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WAVE OPTICS

WAVE OPTICS
1. WAVEFRONT
A source of light sends out disturbance in all directions. In a
homogeneous medium, the disturbance reaches all those
particles of the medium in phase, which are located at the
same distance from the source of light and hence at any instant,
all such particles must be vibrating in phase with each other.
The locus of all the particles of medium, which at any instant
are vibrating in the same phase, is called the wavefront.
Depending upon the shape of the source of light, wavefront can
be the following types :
1.1 Spherical wavefront
A spherical wavefront is produced by a point source of light. It is
because, the locus of all such points, which are equidistant from
the point source, is a sphere figure (a).
2. HUYGENS’S PRINCIPLE
Huygen’s principle is a geometrical construction, which is used
to determine the new position of a wavefront at a later time from
its given position at any instant. In order words, the principle
gives a method to know as to how light spreads out in the medium.
Huygen’s principle is based on the following assumptions :
1. Each point on the given or primary wavefront acts as a source
of secondary wavelets, sending out disturbance in all directions
in a similar manner as the original source of light does.
2. The new position of the wavefront at any instant (called
secondary wavefront) is the envelope of the secondary
wavelets at that instant.
The above two assumptions are known as Huygen’s
principle or Huygens’construction.

1.2 Cylindrical wavefront

When the source of light is linear in shape (such as a slit), a
cylindrical wavefront is produced. It is because, all the points,
which are equidistant from the linear source, lie on the surface Key points
of a cylinder figure (b). Huygen’s principle is simply a geometrical construction
1.3 Plane wavefront to find the position of wavefront at a later time.
A small part of a spherical or a cylindrical wavefront originating 3. PRINCIPLE OF SUPER POSITION
from a distant source will appear plane and hence it is called a
plane wavefront figure (c). When two or more than two waves superimpose over each
other at a common particle of the medium then the resultant
1.4 Ray of light displacement (y) of the particle is equal to the vector sum of
An arrow drawn normal to the wavefront and pointing in the the displacements (y1 and y2) produced by individual waves.
i.e. y y1  y 2
G G G
direction of propagation of disturbance represents a ray of
light. A ray of light is the path along which light travels. In
3.1 Graphical view
figure thick arrows represent the rays of light.
Since the ray of light is normal to the wavefront, it is sometimes called
as the wave normal.

Key points
(i)
The phase difference between any two points on a
wavefront is zero.
 Study Materials
NCERT Solutions for Class 6 to 12 (Math & Science)
Revision Notes for Class 6 to 12 (Math & Science)
RD Sharma Solutions for Class 6 to 12 Mathematics
RS Aggarwal Solutions for Class 6, 7 & 10 Mathematics
Important Questions for Class 6 to 12 (Math & Science)
CBSE Sample Papers for Class 9, 10 & 12 (Math &
Science)
Important Formula for Class 6 to 12 Math
CBSE Syllabus for Class 6 to 12
Lakhmir Singh Solutions for Class 9 & 10
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JEE Main & Advanced Question Paper
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 WAVE OPTICS

Resultant amplitude : After superimposition of the given

waves resultant amplitude (or the amplitude of resultant wave)
is given by A a 12  a 22  2a 1a 2 cos I
For the interfering waves y1 = a 1 sinZ t and y2 = a 2 cosZ t,
(ii)
Phase difference between them is 90o. So resultant amplitude

