they fail and remain in the same class. These failed students repeat the same class and course whereas their
other colleagues pass that class and study in the next upper class. This process has been called the process of
stagnation. Thus by stagnation it is meant the stay of students in a particular class for more than one year.
So the word 'Stagnation' in education means the detention of a student in a class for more than one year on
account of his unsatisfactory progress. The Hartog Committee reports, "By stagnation we mean the retention in
a lower class of a child for a period of more than one year. Of course stagnation always means wastage".
Really it was the Hartog Committee (1929), which for the first time pointed out that the "massive wastage
and stagnation are taking place in primary education. Primary Education is ineffective unless it at least
produces literacy".
No child who has not completed primary course of at least 4 years will become permanently literate. The
investigation conducted by Gokhale Institute showed that literacy could be obtained before it could lapse.
That is because, pupils acquire stable literacy only after they complete at least class IV.
As in the case of primary education, the wastage and stagnation were also eating the vitals of the
secondary education. The tremendous loss that is caused because of the problems of the wastage and
stagnation will be clear by looking at the results of High School Final every year.
University education everywhere in the country is also not free from the ghost of wastage and stagnation.
Probably, the problems of wastage and stagnation exist in a greater degree at this stage of education. It has
been remarked that great 'wastage' of public money is taking place every year in the University Education.
What is more regrettable is the fact that there is some indifference towards the serious loss of public
money. Also no less indifference is shown for the wastage of time, money and energy of the students, their
parents or guardians and their ambitions and aspirations in life.
Causes of Wastage and Stagnation:
The causes of wastage and stagnation are of 3 categories: economic, educational and social.
Economic Causes:
Studies conducted on the subject show that 65% of wastage is due to poverty. According to Kothari
Commission Report, "A child is sent to school between 6-9 years of age because at this age he is a
nuisance at home than a help.
At the age of 9 or 10, the child becomes an economic asset, because he can work at home or earn
something outside. This is especially true of girls who have to assist the over-worked mother at home. The
child is withdrawn from the school and thus he becomes a wastage case".
Parents mostly involve their children in domestic work and this leaves no time to child for study. Financial
handicap is responsible for wastage and stagnation. Out of poverty some parents utilize the service of their
children to supplement earning.
In many cases poor parents find it almost impossible to lose the assistance of children. Poverty of Indian
people is miserable that they find themselves unable to meet other expenses connected with the education
even against the provision of free education of their children during harvest time; children cannot afford to
go to school as they are required in the farm. Again, out of poverty children lack minimum diet and are
unable to stay for long in schools.
Social Causes:
Class and caste distinctions prevail in India, the former in urban areas and the latter in rural areas.
Especially in the case of girls custom of early marriages or betrothals stands a bar. There is an opposition
to send grow-up girls to schools especially to the mixed schools without women teachers.
Muslim parents exhibit more of orthodox views about their girls. Even in the case of boys some parents due
to caste restrictions do not want their children to mix with power caste boys and girls. Coeducation of boys
and girls in some places is looked with suspicion. And as there is no separate provision of education for
girls, deprivation of girls from schools leads to much wastage.
Educational Causes:
Only educational causes are responsible for another 30% of wastage. Government of India admits this in
the following words:
"The educational institutions being ill-equipped, poorly housed and with dull and depressing environment
unfortunately could not exercise effective counter-acting influence".
Uncontrolled fresh admissions without consideration of age or time have no permanency. That is,
admissions are made of under-aged and over-aged children. Again admissions are done throughout the
year. So there is more of wastage and stagnation. That is because under-aged children lost interest in
classes, whereas over-aged children remained away from school out of shame.
Lack of adequate accommodation, too much of over-crowding schools with high pupil-teacher ratio become
the main causes of wastage and stagnation. Again, increased number of single-teacher schools, inefficient
teaching, lack of teacher-pupil contact, frequent transfer of teachers and plural class-teaching disturbed the
quality of instruction which ultimately cause much wastage and stagnation.
In short, dull and unattractive schools, incomplete schools, inefficient and poor quality of teachers,
defective examinations, uninteresting curricula, lack of proper parental attitude, absence of school health
services and school mid-day meals are responsible for much of wastage and stagnation in schools.
