ABSTRACT

The rapid growth of the PV market during the last five to seven years entailed a
considerable expansion of the encapsulation material market, which temporarily led to
shortages in the supply chain. Simultaneously, module prices decreased significantly,
which resulted in intense pressure on production costs and the cost of PV module
components, inducing changes in the encapsulation material market towards new
materials and suppliers. This pressure together with the huge impact of the encapsulation
material on module efficiency, stability and reliability makes the selection of
encapsulation technologies and materials a very important and critical decision in the
module design process. The extended objective of our project is overview of the different
materials currently in the market, the general requirements of PV module encapsulation
materials, the interactions of these materials with other module components. Field testing,
accelerated stress testing, and design studies have to be done on the encapsulation
materials, processes, and configurations available that will meet the low cost of the
Incorporation of Nano Fillers for Solar PV Encapsulation 2018-2019

encapsulant and performance goals.

Encapsulation materials are defined as all construction materials (excluding cells
and electrical conductors) required in a PV module to provide mechanical support and
environmental isolation. To identify a single material that could satisfy all of the
encapsulation requirements and needs is not possible. Hence more than one material
would have to be assembled as a composite package to fabricate an encapsulation module
satisfying all of the above requirements.

CHAPTER-1 INTRODUCTION

Photovoltaic (PV) modules contain strings of electrically interconnected solar cells

capable of producing practical quantities of electricity when irradiated by sunlight. Silicon
solar cells are fragile and are especially sensitive to brittle failure in tension and bending.
In addition, the electrically conductive metallization materials (functioning as grids,
interconnects, bus bars, and terminals) must be protected from atmospheric corrosion or
other deteriorating interaction with the terrestrial environment. In short, the silicon solar
cells must be mechanically supported, and electrically conductive metallization materials
must be isolated from environmental exposure.
The central core of an encapsulation system is the pottant, a transparent, polymeric
material that is the actual encapsulation material in a module. As, there is a significant
difference between the thermal-expansion coefficients of polymeric materials and of
silicon cells and metallic interconnects, stresses developed from the thousands of daily
thermal cycles can result in fractured cells, broken interconnects, or cracks and separate
ions in the pottant material. To avoid these problems, the pottant material must not
overstress the cell and interconnects, and must itself be resistant to fracture. Hence the
pottant must be a low-modulus, elastomeric material. The pottant materials must have
either inherent weatherability (retention of transparency and mechanical integrity under

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weather extremes) or the potential for long life that can be provided by cost-effective
protection incorporated into the material or the module design [1]. To fulfill these
functions reliably, various composite materials available which can increase the efficiency
of an encapsulant have to be studied. The scope of the Encapsulation Task includes the
identification of composite materials suitable for encapsulant application, fabrication of
the encapsulant, and evaluation of the properties (thermal, mechanical, electrical and
optical) of the fabricated encapsulant.

1.2 problem statement

CHAPTER-2 PV MODULE SETUP

Crystalline silicon PV modules typically consist of a solar glass front cover, an
encapsulation layer, mono- or polycrystalline silicon cells with a metallization on the
front and rear, solder bonds which electrically connect the individual cells, and a back
sheet. Some of the PV modules also include anti-reflecting coating (ARC) which reduces
the reflection of light that falls on the PV module.

Encapsulation:
Encapsulation materials are defined as all construction materials (excluding cells and
electrical conductors) required in a PV module to provide mechanical support and
environmental isolation. To identify a single material that could satisfy all of the

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encapsulation requirements and needs is not possible. Hence more than one material
would have to be assembled as a composite package to fabricate an encapsulation module
satisfying all of the requirements. An encapsulant is used to provide adhesion between the
solar cells, the top surface and the rear surface of the PV module. The encapsulant should
be stable at elevated temperatures and high UV exposure. It should also be optically
transparent and should have a low thermal resistance. In practical use, most solar cells are
in fact encapsulated into a ‘sandwich’ structure that typically consists of
Glass/Ethylenevinyl acetate (EVA)/ ARC-Si/EVA/Tedlar. The sizes and properties of
each layer in encapsulated cells are posits is determined by the shape, the size distribution
and surface treatment of the filler. Besides the clarity, non-yellowing and dimensional
stability, the electrical insulation, curing performance and adhesive processability are also
very important to the encapsulant of solar cell.

CHAPTER-3 EVA AS AN ENCAPSULANT

EVA (ethyl vinyl acetate) is the most commonly used encapsulant material. Most of the
commercially available PV modules are encapsulated with EVA (most commonly used
and cheapest; the only field proven over 20 years.