A a12  a 22

3.2 Phase/Phase difference/Path difference/Time difference
(i) Phase : The argument of sine or cosine in the expression
for displacement of a wave is defined as the phase. For
displacement y = a sin Z t ; term Z t = phase or
instantaneous phase
(ii) Phase difference (I) : The difference between the phases
of two waves at a point is called phase difference i.e. if
1
= a1 sin Zt and y2 = a2 sin (Zt + I) so phase difference = I
(iii) Path difference (') : The difference in path length’s of
two waves meeting at a point is called path difference
O
between the waves at that point. Also ' uI
2S
(iv) Time difference (T.D.) : Time difference between the
T
waves meeting at a point is T.D. uI
2S
3.3 Resultant amplitude and intensity
If suppose we have two waves y1 = a1 sin Zt & y2 = a2 sin (Zt + I);
where a1, a 2 = Individual amplitudes, I = Phase difference
between the waves at an instant when they are meeting a
point. I1, I2 = Intensities of individual waves
Resultant intensity : As we know intensity v (Amplitude) 2
Ÿ I1 ka12 , I 2 ka 22 and I = kA 2 (k is a proportionality
constant). Hence from the formula of resultant amplitude, we
get the following fo rmula of resultant i ntensity
I I1  I 2  2 I1 I 2 cos I
The term 2 I1 I 2 cos I is called interference term. For
incoherent interference this term is zero so resultant intensity
I = I1 + I2.
3.4 Coherent sources
The sources of light which emits continuous light waves of the
same wavelength, same frequency and in same phase or having a
constant phase difference are called coherent sources.
4. INTERFERENCE OF LIGHT
When two waves of exactly same frequency (coming from two
coherent sources) travels in a medium, in the same direction
simultaneously then due to their superposition, at some points
intensity of light is maximum while at some other points intensity
is minimum. This phenomenon is called Interference of light.
4.1 Types of Interference

Constructive interference Destructive interference

(i) When the waves meets a point with same phase, (i) When the wave meets a point with opposite phase, destructive
constructive interference is obtained at that point interference is obtained at that point (i.e. minimum light)
(i.e. maximum light)
(ii) Phase difference between the waves at the point of (ii) I = 180° or (2n – 1) S; n = 1,2, ....
observation I = 0° or 2 nS or (2n + 1) S; n = 0, 1,2, .....
O
(iii) Path difference between the waves at the point of (iii) ' 2n  1 (i.e. odd multiple of O/2)
2
observation ' = nO (i.e. even multiple of O/2)
(iv) Resultant amplitude at the point of observation (iv) Resultant amplitude at the point of observation will be
will be maximum minimum
a1 = a 2 Ÿ Amin = 0 Amin = a1 – a2
If a1 = a 2 = a0 Ÿ Amax = 2a0 If a1 = a2 Ÿ Amin = 0
(v) Resultant intensity at the point of observation (v) Resultant intensity at the point of observation will be minimum
will be maximum
2 2
I max I1  I 2  2 I1 I 2 I max I1  I 2 I min I1  I 2  2 I1 I 2 I min I1  I 2

If I1 = I2 = I0 Ÿ Imax = 2 I0 If I1 = I2 = I0 Ÿ Imin = 0
WAVE OPTICS

4.2 Resultant intensity due to two identical waves = Wavelength of monochromatic light emitted from
source
For two coherent sources the resultant intensity is given by

I I1  I 2  2 I1I 2 cos I
For identical source I1 = I2 = I 0

I
Ÿ I I0  I0  2 I0 I0 cos I 4 I0 cos 2
2

T
[1 + cosT 2 cos 2 ]
2

(1) Central fringe is always bright, because at central

Ÿ In interference redistribution of energy takes place in position I= 0° or '= 0
the form of maxima and minima. (2) The fringe pattern obtained due to a slit is more bright
than that due to a point.
I max  I min
Ÿ Average intensity : I av I1  I 2 a 12  a 22 (3) If the slit widths are unequal, the minima will not be
2
co mplete da rk. Fo r very large wi dth uniform
Ÿ Ratio of maximum and minimum intensities : illumination occurs.
2
§ I1  I 2 · § I1 / I 2  1 ·
2 2 2 (4) If one slit is illuminated with red light and the other slit
I max ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ § a1  a 2 · § a1 / a 2  1 ·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ is illuminated with blue light, no interference pattern is
I min ¨ I  I ¸ ¨ I / I 1 ¸ ¨ a a ¸ ¨ a / a 1 ¸
© 1 2 ¹ © 1 2 ¹ © 1 2 ¹ © 1 2 ¹ observed on the screen.
(5) If the two coherent sources consist of object and it’s
§ I max ·
¨ 1 ¸ reflected image, the central fringe is dark instead of
I1 a1 ¨ I min ¸ bright one.
also ¨ ¸
I2 a2 ¨ I max  1 ¸ 5.1 Path difference
¨ I ¸
© min ¹
Path difference between the interfering waves meeting at a
Ÿ If two waves having equal intensity (I1 = I2 = I0) meets yd
at two locations P and Q with path difference '1 and '2 point P on the screen is given by x d sin T where x is
D
respectively then the ratio of resultant intensity at point
the position of point P from central maxima.
I1 § S' ·
cos 2 cos 2 ¨ 1 ¸
P and Q will be
IP 2 © O ¹
IQ I § S' ·
cos 2 2 cos 2 ¨ 2 ¸
2 © O ¹