Miscellaneous Causes:
Sometimes children in schools suffer from diseases of serious kinds and they are withdrawn for a long
period causing wastage. Death of one of the parents or both causes much hardship to children. Orphan
children drop-out from school without completing education, and so the wastage.
Remedial Measures
Statistics indicate huge wastage at the Primary stage. Of every 100 pupils that enter class I only 40 reach
class V and only 20 reach class VIII. So steps are required to be taken for fighting against such alarming
wastage those 80 students out of every hundred leave school before they complete age of 14.
1. Stagnation and wastage can be reduced by concentrating on quantitative improvement by (a) Universal
provisional and (b) Universal retention. Again attempts should be made for qualitative improvement of
pupils.
2. Qualified teachers should be appointed to create better quality in the instructional programme to
attract children.
3. Fresh admissions should be made at the beginning of the school session within two months from
the date of commencement of school year. And it should not be done throughout the year.
4. As far as possible provision should be made for starting of Pre-Primary Schools to admit children
below 6 years of age. So that it will be a sort of pre-registration and preparation of the pupils to get
admitted in schools. It will avoid the enrolment of under-aged over-aged children.
5. The curriculum may be made modest, simple and interesting so that it can be implemented most efficiently.
6. Improvement, of the Professional competence of teachers may be made by providing training
facilities, both pre-service and in-service. Necessary guide books for teachers and work books for
students and other literature should also be provided.
7. Adequate and attractive school buildings should be provided. Necessary equipment and teaching
aids should be supplied for making education more interesting and effective.
8. Teacher-pupil ratio may be maintained at such a level as to ensure adequate individual attention to
be paid to each individual in every class particularly in class-I. As far as possible only trained and
competent teachers should remain in charge of class I.
9. As master of policy it has been adopted that children from class-I may be liberally promoted to
class-II and the like without any detention at any stage.
10. Provision of part-time schooling may be made for the benefit of children who cannot attend the
school during regular hours on account of domestic and economic disabilities.
11. Effective supervision and inspection may be provided in schools.
12. Best possible use may be made of the existing resources, both human and material. The schools
may be graded according to efficiency and standards. This will provide ground for qualitative
improvement of schools, which ultimately will go to reduce wastage and stagnation.
13. Special provision should be made for educating the mentally retarded children by opening special
institutions in each State or district level.
To reduce wastage and stagnation in a bigger way, pupils may be given nutritious diet by introduction of
mid-day meals under the School Health Service Programme. Existing mid-day meals system should be
carefully regulated.
Q No: 3 Discuss need of assessment in higher education in Pakistan. Up to what extent you are
satisfied with the present assessment system and how it can be improved?
Assessment is systemic process in higher education that uses empirical data on student learning to refine
programs and improve student learning.[1] As a continuous process, assessment establishes measurable
and clear student learning outcomes for learning, provisioning a sufficient amount of learning opportunities
to achieve these outcomes, implementing a systematic way of gathering, analyzing and interpreting
evidence to determine how well student learning matches expectations, and using the collected information
to inform improvement in student learning. Assessment functions as part of a continuous process whereby
the parts of the cycle are revised and monitored. The term “assessment” is defined broadly in that any
outcome or goal in any activity or discipline can be a part of this process.
Types
Assessment in higher education can focus on the individual learner, a course, an academic program, or the
institution.
1. Course-level Assessment
2. Program-level Assessment
Course-level Assessment
Assessment embedded at the course level (sometimes referred to as embedded assessment or authentic
assessment) typically involves the use of assignments. Students receive feedback on their performance on
assignments and faculty gain knowledge of student learning to use for grading. The work assessed within courses
best relates to specific program- level student learning outcomes. Angelo and Cross believe assessment in the
classroom is an important part of the faculty feedback loop which can provide meaningful information about their
effectiveness as teachers while also giving students a measure of their progress as learners.
Program-level Assessment
Program assessment is a best practice in higher education. The process involves a framework for placing
priority and attention on the process of student learning and most specifically, the program objectives,
organization of curriculum, pedagogy and student development. Like course assessment, program
assessment requires defining a statement of mission/goals, establishment of program-specific student
learning outcomes and the identification of where learning takes place or “learning opportunities”. The next
part in program assessment involves the development of a research question or intended goal for
assessment. What questions does the program seek to answer? And what direct or indirect evidence needs
to be collected to identify answers? The collected data is evaluated, analyzed and interpreted resulting in
the implementation of an action plan resulting in improvement in the program and student learning.
