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20 CAESAR II Technical
Reference Manual
Chapter 1 Introduction
This chapter discusses the organization of the manual and important information regarding user assistance.
In This Chapter
Overview ................................................................................................. 1-2
Program Support / User Assistance ......................................................... 1-3
COADE Technical Support ..................................................................... 1-4
1-2 Introduction
Overview
This CAESAR II Technical Reference Guide is the reference manual for CAESAR II. It presents the theory behind CAESAR II
operations, and explains why certain tasks are performed. Users are urged to review the background material contained in
this manual, especially when applying CAESAR II to unfamiliar types of analysis.
Chapter 2 (see "Configuration and Environment" on page 2-1) discusses the configuration of CAESAR II and the resulting
environment. This includes language support and program customization. In addition to the COADE supplied routines,
several third-party diagnostic packages are also mentioned.
Chapter 3 (see "Piping Screen Reference" on page 3-1), Piping Input Reference, contains images of program-generated
screens, and explains each input cell, menu option, and toolbar button. Also discussed in detail is the Plot Screen, which
displays the input model graphically.
Chapter 4 (see "Structural Steel Modeler" on page 4-1) examines the Structural Steel Modeler and describes all commands,
toolbar buttons, menu items, and input fields.
Chapter 5 (see "Controlling the Dynamic Solution" on page 5-1) discusses the Dynamic Input and Control Parameters: each
input cell, toolbar button, and menu item is examined. The purpose and effects of the various Dynamic Control Parameters
are detailed.
Chapter 6 (see "Technical Discussions" on page 6-1) contains theoretical overviews of various technical methods used in
CAESAR II. Both common and advanced modeling techniques are covered.
Chapter 7 (see "Miscellaneous Processors" on page 7-1) provides information regarding a few miscellaneous auxiliary
processors.
Chapter 8 (see "Interfaces" on page 8-1) details interfaces between CAESAR II and other programs.
Chapter 9 (see "File Sets" on page 9-1) presents a list of files associated with CAESAR II.
Chapter 10 (see "Update History" on page 10-1) lists the CAESAR II update history.
Chapter 1 Introduction 1-3
COADE understands the engineer’s need to produce efficient, economical, and expeditious designs. To that end, COADE has
a staff of helpful professionals ready to address any CAESAR II and piping issues raised by users. CAESAR II support is
available by telephone, e-mail, fax, and the Internet; literally hundreds of support calls are answered every week. COADE
provides this service at no additional charge to the user. It is expected, however, that questions focus on the current version
of the program.
Formal training in CAESAR II and pipe stress analysis is also available from COADE. COADE schedules regular training
classes in Houston and provides in-house and open attendance training around the world. These courses focus on the
expertise available at COADE — modeling, analysis, and design.
1-4 Introduction
In This Chapter
Generation of the CAESAR II Configuration File................................... 2-2
Computational Control ............................................................................ 2-3
Database Definitions................................................................................ 2-8
FRP Pipe Properties................................................................................. 2-11
Geometry Directives................................................................................ 2-14
Graphic Settings ...................................................................................... 2-16
Miscellaneous Options............................................................................. 2-20
SIFs and Stresses ..................................................................................... 2-23
Set/Change Password............................................................................... 2-30
2-2 Configuration and Environment
The configuration or setup file contains directives that dictate how CAESAR II will operate on a particular computer and how
it will perform a particular analysis. Users must click the Save and Exit button at the top left of the Configure/Setup
window to create a new configuration file or to save changes to the existing configuration file. The configuration program
produces the OK window. Click the title in the list to navigate to the appropriate configuration spreadsheets.
Important: The caesar.cfg file may vary from machine to machine and many of the setup directives modify the analysis. Do
not expect the same input file to produce identical results between machines unless the setup files are identical. It is advised
that a copy of the setup file be archived with input and output data so that identical reruns can be made. The units' file, if
modified by the user, would also need to be identical if the same results are to be produced.
The following section explains the CAESAR II setup file options. They are grouped as they appear when chosen from the tabs
on the Configure window.
Chapter 2 Configuration and Environment 2-3
Computational Control
Alpha Tolerance
The breakpoint at which CAESAR II decides that the entry in the Temp fields on the input spreadsheet is a thermal expansion
coefficient or a temperature. The default is 0.05. This means that any entry in the Temp fields whose absolute magnitude is
less than 0.05 is taken to be a thermal expansion coefficient in terms of inches per inch (dimensionless). Use of this field
provides some interesting modeling tools. If an Alpha Tolerance of 1.1 is set, then an entry in the Temp 2 field of -1 causes
the element defined by this expansion coefficient to shrink to zero length. This alternate method of specifying cold spring is
quite useful in jobs having hanger design with cold spring (see chapter 6 (see "Technical Discussions" on page 6-1) for
more details regarding Cold Spring).
Friction Stiffness
The default value for the friction restraint stiffness is 0.175120E+016.
If the structural load normal to a friction restraint is less than the restraint load times the coefficient of friction, the pipe will
not move at this support – this restraint node is "non-sliding." To model the "non-sliding" state, stiffnesses are inserted in
the two directions perpendicular to the restraint's line of action to oppose any sliding motion.
Chapter 2 Configuration and Environment 2-5
Nonlinear convergence problems may be alleviated by reducing the friction restraint stiffness. Lower friction stiffness will
more-readily distribute friction loads throughout the system and speed or allow nonlinear convergence but this lower
stiffness will also affect the accuracy of the results. Lower stiffness values permit more "non-sliding" movement, but given
the indeterminate nature of the friction problem in general, this error may not be crucial.
Disabling this option defaults the program to design spring hangers the traditional way.
Note: For most piping codes, this value is only used during the "minimum wall thickness" computation. Mill tolerance is
usually not considered in the flexibility analysis.
By default this value is 12.5, corresponding to a 12.5% tolerance. To eliminate mill tolerance consideration, set this
directive to 0.0.
2-6 Configuration and Environment
Bourdon Pressure Option #2 (TRANSLATION & ROTATION) includes translational and rotational effects on bends.
OPTION #2 may apply for bends that are formed or rolled from straight pipe, where the bend-cross section will be slightly
oval due to the bending process.
Note: For straight pipe, OPTION #1 is the same as OPTION #2. For elbows, OPTION #1 should apply for forged and
welded fittings where the bend cross-section can be considered essentially circular.
Note: The BOURDON EFFECT (translation only) is always considered when FRP pipe is used, regardless of the actual
setting of the BOURDON FLAG.
Where:
When this Directive is set to "Default", CAESAR II considers the pressure stiffening of bends according to the active Piping
Code.
The default is to use the last value in the particular WRC table. Alternatively, the user may control this extensions
methodology interactively. This causes the program to prompt the user for curve values when necessary.
WRC-107 Version
This directive sets the Version of the WRC-107 bulletin used in the computations. Valid options are:
August 1965
March 1979
March 1979 with the 1B1-1 and 2B-1 off axis curves (default)
2-8 Configuration and Environment
Database Definitions
Expansion Joints
This directive enables the user to specify which Expansion Joint database should be referenced by CAESAR II during
subsequent input sessions. The databases provided include Pathway, Senior Flexonics, IWK, Piping Technology, and China.
Template files are searched for first in the local data directory, and then in the "active SYSTEM" directory. The active
template file is used to "recommend" load cases.
Structural Database
This directive specifies which database file is to be used to acquire the structural steel shape labels and cross section
properties from. The structural databases provided include AISC 1977, AISC 1989, German 1991, South African 1991,
Korean 1990, Australian 1990, United Kingdom, and China.
All system directory names must be of the form: SYSTEM.???, where the .???, is a three-character suffix identifying the
directory. Users can create system directories as needed below the CAESAR II installation folder (i.e. "sister folders to the
default SYSTEM), following this required naming convention. Any folders so named and located will appear in this drop
list. The CAESAR II distribution CD contains language files for English, French, German, and Spanish. These formatting
files can be installed in separate system directories, with an appropriate suffix, to allow switching between languages.
Note that there must be a primary system directory, named system; for the program to place accounting, version, and
diagnostic files that it creates during execution. The secondary system directories are only referenced for language and
formatting files.
2-10 Configuration and Environment
Units' files are searched for first in the local data directory, and then in the “active SYSTEM” directory. The active units file
is used for new job creation and all output generation.
When the piping is pressurized to a value much lower than its design pressure, it may be more accurate to calculate pressure
stiffening based on the Actual Pressure stress, rather than its design strain. Note that this alternative method is a deviation
from the explicit instructions of the BS 7159 code.
If a single expansion coefficient is too limiting for the user’s application, the actual thermal expansion may always be
calculated at temperature in inches per inch (or mm per mm) and entered directly into the Temperature field on the Pipe
spreadsheet.
FRP Density
This field displays the weight of the pipe material on a per unit volume basis. This field is used to set the default weight
density of FRP materials in the piping input module.
Users may create FRP material files as text files with the .frp extension; these files should be stored in the
CAESAR\SYSTEM sub-directory. The format of the files must adhere to the following format:
Chapter 2 Configuration and Environment 2-13
Note: The data lines must follow exactly the order shown above. The four data lines defining the UKOOA envelope are
intended for future use and may be omitted.
By disabling this directive, the standard “code” flexibility factor equations will be applied to all FRP fittings.
If the BS 7159 or UKOOA Codes are in effect, code flexibility factors will always be used, regardless of the setting of this
directive.
By disabling this directive, the standard “code” SIF equations will be applied to all FRP fittings. This also allows manual
specification of these values by the user.
If the BS 7159 or UKOOA Codes are in effect, code SIFs will always be used, regardless of the setting of this directive.
2-14 Configuration and Environment
Geometry Directives
Z-Axis Vertical
By default CAESAR II assumes the Y-axis is vertical with the X and Z-axes in the horizontal plane. If desired, the Z-axis can
be made vertical by checking this box. In this case, the X and Y-axes will be in the horizontal plane.
2-16 Configuration and Environment
Graphic Settings
The directives in this tab are used to set the different plot option colors, font characteristics, and the view options. To
change a color, click it once and then click the ellipses dots button that appears to the right. Select a color from the dialog
box that appears and then click OK. Don’t forget to press the Exit w/Save button when leaving Configuration Setup to
save the color settings.
Advanced Options
These settings should only be used by graphics experts or those who are experiencing difficulties with their graphics, in
which case the User is encouraged to contact COADE for assistance.
Background Colors
Use Background Color
Check this box if you want the plot background to be one uniform color instead of blending between the top and bottom
colors.
Bottom
Sets the color for the bottom of the plot window.
Chapter 2 Configuration and Environment 2-17
Top
Sets the color for the top of the plot window.
Component Color
The following directives are used to define the color for various components in the plot.
Anchors
Used to set the color of anchors when displayed in the graphics.
Expansion Joints
Sets the color of Expansion Joints when displayed in the graphics.
Hangers
Sets the color of the Spring Hangers (and Spring Cans) when displayed in the graphics.
Legend Text
All legends such as Displacements, Temperatures, etc. use this color text when displayed in the graphics.
Node Text
Determines the color of node numbers and node names when displayed in the graphics.
Nozzles
Sets the color of all nozzles when displayed in the graphics.
Pipes
Sets the color of all pipe elements when displayed in the graphics.
Restraints
Sets the color of all restraints (except for anchors and hangers) when displayed in the graphics.
Rigids
Sets the color of all rigid elements when displayed in the graphics.
SIFs/Tees
Sets the color of all Tees when displayed in the graphics.
Steel
Sets the color of all structural steel elements in both the structural steel plot and the piping plot when structural steel is
included.
Miscellaneous Options
These options determine how the graphics are displayed by default or upon using the Reset Plot option while in the
graphics.
2-18 Configuration and Environment
Default Operator
By default CAESAR II will start graphics with this selected as Zoom to Window. Other options include Annotate, Orbit,
Pan, Restore Previous, Select, and Zoom with Mouse. To see a full description of these operators see the CAESAR II
Users Guide.
Default Projection
CAESAR II begins with a default projection of Orthographic. Other options include Perspective, and Stretched.
Default View
CAESAR II begins with a default view of SE Isometric. Other options include SW Isometric, NW Isometric, NE Isometric,
Top, Bottom, Front, Back, Left, Right, and Restore Previous.
Enabling this directive hides node text that is overwritten by other text. This makes reading the plot easier, but eliminates
some node text.
Marker Settings
Sets the color and size of the nodes shown in the graphics.
Shadow Mode
Determines the shadow mode, either Hard, Soft, or None can be selected here. The CAESAR II default is None.
Smooth Transitions
Turn this option on or off to enable the graphics to have a smooth transition when the view is changed. Turning this
directive off will change views instantly and will reduce the video card memory requirements.
