UNIVERSITY OF LEICESTER ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

______4th/MSc________ Year Examinations Solution No: _____1____________

Paper No: ____EG3121/4121/7038__ Page No: ________1____________

Title of Paper: __Aerospace Materials___________ Date: __Summer 2018_

Part: ____________________________

Note to student using these solutions for revision in future years: descriptive solutions are in
note form. These solutions are prepared for the marker, assessor and external examiner, not
primarily as learning materials. To get full marks you need to explain the points in your own
words in a way that demonstrates a sound grasp of the underlying concepts. You need to
bring in ideas from outside reading. If you make relevant alternative points that answer the
question then you can also achieve the marks. Simply repeating these notes will not achieve
full marks.

(a)

Fuselage skin is fatigue and fracture toughness critical [1 mark] and 2xxx series
alloys have the best specific fracture toughness/fatigue performance [1 mark]

Main requirement for the wing skins is tension and compression strength and
stiffness [1 mark] and 7xxx series alloys generally have the best specific strength [1
mark]

Fuselage crown and keel stringers reinforce the skin in regions of maximum bending
so are strength-driven in contrast to the skin [1 mark]

[Sub-total 5 marks]
(b)

-T4 is naturally age hardened, producing a GPB zone dominated microstructure

(which gives better fatigue resistance needed for the pressurised fuselage) [1 mark]
than would be obtained if the alloy had been artificially hardened into the –T6 temper
because the strengthening of such a phase would be via a different precipitate
(semi-coherent). [2 marks]

Artificial aging gives higher static strength for the wing structures [1 mark], and the
overaged T7 is preferred to T6 because of corrosion resistance [1 mark] due to
reducing coherency of the precipitate changing the electrochemical driving forces [1
mark].
[Answers must mention application to wing and fuselage to achieve all the marks in
order to demonstrate that the knowledge has been applied to this problem, just
defining the tempers only gets the basic marks]

[Sub-total 6 marks]

1
(c)
Briefing should cover the following main points which should be expanded for full
marks. Alternative points from outside reading, interpretations of the data or
comparisons may also be awarded marks in line with University grade descriptors.

• It is marketed as an aluminium-lithium alloy, yet copper seems to be the main alloying

element.

Atomic mass of Li << Cu so the atm% Li in the alloy is greater than Cu. This is why it
is in the 2xxx series rather than 8xxx. Early Al-Li alloys with only Li had poor
toughness. [Up to 3 marks]

• An increase in specific stiffness of over 13% is claimed – surely this is marketing

exaggeration?

It is reasonable, the reduction in density (due to extremely low density of Li)

combined with the unusual alloying effect of increasing stiffness does result in this
magnitude of change (or even more). Students could demonstrate this with a simple
calculation based on the data provided and generic typical properties. [up to 3
marks]

• The –T8 temper is described as cold working followed by artificial ageing, why is this
better than more common tempers that we are used to using?

The cold working will increase dislocation density which, as well as improving
strength in their own right can then act as nucleation points for the precipitates,
potentially resulting in a more optimum distribution of precipitates [up to 3 marks].

[Sub-total 9 marks]

[Question total 20 marks]

Setter: ___HRW_______________

Assessor: __RWT________________

Co-ordinator: ___HRW_______________

2
 UNIVERSITY OF LEICESTER ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

______4th/MSc________ Year Examinations Solution No: _____2____________

Paper No: ____ EG3121/4121/7038__ Page No: ________1____________

Title of Paper: __Aerospace Materials___________ Date: __ Summer 2018__

Part: ____________________________

2.)
(a)
Alpha: Non-structural – corrosion resistance or conductivity.
Near-alpha: Best creep resistance
Alpha/Beta: Best compromise of properties
Beta: Highest strength potential.

[2 marks]
[Sub-total 2 marks]
(b)

(i) Ti-4Al-4Mo-2Sn-0.25Si is an alpha/beta alloy [1 mark]

Al is alpha-stabilising, Mo is beta stabilising [1 mark]

[Sub-total 2 marks]
(ii) Ti-5.5Al-3.5Sn-3Zr-1Nb is a near-alpha. [1 mark]

Al is alpha stabilising, Sn and Zr neutral. [1 mark]

[Sub-total 2 marks]
(iii) Ti-12Mo-5Ta is a beta alloy [1 mark]

Mo is beta-stabilising. Ta is neither a well-known alpha or beta stabiliser so assume

neutral [1 mark]
[Sub-total 2 marks]
(c)
Critique should cover the following main points which should be expanded for full
marks.

Ti-6Al-4V is the most common Ti-alloy, alpha/beta so good all round properties [1
mark]

ELI grade improves toughness [1 mark]. Important here for fracture resistance in this
critical primary component [1 mark].