Mission Alignment
Each course a student takes occurs within the context of a program, which occurs within the context of
overarching university outcomes. With the assumption that coursework should support the program and
programs should support the overall mission of the university, alignment of mission (and learning outcomes)
should occur. Assessment at the course level typically takes the form of tests, quizzes, and assignments. When
courses are mapped to program outcomes, this permits the aggregation of data from several courses covering
the same outcome which can be used for program assessment. Additional program assessment can take the
form of embedded assignments, field experiences, capstone experiences, portfolios, or tests of majors.
Scoring Guides/Rubrics
Rubrics are often used to assess student work. Essentially, a rubric is a scoring guide grid consisting of a
scale of some sort (i.e., levels of performance), the dimensions or important components of an assignment,
and descriptions of what constitutes each level of performance for each assignment dimension. Rubrics
can be particularly effective for assessment due to how closely they are tied with the teaching and learning
process - they can be used for grading, as well as giving students feedback on their performance.
Assessment Points
Assessment is most effective when it occurs at multiple points in time along the student's path. Multiple
measures over time provide a way to triangulate data and increase confidence in the results.
Effective Assignments
In order to assess student learning, students must given assignment where they can demonstrate what
they know and can do.
Indirect/Direct Measures
A distinction is made between direct and indirect measures of learning. Direct measures, as their name implies,
involve directly examining student work products to assess the achievement of learning outcomes. These work
products occur in a variety of formats including objective tests, and rubric-scored projects, performances, and
written work. A recent survey of provosts indicates that classroom based assessment and rubrics are most
frequently used. Large scale commercial tests such as the College Learning Assessment (CLA) are used by
fewer than 50% use standardized tests according to the survey. Indirect measures focus on data from which one
can make inferences about learning. Indirect measures can include surveys on student and faculty perceptions
about learning, focus groups, and exit interviews. National surveys such as the National Survey of Student
Engagement (NSSE) have become increasing popular indirect measures, with roughly 85% of institutions using
these measures according to a recent survey.
Sampling
In a classroom setting or in a program level assessment, it is often possible to assess the entire population
of interest, referred to as a census. However, it is sometimes impractical or ineffective to assess an entire
population, due to the time and effort involved as well as survey fatigue if the same group of students are
being asked to take multiple surveys. Therefore, sampling strategies can be used to pick a subset of the
population of interest. The goal of sampling is to select a smaller group that represents the population on
key characteristics. Multiple sampling approaches are commonly used in higher education assessment,
including random and stratified sampling. In a random sample, each individual is equally likely to be
selected. In a stratified sample, individuals are grouped based on specific characteristics of interest and
then randomly selected from each group to ensure adequate numbers of each group.
Use of findings
Assessment data are only effective in "closing the loop" and improving programs if they are shared and
communicated widely.
Benchmarking
Benchmarking is a way for an institution or program to determine how a sample measures up to others or
to themselves at an earlier time.
Professional Organizations
There are numerous regional organizations dedicated to discussing issues and policies related to assessment in
higher education. The Association for the Assessment of Learning in Higher Education (AALHE) is one
international organization. Seven other regional assessment organizations exist in the United States.
In an interview with the Chronicle for Higher Education, Marsha Watson, former director of the AALHE, stated
that the “rising demands for accountability mean that assessment must evolve into its own discipline."
The National Institute for Learning Outcomes Assessment is another organization dedicated to helping
institutions use assessment data to improve academic quality. They have delivered a number of research
papers on assessment practices.
Benefits of Assessment
There is heightened political and public pressure on higher education institutions to explain what they are trying
to do and provide evidence they are actually doing it. Faculty want students to learn. In addition, faculty love
their disciplines and want to share their knowledge and enthusiasm with students. Placing emphasis on what
students learn and what students do helps to effectively drive improvement in the learning process, program
planning and overall institutional improvement. Assessment adds transparency to the teaching and learning
process, helps to provide some evidence to the effectiveness of student learning and promotes an environment
where continuous improvement is well understood and ingrained in the institutional culture.
Linda Suskie, a higher education consultant, says that "Good assessments are not once-and-done affairs. They
are part of an ongoing, organized, and systematized effort to understand and improve teaching and learning.”