Solar panel encapsulation ensures the longevity of the solar cell module as they need to be
able to withstand outdoor exposure in all types of climate for periods of 25 years and
more. Solar modules need to convert sunlight to electricity at an acceptable cost
throughout their lifetime. The encapsulation of the solar cells through lamination is a
crucial step in traditional solar PV module manufacturing. Improper lamination can lead
to premature failure of these modules.

The knowledge of complete lamination process not only helps in making a better product
but also lessens losses like cell breakage, air bubbles and delamination, which mostly
occurs due to incorrect processing parameters. EVA comes in thin sheets which are
inserted between the solar cells and the top surface and the rear surface. This sandwich is
then heated to 150 °C to polymerize the EVA and bond the module together

Properties of EVA:

3.1 Merits of EVA as Encapsulant:

• Quality EVA film is known for its excellent durability, also in difficult weather
circumstances, such as high temperature and high humidity.
• Under the right circumstances, EVA film will have excellent adhesive bonding to
solar glass (Not standard glass, solar glass has a rough surface).

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• EVA bonds very well to the back sheet.

• EVA is known for its excellent transparency. This means that the optical transmission
is acceptable and doesn’t block too much of the sunshine trying to reach the solar
cells.

3.2 Demerits of EVA as encapulant:

• Poor heat resistance, low cohesive strength, poor creep resistance and expansion and
contraction.
• Due to UV radiations crack, degradation, discoloration and adhesive failure may
occur.
• Poor mechanical strength, poor corrosion resistance.

CHAPTER-4 NANO FILLERS TO IMPROVE PROPERTIES OF EVA

Incorporation of new materials into EVA to improve the properties of EVA as an
encapsulant of photovoltaic modules, research is done on the possibility of adding new
materials in their processing. Polymer nano composites are widely studied because they
show significant improvements in their properties compared to the base polymer. The
improvements are observed in several properties, such as thermal, electrical and
mechanical. It is essential to develop a new material which overcomes the disadvantages
as the susceptibility to degrade after being exposed to UV radiation and elevated
temperatures for a certain time, which increases the advantages of its use as encapsulating
material, such as transparency, light transmittance and hydrophobic properties of the
material.
To overcome the limitations of EVA, nano fillers are incorporated. This literature gives
the basic information about the nano fillers used to improve the properties of EVA
encapsulant. Nano clay is used as a nano filler to improve the mechanical strength of the
encapsulant, TiO2 is Incorporated to have good UV resistant property and Boron Nitride
can be used as a nano filler to improve the thermal conducting and electrical insulating
property. These three nano fillers and there properties benifial for the encapsulant
efficiency is discussed in this literature [2].

4.1 Nano clay to improve mechanical strength

Clay particles at the nano size possess some unique characteristics unlike the other fillers.
The nanoclay particles are in the platelet form with thickness of just 1 nm and width of

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70~150 nm. This high aspect ratio of 100~150 imparts some anisotropic characteristics to
the film. The specific surface area is of the order of 700~800 sq m/ gm. Therefore loading
of only a few percent (2~7 %) of nanoclay into a polymer matrix drastically alters the
properties due to high interfacial interaction. The optical transparency of the coating film
remains unaltered as the nanosize particles are too fine to scatter the incident visible light
due to its higher wave length. The nano clay particles may be looked upon as inorganic
polymer molecules. Their size is comparable to the polymeric macromolecules. Organic
surface treatment or encapsulation makes these clay particles compatible with the organic
polymers. This enables formation of hybrids with novel physio-chemical properties.
Clay-based nanocomposites generate an overall improvement in physical performances.
The most widely used ones are the phyllosilicates (smectites). They have a shell-shaped
crystalline structure with Nano metric thickness. Clays are classified according to their
crystalline structures and also to the quantity and position of the ions within the
elementary mesh. The elementary or primitive mesh is the simplest atomic geometric
pattern, which is enough for duplicating the crystalline network, by repeating itself
indefinitely in the three directions. The most common usage concerns organomodified
Montmorillonite (MMT), a natural phyllosilicate extracted from Bentonite. Raw formula
of Montmorillonite is (Na, Ca)0,3(Al, Mg)2Si4O10(OH)2, nH2O.Following novel
properties are obtainable in the coating films by Nano clay incorporation:

• High mechanical strength

Nano clay increase the Tg of the polymer matrix by 10~15 deg C. The tensile strength
goes up by 50~60 %. This results in films which are tougher and display high scratch
resistance. Harder films will yield better impact resistance and dirt repellency. In a way,
nano clays act like “cross linkers”

• Imperviousness

Superior barrier properties retard ingress of water, gases and vapors across the film
improving corrosion resistance of EVA. It avoids the yellowing of the PV modules. It also
avoids the aging of PV modules.