Beta Anneal gives best crack growth resistance and high cycle fatigue resistance cf
MA or STA forms… [2 marks]
…because it has a widmanstatten microstructure from annealing above the beta
transus. [1 mark]
Both STA and MA will have primary alpha grains in the microstructure and will have
better static strength and low cycle fatigue resistance respectively. [2 marks].

[Sub-total 8 marks]
(d)
Magnesium has very low density with correspondingly low strength and stiffness [1
mark]. However offers a very attractive option for geometry constrained parts like

3
helicopter gearboxes, recently aircraft seating [2 marks]. Metallurgically similar to
aluminium except HCP so less ductile. Can be age hardened, usually used in cast
form. [1 mark]

[Sub-total 4 marks]

[Question total 20 marks]

Setter: ___HRW_______________

Assessor: __RWT________________

Co-ordinator: ___HRW_______________

4
 UNIVERSITY OF LEICESTER ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

______4th/MSc________ Year Examinations Solution No: _____3____________

Paper No: ____ EG3121/4121/7038__ Page No: ________1____________

Title of Paper: __Aerospace Materials___________ Date: __ Summer 2018__

Part: ____________________________

3.)
((a)
(i)
This effect is known as the yield strength anomaly [1 mark]
For a dislocation to travel from gamma into gamma prime phase, it must form an
Anti-phase boundary and dislocation pair. [1 mark]
The mechanisms is called Kear-Wilsdorf lock… [1 mark]
… which is the thermally activated (i.e. it happens more easily at higher temperature)
cross-slip of a leading dislocation onto another slip plane [1 mark].
The trailing dislocation forming the APB doesn’t cross-slip and therefore gets locked,
restricting dislocation movement and therefore improving yield strength [1 mark].

[Sub-total 5 marks]
(ii)
Disc – Rene 88 powder alloy [1 mark] because this is a strength critical component
operating at a moderately high temperature. [1 mark] Fig Q1.1 shows this alloy has
higher strength [1 mark] and powder processed or wrought forms of Ni-superalloys
benefit from grain boundary strengthening [1 mark]

[Sub-total 4 marks]
(b)
RR3000 @ 200MPa => P=30,000 [1 mark, exact soln. so no allowable range
needed]

𝑃 30,000
[𝑇−20] [1050+273−20]
𝑡𝑟 = 10 = 10 = 474 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 [1 mark]

t_ri t_i/t_ri
TO 474 7.03E-5
CLB 6175 1.08E-4
CRZ 42711 1.56E-4
APP 3942255 4.23E-8 [2 marks]

Σ ti/tri = 3.34 x10-4 [1 mark]

1/3.34 x10-4 = 2990 cycles = 22530 hours [2 marks]

[Sub-total 7 marks]
(c)
Simple undercooling occurs when the temperature of a liquid drops as you move
away from the solidification front, and leads to dendritic growth. This is because the
tip of any random perturbation in the solidification front is in a region of lower
temperature, which makes it more likely material will solidify at the tip. In contrast,
with increasing temperature away from the solidification front, any perturbation is

5
removed. [1 mark]

Constitutional undercooling is a similar effect, but due to the change in liquidus

temperature resulting from local variation in composition during solidification, it tends
to drive columnar to equiaxed transition, introducing grain boundaries perpendicular
to solidification. [1 mark]

Constitutional undercooling can be offset to some extent by applying a positive

temperature gradient and by using very slow solidification rates (since this gives time
for diffusion to reduce the peak concentration of B near the solidification front). Use
of Bridgeman furnace - prevents CET whilst solidification occurring. [2 marks]

[Sub-total 4 marks]
[Question total 20 marks]

Setter: ___HRW_______________

Assessor: __RWT________________

Co-ordinator: ___HRW_______________

6
 UNIVERSITY OF LEICESTER ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

______4th/MSc________ Year Examinations Solution No: _____4____________

Paper No: ____ EG3121/4121/7038__ Page No: ________1____________

Title of Paper: __Aerospace Materials___________ Date: __ Summer 2018__

Part: ____________________________

4.)
(a)
(i)
P 12000  1.5
 limit = = = 257 MPa
Askin cross−section 2  40  0.875

[Sub-total 2 marks]
(ii) [45/-45/0/90]s so there are 2 x 0°, 1 x 90° and 4 x +/- 45° plies:
2/7 of the plies are 0°,
1/7 are 90°
4/7 are +/- 45°
 2  4   1 
E = 140   + 140   0.1 + 140   0.1 = 50.0 GPa
 7  7   7 
[3 marks]
[Sub-total 3 marks]
(iii)
 comp microbuckle = 340 MPa
340/257 = 1.32
RF=1.32
[1 mark]
Critical skin stress for shear crimping:

𝑡𝑐 𝐺𝑐 𝑏 20×220
𝜎𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 = = = 2514 𝑀𝑃𝑎 [2 marks]
2𝑡𝑓 𝑏 2×0.875

2514/257 = 9.8
RF=9.8
[1 mark]
3
𝜎𝐻𝑂𝐹𝐹 = 0.5 3√𝐸𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐸𝑐 𝐺𝑐 = 0.5√50000 × 310 × 220 = 753 𝑀𝑃𝑎 [1 mark]
753/257 = 2.9
RF=2.9
Compressive microbuckling is the most critical failure mode. [1 mark]

[Sub-total 6 marks]
(iv)
All failure modes could be reduced. Both shear crimping and skin wrinkling stresses
are over-designed. Core thickness could be reduced or a lower density honeycomb
selected [1 mark – calculation not required] but global buckling of the panel would
need to be checked [1 mark]. Intracellular buckling has also not been checked and
would require the cell size of the honeycomb to be known. [1 mark].

7
 [Sub-total 3 marks]
(c)
A material that responds to an external stimulus in a controlled and engineered
manner, usually whilst also performing a structural role [1 marks].

Students can select one of the examples of a smart material presented in the
module, or an alternative from outside reading. The ones presented in the module
were:
Thermoelectric materials
Bistable/morphing composites
Shape memory alloys and polymers
Self-healing materials
[1 mark for one of the above or a reasonable alternative suggestion]

Using the example of the bistable/morphing composites – the physical mechanism is

the use of highly asymmetric lay-ups or residual stress programming to achieve
snap-through behaviour [1 mark for a basic statement/definition, 1 mark for
additional detail demonstrating additional reading or a very clear technical
comprehension]

Example: a bistable/morphing composite could be used for a trailing edge flap in lieu
of a conventional hinge – this could reduce mass and parasitic drag.
[1 mark for valid example, 1 mark for a clear exposition of the benefits]

[Sub-total 6 marks]

[Question total 20 marks]

Setter: ___HRW_______________

Assessor: __RWT________________

Co-ordinator: ___HRW_______________

8
 UNIVERSITY OF LEICESTER ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

______4th/MSc________ Year Examinations Solution No: _____5____________

Paper No: ____ EG3121/4121/7038__ Page No: ________1____________

Title of Paper: __Aerospace Materials___________ Date: __ Summer 2018__

Part: ____________________________

5.)

(a)
(i)
2 × 8.1 × 106
𝑉𝑑 = √ = 170.0 𝑚/𝑠
1.225 × 110 × 0.25 × 3.2 × 5.2

[2 marks]
[Sub-total 2 marks]

(ii)

Aileron reversal [1 mark] is the twisting of the outer section of a wing in the opposite
direction to an applied control input, rather than a twisting effect due to the lift of the
whole wing itself in divergence. [1 mark] Above a certain speed this means the
control input is negated or even reversed. [1 mark]

Flutter [1 mark] is a dynamic resonance combining bending and torsion which is

reinforced by the aerodynamic loads on a wing. The bending and twisting oscillation
are out-of-phase and therefore reinforcing [1 mark]. Above a critical speed this
resonance is divergent and catastrophic failure results [1 mark].

[Sub-total 6 marks]

(iii)
Although the elastic modulus is the same, the density is much lower [1 marks]. So,
for the divergence speed and loading capacity, the skins and spars can be thinner
and mass reduced [2 mark]. CFRP is also anisotropic, so the properties can be
tailored to the loading cases, potentially allowing the aeroelastic and static load
cases to be met in an more mass efficient design. [1 mark].

[Sub-total 4 marks]
(b)

Answer should cover the following main points which should be expanded for full
marks. Alternative points from outside reading, interpretations of the data or
comparisons may also be awarded marks in line with University grade descriptors.

Major benefits of pre-preg and autoclave are the ability to achieve high fibre fraction
and low void fraction due to consolidation pressure. This is vital for this application
maintained in the hybrid approach [2 mark]

The size of the components, relatively low production rate and generally flat
component form is acceptable for use of an autoclave. [2 mark]

9
Major benefit of RTM approaches is avoiding the pre-preg shelf life issue, and
generally lower materials cost. This is achieved in the hybrid approach [2 marks].

A closed RTM mould the size of an airliner wing would be practically challenging and
hugely costly. It would be unique to this programme whereas an autoclave could be
used for other parts or if the design changes (only half the tool is completely
bespoke) [2 marks].
[Sub-total 8 marks]

[Question total 20 marks]

Setter: ___HRW_______________

Assessor: __RWT________________

Co-ordinator: ___HRW_______________

10