Criticism of Assessment
Some university faculty and researchers have criticized student learning outcomes assessment in higher
education. Robert Shireman, a senior fellow for the Century Foundation, argued that accrediting agencies often
require institutions to reduce learning to meaningless blurbs, or student learning outcomes, which “prevents
rather than leads to the type of quality assurance that has student work at the center.” Erik Gilbert, a professor
of History, wrote another notable essay criticizing assessment in higher education arguing that it has little effect
on educational quality and that accrediting agencies require institutions to invest time and resources in collecting
evidence on student learning even though, he believes, that it does not improve academic quality
Designing assessment to influence:
Designing assessment to influence students’ patterns of study in positive ways can present significant
challenges. Assessment in higher education must serve a number of purposes. The overall cycle of
student assessment (from the design and declaration of assessment tasks, to the evaluation and reporting
of student achievement) must not only guide student approaches to study and provide students with
feedback on their progress, but also must determine their readiness to proceed to the next level of study,
judge their ‘fitness to practice’ and ultimately protect and guarantee academic standards. These purposes
are often loosely placed in two categories, developmental (‘formative’ — concerned with students’ ongoing
educational progression) and judgmental (‘summative’ — where the
emphasis is on making decisions on satisfactory completion or readiness to progress to the next level of
study). Both are legitimate purposes for assessment in higher education and effective assessment
programs must be designed with both considerations in mind.
Q No: 4 Analyze the role of Quality and Access as the two problems in higher education.
Education is a basic need of every society. A better education system can enhance the social, scientific,
and technological improvement of a country. The human resource development of a country depends upon
the quality of education imparted in country (Mohanthy, 2000). Higher education caters to the education in
the colleges and universities. Allen (1988) observed “It is academically consider suitable to present
distinctive feature of two stages for the purpose of clarity of concepts and avoiding duplication” Higher
education is admittedly a separate stage quite distinct from primary, secondary, elementary, and higher
secondary stage. (Best, 1994)
The people in Pakistan and South Asia are neither deficient in talent nor in moral qualities in comparison to
any other nation of the world, but about two centuries of foreign rule and blind imitation of western attitudes
and methods, unsuited to the genius and spiritual conditions of its people, have spoiled some of the virtues
and have brought a bad name to their intellectual capacities (Siddiq, 1978). Hassan (1990) observed
“Pakistan is unfortunately really backward in education as in certain other spheres of intellectual activities
but luckily people are not inherently incompetent or morally incurable.” It is however necessary that the
diagnosis about maladies should be correct and the measures for curing these maladies should be
appropriate in the light of that diagnosis (Abdullah, 1992).
Challenges in Higher Education
South Asian countries are facing a critical period in their history, and on that account, everybody concerned
with education has a responsibility for knowing what he is trying to do in bring up the next generation and
why he is trying to do it (Mohanthy, 2000). Higher education is faced with very severe challenges in the
shape of various economic, social, political, and moral changes, and its future depends on the response
made by its people to these challenges (Rao, 2003).
The major challenges in higher education include:
Quantity
Despite the constraints of resources, the quantitative expansion has been highly spectacular in the post
independence period. The institutions have not only been multiplied, the student enrollments at colleges
and universities have registered exceptionally high rate of growth (Aeth, 1975). “The numbers of new
entrants is now more than the total number of students in higher education prior to independence” (Iqbal,
1981). “The demand of higher education has thus increased by leaps and bonds. In spite of quality control
as well as consolidation, it will continue to grow constantly for a long time to come” (Adeeb, 1996).
“The quantitative expansion is evident due to increasing aspiration of the people and social, economical,
and political forces influencing the development of higher education. In the post independence period, the
role of higher education has been very well recognized in the development of science and technology, as
well as various arenas of human advancement” (Mohanthy, 2000).
Equity
The major break through was evident in the democratic countries of the world where franchise was given to
all adults irrespective of caste, creed, sex, and economic or social status (Barnet, 1990). Qureshi (1997)
stated “The ideal of equity was severely constrained by exiting in qualities in the distribution of property and
productive resources, low level of education and awareness among the people, and strong influences
exercised by individual and group to further their own sectional interest rather than total social interest.”
“The philosophy of social justice is very much akin to the principle of equity. It is a welcome development
over the concept of inherent inequality which was sought to be explained by biological differences among
individuals” (Bayli, 1987).