Video Driver
Determines the video driver used in plotting. OpenGL, Direct 3D, or Windows Basic Video can be selected here.
Visibility %
Determines the percentage of incident light that passes through an element volume when using the Translucent Objects or
Hidden Lines option in the graphics. Setting this to zero makes all elements completely opaque while a setting of 100%
renders all elements transparent. The default setting is 50%.
Chapter 2 Configuration and Environment 2-19
Output Colors
When plotting code stress in output the program colors the elements in terms of either actual stress or percent of code
allowable. The levels are currently set as follows:
Select the colors desired for the various levels here in Configuration Setup.
Displaced Shape
Sets the color of the Displaced Shape option when displayed in output graphics.
Text Options
Here you can select Font, Font Style, and Font Size and color. Scripts are supported. The different plot texts are Node
Numbers and Names, Annotation, and Legends.
2-20 Configuration and Environment
Miscellaneous Options
MAX - This setting is the default and instructs CAESAR II to place all of the examples and spectrum definitions in the input
stream of “new” dynamic input files.
NONE -This directive eliminates all the example text and all the built in spectrum definitions. This setting is intended for
experienced users.
SPEC -This setting eliminates all of the example text, but leaves the predefined spectrum definition. This means that the
built in spectrum definitions (El Centro etc.) will still be defined, and available for use.
Enable Autosave
When this option is checked, CAESAR II will automatically save the piping input at specified intervals.
By default this directive is turned on, which causes the output processors to generate a Table of Contents upon exit. Turning
this directive off disables the generation of the Table of Contents.
Prompted Autosave
When this option is checked, CAESAR II will prompt the user, at the specified time interval, to save the input. If this option is
not checked, the input will be saved automatically at the specified time intervals (assuming autosave is enabled).
however, that the size of this file is dependent on the size of the model and the number of time steps analyzed. It may
therefore be advantageous from a “disk usage” point of view not to create this file. To instruct CAESAR II not to create this
file, turn this setting off.
User ID
When more than one workstation attempts to the CAESAR II data in the same directory at the same time it causes a
corruption of the control file in the data directory, which may cause abnormal program execution. Therefore, in situations
where there may be more than one concurrent user running CAESAR II in a given data directory each user (or more exactly,
each workstation) should enter a three-character User ID in this field. This creates a separate control file for each User ID to
allow simultaneous access of the CAESAR II data within the same directory.
Note: This User ID is not a password and is specific to the computer requiring access and not to the user.
Chapter 2 Configuration and Environment 2-23
No (default)
When this setting is selected CAESAR II behaves as it always has, and axial stresses are not included in the (Expansion)
Displacement Stress Range value. (This is Se in Eq. (17) of B31.3.)
|Sa| + Se
When this option is selected, the absolute value of the axial stress is added to the (Expansion) Displacement Stress Range,
and the sum is reported as the (Expansion) Displacement Stress Range, Se. This selection is more conservative than (
|Sa| + Sb ) ** 2.
( |Sa| + Sb ) ** 2
When this option is selected, the absolute value fo the axial stress is added to the bending term in the (Expansion)
Displacement Stress Range equation (Se, Eq (17) in B31.3). This selection is less conservative than |Sa| + Se. This
option is more nearly theoretically correct, and consistent with Appendix P Eqs (P17a) and (P17b).
The default is 1.0. To comply with this interpretation (1-34) the user would enter 0.75.
B31.3 Code Interpretation 6-03 dated December 14, 1987 permitted users to ignore the stress intensification for sustained
and occasional loads. To comply with this interpretation (6-03), the user would enter 0.0001.
Chapter 2 Configuration and Environment 2-25
Selecting this check box, allows the program to assume that the fitting geometry meets the requirements of Note 11,
introduced in the A01 addendum, and a flexibility characteristic of 4.4*T/r will be used.
Note: In order to match runs made with CAESAR II prior to Version 4.40, this checkbox must be selected. Prior to
Version 4.40, CAESAR II always used a flexibility characteristic of 4.4*T/r.
If desired, the user may change the way CAESAR II computes the hoop stress value. This directive has the following options:
ID—Hoop stress is computed according to Pd/2t where “d” is the internal diameter of the pipe.
OD—Hoop stress is computed according to Pd/2t where “d” is the outer diameter of the pipe.
Mean—Hoop stress is computed according to Pd/2t where “d” is the average or mean diameter of the pipe.
Lamé—Maximum Hoop stress is computed according to Lamé's solution, = P(Ro2+Ri2)/(Ro2-Ri2).
Enable this check box to use distinct in-plane and out-of-plane SIFs.
Setting this directive to TRUE means that CAESAR II will not apply a weld strength reduction factor. If this directive is set to
FALSE, the weld strength reduction factor will be applied at all bends, tees, and reducers for temperatures greater than 950
ºF (510 ºC).
ASME Website Code Case 178. Activating this option over-rides the directives for "F/A" and "torsion", since the Code
Case explicitly defines how to make the Sustained Case stress calculation.
B31.3 states, “The sum of the longitudinal stresses due to pressure, weight, and other sustained loadings (S1) and of the
stresses produced by occasional loads such as wind or earthquake may be as much as 1.33 times the allowable stress given
in Appendix A. Where the allowable stress value exceeds 2/3 of yield strength at temperature, the allowable stress value
must be reduced as specified in Note 3 in 302.3.2.” The default for B31.3 applications is 33%. If this is too high for the
material and temperature specified then a smaller occasional load factor could be input.
Note that this Configuration Directive is used to "seed" new job files. Once the static load cases have been defined,
changing this directive will have no effect for static analysis. For existing static load case definitions, the occasional load
multiplier can be changed on the Load Case Options tab. Dynamic analyses will always reference this Configuration
Directive.
Chapter 2 Configuration and Environment 2-27
Reduced Intersection
Available options are B31.1(Pre 1980), B31.1(Post 1980), WRC329, ASME SEC III, and Schneider:
Schneider
Activates the Schneider reduced intersection stress intensification factor multiplication. Has the same effect as the Use
Schneider option.
Use PD/4t
Enabling this directive causes CAESAR II to use the simplified form of the longitudinal stress term when computing
sustained stresses. Some codes permit this simplified form when the pipe wall thickness is thin. This option is used most
often when users are comparing CAESAR II results to those from an older pipe stress program. The more comprehensive
calculation, i.e. the Default, is recommended.
Use Schneider
This directive activates the Schneider reduced intersection assumptions. It was because of observations by Schneider that
much of the work on WRC 329 was started. Schneider pointed out that the code SIFs could be in error when the d/D ratio at
the intersection was less than 1.0 and greater than 0.5. In this d/D range the SIFs could be in error by a factor as high as 2.0.
Using the Schneider option in CAESAR II results in a multiplication of the out of plane branch stress intensification by a
number between 1 and 2 when the d/D ratio for the intersection is between 0.5 and 1.0. For B31.1 and other codes that do
not differentiate between in and out-of-plane SIFs the multiplication will be used for the single stress intensification given.
CAESAR II can compute this maximum stress (note, this is not a Code stress) according to either Von Mises Theory or the
Maximum Shear Theory. The selected stress is computed at four points along the axis normal to the plane of bending
(outside top, inside top, inside bottom, outside bottom), and the maximum value is printed in the stress report. The equations
used for each of these yield criteria are listed below. If the Von Mises Theory is used, CAESAR II computes the octahedral
shear stress, which differs from the Von Mises stress by a constant factor.
(For B31.4 Chapter IX, B31.8 Chapter VIII, and DnV this setting controls which equation is used to compute the
"equivalent stress". For these three codes, the equations shown in the code are used to determine the yield criterion, not the
standard mechanical stress equations shown below. These standard mechanical stress equations are used for the other codes
addressed by CAESAR II. )
3D Maximum Shear Stress Intensity (Default)
SI = Maximum of:
S1OT - S3OT
S1OB - S3OB
Max(S1IT,RPS) - Min(S3IT,RPS)
Max(S1IB,RPS) - Min(S3IB,RPS)
Chapter 2 Configuration and Environment 2-29
Set/Change Password
The Security button provides the user with the option of providing a password protection scheme for the configuration file.
By setting a password on the primary configuration file (done by setting the default data directory to the CAESAR II program
directory), a corporate standard can be enforced throughout the network. Subsequent use of the configuration module in
other data directories will allow modification only of display or other environment directives (i.e., those that do not affect
calculated results).
When this button is clicked, a menu displays with four possible selections:
New Password
Access Protected Data
Change Password
Remove Password
New Password
Initially this is the only option available. After entering a password, the user has the ability to change configuration settings
from the program directory, or alter or remove the password. When entering a new password the user is prompted for the
new password a second time to ensure the password was typed as expected by the user the first time.
Change Password
The current password may be changed at any time by a user who has authorization (users must enter the correct existing
password for access to this directive).
Once a password has been set, all computation controls, stress directives, and any other directives, which could affect the
CAESAR II computations are disabled and cannot be changed by the user. All protected directive labels, edit boxes, and
default buttons are grayed out when disabled.
Remove Password
Users with authorization can remove the current password by entering the correct existing password for this directive. Once
a password is removed, all directives in CONFIGURE/SETUP are modifiable by the user from any directory where he/she has
read/write access rights.
CH AP TER 3
In This Chapter
Piping Spreadsheet Data .......................................................................... 3-2
Auxiliary Fields - Component Information ............................................. 3-13
Auxiliary Fields - Boundary Conditions.................................................. 3-39
Auxiliary Fields - Imposed Loads ........................................................... 3-61
Auxiliary Fields - Piping Code Data........................................................ 3-71
Available Commands............................................................................... 3-93
Loop Optimization Wizard ...................................................................... 3-137
3-2 Piping Screen Reference
From
The FROM node number defines the starting end of the element. Node numbers must be numeric, ranging from 1 to 32000.
Normally, the FROM node number is “duplicated forward” by CAESAR II from the preceding element. The node numbers
may be changed by the user, who should take care not to use the same node number more than once in the model.
To
The TO NODE number defines the end of the current element. Node numbers must be numeric, ranging from 1 to 32,000.
The node numbers may be changed by the user, who should take care not to use the same node number more than once in
the model.
Chapter 3 Piping Screen Reference 3-3
Name
This check box is used to assign non-numeric names to node points. Double-clicking this check box activates an auxiliary
spreadsheet where names, of up to 10 characters, can be assigned to the FROM and/or TO nodes. These names will show
up in place of the node numbers in graphic plots and reports (possibly truncated in 80 column reports).
DX
Delta X (DX) defines the element's projected length along the global X direction.
CAESAR II accepts [compound length]—[length]—[fraction] formats (such as feet - inch - fraction or meter - decimal -
centimeters) as valid input values in most cells. Simple forms of addition, multiplication, and division may be used as well
as exponential format.
Enter the DISTANCE between the "TO" and the "FROM" node along the direction specified.
Note that a "tic mark" ( ' ) can be used in place of the first dash ( - ), to indicate feet in this field.
DY
Delta Y (DY) defines the element's projected length along the global Y direction.
CAESAR II accepts [compound length]—[length]—[fraction] formats (such as feet - inch - fraction or meter - decimal -
centimeters) as valid input values in most cells. Simple forms of addition, multiplication, and division may be used as well
as exponential format.
Enter the DISTANCE between the "TO" and the "FROM" node along the direction specified.
Note that a "tic mark" ( ' ) can be used in place of the first dash ( - ), to indicate feet in this field..
DZ
Delta Z (DZ) defines the element's projected length along the global Z direction.
CAESAR II accepts [compound length]—[length]—[fraction] formats (such as feet - inch - fraction or meter - decimal -
centimeters) as valid input values in most cells. Simple forms of addition, multiplication, and division may be used as well
as exponential format.
Enter the DISTANCE between the TO and the FROM node along the direction specified.
Note that a "tic mark" ( ' ) can be used in place of the first dash ( - ), to indicate feet in this field.
3-4 Piping Screen Reference
Note that a "tic mark" ( ' ) can be used in place of the first dash ( - ), to indicate feet in the above examples.
1 Activate by double-clicking the Offsets check box on the Pipe Element Spreadsheet. Deactivate by double-clicking a
second time.
2 Specify the distances from the TO node's position in 3-D space to the actual TO end of the element.
3 Specify the distances from the FROM node’s position in 3-D space to the actual FROM end of the element.
Thermal expansion is “0” for the offset portion of an offset element. No element flexibility is generated for the offset
portion of the element. A common usage for the offset element is shown in the following figure:
Wt/Sch
The Wall Thickness/Schedule field is used to specify the thickness of the pipe. Normal input consists of a schedule
indicator (such as S, XS, or 40), which will be converted to the proper wall thickness by CAESAR II. If actual thickness is
entered, CAESAR II will accept it as entered. Available schedule indicators are determined by the active piping specification,
set via the configuration program. The available schedules are listed below.