5. YOUNG’S DOUBLE SLIT EXPERIMENT (YDSE)

Monochromatic light (single wavelength) falls on two narrow
slits S 1 and S 2 which are very close together acts as two
coherent sources, when waves coming from two coherent
sources (S 1, S2) superimposes on each other, an interference For maxima at P : x nO ;
pattern is obtained on the screen. In YDSE alternate bright
where n = 0, r 1, r 2, …….
and dark bands obtained on the screen. These bands are called
Fringes. 2n  1 O
and For minima at P : x ;
d = Distance between slits 2
D = Distance between slits and screen where n = r 1, r 2, …….
 WAVE OPTICS

Note :- If the slits are vertical, the path difference (x) is If film is put in the path of upper wave, fringe pattern shifts
d sinT , so as T increases, ' also increases. But if slits upward and if film is placed in the path of lower wave, pattern
are horizontal path difference is d cos T , so as T shift downward.
increases, x decreases.

D E
Fringe shift = P 1 t P 1 t
d O
Ÿ Additional path difference = (P – 1)t

P 1 t
Ÿ If shift is equivalent to n fringes then n
O
5.2 More about fringe nO
or t
(i) All fringes are of equal width. Width of each fringe is P 1
OD O Ÿ
E and angular fringe width T Shift is independent of the order of fringe (i.e. shift of
d d zero order maxima = shift of nth order maxima.
(ii) If the whole YDSE set up is taken in another medium then Ÿ Shift is independent of wavelength.
changes so E changes
6. ILLUSTRATIONS OF INTERFERENCE
Oa Ea 3
e.g. in water O w Ÿ Ew Ea
Pw Pw 4 Interference effects are commonly observed in thin films when
their thickness is comparable to wavelength of incident light (If it
1 is too thin as compared to wavelength of light it appears dark and
(iii) Fringe width E v i.e. with increase in separation between if it is too thick, this will result in uniform illumination of film). Thin
d
layer of oil on water surface and soap bubbles shows various
the sources, E decreases.
colours in white light due to interference of waves reflected from
(iv) Position of n th bright fringe from central maxima the two surfaces of the film.
nO D
xn nE ; n = 0, 1, 2, ....
d
(v) Position of n th dark fringe from central maxima
2 n  1 OD 2n  1 E
xn ; n = 1, 2, 3....
2d 2

(vi) In YDSE, if n1 fringes are visible in a field of view with

light of wavelength O1, while n2 with light of wavelength
2
in the same field, then n1O1 = n2O2 .

5.3 Shifting of fringe pattern in YDSE

If a transparent thin film of mica or glass is put in the path of

one of the waves, then the whole fringe pattern gets shifted.
WAVE OPTICS

6.1 Thin films If v = actual frequency, v’ =Apparent frequency, v = speed of

In thin films interference takes place between the waves reflected source w.r.t stationary observer, c = speed of light
from it’s two surfaces and waves refracted through it. Source of light moves Source of light moves
towards the stationary away from the stationary
observer (v << c) observer (v << c)
(i) Apparent frequency (i) Apparent frequency
§ v· § v·
Qc v ¨1  ¸ and Qc v ¨1  ¸ and
© c¹ © c¹
Apparent wavelength Apparent wavelength
§ v· § v·
O c O ¨1  ¸ Oc O¨ 1  ¸
© c¹ © c¹
Interference in reflected Interference in refracted
light light (ii) Doppler’s shift : Apparent (ii) Doppler’s shift : Apparent
wavelength < actual wavelength > actual
Condition of constructive Condition of constructive
wavelength, So spectrum of wavelength, So spectrum
interference (maximum interference (maximum
the radiation from the source of the radiation from the
intensity) intensity)
of light shifts towards the source of light shifts
O O
' 2P t cos r 2n r 1 ' 2P t cos r 2n red end of spectrum. This towards the violet end of
2 2
For normal incidence r = 0 For normal incidence is called Red shift Doppler’s spectrum. This is called