Quality
Development of society not only depends upon quantity of goods and services produced, but also on their
quality. “It again leads to quality of life of the people and the quality of the society in general” (Hayes, 1987). It is
rightly said that the philosophical basis of quality is the innate characteristics of a human being to attain a higher
standard and the need of excellence for attaining a higher stage in the development (Quddus, 1990).
Student Unrest
Among the challenges of higher education is the vital role of addressing students unrest. Bayli (1987) studied
that “The condition of higher education in universities and colleges is not satisfactory in the eyes of students.
Lack of physical and educational facilities is bringing much hindrance in the way of development”. Iqbal (1981)
states “Teachers are less motivated to do certain research work. Most teachers are not competent, and they are
teaching in higher education institutions.” They have limited knowledge about subject matter they taught and
many of them have no clear idea about the subject. “Even in Pakistani universities, the teacher at M.Phil. and
Ph.D. level, are not competent” (Rao, 2003). “They feel it difficult to indulge in research work due to lack of
knowledge about research methodologies” (Mughal & Manzoor, 1999).
motional Integration
Education can play a vital role in strengthening emotional integration. It is felt that education should not aim
at imparting knowledge but should develop all aspects of a student’s personality. Allen (1988) found that “It
should broaden the outlook, foster the feeling of oneness, nationalism, a spirit of sacrifice, and tolerance so
that narrow group interests are submerged in the largest interest of country.”
“Students, the future citizens of the country, should be trained in democracy, its value and ideals so that
they will have sense of justice which is conducive for the development of national integration especially in
the particular situation of developing countries which are striving to build up a structure of democratic living”
(Rao, 2003).
Administrative Reform
In the last fifteen years or so, Pakistan and countries in South Asia have been giving increasing attention to
the problems of university administration (Adeeb, 1996). Abdullah (1992) observed “They have noticed that
despite the resources available for university expansion, they have not been able to obtain the best
possible results.” “Further they have also begun to realize that much of this is due to lack of proper
administration and what the outcome is on the development of higher education” (Aeth, 1975).
Faculty
The current size of present faculty is very small according to the general international standard. Mughal &
Manzoor (1999) found that “The teacher/student ratio is very small even according to many third world
countries standards. The quality of university education at the college has decreased because of the exiting
faculty”. “Many present faculty members are teaching courses which are not their own specialization”
(Bayli, 1987). “Many faculty members in most of universities are just master degree holders with little or no
practical knowledge and higher education experiences” (Iqbal, 1981).
“The salary, financial rewards and benefits for the faculty is very low according to the rising cost of living in
Pakistan. The higher education commission is making an effort to provide facilities to their teachers and
hiring foreign faculty for the uplift of educational standards in Pakistan” (Rao, 2003). Still the staff and
technical support of the teaching professor are not present. Adeeb (1996) found that “There is no real plan
or set of rules for teaching evaluation or teaching effectiveness. The above problem is a great challenge for
higher education in Pakistani and South Asian developing countries.”
Educational Policies
The faculty should have primary responsibilities for determining the educational policies of the institution.
Barnet (1990) found “If this responsibility is not conferred and defined by the character of the institution, it
should be expressed in legislation of the governing board.” “Educational polices include such fundamental
matters as the subject matter and methods of instruction, facilities and support for the research work of
faculty members and students, standards for admission of students, etc” (Aeth, 1975).
Academic Freedom
The right of academic freedom must be recognized in order to enable the faculty members, researchers,
and students to carry on their roles. Gibbons (1998) studied “The freedom of universities in making
professional appointments, tenure research, salary scales, and all academic decision.” “Academic freedom
and university autonomy are sometimes regarded as synonymous, but they are two quite different
concepts, although they overlap at many points” (Taylor & Tashakkori, 1997).
Courses and Curricula
The courses and curricula are not designed in accordance with the standard of higher education of the present
day. Iqbal (1981) observed that “There is no continuity of some of the important courses: there is also no
relationship between the related courses of common or similar knowledge.” Bayli (1987) studied that “So many
important and modern courses required for higher education are not taught at all.” “The curricula are not written
in detail and are left to the professors personal likes, dislikes, interests or experience” (Adeeb, 1996).