XS - Extra Strong
Note: Only the s (standard) schedule applies to wall thickness calculations for DIN.
+Mill Tol %; Wl
The Positive Mill Tolerance is only enabled when IGE/TD/12 is active, and is used when the Base Stress/Flexibility On
directive of the Special Execution Options is set to Plus Mill Tolerance. In that case, piping stiffness and section modulus
is based on the nominal wall thickness, increased by this percentage. The user may change this value on an element-by-
element basis.
If the B31.3 piping code is activated, this field is used to specify the weld strength reduction factor (Wl), to be used in the
minimum wall calculation for straight pipe.
-Mill Tol %
The Negative Mill Tolerance is read in from the configuration file for use in minimum wall thickness calculations. Also, for
IGE/TD/12, this value is used when the Base Stress/Flexibility On directive of the Special Execution Options is set to
Plus Mill Tolerance. In that case, piping stiffness and section modulus is based on the nominal wall thickness, decreased by
this percentage. The user may change this value on an element-by-element basis.
Seam-Welded
B31.3
3-8 Piping Screen Reference
If the B31.3 piping code is active, use the Seam-welded check box to activate the Wl field. Wl the weld strength
reduction factor is used to determine the minimum wall thickness of the element.
IGE/TD/12
Used to indicate when straight pipes are seam welded and affects the Stress Intensification Factor calculations for that pipe
section due to Seam Welded fabrication.
Corrosion
Enter the corrosion allowance to be used order to calculate a reduced section modulus. A “setup file” directive is available
to consider all stress cases as corroded.
Insul Thk
Enter the thickness of the insulation to be applied to the piping. Insulation applied to the outside of the pipe will be included
in the dead weight of the system, and in the projected pipe area used for wind load computations. If a negative value is
entered for the insulation thickness, the program will model refractory lined pipe. The thickness will be assumed to be the
thickness of the refractory, inside the pipe.
Propagate Properties
If this checkbox is left "unchecked", then property changes will only affect the selected elements. If this checkbox is
checked, then property changes will be propagated (duplicated) just as if the change was made on the main input
spreadsheet.
Temperatures
There are nine temperature fields, to allow up to nine different operating cases. Temperature values are checked (by the
error checker) to insure they are within the code allowed ranges. Users can exceed the code ranges by entering the
expansion coefficient in the temperature field in units of length/length. The expansion coefficient can be a useful method of
modeling cold spring effects. Also when material 21(user-defined material) enter temperature *expansion coefficient as in
the example below.
Values entered in the temperature field whose absolute values are less than the Alpha Tolerance are taken to be thermal
expansion coefficients, where the Alpha Tolerance is a configuration file parameter and is taken to be 0.05 by default. For
example, if the user wanted to enter the thermal expansion coefficient equivalent to 11.37in./100ft., the calculation would
be:
Note: A cut short is no more than reducing a pipe element's length to zero (for example; if we wanted 8.5 cm of cold
spring we could put in an 8.5 cm long element and then thermally shrink its length to zero). This allows the cold spring to
be manipulated as an individual thermal case rather than as a concentrated force.
Access to operating conditions 4 through 9 is granted through the Extended Operating Conditions input screen, accessible
via the "chevron" button in the upper right corner of the frame surrounding the standard Temperature and Pressure input
fields. This dialog box may be kept open or closed for the convenience of the user.
Chapter 3 Piping Screen Reference 3-9
CAESAR II will automatically suggest load cases as per IGE/TD/12 Appendix 7, but in order to be correct, the following
convention must be adhered to with respect to specification of the Operating Conditions:
T1 – Max temp
T2 – Min temp
T3 – Min summer temp
T4 – Max winter temp
T5 – Max temp (flow induced) (optional)
T6 – Min temp (flow induced) (optional)
P1 – MIP
P2 – MOP
P3 – Compressor operation
P4 – Demand pressure
HP – Hydrotest pressure
Pressures
There are ten pressure fields, to allow up to nine operating, and one hydrotest, pressure cases. When multiple pressures are
entered, the user should be particularly careful with the set up of the analysis load cases, and should inspect CAESAR II's
recommendations carefully before proceeding.
Access to operating pressures 3 through 9 is granted through the Extended Operating Conditions input screen, accessible
via the "chevron" button in the upper right corner of the frame surrounding the standard Temperature and Pressure input
fields. This dialog box may be retained open or closed at the convenience of the user.
Entering a value in the HydroPress field signals CAESAR II to recommend a Hydrotest load case.
Enter the design gage pressure (i.e. the difference between the |internal and external pressures).
3-10 Piping Screen Reference
Note: The BOURDON (pressure elongation) EFFECT is disabled by default. (It is assumed to be non-conservative.) Users
wishing to enable the BOURDON EFFECT may do so via the Special Execution Options.
The BOURDON EFFECT is ALWAYS considered in the analysis of Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic pipe, Material id=20.
CAESAR II will automatically suggest load cases as per IGE/TD/12 Appendix 7, but in order to be correct, the following
convention must be adhered to with respect to specification of the Operating Conditions:
T1 – Max temp
T2 – Min temp
T3 – Min summer temp
T4 – Max winter temp
T5 – Max temp (flow induced) (optional)
T6 – Min temp (flow induced) (optional)
P1 – MIP
P2 – MOP
P3 – Compressor operation
P4 – Demand pressure
HP – Hydrotest pressure
Piping Materials
Material Name
Materials are entered either by name or number. All available material names and their CAESAR II material numbers are
displayed in the drop list. Since this list is quite long, entering a partial material name (such as A106) allows the user to
select from matching materials. Numbers 1-17 corresponds to the generic materials, without code allowable stresses.
Material 18 represents the cold spring element for “cut short” and material 19 represents the cold spring element for “cut
long.” Material 20 is used to define Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic (FRP) pipe. FRP Pipe requires slightly different material
modeling and the spreadsheet changes to accommodate the difference. Analysis of fiberglass pipe is described in greater
detail in Chapter 6 of the Technical Reference Manual.
When a material has been selected from the database, the physical properties as well as the allowable stresses are obtained
and placed on the spreadsheet. At any later time, if the temperature or piping code is changed, these allowable stress values
are automatically updated.
Material Properties
The Modulus of Elasticity, Poisson's Ratio, and Pipe Density fields are automatically filled in when a material number is
entered. If the user wishes to override any material property extracted from the database, simply change the value to be
modified after the material number has been entered.
The CAESAR II FRP pipe element models an orthotropic material whose properties can be defined by:
Chapter 3 Piping Screen Reference 3-11
a
E - Axial Modulus of Elasticity
h
E - Hoop Modulus of Elasticity
h/a
- Poisson's ratio of the strain in the axial direction resulting from a stress in the hoop direction.
G - Shear Modulus (Not related to the Elastic Modulus and Poisson’s ratio in the conventional manner.)
FRP pipe is invoked from the CAESAR II element spreadsheet with a material type 20. The material name will be
immediately printed and FRP properties from the configuration file will be input on the spreadsheet.
Some of the material parameters are renamed when the FRP material is selected: Elastic Modulus changes to Elastic
Modulus/axial and Poisson's Ratio changes to “Ea/Eh*n h/a”. The latter entry requires the value of the expression: (Ea*n h/a) /
Eh (which happens to be equal to na/h, Poisson's ratio of the strain in the hoop direction resulting from a stress in the axial
direction). The shear modulus G can be defined by entering the ratio of G/Ea (shear modulus to axial modulus) on the
special execution parameters screen. Only one ratio can be entered per job.
Because the hoop modulus is usually considerably higher than the axial modulus for FRP pipe, the decrease in flexural
stiffness at bends and intersections due to changes in the circular cross-section is typically negligible, and so a default
flexibility factor of 1 is used for these components. Similarly, since the fatigue tests performed by Markl on steel pipe will
likely have no bearing on FRP design, an SIF of 2.3 is applied for all fittings. CAESAR II uses these recommendations for all
FRP fittings unless specifically overridden by the user. This can be overridden on a point-by-point basis, or by forcing all
calculations to adhere to the requirements of the governing code (through a CAESAR II configuration parameter). Note that if
the BS 7159 or UKOOA Codes are in effect, all SIFs and flexibility factors will be calculated as per that code regardless of
the configuration parameter settings.
Densities
Pipe Density
The appropriate pipe density is filled in automatically when a proper material number is input. This value may be
overridden by the user at any time. It will then be the user’s value that gets column-duplicated through the remainder of the
input.
Fluid Density
When the internal fluid the piping system transports would significantly affect the weight loads, the fluid density should be
specified. When the specific gravity of the fluid is known, it can be entered here instead of the density, e.g. .85SG. Specific
gravities are converted to the appropriate densities immediately on input. Note that to enter specific gravity, follow the
numeric value with the letters SG (no spaces); this value will then be converted to density.
Note: In the default ENGLISH units system, densities are entered in pounds per cubic inch.
Insulation Density
Enter the weight density (or select from the drop list) of the insulation on a per unit volume basis. (If the insulation
thickness specified above is negative, this field is the weight of the refractory lining, on a per unit volume basis.) If a
selection is made from the drop list, the numeric value will replace the material name when the field is registered.
Insure that this "assumed" value is appropriate for the current application. Refractory densities are much higher than
insulation densities and could lead to under sized restraints. Sample density values for both insulation and refractory
materials are listed below.
MATERIAL DENSITY
AMOSITE ASBESTOS .009259
CAREYTEMP .005787
3-12 Piping Screen Reference
MATERIAL DENSITY
FIBERGLASS (OWEN/CORNING) .004051
SUPER X .01447
MATERIAL DENSITY
A.P. GREEN GREENCAST 94 .09433
Radius
CAESAR II makes the long radius bend calculation whenever a bend is input. If the user wishes to use some other bend
radius the new bend radius can be entered in this field. Alternatively, the "drop list" can be used to select:
short radius bends
3D (3 times the nominal diameter) bends
5D (5 times the nominal diameter) bends
3-14 Piping Screen Reference
Type
For most codes, this refers to the number of attached flanges, and can be selected from the drop list. If there are no flanges
on the bend then leave the Type field blank. A bend should be considered “flanged” if there is any heavy/rigid body within
2 diameters of the bend that will significantly restrict the bends ability to ovalize.
When using the BS 7159 or UKOOA Codes with Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic (FRP) pipe, this entry refers to the material
laminate type, and may be 1, 2, or 3. These laminate types are
All chopped strand mat (CSM) constructing with internal and external surface tissue reinforced layer.
Chopped strand mat (CSM) and woven roving (WR) construction with internal and external surface tissue reinforced
layer.
Chopped strand mat (CSM) and multi-filament roving construction with internal and external surface tissue reinforced
layer.
The Laminate type affects the calculation of flexibility factors and stress intensification factors for the BS 7159 and
UKOOA Codes only.
Angle
The angle to a point on the bend curvature. The user may place additional nodes at any point on the bend curvature provided
the added nodes are not within 5-degrees of each other. (The 5º node-spacing limit may be changed via the configuration
file if necessary.) Note that the element TO node is always physically located at the far end of the bend. By default
CAESAR II places a node at the midpoint of the bend (Designated by the letter M in this field), as well as at the 0-degree
position (start) of the bend if possible.
Node
Node number to be associated with the extra point on the bend. CAESAR II places unique node numbers in these fields
whenever a bend is initiated. New, unique node numbers must be assigned to the points whenever the user adds points on
the bend curvature. If numbering by 5’s and the TO node number for the bend element is 35, a logical choice for the node
number for an added node at 30 degrees on the bend would be 34. The added nodes on the bend can be treated like any
other nodes in the piping system. Nodes on the bend curvature may be restrained, displaced, or placed at the intersection of
more than two pipes. Nodes on a bend curvature are most commonly used as an intersection for a dummy leg, or for the
location of a restraint. All nodes defined in this manner will be plotted at the tangent intersection point for the bend.
Miter Points
Number of cuts in the bend if mitered.
The bend SIF scratch pad may be invoked from the pipe spreadsheet by choosing Environment - Review SIFs at Bend
Nodes. When the user enters a valid mitered bend node number, CAESAR II tells the user if the mitered bend input is closely
or widely spaced. If the bend is determined to be widely spaced and the number of miter cuts is greater than 1, then it is
recommended that the bend be broken down into “n” single cut widely spaced miters, where “n” is the total number of cuts
in the bend. The number of cuts and the radius of the bend are all that is required to calculate the SIFs and flexibilities for
the bend as defined in the B31 codes. The bend radius and the bend miter spacing are related by the following equations:
Fitting Thickness
Enter the thickness of the bend if different than the thickness of the matching pipe. If the entered thickness is greater than
the matching pipe wall thickness, then the inside diameter of the bend will be smaller than the inside diameter of the
matching pipe. Section modulus calculations for stress computations are made based on the properties of the matching pipe
as defined by the codes.