O v
so 2Pt 2n r 1 2Pt = nO shit 'O O. Violet shift Doppler’s shift
2 c

Condition of destructive Condition of destructive v

'O O.
interference interference c
(minimum intensity) (minimum intensity)
O O 8. DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT
' 2P t cos r 2n ' 2P t cos r 2n r 1
2 2 It is the phenomenon of bending of light around the corners
For normal incidence 2Pt = nO For normal incidence of an obstacle/aperture of the size of the wavelength of light.
O
2Pt = (2n ± 1)
2

The Thickness of the film for interference in visible light

is of the order of 10,000 Å.

7. DOPPLER’S EFFECT IN LIGHT

The phenomenon of apparent change in frequency (or
wavelength) of the light due to relative motion between the source
of light and the observer is called Doppler’s effect.
According to special theory of relativity

v' 1r v / c
v 1  v 2 / c2
 WAVE OPTICS

8.1 Types of diffraction (ii) Minima occurs at a point on either side of the central
maxima, such that the path difference between the
The diffraction phenomenon is divided into two types
waves from the two ends of the aperture is given by
' = nO; where n = 1, 2, 3 ..... i.e. d sin T = nO;
Fresnel diffraction Fraunhofer diffraction

(i) If either source or screen (i) In this case both source nO

or both are at finite distance
from the diffracting device
(obstacle or aperture), the
diffraction is called Fresnel
type.
(ii) Common examples :
Diffraction at a straight edge
narrow wire or small opaque
disc etc.
and screen are effectively
at infinite distance from
the diffracting device.
(ii) Common examples :
Diffraction at single slit,
double slit and diffraction
grating.
Ÿ sin T
d
(iii) The secondary maxima occurs, where the path
difference between the waves from the two ends of the
O
aperture is given by ' 2n  1 ; where n = 1, 2, 3 .....
2
O 2n  1 O
i.e. d sin T 2n  1 Ÿ sin T
2 2d

8.3 Comparison between interference and diffraction

Interference Diffraction
Results due to the superposition Results due to the super-
of waves from two coherent position of wavelets from
source. different parts of same
wave front. (single coherent
8.2 Diffraction of light at a single slit source)
In case of diffraction at a single slit, we get a central bright All fringes are of same width All secondary fringes are of
band with alternate bright (maxima) and dark (minima) bands
OD
of decreasing intensity as shown E same width but the central
d
maximum is of double the
width
OD
E0 2E 2
d

All fringes are of same intensity Intensity decreases as the

order of maximum increases.
Intensity of all minimum may be Intensity of minima is not
zero. Positions of nth maxima zero. Positions of nth
and minima secondary maxima and

nOD , OD
Xn Xn Bright 2n  1 ,
Bright
d d
OD nOD
Xn Dark 2n  1 Xn Dark
d d

Path difference for nth maxima for nth secondary maxima

O
2O D ' = nO ' 2n  1
(i) Width of central maxima E 0 and angular width 2
d
Path difference for nth minima Path difference for nth
2O
d ' = (2n – 1)O minima ' = nO
WAVE OPTICS

8.4 Diffraction and optical instruments 9.2 Polarised light

The objective lens of optical instrument like telescope or The light having oscillations only in one plane is called Polarised or
microscope etc. acts like a circular aperture. Due to diffraction plane polarised light.
of light at a circular aperture, a converging lens cannot form a (i) The plane in which oscillation occurs in the polarised light
point image of an object rather it produces a brighter disc is called plane of oscillation.
known as Airy disc surrounded by alternate dark and bright
(ii) The plane perpendicular to the plane of oscillation is called
concentric rings.
plane of polarisation.
(iii) Light can be polarised by transmitting through certain
crystals such as tourmaline or polaroids.