Budgeting and Financing
Central to all the foregoing is a new concept of budgeting and financing at the higher level. Bayli (1987)
observed “The conventional system of an annual budget is probably the most confusing and least understood.”
“The budget of course, performs a number of essential functions which even the most frustrated will
acknowledge” (Rao, 2003). Allen (1988) identify “The concern here is with the budget as an instrument of
academic planning which may promote the special aims of each college and constitute a practical means by
which all university purpose may be realized ideally it must not only insure financial solvency of the university,
but should also place responsibility and commensurate authority where it may be exercised most.”
Population Explosion
“The fast growing population in Pakistan and South Asian developing countries is another problem by causing
over crowding in the higher educational institution because the number of higher level institutions is deficient”
(Hayes, 1987). Mohanthy (2000) observed “The demand for the quantitative expansion of education at all levels
remains one of the primary concerns because of the continuous population expansion.” Adeeb (2000) stated
“The developing countries will account for nearly 50% of the total world population compared with 66% in 1950.”
“The population of Asia as a proportion of the world’s total population (a reduction of 29.4% to 18.4%) is in a
much weaker position than some ten to fifteen years ago” (Allen, 1988).
Suggestions to meet the Challenges
1. Stress is laid on the need for improving the quality of education at every stage so that a proper
foundation can be laid for advanced study in science, engineering, agriculture, and those other
areas which are most closely allied to the national economic development and reconstruction of the
nation as a whole.
2. To begin from the top without reforming the lower stages is against the law of nature; it is against
the law of evolutionary progress. Before any restrictions are imposed on the higher education, the
earlier stages should be improved so as to produce better students for the higher stage.
3. A critical point to be considered by educational planner is the adaptation of a multidimensional,
flexible, and dynamic education system, which serves people according to their ability and aptitude
and is responsive to their economic, social political and cultural needs.
4. The new system of higher education should be flexible enough to offer a variety of courses, formal
and non formal, full time and part time, correspondence and media based to fit every individual as
well as the economic needs of the country
5. Economic conditions of the people cannot be ignored in all matters in which the question of equal
opportunities to all is involved. In an atmosphere of economic depression as it is today in Pakistan
how could one expect from our youth to be able to develop their potential qualities in desired way.
6. The test of qualities must be made reliable upon examination and more effective; the teaching
method must be made more rational and natural; and last of all, the teachers must be kept fully
satisfied. It is well known, that a foreign medium of instruction and examination is seriously
hampering the progress of education. Pakistan will have to determine its policy with regards to this
question also.
7. There is great question of availability of qualified university teachers, suitably equipped libraries, and fully
developed plants and laboratories. It is a matter of common knowledge that our resources in all these
areas are very merger. Any unnecessary addition to the number of the universities at present would
therefore mean nothing, but more ill-fed and ill-equipped institutions with no specially or individuality of
purpose.
Higher education institutions must be responsive to the challenges of the rapidly changing and challenging
new world: expectation of society and growing demands of the rising student population. This policy
therefore looks forward to a new beginning in higher education in South Asian developing countries.
Q No: 5 What is meant by continuing education? Highlight its significance for a society and individual.
The concept of lifelong education has become a key issue in educational planning. The author, a theorist and
practitioner in adult education and a member of the UNESCO Secretariat since 1948, suggests how lifelong
education can be promoted and highlights some of the problems it involves. The book is in two parts. In the first,
the author tries to show the logical and organic development of lifelong education in its various stages and
identifies a number of challenges which require an intellectual, physical, and emotional readiness. The study
continues with a number of analyses of the significance, dimensions, and objectives peculiar to lifelong
education, and closes with proposed elements of a strategy for educational action. It stresses the necessity of
linking together, in both thought and achievement, the objective and processes of education as applied to
children, adolescents, and adults.
Concept of learning:
Perhaps the most valuable result of all education is the ability to make yourself do the thing you have to do,
when it ought to be done, whether you like it or not. It is the first lesson that ought to be learned. Lifelong
learning is the development of human potential through a continuously supportive process which stimulates
and empowers individuals to acquire all the knowledge, values, skills, and understanding they will require
throughout their lifetimes and to apply them with confidence, creativity and enjoyment in all roles,
circumstances, and environments. Lifelong learning is used here in an inclusive sense that accommodates
this heterogeneity. A statement resulting from a collaboration of the European Lifelong Learning Initiative
and the American Council on Education provides
a workable expression of this broader acceptance.