The pipe thickness is used twice when calculating SIFs and flexibility factors -- once as Tn, and once when determining the
mean cross-sectional radius of the pipe in the equation for the flexibility characteristic (h):
h = (Tn)(R) / (r2)
Tn = Thickness of bend or fitting
R = Bend radius
r = Mean cross-sectional radius of matching pipe
= (OD - WT) / 2
OD = Outside Diameter of matching pipe
WT = Wall Thickness of matching pipe
Most codes use the actual thickness of the fitting (this entry) for Tn, and the wall thickness of the matching pipe for the
calculation of the mean cross-sectional radius of the pipe (the WT value). More specifically, the individual codes use the
two wall thicknesses as follows:
The bend fitting thickness (FTG) is always used as the pipe thickness in the stiffness matrix calculations; however, note
that the thickness of the matching pipe (WT) is always used in the bend stress calculations.
K-Factor
Normally the bend flexibility factor is calculated as per the requirements of the active code. The user can override this
calculation by entering a value in this field.
Seam-Welded
B31.3
If the B31.3 piping code is active, the "seam-welded" check box is used to activate the Wl field for bends. The Wl field is
the "weld strength reduction factor" used to determine the minimum wall thickness of the bend element.
IGE/TD/12
Used by IGE/TD/12 to calculate the stress intensification factors due to seam welded elbow fabrication as opposed to
extruded elbow fabrication. This directive is only available when IGE/TD/12 is active.
Wl for Bends
B31.3 - This field is used to define the weld strength reduction factor (Wl) for bend elements. This value is used in the
minimum wall thickness calculations.
ISO 14692 - This code replaces this field with EPTp/(EbTb) where Ep and Eb are the axial modulus of the attached pipe and
the bend respectively, Tp and Tb are the average wall thickness of the attached pipe and the bend respectively. If omitted a
default value of 1.0 is used. This value will affect the calculation of the flexibility factor for bends.
Rigid Elements
Activate by double-clicking the Rigid check box on the pipe element spreadsheet. Deactivate by double-clicking a second
time.
Enter the rigid element weight. This value should always be zero or positive and should not include the weight of any
insulation or fluid.
Chapter 3 Piping Screen Reference 3-17
CAESAR II automatically includes 1.0 times the fluid weight of equivalent straight pipe.
CAESAR II automatically includes 1.75 times the insulation weight of equivalent straight pipe.
Rigid elements with zero weight are considered to be modeling constructs and do not have fluid or insulation weight added.
The rigid element stiffness is proportional to the matching pipe, i.e. a 13 in. long 12 in. diameter rigid element is stiffer than
a 13 in. long 2 in. diameter rigid element. This fact should be observed when modeling rigid elements that are part of a
small pipe/large vessel, or small pipe/heavy equipment model. The stiffness properties are computed using 10 times the
entered thickness of the rigid element. For additional details see Chapter 6 of this manual.
The length must be entered in the Delta Length field (DX, DY, and DZ).
See the discussion of the Valve And Flange Database (see "Valve/Flange Database" on page 3-94) for automatic input of
these types of components.
Flanges
Activate by double-clicking the Flange check box on the Pipe Element Spreadsheet. Deactivate by double-clicking again.
Note: Flange evaluation is based on a specific load case temperature. To evaluate the flanges in a model, use the Load
Case Options tab of the Static Load Case Editor to specify which operating temperature the flanges should be evaluated
to.
From/To/Both
Specify whether the flange is on the element's "FROM" end, the element's "TO" end, or both ends.
Peq/NC-3658.3 Selection
Specify whether to evaluate the flanges using the Kellogg Equivalent Pressure Method or the ASME B&PVC Section
III Subsection NC-3658.3 method.
Where:
NC-3658.3 Method:
3-18 Piping Screen Reference
Where (note that the constants 36,000 and 3125 should be 248.22 and 21.6 in standard SI units):
S = flange stress
Mfs = bending or torsional moment (whichever is greater) acting on the flange, developed during a non-
Occasional Load Case
Mfd = bending or torsional moment (whichever is greater) acting on the flange, developed during an
Occasional Load Case
Sy = yield strength of flange material at design temperature; (where Sy, given in psi, shall not be taken
as greater than 36,000 psi)
C = bolt circle diameter
Ab = total cross sectional area of bolts
PD = design pressure
If the flange Temperature-Pressure Rating data is read in from a file, then CAESAR II automatically builds a flange name
made up of the File Name, the Pressure Class, and the Material Class.
Peq Method:
Specify the diameter at the location of the gasket load reaction. From ASME Section VIII, Division 1, Appendix 2, (except
as noted in sketch (1) of Fig 2-4), G is defined as (see Table 2-5.2):
- when b0 is less than or equal to 1/4, G = mean diameter of the gasket contact face
- when b0 is greater than 1/4, G = outside diameter of gasket contact face less 2b.
NOTE: When using the "Peq Method" with the Stoomwezen Piping Code it is suggested that the "bolt circle diameter" be
used instead of the "gasket load reaction diameter" (see chapter D0701 of the Code RToD). Also note that the results of this
"Peq Method" are considered by Stoomwezen to be conservative.
NC-3658 Method:
Specify the bolt circle diameter. This value is the diameter of the circle passing through the bolt centers.
NOTE: Flange evaluation is based on a specific load case temperature. To evaluate the flanges in a model, use the Load
Case Options tab of the Static Load Case Editor to specify which operating temperature the flanges should be evaluated
to.
As an alternative to reading from a file, the data can be entered directly into the table below.
Note that users may create their own data files by following the format described in the CAESAR II documentation.
Note: Flange evaluation is based on a specific load case temperature. To evaluate the flanges in a model, use the Load
Case Options tab of the Static Load Case Editor to specify which operating temperature the flanges should be evaluated
to.
SYC, SY1-SY9
Specify the flange yield stress at the cold (Ambient) temperature and at each of the operating temperatures, for use in
calculating the flange allowable stress.
Note: Flange evaluation is based on a specific load case temperature. To evaluate the flanges in a model, use the Load
Case Options tab of the Static Load Case Editor to specify which operating temperature the flanges should be evaluated
to.
3-20 Piping Screen Reference
Expansion Joints
Activate by double-clicking the Expansion Joint check box on the Pipe Element Spreadsheet. Deactivate by double-
clicking a second time.
If the torsional stiffness value is not specified, CAESAR II will use a default value of .
Bending "STIFFNESSES" from EJMA (and from most expansion joint manufacturers) that are to be used in a finite length
expansion joint model should be multiplied by (4) before being used in any piping program. Bending "STIFFNESSES"
from EJMA (and from most expansion joint manufacturers) that are to be used in a ZERO length expansion joint model
should be used without modification.
Zero Length expansion joints can be used in many modeling applications to define struts, hinged ends, etc. The orientation
of zero length expansion joints is taken from the element that precedes the expansion joint providing the "TO" node of the
preceding element is equal to the "FROM" node on the expansion joint element. If the preceding element does not go
"INTO" the expansion joint, then the orientation will be taken from the element that follows the expansion joint providing it
properly "LEAVES" the joint.
Effective ID
The effective inside diameter for pressure thrust (from the manufacturer’s catalog). For all load cases including pressure
CAESAR II will calculate the pressure “thrust force” tending to blow the bellows apart. If left blank, or zero, then no axial
thrust force due to pressure will be calculated. Many manufacturers give the effective area of the expansion joint: Aeff. The
Effective ID is calculated from the effective area by:
1/2
Effective ID = (4Aeff / )
Reducers
Activate or deactivate this option by double-clicking the Reducer check box on the piping element spreadsheet.
Optionally, enter the TO END Diameter 2, Thickness 2, and Alpha values of the reducer. The FROM END diameter and
wall thickness of the reducer element will be taken from the current piping element spreadsheet.
CAESAR II will construct a concentric reducer element made of ten pipe cylinders, each of a successively larger (or smaller)
diameter and wall thickness over the element length. CAESAR II will calculate SIFs according to the current piping code
(see Code Compliance Considerations in the CAESAR II Technical Reference Manual for more information) and apply these
internally to the Code Stress Calculations. These SIFs are dependent on the slope of the reducer transition (among other
code-specific considerations), labeled Alpha in the figure above. If Alpha is left blank the program will calculate this value
based on the change in pipe diameter over 60% of the entered element length. If entered, Diameter 2 and Thickness 2 will
be carried forward when the next pipe element is created as Diameter and Wt/Sch. If not specified, Diameter 2 and
Thickness 2 will be assumed equal to those values entered as Diameter and Wt/Sch on the following element spreadsheet.
3-22 Piping Screen Reference
The Piping Error Checker will report the value of alpha used by CAESAR II (see above picture) if no value for alpha is
entered on the input spreadsheet.
Diameter 2
Optionally enter the diameter of the TO END of the reducer element. (The FROM END diameter is obtained from the
Diameter field of the piping spreadsheet.) The value entered will carry forward as the diameter of the following element.
Nominal values are converted to actual values if that feature is active. If left blank, the program will calculate "Alpha" using
the diameter from the following element as Diameter 2.
Thickness 2
Enter the wall thickness of the TO END of the reducer element. (The FROM END thickness is obtained from the Wall
Thickness/Schedule field of the piping spreadsheet.) The entered value will carry forward as the wall thickness of the
following element. Nominal values are converted to actual values if that feature is active.
Alpha
Alpha is the slope of the reducer transition in degrees. If left blank, the value will be set from an estimated slope equal to
the arc tangent [ 1/2(the change in diameters) / (length of sloped portion of reducer)].
Since all reducers are different, the actual “length of sloped portion of reducer” is unknown, unless the user defines it. So,
if alpha is not entered, CAESAR II makes an assumption that the “length of sloped portion of reducer” is equal to 60% of the
total reducer length. So if the "Alpha" value is left blank, CAESAR II defaults to arc tangent [ 1/2(the change in diameters) /
(0.60 * element length)].
R1
Enter the transition radius for the large end of the reducer, as shown in Appendix 4, Table 8 of IGE/TD/12 Code (enabled
only when IGE/TD/12 is active).
R2
Enter the transition radius for the small end of the reducer, as shown in Appendix 4, Table 8 of IGE/TD/12 (enabled only
when IGE/TD/12 is active).
As usual, the intersection or joint type and properties need only be entered on one of the elements going to the junction.
CAESAR II duplicates the intersection characteristics for all other pipes framing into the intersection. Users are urged to fully
review the WARNING messages coming from CAESAR II during error checking. These messages detail to the user any
assumptions made during the assembly and calculation of the intersection SIFs.
The available intersections and joint types are shown in the table that follows, along with the other parameters that can
affect the stress intensification factors for the respective component.
Chapter 3 Piping Screen Reference 3-25
4 SWEEPOLET CROTCH
5 WELDOLET CROTCH
11 THREADED JOINT
Node Number
Enter the node number where the Stress Intensification exists. This may be any node in the system, but is most often at a
pipe intersection or joint.
If the node is at an Intersection, stress intensification factors will be automatically calculated for all pipes going to the
intersection providing the intersection "TYPE" is specified. The intersection type needs to only be entered once. CAESAR II
will find all other pipes framing into the intersection and apply the appropriate SIFs accordingly.
If the node is at a two-pipe Joint, i.e. a butt weld, stress intensification factors will be calculated for the two pipes going to
the joint node providing the joint "TYPE" is specified. The joint type needs to only be entered once. CAESAR II will find
the other pipe completing the joint.
If the node is not at an intersection or a joint then the Type field should be left BLANK and the "USER DEFINED" SIFs
entered in the SIF(i) and SIF(o) fields. User entries in the SIF(i) and SIF(o) fields only apply to the element on which they
are defined.
User defined stress intensification factors, must be greater then or equal to one.
The user can get CAESAR II to calculate and display code defined SIFs while in the SIF scratchpad. This scratchpad is
accessed via the K-Aux option on the pipe spreadsheet. Parameters used in the scratchpad may be modified so that the
effects of different geometries and thicknesses can be observed. Most changes made in the scratchpad may be automatically
transferred back into the input, if desired.
