7 SEMICONDUCTORS

PH-122 SEMICONDUCTORS

MARIAM MUNEEB | TC-050

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SEMICONDUCTORS
DEFINITION
The definition of a semiconductor is a material that is neither a good conductor nor a good insulator but
that conducts more electricity when heat, light or voltage is added.

An example of a semiconductor is silicon.

BAND THEORY OF SOLIDS

In a single isolated atom, the electrons in each orbit have definite energy associated with it. But in case
of solids all the atoms are close to each other, so the energy levels of outermost orbit electrons are
affected by the neighboring atoms.

When two single or isolated atoms are bring close to each other than the outermost orbit electrons of
two atoms are interact or shared with each other. i.e., the electrons in the outermost orbit of one atom
experience an attractive force from the nearest or neighboring atomic nucleus. Due to this the energies
of the electrons will not be in same level, the energy levels of electrons are changed to a value which is
higher or lower than that of the original energy level of the electron.

The electrons in same orbit exhibit different energy levels. The grouping of this different energy levels is
called energy band.

IMPORTANT ENERGY BANDS IN SOLIDS

There are number of energy bands in solids but three of them are very important. These three energy
bands are important to understand the behavior of solids. These energy bands are

 Valence band

 Conduction band

 Forbidden band or forbidden gap

VALENCE BAND
The energy band which is formed by grouping the
range of energy levels of the electrons or
outermost orbit electrons is called as valence
band. Valence band is present below the
conduction band as shown in figure.The electrons
present in the valence band are loosely bound to
the nucleus of atom.

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CONDUCTION BAND
The energy band which is formed by grouping the range of energy levels of the free electrons is
called as conduction band. Generally, the conduction band is empty but when external energy is
applied the electrons in the valence band jumps in to the conduction band and becomes free
electrons. Electrons in the conduction band have higher energy than the electrons in valence band.

FORBIDDEN GAP
The energy gap which is present between the valence band and conduction band by separating
these two energy bands is called as forbidden band or forbidden gap. Forbidden gap is the major
factor for determining the electrical conductivity of a solid. The classification of materials as
insulators, conductors and semiconductors are mainly depends on forbidden gap. The energy
associated with forbidden band is called energy gap and it is measured in unit electron volt (eV).

1 eV = 1.6 × 10-19 J

CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS BASED ON FORBIDDEN GAP

Forbidden gap plays a major role for determining the electrical conductivity of material. Based on the
forbidden gap materials are classified in to three types, they are

 Insulators

 Conductors

 semiconductors

Insulators
The materials which do not allow the flow of electric
current through them are called as insulators. Normally, in
insulators the valence band is fully occupied with electrons
due to sharing of outer most orbit electrons with the
neighboring atoms. Whereas conduction band is empty,
i.e., no electrons are present in conduction band. The
forbidden gap between the valence band and conduction
band is very large in insulators. The energy gap of insulator is approximately equal to 15 electron volts
(eV). The electrons in valence band cannot move because they are locked up between the atoms.

Conductors
The materials which easily allow the flow of electric
current through them are called as conductors. Metals
such as copper, silver, iron, aluminum etc. are good
conductors of electricity. In a conductor, valence band and
conduction band overlap each other as shown in figure.
Therefore, there is no forbidden gap in a conductor. A
small amount of applied external energy provides enough

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energy for the valence band electrons to move in to conduction band. Therefore, more number of
valence band electrons can easily moves in to the conduction band. When valence band electrons move
to conduction band they becomes free electrons.

Semiconductors
The material which has electrical conductivity between that
of a conductor and an insulator is called as semiconductor.
Silicon, germanium and graphite are some examples of
semiconductors. In semiconductors, the forbidden gap
between valence band and conduction band is very small. It
has a forbidden gap of about 1 electron volt (eV). At low
temperature, the valence band is completely occupied with
electrons and conduction band is empty because the
electron in the valence band does not have enough energy
to move in to conduction band. Therefore, semiconductor
behaves as an insulator at low temperature. However, at
room temperature some of the electrons in valence band
gains enough energy in the form of heat and moves in to
conduction band. When the temperature is goes on increasing, the number of valence band electrons
moving in to conduction band is also increases. This shows that electrical conductivity of the
semiconductor increases with increase in temperature. I.e. a semiconductor has negative temperature
co-efficient of resistance. The resistance of semiconductor decreases with increase in temperature.

TYPES OF SEMICONDUCTORS
Semiconductors are divided into two types.

INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS
 Intrinsic semiconductor is pure semiconductor. Silicon and germanium is
the example of intrinsic semiconductors.
 Intrinsic semiconductor does not contain excess electrons and holes.
 Intrinsic semiconductor does not pass electricity.
 Atom structure of Intrinsic semiconductor can be shown as:

EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS
 Extrinsic is an impure semiconductor. N-type and P-type semiconductors are the example of
extrinsic semiconductors.
 Extrinsic semiconductors contain excess electron and holes.
 Extrinsic semiconductors can pass electricity.