Education specialty:
Lifelong learning is a broad, generic term that is difficult to define with specificity. Its overlap or its
interchangeable use with other closely related concepts such as lifelong, permanent, recurrent continuing
or adult education; learning organizations; and the learning society society in which learning is pervasive
makes this even more true. For some it includes learning from childhood and early schooling, while others
treat it in terms of the adult learning process. It has grown to a global concept, with differing manifestations
that vary with national political and economic priorities and others.
Implementation of Lifelong Learning:
Adult participation rates suggest that a mass population has embraced lifelong learning and that the
learning society may have arrived. U.S. data for 1998 - 1999 show that an estimated 90 million persons
46% of adults had enrolled in a course during the preceding twelve months, an increase from 32 percent in
1991. There are indications that large increases also occurred in other developed countries. Field called
this a "silent explosion" that makes the most of the people inhabiting learning societies.
Implementation:
Programs related to employment come from several sources: apprenticeship programs, work-related courses,
and credential programs. An interesting development has been the collaboration between different providers
attempting to enhance credentials by offering joint curricula; such as the collaboration between community
colleges and corporations to offer apprenticeships and training in conjunction with the associate degree. Work-
related courses touch on a broad range of content, providers, and delivery settings. They may be freestanding,
self-contained experiences of a single course, or they may include sustained, interrelated courses that lead to a
certificate or other qualification. Many sustained programs focus less on technical skills and more on the general
education needed in the knowledge-based workforce. In some cases, largely depending on their size and
commitment to workforce development, corporations may create their own internal corporate universities to offer
extensive programs designed for their own needs. Others prefer to access the resources and experience of
external providers, such as higher education institutions or professional education and training organizations.
Importance of Continuing Education:
As younger individuals, your parents and teachers expressed the importance of education. As early as
three or four years old your parents sent you to school to be able to prepare you for your future, and even
before this, they have begun imparting important knowledge on you. Education is important and people go
through years of schooling to be able to build for themselves a better future and a better life.
After School:
The normal schooling years will last for as long as eighteen to twenty-five years, depending on the course
they take in College. These years involve kindergarten, elementary, high school and college. After going
through this, one should be able to obtain a degree that will qualify them to work and to maintain jobs at
their respective fields. Almost everyone goes through thiscourse but there will be a few people who will
want to achieve more for themselves. Many people will choose to go back to school even after they finish
their own degrees. This kind of schooling does not always have to follow the standards of a formal
education; it can be through seminars and short courses. One’s desire to seek education is admirable and
everyone should understand the importance of continuing education.
Understanding the Importance of Education:
Not a lot of people will choose to pursue further education because most people would want to be able to start
their career and start earning money. Fortunately, there are great reasons for wanting to go back through the
whole process of learning, testing and struggling in school — and you need to know some of them.
Competition:
It gives you an edge over the competition. Getting a job is tough. Getting into a promising job is going to be
tougher. If you want increase your chances at getting hired in a job that you have been aspiring for,
presenting credits for further education will truly impress your future employers. You will master your skills.
Maybe you want to be better at what you do. Going back to school to be able to master your skills will be
good. It will be recognized by people and this will increase your credibility and competitiveness.
Instructions:
You will learn new things that you can apply in your career. Going back to school can also help you learn
new skills. The world is continuously evolving and you should always keep yourself in tune with all these
changes and bring all your new learning to your workplace. It increases your potential. You can always be a
better version of yourself. Settling and accepting your current situation is cowardice because this means
that you are giving up and quitting. Always seek to be better and continuing your education will surely
broaden your horizon.
Methods of Continuing Education:
You can choose to learn in different ways. You can enroll in university or a college for short and full courses
and attend either full-time or part-time studies. You can also choose to either attend school online or in an
actual classroom. Learning in a classroom is more personal and interactive, but there are a lot of benefits
to enrolling in an online course, and most of it is in terms of convenience and affordability.
SCALLING OF CONTINUE EDUCATION:
Higher education can seem like a strange, new world and overwhelming challenge. We invite you to spend
some time thinking about how to get the most out of it. This exercise assumes that you are exploring studies
after secondary education. If accepted at a school, your first-year orientation will also provide some answers.