3-26 Piping Screen Reference
If the node is on any part of a bend's curvature then the following applies:
1 User defined SIFs won't override code calculated SIFs for bends, although a SETUP file directive exists to override this
default, i.e. ALLOW_USERS_BEND_SIF=YES. If this parameter appears in the setup file then users may specify SIFs
for bend "to" nodes. The SIFs so specified will apply for the entire bend curvature.
2 User defined SIFs will apply to straight pipe going to points on a bend curvature regardless of any parameter in the
setup file. This option is commonly used to intensify injector tie-ins at bends, or dummy legs, or other bend
attachment-type of supports.
PAD THK
Thickness of the reinforcing pad for reinforced fabricated or full encirclement tees, intersection type #1 and #17
respectively. The pad thickness is only valid for these intersection types. Note that in most piping codes the beneficial effect
of the pad’s thickness is limited to 1.5 times the nominal thickness of the header. This factor does not apply in BS 806 or
Z184, and is 2.5 in the Swedish piping code. If the thickness of a type 1or type 17 intersection is left blank or zero the SIFs
for an unreinforced fabricated tee are used.
FTG RO
Fitting outside radius for branch connections. Used for reduced branch connections in the ASME and B31.1 piping codes,
Bonney Forge Insert Weldolets, and for WRC 329 intersection SIF calculations. Setup file directives exist to invoke the
WRC 329 calculations, and to limit the application of the reduced branch connection rules to unreinforced fabricated tees,
sweepolets, weldolets, and extruded welding tees. If omitted, FTG ro defaults to the outside radius of the branch pipe.
CROTCH R
The crotch radius of the formed lip on an extruded welding tee, intersection type 6. This is also the intersection weld crotch
radius for WRC329 calculations. Specifying this value when it is known can result in a 50% reduction in the stress
intensification at the WRC 329 intersection. Basically, if the user makes an attempt to reduce the stress riser at a fabricated
intersection, by guaranteeing that there will be a smooth transition radius from the header to the branch pipe, then he may
reduce the resulting stress intensification by a factor of 2.0.
WELD (D)
Defines the “average” circumferential weld mismatch measured at the inside diameter of the pipe. Used for Butt Welds and
Tapered transitions. Note that this is the average, and not the maximum mismatch. Users must themselves verify that any
maximum mismatch requirements are satisfied for their particular code.
FILLET
The fillet leg length, and is used only in conjunction with a socket weld component. For an unequal leg fillet weld, this
value is the length of the shorter leg. Note that if a fillet leg is given, both socket weld types result in the same SIF. See
appendix D of the B31 piping codes for further clarification.
Weld ID
The following are valid Weld ID values.
Values:
0 or BLANK - As Welded
1 - Finished/Ground Flush
Used for:
BONNEY FORGE SWEEPOLETS
BONNEY FORGE INSERT WELDOLETS
BUTT WELDS IN THE SWEDISH PIPING CODE
If entered as 1 then the weld is considered to be ground flush on the inside and out and the SIF is taken as 1.0.
Chapter 3 Piping Screen Reference 3-27
Refer to the help on Weld Mismatch (Weld d) for more detail on how input parameters are used to compute SIFs for girth
butt welds.
B1; Wc
ASME Class 2 and ASME Class 3
For ASME Class 2 and Class 3, this entry defines the primary stress index to be used for the given node on the current
element.
For ASME Class 2 and Class 3 piping. Unless otherwise over-ridden by the user the following values are applied as:
Straight Pipe: B1 = 0.5 B2 = 1.0
Curved Pipe: B1 = -0.1 + 0.4h; but not <0 or >0.5
B2 = 1.30/h**2/3 but not <1.0; h = tR/ rm**2
Intersections: B1 = 0.5
Butt Welded Tees: B2b = 0.4(R/T)**2/3 but not < 1.0
B2r = 0.5(R/T)**2/3 but not < 1.0
Branch Connections: (r < 0.5R)
B2b = 0.50 C2b but not < 1.0
B2r = 0.75 C2r but not < 1.0
C2b = 3(R/T)**2/3 (r/R)**1/2 (t/T)(r/FTG ro) but not < 1.5
C2r = 1.15(r/t)**1/4 but not < 1.5
B31.3
For B31.3, this field is used to specify the weld strength reduction factor (Wc), used to reduce the allowables stress for the
Sustained load case.
For the BS 7159 and UKOOA codes, the B1 field is used to enter the pressure stress multiplier (m), if other than as per the
code requirements. For straight pipe, m = 1.0; for bends and tees, m is defined in Figures 7.1 and 7.12 of the BS 7159 Code.
IGE/TD/12
For IGE/TD/12 this field is used to override the cyclic pressure Stress Intensification Factor Ip(Cyc), if other than as per the
code calculations (calculated as per Table 9, Figure 5, and Figure 7 of the code).
B2
This entry defines the primary stress index to be used for the given node on the current element. This entry is only
applicable for ASME Class 2 and 3 piping.
3-28 Piping Screen Reference
Note: When IGE/TD/12 is active, the SIF/TEE spreadsheet changes its appearance to accommodate specialized SIF
parameters. Refer to supplementary IGE/TD/12 documentation for further information.
B31.8:
Enabling this check box indicates that B31.8 Notes 6, 9, or 10 (as applicable) should be used when determining the SIF
value for the tee.
2 JOINTS
Chapter 3 Piping Screen Reference 3-29
CAESAR II will not allow user-defined stress intensification factors to be less than 1.0.
The node to be intensified must be the TO or the FROM node on the current element.
Stresses are only intensified at the element end going to the specified node. For example, if two pipes frame into node 10,
one going from 5 to 10, and the other from 10 to 15; and a stress intensification factor of 2.0 for node 10 is defined on the
element from 5 to 10, then the 10 end of the element from 5 to 10 will have a stress intensification of 2.0, and the 10 end of
the element from 10 to 15 will have a stress intensification of 1.0.
User defined stress intensification factors can be used to override code calculated values for nodes at intersections. For
example, let node 40 be an intersection defined by an unreinforced fabricated tee. The header pipes framing into the
intersection go from 35 to 40 and from 40 to 45. The branch pipe framing into the intersection goes from 175 to 40. The
code-calculated values for the stress intensification factors in the header pipes are:
SIF(i) = 4.50
SIF(o) = 3.75
and in the branch pipe are
SIF(i) = 6.70
SIF(o) = 5.58
Also assume that finite element analysis of the intersection showed the header stress intensification factors to be 2.3 and
1.87, respectively, and the branch stress intensification factors to be equal to the code recommended values, i.e. 6.70 and
5.58. To properly override the code-calculated stress intensification factors for the header pipes, two pipe elements will
have to be modified:
35 to 40 Node 40
Type:
SIF(i): 2.3
SIF(o): 1.87
40 to 15 Node 40
Type:
SIF(i): 2.3
SIF(o): 1.87
The stress intensification for the branch pipes can be calculated according to the code; so part of the branch pipe spreadsheet
might appear:
175 to 40 NODE 40
3-30 Piping Screen Reference
Type: 2 - Unreinforced
SIF(i):
SIF(o):
If either of the SIF fields for the header elements going to 40 were left blank, the code-calculated value would be used in its
place. This is only true where code-calculated values exist along with user-specified values.
If the element from 110 to 115 needs the stress intensification factors for each of its ends is 2.0, then a part of that element's
spreadsheet might appear:
110 to 115 Node 110
Type:
SIF(i): 2.0
SIF(o):
Node: 115
Type:
SIF(i): 2.0
SIF(o):
Leaving the out-of-plane stress intensification factor blank implies that it is equal to the in-plane stress intensification factor.
There are no code-calculated values to override these user-input values.
The user is not permitted to override code-calculated stress intensification factors for bend elements (unless the Allow
User's Bend SIF directive is activated in the configuration file). Additionally, bend stress intensification factors will
supersede any code-calculated intersection stress intensification factors for the same node. This characteristic allows the
user to apply code-calculated intersection stress intensification factors to dummy legs without disturbing the normal bend
stress intensification factors. The node on the dummy leg, which is also on the bend curvature, is defined as an intersection
on the Intersection SIF Scratchpad. The intersection stress intensification factors will be calculated and can be applied to the
dummy leg end that connects to the bend. Bend stress intensification factors are unchanged.
Stress intensification factors can be calculated for intersections having one, two, or three pipes framing into it. Where two
pipes form a partial intersection, CAESAR II assumes that the larger pipe is the header and the smaller the branch.
Where one pipe forms a partial intersection, CAESAR II assumes that the intersection is full sized.
CAESAR II will not calculate stress intensification factors for intersections having more than three pipes framing into it.
Chapter 3 Piping Screen Reference 3-31
SIF Scratchpad
The stress intensification factors calculated by CAESAR II can be viewed interactively from the pipe spreadsheet by selecting
either the ENVIRIONMENT - REVIEW SIFS AT INTERSECTION NODES menu item or the KAUX - REVIEW SIFS AT BEND NODES menu item.
One of the following SIF scratchpads will appear after typing in the node number to review when prompted. Note that the
Node must be a valid Bend node when Reviewing SIFs at Bends.
At this point the user may interactively change any of the spreadsheet data and recalculate the SIFs. This feature allows the
user to see the effect that changing geometries and properties have on code stress intensification factors.
Note: CAESAR II gives the user the opportunity to transfer back to the actual model any data, which might be changed in
the scratchpad.
IGE\TD\12 Requirements
IGE\TD\12 requires different information than the other codes used in CAESAR II. When IGE/TD/12 is active, the
SIFs/Tees spreadsheet changes its appearance to accommodate specialized SIF parameters. For more information regarding
the specialized parameters refer to the text and figures at the end of this section.
3-32 Piping Screen Reference
Node Number
Enter the node number where the Stress Intensification exists. This may be any node in the system, but is most often at a
pipe intersection or joint.
If the node is at an Intersection, stress intensification factors will be automatically calculated for all pipes going to the
intersection providing the intersection "TYPE" is specified. The intersection type needs to only be entered once. CAESAR II
will find all other pipes framing into the intersection and apply the appropriate SIFs accordingly.
If the node is at a two-pipe Joint, i.e. a butt weld, stress intensification factors will be calculated for the two pipes going to
the joint node providing the joint "TYPE" is specified. The joint type needs to only be entered once. CAESAR II will find
the other pipe completing the joint.
If the node is not at an intersection or a joint then the Type field should be left BLANK and the "USER DEFINED" SIFs
entered in the SIF(i) and SIF(o) fields. User entries in the SIF(i) and SIF(o) fields only apply to the element on which they
are defined.
User defined stress intensification factors, must be greater then or equal to one.
The user can get CAESAR II to calculate and display code defined SIFs while in the SIF scratchpad. This scratchpad is
accessed via the K-Aux option on the pipe spreadsheet. Parameters used in the scratchpad may be modified so that the
effects of different geometries and thicknesses can be observed. Most changes made in the scratchpad may be automatically
transferred back into the input, if desired.
If the node is on any part of a bend's curvature then the following applies:
Chapter 3 Piping Screen Reference 3-33
1 User defined SIFs won't override code calculated SIFs for bends, although a SETUP file directive exists to override this
default, i.e. ALLOW_USERS_BEND_SIF=YES. If this parameter appears in the setup file then users may specify SIFs
for bend "to" nodes. The SIFs so specified will apply for the entire bend curvature.
2 User defined SIFs will apply to straight pipe going to points on a bend curvature regardless of any parameter in the
setup file. This option is commonly used to intensify injector tie-ins at bends, or dummy legs, or other bend
attachment-type of supports.
Do/r3
This field corresponds to the following terms for each component type:
Forged Tee to BS 1640: For more information on Do refer to the figures (on page 3-34) at the end of this section.
Weldolet: For more information on r3 refer to the figures (on page 3-34) at the end of this section.
Drawn/Extruded Tee: For more information on Do refer to the figures (on page 3-34) at the end of this section.
Weldoflange: For more information on r3 refer to the figures (on page 3-34) at the end of this section.
T/Th/T'b
This field corresponds to the following terms for each component type:
Forged Tee to BS 1640: For more information on T refer to the figures (on page 3-34) at the end of this section.
Weldolet: For more information on theta refer to the figures (on page 3-34) at the end of this section.
Drawn/Extruded Tee: For more information on T refer to the figures (on page 3-34) at the end of this section.
Weldoflange: For more information on theta refer to the figures (on page 3-34) at the end of this section.
Te/Tb
This field corresponds to the following terms for each component type:
Fabricated Tee with Pad: For more information on Te refer to the figures (on page 3-34) at the end of this section.
Forged Tee to BS 1640: For more information on Tb refer to the figures (on page 3-34) at the end of this section.
Weldolet: For more information on Tb refer to the figures (on page 3-34) at the end of this section.
Drawn/Extruded Tee: For more information on Tb refer to the figures (on page 3-34) at the end of this section.