• Enhanced heat resistance

Nanoclay increases the dimensional stability and the heat distortion temperature of the
films. There is a marked reduction in weight loss upon heating due to the arrest of the
gaseous decomposition products. Formation of char layer and platelet structure impart
good fire retardancy to the matrix.
Hence by the incorporation of nanoclay in EVA fabrication, the mechanical strength and
corrosion resistance is achieved.

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• Improvement in the barrier property of EVA

Nano clay is used to increase the barrier properties by creating a maze or tortuous path
that retards the progress of the gas molecules through the matrix. The direct benefit of the
formation of such a path is clearly observed in Nano clay nanocomposites by improved
barrier properties.

• Improvement in the transparency of the film

Nano clay are just 1 nm thick, thus, when single layers are dispersed in a EVA matrix, the
resulting nanocomposite is optically clear in visible light. The visible region is not
affected by the presence of the Nano clay particles, and retains the high transparency of
EVA film.

• Improvement in the flame retardation property

In general, the nanocomposites flame retardant mechanism involves a high-performance
carbonaceous-silicate char, which builds up on the surface during burning. The EVA
polymer is widely used as an encapsulate, but however the EVA is easily flammable and
also releases the toxic CO gas during combustion. To reduce the flammability and release
of CO from EVA addition of flame retarding filler is necessary. Since Nano clay exhibits
the flame retarding property, it must be dispersed in the EVA matrix to affect the
flammability of the nanocomposites [3].

4.2 Boron Nitride to improve electrical insulation and thermal conduction

Boron nitride is a white solid material in the pressed form. It is a low porosity solid. It is
easily machined into complex shapes using standard carbide tooling. The material is
anisotropic in its electrical and mechanical properties due to the platy hexagonal crystals
and their orientation during the hot press consolidation.
Boron nitride nanoparticles possess high thermal conductivity, and are a good conductor
of heat. They are also a good electrical insulator, and have high-temperature lubricity
features. The properties of Boron Nitride compound are given in the following table.
These properties have to be considered while manufacturing the hybrid mixture of EVA
and Boron Nitride encapsulate film.

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Process of manufacturing the hybrid combination of EVA and Boron Nitride:

According to previous researchs made, in order to incorporate Boron Nitride in EVA

encapsulant, samples of Ethylene-Vinyl Acetate (EVA) are doped with particles of Boron
Nitride (BN) in concentrations ranging from 0-60% w/w. Thermal conductivity is
measured using a Differential Scanning Calorimetery (DSC) technique. The thermal
conductivity of parent EVA is increased from 0.24W/m K to 0.80W/m K for the 60%

w/w sample. Two PV laminates are made. One using the parent EVA the other using
EVA doped with 50% BN. When exposed to a one directional heat flux the doped
laminate is, on average, 6% cooler than the standard laminate. A finite difference model
has good agreement with experimental results and shows that the use of 60% BN
composite achieved a PV performance increase of 0.3% compared to the standard
laminate.
Since it's the desirable quality of an encapsulate to be electrically insulating and thermally
conducting, EVA is Incorporated with boron nitride as a nano filler. Hence the thermal
conducting capability and electrical insulation of the encapsulant is improved.

4.3 Titanium dioxide to improve UV resistant property

Titanium dioxide (TiO2) has good ultraviolet (UV)-blocking power and is very attractive
in practical applications because of advantages such as nontoxicity, chemical stability at
high temperature, and permanent stability under UV exposure.The UV-absorption
property is a natural attribute of TiO2, which can be explained by the solid band theory.
TiO2 is a kind of semiconductor oxide with a large band gap between its low-energy
valence band and its high-energy conduction band. The band gaps for rutile and anatase
are 3.0 and 3.2 eV, respectively, corresponding to the absorption edges 413 and 388 nm.