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 Atomic structure of Extrinsic semiconductors can be shown as

N-TYPE AND P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTORS

Since semiconductors are generally poor conductors, their conductivity can be drastically increased by
the controlled addition of impurities to the intrinsic (pure) semi conductive material. This process, called
doping, increases the number of current carriers (electrons or holes). The two categories of impurities
are n-type and p-type.

N-TYPE SEMICONDUCTORS
To increase the number of conduction-band electrons in intrinsic silicon, pentavalent impurity atoms are
added. These are atoms with five valence electrons such as arsenic (As), phosphorus (P), bismuth (Bi),
and antimony (Sb).

Each pentavalent atom (antimony, in this case) forms covalent

bonds with four adjacent silicon atoms. Four of the antimony
atom’s valence electrons are used to form the covalent bonds
with silicon atoms, leaving one extra electron. This extra electron
becomes a conduction electron because it is not involved in
bonding. Because the pentavalent atom gives up an electron, it is
often called a donor atom. The number of conduction electrons
can be carefully controlled by the number of impurity atoms
added to the silicon. A conduction electron created by this doping
process does not leave a hole in the valence band because it is in
excess of the number required to fill the valence band.

P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTORS
To increase the number of holes in intrinsic silicon, trivalent impurity
atoms are added. These are atoms with three valence electrons such
as boron (B), indium (In), and gallium (Ga).

Each trivalent atom (boron, in this case) forms covalent bonds with
four adjacent silicon atoms. All three of the boron atom’s valence

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electrons are used in the covalent bonds; and, since four electrons are required, a hole results when
each trivalent atom is added. Because the trivalent atom can take an electron, it is often referred to as
an acceptor atom. The number of holes can be carefully controlled by the number of trivalent impurity
atoms added to the silicon. A hole created by this doping process is not accompanied by a conduction
(free) electron.

THE P-N JUNCTION

“A p-n junction diode is a two terminal device formed by joining a p-type and n-
type semiconductors.”

A junction between p-type and n-type is formed where holes and electrons diffuse into each other
thereby forming a depletion layer. The thickness of depletion layer provides a potential barrier which
prevents further migration of holes and electrons through depletion layer. Thickness of depletion layer
could be increased or decreased by varying the potential of the potential barrier ; a p-n diode could be
used in electrical circuits across a battery, as it permits the flow of current in one direction only.

BIASING
“Biasing is the method of changing the height of potential barrier or the thickness
of depletion layer of p-n diode.”

Biasing is of two types:

FORWARD BIASING
When forward biased, electrons from N-side and holes from P-side are pushed towards the junction.
The depletion layer’s width decreases. As depletion layer decreases, potential barrier also decreases.
The potential difference within the P-N junction diode is known as induced potential (Vinduced) and
potential difference applied externally is called applied potential (Vapplied).

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Total Potential Difference = VInduced + VApplied

The direction of both the potential are opposite to each other therefore, as the applied potential
increases it reduces the effect of induced potential. When the applied potential is equal to the induced
potential then, the net potential equals to zero and the depletion layer vanishes. As there is no
depletion layer, large number of electrons and holes cross the junction. They recombine and large
current flows through the diode. After recombining, the electrons travel as valence electrons then leave
the P region and enter positive terminal of the source. A continuous current flows in the diode. That is,
on forward biasing, P-N junction diode acts as conductor.

REVERSE BIASING
When positive terminal of the battery is connected to N-side and negative terminal to P-side, it is known
as reverse biasing and the diode is said to be reversed biased.

In reverse biasing, free electrons and holes move away from the junction. Hence, increasing the width of
depletion layer. As the depletion layer increases, potential barrier also increases. In reverse biasing the
induced and applied potential are in the same direction i.e. the net potential will increase with the
increasing applied potential. Higher will be the net potential in the diode, higher will be the resistance.
Majority charge carriers cannot move across the junction, hence current will not be allowed to flow

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across the diode. That is, on reverse biasing, P-N junction diode acts as insulator. The current flowing in
the reverse biased circuit due to the minority charge carrier is known as reverse current.

ZERO BIASING
When a diode is connected in a Zero Bias condition, no external potential energy is applied to the PN
junction. However if the diodes terminals are shorted together, a few holes (majority carriers) in the P-
type material with enough energy to overcome the potential barrier will move across the junction
against this barrier potential. This is known as the “Forward Current” and is referenced as IF

Likewise, holes generated in the N-type material (minority carriers), find this situation favorable and
move across the junction in the opposite direction. This is known as the “Reverse Current” and is
referenced as IR. This transfer of electrons and holes back and forth across the PN junction is known as
diffusion, as shown below.

REFERENCES
https://www.yourdictionary.com/semiconductor

https://www.physics-and-radio-electronics.com/electronic-devices-and-circuits

https://www.pearsonhighered.com/assets/samplechapter

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/semiconductors

https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/diode/diode_3.html