Full Encirclement Tee: For more information on Te refer to the figures (on page 3-34) at the end of this section.
Long Weldneck Flange: For more information on Tb refer to the figures (on page 3-34) at the end of this section.
Weldoflange: For more information on Tb refer to the figures (on page 3-34) at the end of this section.
rp/do
This field corresponds to the following terms for each component type:
Fabricated Tee: For more information on rp refer to the figures (on page 3-34) at the end of this section.
Forged Tee to BS 1640: For more information on do refer to the figures (on page 3-34) at the end of this section.
Weldolet: For more information on rp refer to the figures (on page 3-34) at the end of this section.
3-34 Piping Screen Reference
Drawn/Extruded Tee: For more information on do refer to the figures (on page 3-34) at the end of this section.
Long Weldneck Flange: For more information on rp refer to the figures (on page 3-34) at the end of this section.
Weldoflange: For more information on rp refer to the figures (on page 3-34) at the end of this section.
r2/rc
This field corresponds to the following terms for each component type:
Fabricated Tee: For more information on r2 refer to the figures (on page 3-34) at the end of this section.
Forged Tee to BS 1640: For more information on rc refer to the figures (on page 3-34) at the end of this section.
Sweepolet: For more information on rc refer to the figures (on page 3-34) at the end of this section.
Weldolet: For more information on r2 refer to the figures (on page 3-34) at the end of this section.
Drawn/Extruded Tee: For more information on rc refer to the figures (on page 3-34) at the end of this section.
Long Weldneck Flange: For more information on r2 refer to the figures (on page 3-34) at the end of this section.
Weldoflange: For more information on r2 refer to the figures (on page 3-34) at the end of this section
r1/Tc/Lh
This field corresponds to the following terms for each component type:
Fabricated Tee: For more information on r1 refer to the figures (on page 3-34) at the end of this section
Forged Tee to BS 1640: For more information on Tc refer to the figures (on page 3-34) at the end of this section
Sweepolet: For more information on r1 refer to the figures (on page 3-34) at the end of this section
Weldolet: For more information on r1 refer to the figures (on page 3-34) at the end of this section
Drawn/Extruded Tee: For more information on Lh refer to the figures (on page 3-34) at the end of this section
Long Weldneck Flange: For more information on r1 refer to the figures (on page 3-34) at the end of this section
Weldoflange: For more information on r1 refer to the figures (on page 3-34) at the end of this section
L1/Lb
This field corresponds to the following terms for each component type:
Fabricated Tee: For more information on L1 refer to the figures (on page 3-34) at the end of this section
Weldolet: For more information on L1 refer to the figures (on page 3-34) at the end of this section
Drawn/Extruded Tee: For more information on Lb refer to the figures (on page 3-34) at the end of this section
Long Weldneck Flange: For more information on L1 refer to the figures (on page 3-34) at the end of this section
Weldoflange: For more information on L1 refer to the figures (on page 3-34) at the end of this section
Forged Tee
Weldolet
Drawn/Extruded Tee
3-36 Piping Screen Reference
Weldoflange
Sweepolet
Fabricated Tee
If entered as 1 then the weld is considered to be ground flush on the inside and out and the SIF is taken as 1.0.
Refer to the help on Weld Mismatch (Weld d) for more detail on how input parameters are used to compute SIFs for girth
butt welds.
Note that for branches of tees, any bending SCFs entered here must include the “w” term.
Fatigue Class
Selecting a fatigue class here overrides those calculated according to the IGE/TD/12 Code equations. Note that any values
selected here will apply only to the element on which they have been entered (except when entered on a bend node, they
will apply throughout the bend).
Chapter 3 Piping Screen Reference 3-39
If more than four restraints are to be specified on one element, the additional restraints may be placed on any other input
spreadsheet.
Use the Hangers check box to open the Hanger Auxiliary Data field.
3-40 Piping Screen Reference
Node
Node number where the restraint is to act.
Note: The node number does not have to be on the current element.
CNode
Optional connecting node. Restraints with connecting nodes can be used to tie one node in the piping system to any other
node in the system. If left blank then the restraint node is tied, via the restraint stiffness, to a fixed point in space. If the
connecting node is specified then the restraint node is tied, via the restraint stiffness, to the connecting node.
In all cases, CNodes associate nodal degrees of freedom. Additionally, CNodes can be used to geometrically connect
different parts of a model graphically. This option is controlled via the setup file directive Connect Geometry through
CNodes (on page 2-15). See Chapter 2 of this manual for additional information on this topic.
Type
The following restraints can be activated by selecting them from the drop list in the Restraint Auxiliary field. The use of
these restraints is detailed in Chapter 3 of the CAESAR II Applications Guide.
Anchor
Restraint is defined for “ALL” degrees of freedom at the node.
Chapter 3 Piping Screen Reference 3-41
X, Y, or Z
Translational restraints may be preceded by a (+) or (-). If a sign is entered, it defines the direction of allowed free
displacement along the specified degree of freedom. (i.e. a +Y restraint is restraint against movement in the minus -Y
direction and is free to move in the plus Y direction).
RX, RY, or RZ
Rotational restraints may be preceded by a (+) or (-). If a sign is entered, it defines the direction of allowed free
displacement along the specified degree of freedom.
Guide
Transverse restraint that may be skewed.
LIM
Limit stops are axial restraints that may be preceded by a (+) or (-). If a sign is entered, it defines the direction of allowed
free displacement along the element longitudinal axis.
Because CAESAR II cannot perform "load stepping", static analysis with snubbers requires a manual "up front" analysis to
determine thermal movements. Here is the procedure.
K2
Posts yield stiffness of a bilinear restraint. When the load on the restraint exceeds Fy then the stiffness on the restraint
changes from K1 to K2. The value of K2 may be negative, modeling shallow trench or groove-type pipeline supports. K2
VALUES OF ZERO WILL BE TREATED AS RIGID. For very small stiffnesses enter a value of 1.0.
"Bottom out" spring. Additional required input is the spring rate, allowed travel, and initial load. If the allowed travel in the
direction of support is exceeded, the spring "bottoms-out".
Stif
Stiffness associated with any support, guide, limit stop, rod or spring that can be defined as a restraint. If left blank then the
defined restraint will be considered rigid. The default |rigid restraint stiffness is 1.0E12.
K1 is the initial stiffness of a bilinear restraint (i.e. X2). Any positive stiffness may be entered if the restraint is not rigid.
Stiffnesses greatly in excess of 1.0E15 should be avoided. If a stiffness value is specified for an anchor, the entered
stiffness will apply for all (6) degrees of freedom at the anchored node.
Gap
This is a multiple use field defined as follows:
GAP - Distance along the restraint line of action the restrained node may travel before resistance to movement begins. The
gap value must be positive. For rotational restraints the gap is given in degrees. If the translational restraint is not
preceded by a sign, then the restraint is double acting and the gap will be taken to exist for both positive and the negative
displacements along the line of action (i.e. if a 0.25 in. gap is specified at a +Y restraint, then the restrained node may move
freely 0.25 in. in the minus Y direction before restraint occurs. The gap specification does not affect the amount of free
displacement that can occur along the positive Y direction in this example).
When defining windows of allowed movement it is not uncommon to place two restraints having the same line of action,
but with different signs at the same node. This configuration is perfectly legal. The user is cautioned to remember to form
the window with signs on restraints rather than with signs on gaps. In CAESAR II a gap is a measure of length and is always
positive.
Examples:
TYPE GUI GAP 1/4 ... One quarter ^01 gap on either side of the "guided" restraint.
TYPE +Y GAP 3.0 ... Three ^01 gap BELOW the support that must be closed before the +Y support begins acting.
TYPE RX GAP 5.0 ... Five degree gap about the X axis about which the pipe may rotate freely before rotational restraint
occurs.
TYPE = XROD YROD ZROD
Chapter 3 Piping Screen Reference 3-43
Len - Swinging length of the rod or hanger. Distance along the restraint line of action from the restrained node to the pivot
point. The restraint swings about the pivot point. If a CNODE is defined then the restraint swings about the CNODE.
"Len" is a required entry.
K2 - Post yield stiffness of a bilinear restraint. When the load on the restraint exceeds Fy then the stiffness on the restraint
changes from K1 to K2. The value of K2 may be negative, modeling shallow trench or groove-type pipeline supports. K2
VALUES OF ZERO WILL BE TREATED AS RIGID. For very small stiffnesses enter a value of 1.0.
"x" - Travel along the spring axis before "bottom-out" occurs. In the case of a typical YSPR, this is the movement in the
negative "Y" direction before the spring bottoms out.
Mu
This is a multiple use field defined as follows:
MU -Static friction coefficient. Friction provides resistance to movement along the direction normal to the restraint line of
action. The magnitude of the friction force is equal to MU * Fn, where Fn is the normal force on the restraint. A friction
coefficient may be automatically assigned to every new translational restraint by assigning a value to the Coefficient of
Friction (see "Coefficient of Friction (Mu)" on page 2-4) field in the Configure/Setup module.
Fi - Initial spring load. This field should be left blank for a rigid YROD. If the YROD is modeling a spring hanger, then
the hanger stiffness should be entered into the STIF field, and the initial cold load on the hanger should be entered here.
Fy - Yield Load. If the load on the support is less than "Fy" then the initial stiffness K1 is used. If the load on the support is
greater than "Fy" then the second stiffness "K2" is used.
F - Initial spring cold load. This input is required, and is almost always positive.
na - Not Applicable. This field is not used when the restraint TYPE is snubber.
3-44 Piping Screen Reference
Hangers
Activate the hangers auxiliary by double-clicking on the check box. Deactivate by double-clicking a second time.
Node
The node to which the hanger is connected.
CNode
The CNode, or connecting node number, is used only when the other end of the hanger is to be connected to another point in
the system, such as another pipe node.
Chapter 3 Piping Screen Reference 3-45
Hanger Table
The following spring tables are currently included in CAESAR II:
5. Lisega 6. Fronek
27. NHK
Additional design options are invoked by further use of the following checkboxes.
Extended Range
Cold Load Design
Hot load centered (if possible)
For example, to use Grinnell Springs and cold load design the user would check the "cold load design" checkbox.
To use Grinnell “Extended Range” springs, Cold Load Design, and to get the Design Hot load centered in the middle of the
hanger table, if possible, the user would check all three checkboxes.
A single job can use any combination of tables. The hanger table can be specified on the individual hanger spreadsheet, or
can be specified on the Hanger Run Control Spreadsheet (see "Hanger Data" on page 3-114).
If a spring table is entered in the Hanger Design Control Spreadsheet then it is used as the default for all subsequent
hangers defined. The Hanger Design Control Spreadsheet defaults to the hanger table-specified in the configuration file.
The maximum load range was included in CAESAR II to permit the selection of less expensive variable support hangers in
place of constant effort supports when the spring loads are just outside the manufacturers recommended range. Users should
make sure that the maximum load range is available from the manufacturer as a standard item.
Extended Load Range Springs. Extended load ranges are the most extreme ranges on the spring load table. Some
manufacturers build double spring supports to accommodate this range, and others adjust the top or bottom travel limits to
accommodate either end of the extended table. Before using the maximum ranges, the user should make sure that the
manufacturer can properly supply the spring. Use of the extended range often eliminates the need to go to a constant effort
support. Lisega springs do not support the "extended range" idea. A request for extended Lisega springs results in the
standard Lisega spring table and ranges.
3-46 Piping Screen Reference
Cold Load Spring Hanger Design. Cold Load Spring Hanger Design is a method of designing the springs, whereby the hot
(or operating) load is supported in the cold (or installed) position of the piping. This method of spring design offers several
advantages over the more usual hot load design:
Hanger stops are easier to remove.
There is no excessive movement from the neutral position when the system is cold or when the stops are removed.
Spring loads can be adjusted before the system is brought up to temperature.
Some feel that the cold load approach yields a much more dependable design.
In some system configurations, operating loads on connected equipment are lower. A typical configuration resulting in
this “load-reduction” is one where a hot vertical riser, anchored at the bottom, turns horizontally into a nozzle
connection. The spring to be designed is at the elbow adjacent to the nozzle. Operating loads are lower because the
difference between the hot and cold loads counters the moment produced by the vertical thermal expansion from the
anchor.
The disadvantages to cold load design are
In some systems, in the hot condition the loads on rotating equipment may be increased by a value proportional to the
spring rate times the travel.
Most installations are done on a hot load design basis.
The decision to use hot or cold load hanger design rests with the user.