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When TiO2 is illuminated by light with energy higher than its band gaps (i.e., with
wavelength shorter than the absorption edges), the electrons will absorb the energy of the
photons and will be excited to cross the band gap, so as to produce the pairs of electrons
and holes. These excited electrons and holes will then result in two competing
consequences: either combing with other holes or electrons, or being captured by the
absorbents surrounding TiO2 and initiating reduction and oxidation reactions. The
reduction reactions of TiO2 leads to the UV protecion mechanism.
The differences in internal structure between rutile and anatase are reflected in their
properties. For instance, the density of rutile (4.25 g/cm3) is higher than that of anatase
(3.89 g/cm3), and the band gap of rutile is also narrower than that of anatase. As a result,
rutile has much higher excited electron hole recombination probability and substantially
lower light-catalyzing activity than that of anatase. Thus, rutile is more suitable for being
used as a UV blocker, whereas anatase is more suitable for being a light catalyzer. The
nano-TiO2 D (rutile) exhibits more than 10-nm blue shift compared with that of the
ordinary TiO2. Meanwhile, among powders D, P, B, and H, the nanoparticle D shows the
strongest absorption power, B the second strongest, followed P and H. The strengthened
absorption and blue shift of the absorption peak of nano-TiO2 result from certain unique
effects of nanomaterials, such as the quantum size effect, nanoscale effect, and quantum
field emission effect.
The physical properties of Titanium D are as given below. These properties of the TiO2
compound must be considered during the fabrication of hybrid mixture of EVA and TiO2
compound.
Chemical symbol: TiO2
Density: 4.23 g/cm3
Molar Mass: 79.9378 g/mol
Melting Point: 1,843° C (3,349° F)
Boiling Point: 2,972°C (5,382° F)
The UV resistant property exhibited by the TiO2 compound can be used to provide UV
protection to the encapsulation of photovoltaic cell. EVA is Incorporated by the TiO2
compound in order to act as an UV resistant encapsulate.

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CHAPTER -4
APPARATUS REQUIRED

4.1 Magnetic stirrer

A magnetic stirrer or magnetic mixer is a laboratory device that employs a rotating force field to
cause a stir bar (or flea) immersed in a {very} liquid to spin very quickly, thus stirring it. The
rotating field is also created either by a rotating magnet or a collection of stationary electromagnets,
placed to a lower place the vessel with the liquid.
Magnetic stirrers are typically employed in chemistry and biology, wherever they will be
used within hermetically closed vessels or systems, while not the requirement for classy rotary seals.
They are preferred over gear-driven motorized stirrers because they are quieter, more efficient, and
have no moving external parts to break or wear out (other than the simple bar magnet itself).
Magnetic stir bars work well in glass vessels usually used for chemical reactions, as
glass doesn't appreciably have an effect on a force field. For larger volumes or a lot of viscous
liquids, some type of mechanical stirring is often required. They do
not need lubricants that might contaminate the reaction vessel and therefore the product. Magnetic
stirrers can also embrace a hot plate or another means for heating the liquid.

A stir bar is that magnetic bar placed among the liquid that provides the stirring action. The stir bar's
motion is driven by another rotating magnet or assembly of electromagnets within the stirrer device,

below the vessel containing the liquid. Stir bars are usually coated in PTFE, or, less often, in glass;
the coatings must be inert with chemicals, not contaminating or reacting with the reaction element
solutions in ammonia.
They are bar formed and infrequently polygonal shape in cross-sectional (sometimes circular),
though a range of special shapes exist for a lot of economical stirring. Most stir bars have a pivot

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ring round the center on that they rotate. The smallest are solely a number of millimeters long and
therefore the largest a number of centimeters. A stir bar gun dog may be a separate magnet on the tip
of a protracted stick (usually coated with PTFE) which might be accustomed take away stir bars
from a vessel.

4.2 Ultrasonicator

Sonication is the process of applying sound vitality to unsettle particles in a solution, for
different purposes, for example, the extraction of various mixes from plants, microalgae
and seaweeds. The improvement in the extraction of bioactive mixes accomplished
utilizing sonication is credited to cavitation in the dissolvable, a procedure that includes
nucleation, development, and breakdown of bubbles in a fluid, driven by the entry of the
ultrasonic waves. Ultrasonic frequencies (>20 kHz) are normally utilized, prompting the
procedure additionally being known as ultra-sonication.
Sonication may be used for the assembly of nanoparticles, like Nano-emulsions, Nano-
crystals, liposomes and wax emulsions, moreover as for waste material purification,
degassing, extraction of alga polysaccharides and epoxy process, adhesive dilution. It is
applied in pharmaceutical, cosmetic, water, food, ink, paint, coating, shaping, Nano-
composite, and plenty of alternative industries

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4.3 LCR meter

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CHAPTER-5 COMPONENTS OVERVIEW

The process of EVA fabrication is carried out to improve the current qualities of EVA as
an encapsulation material. Nano fillers are added as a main component to improves the
efficiency of the encapsulation film. Apart from nano fillers various other chemicals are
also required. Since the properties of the final fabricated film relies on the process by
which it was fabricated, it's important to select the appropriate components. The process
we are following is to dissolve the pure EVA into a solvent in appropriate quantities and
then add the Nano fillers in calculated configuration of weight percentage. To increase the
mechanical strength or cross-linking of EVA a hardener is to be added. Flame retardant
agent is also added.