9. 3 Polarization by Scattering
When a beam of white light is passed through a medium
containing particles whose size is of the order of
1.22 O wavelength of light, then the beam gets scattered.
The angular half width of Airy disc = T (where D =
D When the scattred light is seen in a direction
aperture of lens) perpendicular to the direction of incidence, it is found
to be plane polarized (as detected by the analyser).
The lateral width of the image fT (where f = focal length of
The phenomenon is called polarization by scattering.
the lens)

Diffraction of light limits the ability of optical

instruments to form clear images of objects when they
are close to each other.

9. POLARISATION OF LIGHT
Light propagates as transverse EM waves. The magnitude of
electric field is much larger as compared to magnitude of
magnetic field. We generally prefer to describe light as electric
field oscillations.
9.4 Polarization of Light by Reflection
9.1 Unpolarised light
The light having electric field oscillations in all directions in When unpolarized light is reflected from a surface, the
the plane perpendicular to the direction of propagation is reflected light may be completely polarised, partially
called Unpolarised light. The oscillation may be resolved into polarized or unpolarized. This would depend on the
horizontal and vertical component. angle of incidence.
The angle of incidence at which the reflected light is
completely plane polarized is called polarizing angle or
Brewster’s angle. (i p)
 WAVE OPTICS

9.5 Polaroids
It is a device used to produce the plane polarised light. It is based
on the principle of selective absorption and is more effective than
the tourmaline crystal. or
It is a thin film of ultramicroscopic crystals of quinine idosulphate
with their optic axis parallel to each other.

(i) Polaroids allow the light oscillations parallel to the I = I0 cos 2 T and and A 2 A 20 cos 2 T ŸA = A0 cos T
transmission axis pass through them. If T = 0°, I = I0, A = A0,
(ii) The crystal or polaroid on which unpolarised light is
If T = 45°, I =I0/2, A A0 / 2
incident is called polariser. Crystal or polaroid on which
polarised light is incident is called analyser. If T = 90°, I = 0, A = 0
(ii) If Ii = Intensity of unpolarised light.
Ii
So I 0 i.e. if an unpolarised light is converted into
2
plane polarised light (say by passing it through a
polaroid or a Nicol-prism), its intensity becomes half
Ii
and I cos 2 T
2

I max  I min
Percentage of polarisation u100
I max  I min

9.7 Brewster’s law

Brewster discovered that when a beam of unpolarised light is
reflected from a transparent medium (refractive index =P), the
When unpolarised light is incident on the reflected light is completely plane polarised at a certain angle
polariser, the intensity of the transmitted polarised light of incidence (called the angle of polarisation Tp).
is half the intensity of unpolarised light. Also P = tan Tp Brewster’s law
(i) For i < Tp or i > Tp
(iii) Main uses of polaroids are in wind shields of automobiles,
sun glassess etc. They reduce head light glare of cares
and improve colour contrast in old paintings. They are
also used in three dimensional motion pictures and in optical
stress analysis.
9.6 Malus law
This law states that the intensity of the polarised light
transmitted through the analyser varies as the square of the
cosine of the angle between the plane of transmission of the
analyser and the plane of the polariser.

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WAVE OPTICS

Both reflected and refracted rays becomes partially

1
polarised Resolving Power (R.P.) =
Limit of Revolution
(ii) For glass T P | 57q , for water T P | 53q
11.1 Resolving power of Microscope
10. VALIDITY OF RAY­OPTICS
2 P sin T
R. P. of microscope
When a parallel beam of light travels upto distances as large O
as few metres it broadens by diffraction of light travels.

10.1 Fresnel Distance

Fresnel distance is the minimum distance a beam of

light can travel before its deviation from straight line
path becomes significant/noticeable.

a2
ZF
O

Since wavelength of light is very small deviation is

very small and light can be assumed as travelling in a
straight line. 11.2 Resolving power of Telescope
Hence we can ignore broadening of beam by diffraction
upto distances as large as a few meters, i.e., we can 1 D
R.P. of telescope
assume that light travels along straight lines. Hence dT 1.22 O
ray optics can be taken as a limiting case of wave optics.
where D is aperture of telescope.
Hence Ray optics can be taken as a limiting case of
waveoptics.

11. RESOLVING POWER

When two point objects are close to each other their

images diffraction patterns are also close and overlap
each other.

The minimum distance between two objects which can

be seen seperately by the object instrument is called
limit of resolution of the instrument.
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