Middle of the Table Hanger Design (Hot Load Centered). Many designers prefer that the hot load be centered as close as
possible to the middle of the spring table. This is to provide as much “variability” either way before the spring bottoms out
when the system is hot. This was a much more needed feature, before effective computer modeling of piping systems, when
the weights at hangers were approximated by chart methods or calculated by hand. Activating this option does not guarantee
that spring hot loads will be at the middle of the spring table, but CAESAR II makes every effort to move the hot load to this
position. The CAESAR II design algorithm will go to a higher size spring if the design load is closer to the middle of the
larger springs range, but will never switch spring types. This option can only result in a one size larger spring when it is
effective. CAESAR II will attempt to move the hot load to the next higher spring when it is within 10% of the maximum
travel range for the spring. If the new spring is not satisfactory then the old one will be used, even though its hot load is
within 10% of the high end of the table load range, to get a spring's hot load close to the middle of the table.
Chapter 3 Piping Screen Reference 3-47
If the Available Space is not an important design criteria, then the field should be left blank or zero.
If the Available Space is positive, then the vertical clearance will be assumed to be above the pipe and a hanger will be
designed. If the Available Space is negative, then the vertical clearance will be assumed to be below the pipe and a can will
be designed.
When the Available Space is the governing factor in a hanger design, several smaller springs are typically chosen in place of
one large spring.
The Allowable Load Variation is the percentage variation from the hot load:
The Allowable Variation is entered as a percentage, i.e. twenty five percent would be entered 25.0. The Allowable Load
Variation can have different values for different hanger locations if necessary by entering the chosen value on the individual
hanger spreadsheets or it can be entered on the Hanger Design Control Spreadsheet to apply to all hangers in the model.
The hanger design algorithm operates by first running a restrained weight case. From this case the load to be supported by
the hanger in the operating condition is determined. Once the hanger design load is known, an operating case is run with the
hot hanger load installed to determine the travel at the hanger location. If this determined hanger travel is less than the Rigid
Support Displacement Criteria then a rigid Y support is selected for the location instead of a spring.
If the Rigid Support Displacement is left blank or zero, the criteria will not be applied.
The Rigid Support Displacement Criteria may be specified on the Hanger Run Control Spreadsheet, or on each individual
hanger spreadsheet. The value specified on the Hanger Run Control Spreadsheet is used as the default for all hangers not
having it defined explicitly.
Important: In some cases a Single directional restraint should be inserted instead of a rigid rod. Rigid rods are double
acting restraints which can in some cases develop large “hold down” forces that don’t really exist because the support has
lifted off, or because the rigid rod has bowed slightly. When this condition develops the user should rerun the hanger design
inserting single directional restraints where rigid rods were put in by CAESAR II.
Hangers should probably never be replaced by rigid rods in very stiff parts of the piping system that are usually associated
with rotating equipment or vessel nozzles that need to be protected.
Constant effort hangers can be designed by inputting a very small number for the Maximum Allowed Travel Limit. A value
of 0.001 is typical to force CAESAR II to select a constant effort support for a particular location.
design requirements. If a double hanger (two spring hangers, side-by-side) cannot be found, then CAESAR II will
recommend a constant effort support hanger for the location.
If the user wants to use a different upper limit on the number of springs that CAESAR II will consider for a location, then the
negative of that number should be entered in this field. For example, if the user wants to use as few springs as possible, yet
is willing to use as many as 5 springs if necessary, -5 should be entered in the No. of Hangers field.
To directly specify the number of springs to be designed at a location, enter that number in the No. of Hangers field.
If this option is not activated, CAESAR II will select a mid-range spring over a short-range spring, assuming they are more
standard, readily available, and in general cheaper than their short-range counterparts.
If the default should be that short range springs are used wherever possible, then check the box on the Hanger Design
Control Spreadsheet.
Operating Load
To override the operating load that CAESAR II is calculating, enter the desired value in the Operating Load field. This value
is normally entered when the user thinks that loads on a piece of equipment will be reduced if a hanger in the vicinity of the
equipment is artificially caused to carry a proportionately larger part of the total load. This operating load is the hot load the
hanger is designed to support after it undergoes any travel due to the thermal expansion of the piping. CAESAR II’s
calculated hanger operating loads may be read from the hanger table printed in the output processor. The column title is
“HOT LOAD.” The user’s entered value will similarly show up in this table if defined. The total desired operating load at
the location should be entered. If there are two hangers specified at the location and each should carry 500 lb., then the
operating load specified should be 1,000 lb.
There are currently thirteen different multiple load case design algorithms available:
Design spring per operating case #1.
Design spring per operating case #2.
Design spring per operating case #3, #4, #5, #6, #7, #8, and #9.
Design spring for maximum operating load.
Design spring for maximum travel.
Design spring for average load and average travel.
Design spring for maximum load and maximum travel.
The Multiple Load Case Design option can be specified at the global level in the Hanger Design Control Data
Spreadsheet (see "Hanger Data" on page 3-114). The globally specified option will apply for all hanger design locations
unless overridden in a specific hanger design spreadsheet.
3-50 Piping Screen Reference
Enter the number of operating thermal cases to be considered when sizing springs for this system in the Hanger Design
Control Spreadsheet. This value defaults to 1.0. Also enter the Multiple Load Case Design option to be the default value
(unless the design option is to be specified individually for each hanger to be designed in the system).
Hangers are commonly used around equipment nozzles to support the weight of the pipe as it thermally expands away from
the nozzle. The hanger can usually be designed to take almost the full weight of the pipe between the anchor and the hanger
if the anchor is freed when making the restrained weight calculation. The anchor is “freed” by entering its node number in
the Free Anchor/Restraint at Node field. The pipe going to the anchor will be treated just like a free end (for the hanger
weight calculation only!!!). The Free Code field works with the Free Anchor/Restraint at Node field to limit the actual
degrees of freedom at an anchor that are released.
Chapter 3 Piping Screen Reference 3-51
The Free Anchor/Restraint at Node field works in conjunction with the Free Code field. If the Free Code is not specified
for an anchor, the anchor is assumed to be completely free for the restrained weight run.
The “Restrained Weight” hanger design pass is the first analysis step in the hanger design, and is run automatically by
CAESAR II. The following steps comprise the “Restrained Weight” run:
Free Code
Whenever an anchor or restraint should be released for the restrained weight run, that anchor’s node number should be put
in the Free Anchor/Restraint at Node field, and the Free Code describing the directions to be released should be put in the
Free Code field on the same hanger spreadsheet. Free Codes are
Free the anchor or restraint in the Y direction only.
Free the anchor or restraint in the Y and X directions only.
Free the anchor or restraint in the Y and Z directions only.
Free all translational degrees of freedom for the anchor or restraint. (X,Y and Z)
Free all translational and rotational degrees of freedom for the anchor or restraint. (X, Y, Z, RX, RY, and RZ)
The last option usually results in the highest adjacent hanger loads, but should only be used when the horizontal distance
between the hanger and the anchor is within about 4 pipe diameters.
be entered in the No. of Hangers field (CAESAR II assumes that the load is distributed evenly among multiple springs at the
same point).
CAESAR II will go through its normal hanger design procedure to calculate the load and travel for all proposed hanger
locations including the location with springs to be re-set. The stiffness of the re-set springs will not be used for this re-
design. Once CAESAR II sizes the springs, a comparison will be made with the user-entered spring rates. If the program's
selected spring rate is within 5% of the user's existing spring rate, CAESAR II will list the spring's figure number and size in
the output report. If the selected spring rate is more than 5% of the user's value, no manufacturer's data will be listed. In
either case, CAESAR II will use the user-entered spring rate in all following analyses. It is up to the user to confirm that the
new hot and cold loads are within the existing spring's working range.
The major use of the re-rate capability is to find new installed loads for old springs. Springs might be re-rated after the
shutdown of a unit that has been operating continuously for a long period, or after mechanical or process changes have been
made to a piping system.
Nozzles
Activate by double-clicking the Nozzles check box on the Pipe Element Spreadsheet and selecting the appropriate radio
button from the Nozzle Auxiliary Data field. Deactivate by double-clicking a second time.
Chapter 3 Piping Screen Reference 3-53
When a nozzle node number is input, CAESAR II scans the current input data for the node and loads its diameter and wall
thickness and enters it in the Nozzle Auxiliary Data field.
Current nozzle flexibility calculations are in accordance with the Welding Research Council Bulletin No. 297, issued
August 1984 for cylinder to cylinder intersections.
If a vessel node number is defined, then the vessel node acts like a connecting node for each of the six restraints. Vessel
nodes are subject to the same restrictions shown above for nozzle nodes.
3-54 Piping Screen Reference
Note: The user should not put a restrainer on an element between the nozzle node and any specified vessel node.
CAESAR II creates the required connectivity from the nozzle flexibility data and any user generated stiffnesses between these
two points will add erroneously to the nozzle stiffnesses.
During the error checking of the nozzle flexibilities, all useful WRC curve data is displayed on the terminal. These values
may be used to enter the illustrated nozzles in the WRC 297 bulletin. It is sometimes helpful to know just how close a
particular nozzle is to one of the several asymptotic limits, or to a curve boundary.
Note: The user will only be able to see the WRC 297 computed data during the error checking process with warning
messages activated.
Each input item on the nozzle spreadsheet is discussed in detail in the following sections.
Nozzle Diameter
Outside diameter of the nozzle. (Does not have to be equal to the diameter of the pipe used to model the nozzle.)
Vessel Diameter
Outside diameter of the vessel.
Note: The centerlines of the nozzle and vessel cannot be collinear or CAESAR II will flag this as an error.
CAESAR II can also calculate nozzle flexibilities according to appendix P of API 650, "Design of Carbon Steel Atmospheric
Oil Storage Tanks."
The tank node is optional, and if not given the nozzle node is connected via the API stiffnesses to a point fixed rigidly in
space. If the tank node is given, the nozzle node will be connected via the API stiffnesses to the tank node.
Tank nodes are specified when the user wishes to model through the tank from the nozzle connection to the foundation.
Nozzle Diameter
Outside diameter of the nozzle. (Does not have to be equal to the diameter of the pipe used to model the nozzle.)
Chapter 3 Piping Screen Reference 3-57
PD 5500 Nozzles
Activate by double-clicking the Nozzles check box on the Pipe Element Spreadsheet and selecting the PD 5500 radio button
from the Nozzle Auxiliary Data field. Deactivate by double-clicking the check box a second time.
CAESAR II can also calculate nozzle flexibilities according to Appendix G of the PD 5500 Specification for Unfired Fusion
Welded Pressure Vessels. The input requirements for these nozzles are:
Nozzle Diameter
Outside diameter of the nozzle. (Does not have to be equal to the diameter of the pipe used to model the nozzle.)
Vessel Diameter
Outside diameter of the vessel.
Note: The centerlines of the nozzle and vessel cannot be co-linear or CAESAR II will flag this as an error. This entry is
ignored for spherical vessels.
Displacements
Activate by double-clicking the Displacements check box on the Pipe Element Spreadsheet. Deactivate by double-
clicking the Displacements check box a second time.
Enter the node number where the displacement is to be specified. There must not be a restraint at this node.
Enter the displacements at the node. Any displacement direction not specified for any displacement vector will be free.
To specify an anchor at Node 50 with a displacement of 0.25 in. in the +X , 0.10 in. in the +Y , and 0.08 in. in the –Z , for
displacement vector #1, enter data as shown in the Figure above.
The displacements at a node can be specified for up to 9 different vectors, intended to correspond to the 9 temperature cases.
Note: If an imposed displacement is specified for a specific degree-of-freedom, that degree-of-freedom will be considered
restrained for all load cases whether or not they contain that displacement set.
Chapter 3 Piping Screen Reference 3-61
Enter the node number where the forces and/or moments are to act.
Enter the magnitudes of the forces and/or moments. Up to 9 different force vectors can be defined at each node point.
3-62 Piping Screen Reference
Uniform Loads
Activate by double-clicking the Uniform Loads check box on the Pipe Element Spreadsheet. Deactivate by double-
clicking the check box a second time.
The uniform load specification is distributive, and will act on all following elements until zeroed or changed. A snow load
of 8.0 pounds per foot (assuming units of pounds per inch) could be entered:
UY -8/12
UZ
or may be entered:
UX
UY -.6667
UZ
UX, UY, and UZ can be changed to GX, GY, and GZ so that uniform loads can be entered as a fraction of the total pipe
weight through the Environment- Special Execution Parameters (see "Uniform Load in G's" on page 3-121) command.
GX, GY, and GZ are used most frequently for defining static earthquake loadings.
Wind Loads
Activate by double-clicking the Wind/Wave check box on the Pipe Element Spreadsheet. Deactivate by double-clicking
the check box a second time.