5.1 Solvents
As our choice is to follow the process of dissolving EVA and then addition of Nano
fillers, hardener and flame retardant, it's important to select the most suitable solvent to
dissolve EVA.
EVA is soluble in aliphatic, aromatic and chlorinated Solvents. The solubility in all
solvents is minimal at room temperature but higher vinyl acetate content grades dissolve
in warm solvents. The choice of solvent is made according to the solubility parameter of
the solvent and the EVA. The following content explains the process to select the solvent
on the basis of solubility parameter.

Solubility Parameter ( ):

The value of solubility parameter ( ) can be calculated from the evaporation enthalpy of
liquid at given temperature:

The relation between the cohesive energy density (CED) and solubility parameter ( ) is:

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As a first approximation and in the absence of strong interactions such as hydrogen

bonding, a polymer δ2 will dissolve in a solvent δ1 if: δ1 – δ2
≤ 1.7 – 2.0.
The solubility parameter can be estimated from the molar attraction constants, E, using
the structural formula of the compound and its density (Table 1 below).
For a polymer:

Where, and M are the density and molecular weight, respectively, of the polymer
repeating unit.

5.2 Hardener
Benzoyl peroxide is a diaroyl peroxide. Both benzoyl peroxide and 2,4-dichlorobenzoyl
peroxide initiate crosslinking at lower temperatures than the other examples. Dicumyl
peroxide is a diaralkyl peroxide. It is most useful in applications that do not require a long
scorch time, such as extrusion. For EVA DCP is used as the hardner, because of its
desirable properties.
Dicumyl peroxide (DCP) is the most widely used peroxide and is usually employed as an
initiator for polymerization, a source of free radicals, a hardener, and a linking agent. It is
widely applied as a crosslinking agent for polyethylene (PE) to improve the physical
properties.
Dicumyl peroxide (DCP) is white crystals peroxide. It is commonly used for crosslinking
applications. DCP decomposes to two cumyl radicals. Peroxides, which generate free
radicals ≥418.6 kJ/mol, possess high crosslinking efficiency due to their ability to abstract
secondary hydrogen commonly present in most cross linkable polymers Dicumyl
peroxide(DCP) is more suitable to be added be added as a cross-linking agent to the EVA
polymer. Dicumyl peroxide is white crystalline powder, which forms dicumyl radicals
when added to EVA polymer. These radicals result in curing process of the polymer. [4]

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5.3 Nano fillers

The Nano fillers added to the EVA are as given below
• Boron Nitride: To improve the thermal conduction and electrical insulation of EVA
film.
• Nano clay: To improve the mechanical strength of the EVA and also to improve it
heat resistance.
• Titanium dioxide: To improve the UV resistance property of EVA film.

Procedure for preparation of films:

• Nano clay was dispersed in 20ml of toluene and magnetically stirred at 700rpm for
15 minutes (solution A).
• EVA was dispersed in 50ml of toluene and magnetically stirred at 700 rpm for 30
minutes (solution B) in warm condition.
• Both solutions A and B were mixed in a beaker and magnetically stirred for 20
minutes.
• The mixed solution was then sonicated for 15 minutes

• DCP was added to the mixture and magnetically stirred for 5 minutes.The mixture

was poured into the moulds and left to dry for 24 hours.

• The dried films were removed and cured for 3 hours in oven at 600C

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References:
[1] Applications of Ethylene Vinyl Acetate as an Encapsulation Material for
Terrestrial Photovoltaic Modules byE.F. Cuddihy, C.C. Coulbert, R.H. Liang, A. Gupta,
P Willis, B. Baum April 15. 1983 Prepared for U S Department of EnergyDOEIJPL-
101287

[2] Properties of Nanofillers in Polymer Damien M. Marquis, Éric Guillaume* and

CarineChivas-Joly Laboratoire national de métrologie et d’essais (LNE) France

[3] Mechanical consideration for photovoltaic encapsulant, M D Kempe, conference

paper NREL 2005.

[4] The Effect of Different Peroxide on LDPE Foam Properties in The Presence of
Polyfunctional Monomers by C.S. Sipaut, R.F. Mansa, A.R. Yugis , M.N. Mohamad
Ibrahim*, Chemical Engineering, School Of Engineering and Information Technology,
Universiti Malaysia. 7 September 2011

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