This is a shape factor as defined in ASCE #7. A value of 0.5 to 0.65 is typically used for cylindrical sections. Activating the
wind directive will enable the Wind Load Input Spreadsheets, which are accessed from the Load Case Editor during the
Static Analysis. This auxiliary is used to define the presence of wind loads (via the wind shape factor as defined in ASCE
#7) or wave loads (with associated coefficients). The load type may be enabled or disabled via the radio button.
Important: This value is distributive, and will act on all following elements until changed or disabled.
Activate by double clicking the Wind / Wave check box on the Pipe Element Spreadsheet. Deactivate by double clicking
the check box a second time.
3-64 Piping Screen Reference
Wave Loads
Activate by double-clicking the Wind/Wave check box on the Pipe Element Spreadsheet. Deactivate by double-clicking
the check box a second time.
Important: These values are distributive, and will act on all following elements until changed or disabled.
Drag Coefficient, Cd
Coefficient as recommended by API RP2A. Typical values range from 0.6 to 1.20. Entering a 0.0 instructs CAESAR II to
calculate the drag coefficient based on particle velocities.
Lift Coefficient, Cl
This coefficient accounts for wave lift, which is the force perpendicular to both the element axis and the particle velocity
vector. Entering a 0.0 instructs CAESAR II to calculate the added lift coefficient based on particle velocities.
Marine Growth
The thickness of any marine growth adhering to the external pipe wall. This will increase the pipe diameter experiencing
wave loading by twice this value.
Off
This selection turns off both wind and / or wave loads from this point forward in the model.
3-72 Piping Screen Reference
The Component Response Modification Factor RP = 12.0, from Table 13.6-1 for “Piping in accordance with ASME
B31…”,
The Mapped MCE Spectral Response Acceleration Ss = 1.552, Mapped MCE Spectral Response Acceleration at short
periods in accordance with section 11.4.1.
The Site Coefficient (Fa) = 1.0 for Site Class D, according to Table 11.4-1.
The Maximum Considered Earthquake MCE SMS - The MCE is adjusted for site class effects as defined in Section 11.4.3,
SMS = Fa SS = 1.552
SDS - Design elastic response acceleration at short period (0.2 sec), from Section 11.4.4.
= [ (0.4aPSDS) / ( RP / IP )] ( 1 + 2z/h)
= [(0.4 x 2.5 x 1.0347)/(12.0/1.0)](1 + 2 * 0.5)
= 0.17245
Section 13.1.7 states, “The earthquake loads determined in accordance with Section 13.3.1 shall be multiplied by a factor of
0.7.”
CAESAR II will display the calculated gravity factor on the Uniform Loads tab.
Chapter 3 Piping Screen Reference 3-67
I Hard Soil Ground deposits formed exclusively by layers with propagation velocity bo = 700 m/s or modulus of rigidity >= 85000 t/m2
II Med. Soil Ground deposits with fundamental period of vibration and effective velocity of propagation which meets the condition:
III Soft Soil Ground deposits with fundamental period of effective vibration of propagation which meets the conditions:
For seismic zone “D” and soil type “I”, the following parameters are found in Table 3.1.
0
a = 0.50
C = 0.50
Ta (s) = 0.0
Tb (s) = 0.0
r=½
If T> Tb , then
r
a = c ( Ta / Tb) = 0.50 * (0.6 / 1.15) ^ 0.5 = 0.3612
For a structure group of “A – High Safety”, the acceleration will be multiplied by 1.5
CAESAR II will display the calculated gravity factor on the Uniform Loads tab.
Chapter 3 Piping Screen Reference 3-69
Normal 1.0
High 1.3
Post-disaster 1.5
NBC Example
For further information on the use of the Static Seismic Wizard see the example below.
The Site Class is “C” for “Very dense soil and soft rock” by Table 1.1.8.4.A.
Sa (0.2) = 0.55, spectral response acceleration value at 0.2 s, as defined in Sentence 4.1.8.4.(1).
Sp = Cp Ar Ax / Rp = 1 * 1 * (1 + 2 * 0.5) / 3 = 0.6667
Cp = 1, Ar = 1 and Rp = 3 in accordance with Table 4.1.8.17.
The maximum value of Sp shall be taken as 4.0 and minimum value of Sp shall be taken as 0.7, hence
Sp = 0.7
aH= 0.3 * Fa Sa (0.2)IE Sp = 0.3 * 1.0 * 0.55 * 1.0 * 0.7 = 0.1155
CAESAR II will display the calculated gravity factor on the Uniform Loads tab.
Chapter 3 Piping Screen Reference 3-71
The Allowable Stress Auxiliary field incorporates piping codes with their associated inputs. The help screens should be
used liberally to be sure that the proper interpretation of each new input data cell is made. A CAESAR II Piping Spreadsheet
illustrating the Allowable Stress field is shown above.
Note: Allowable stress data is distributive, and applies to all the following elements unless changed or zeroed.
Codes
The piping codes are listed in the following table. Their current publication dates can be found in the CAESAR II Quick
Reference Guide.
B31.5 RCC-M C
3-72 Piping Screen Reference
B31.8 RCC-M D
BS 806 GPTC/Z380
EN-13480 PD 8010-1
HPGSL PD 8010-2
Each of the input data cells is discussed in general in the following section. For more information about code compliance
considerations see Chapter 6 of the Technical Reference Manual.
Chapter 3 Piping Screen Reference 3-73
SC
Typically the cold allowable stress for the specific material taken directly from the governing piping code. The value of SC
will usually be divided by the longitudinal weld efficiency (Eff) before being used. See the notes that follow for the specific
piping code.
B31.1. Allowable stress tables in Appendix A include the longitudinal weld joint efficiencies where applicable. These
efficiencies should not be used for flexibility stress calculations. If the joint efficiency (Eff) is given on this spreadsheet
CAESAR II will divide the entered SC by the joint efficiency before using it in the allowable stress equations.
B31.3. Values from tables in Appendix A don’t include the joint efficiency. Eff should be zero, blank, or one. Note that the
1980 version of B31.3 included the longitudinal weld joint efficiencies as part of the tables in Appendix A. If this version of
the code is being used then Eff should be entered in the appropriate field on this spreadsheet.
B31.4, B31.4 Chapter IX. SC is not used!!! The only stress value in B31.4 is the yield stress taken from Table 1 in the
appendix. (See the Sy data field on this spreadsheet.)
B31.5. Values from tables in Appendix A don’t include the joint efficiency. Eff should be zero, blank, or one.
B31.8 Chapter VIII. SC is not used!!! The only stress value in B31.8 is the yield stress taken from Appendix D. (See the
Sy data field.)
B31.11. SC is not used!!! The only stress value used in B31.11 is the yield stress.
ASME NC and ND. SC is taken directly from Appendix I. “Eff” is not used, and is ignored if entered.
Navy 505. There is no mention of joint efficiency in the 505 specification; however, it is implied in Footnote 1 of Table
TIIA. If a joint efficiency is given CAESAR II will divide SC by the joint efficiency before using it in the allowable stress
equations. Eff should probably be zero, blank, or one.
CAN Z662. SC is not used. The only stress value in Z184 is the yield stress specified in the standards or specification under
which the pipe was purchased. (See the Sy data field.)
BS 806. 0.2% of the proof stress at room temperature from Appendix E. “Eff” is not used in BS 806 and is ignored if
entered.
Swedish Method 1. SC is not used. Method 1 only uses either the yield, or creep rupture stress at temperature, (SHn and Fn
respectively on this spreadsheet.) “Eff” is used, but is the Circumferential weld joint efficiency and has a completely
different meaning.
Swedish Method 2. SC is the allowable stress at room temperature from Appendix 2. “Eff” is not used, and is ignored if
entered.
B31.1 (1967). SC is the allowable stress at room temperature from the tables in Appendix A. These tables include the
Longitudinal Weld joint efficiencies where applicable. These efficiencies should not be used for flexibility stress
calculations. If the joint efficiency “Eff” is given CAESAR II will divide the entered SC by the joint efficiency before using it
in the allowable stress equations.
Stoomwezen (1989). SC is the yield stress at room temperature, referred to as Re in the code.
RCC-M C, D. SC is taken from Appendix, “Eff” is not used, and is ignored if entered.
CODETI. This is "famb" from the code. “Eff” is not used, and is ignored if entered.
3-74 Piping Screen Reference
Norwegian. This is "f1" from the code. “Eff” is not used for longitudinal joint efficiency.
UKOOA. SC is not used. Design stress (in the hoop direction) is entered in the SH fields.
EN-13480. SC is the basic allowable stress at minimum metal temperature, as defined in Section 12.1.3.
HPGSL. Values from JIS B 8265:2003 should be used for the cold allowable value.
JPI. Values from JIS B 8265:2003 should be used for the cold allowable value.
Chapter 3 Piping Screen Reference 3-75
SH
Typically the hot allowable stress for the specific material taken directly from the governing piping code. A value must be
entered for each defined temperature case. The value of SH will usually be divided by the longitudinal weld efficiency (Eff)
before being used. See the recommendations that follow for the specific piping code.
B31.8, B31.8 Chapter VIII. Temperature Reduction Factor, T (as per Table 841.116A )
BS 806. SH is 0.2% of the proof stress at design temperature Appendix E. (Eff is not used.)
Stoomwezen. SH is the yield stress at design temperature, referred to as Re (vm) in the code.
BS 7159. This is the design stress d, in the longitudinal direction, as defined in Section 4.3 of the code, i.e.: d = d *
Elamx. Design stress in the circumferential (hoop) direction should be specified by entering the ratio of the circumferential
design stress to the axial design stress in the Eff field below. (Note that since design strain should be the same for both
directions, the entry in the Eff field will also be ratio of Elamf(hoop) to Elamx (longitudinal).
UKOOA. This is the allowable design stress in the hoop direction, defined in the code as f1 * LTHS. The three HOT
ALLOWABLE STRESS fields correspond to the three possible temperature cases.
HPGSL. Values from JIS B 8265:2003 should be used for the hot allowable values.
JPI. Values from JIS B 8265:2003 should be used for the hot allowable values.
Chapter 3 Piping Screen Reference 3-77
Fn
Stress range reduction factor for most piping codes.
B31.1 - the stress range reduction factor is taken from the following table.
B31.1
OPERATING REDUCTION
CYCLES FACTOR
7000 and less 1.0
100000 - 0.5
Where several thermal states exist and where the number of thermal cycles is high the user should consult the applicable
piping code for methods of combining cycle life data. If omitted a value of ONE will be used.
B31.3 - the stress range reduction factor is obtained from equation (1c), corresponding to Fig 302.3.5. Note that if certain
criteria are met, the stress range reduction factor is allowed to exceed 1.0. Note also that for B31.3, the number of cycles
can be specified in this field, which allows CAESAR II to compute the cyclic reduction factor according to equation (1c).
B31.8 - the stress range reduction factor is obtained from the equation given in Section 833.8(b). Note also that for B31.8,
the number of cycles can be specified in this field, which allows CAESAR II to compute the cyclic reduction factor according
to this equation.
NORWEGIAN - This term is called "fr" in the code, and may be as high as 2.34.
HVP
LVP
Class 1 - Location areas containing 10 or fewer dwelling units intended for human occupancy
Class 2 - Location areas containing 11 to 46 dwelling units intended for human occupancy OR
buildings with more than 20 persons
outside areas with more than 20 persons
industrial installations
Class 3 - Location areas with more than 46 dwelling units intended for human occupancy OR institutions where rapid
evacuation may be difficult
Class 4 - Location areas where buildings intended for human occupancy have 4 or more stories.
Chapter 3 Piping Screen Reference 3-79
150 0.97
180 0.93
200 0.91
230 0.87
BS 806 - Mean Stress to Failure in design life at design temperature. F1, F2, ... F9 correspond to the up-to nine possible
thermal states.
FDBR - Identical to B31.1, except: Note that if "expansion coefficients" are entered directly instead of temperatures, the
program cannot determine Ehot. In this case, a value of 1.0 should be entered in the FAC cell and these fields should be
used to specify the product of ( f * Ehot / Ecold ) for each temperature case.
SWEDISH METHOD 1 - Creep Rupture Stress at temperature. F1, F2 ... F9 correspond to the up-to nine possible thermal
states.
F1 = Rrg - average creep stress to produce 1% permanent set after 100,000 hours at temperature (vm).
F2 = Rmg - average creep tensile stress to produce rupture after 100,000 hours at temperature (vm).
F3 = Rmmin - minimum creep tensile stress to produce rupture after 100,000 hours at temperature (vm).
BS 7159. The term used in this code is the fatigue factor, Kn, and is used inversely compared to other codes (so its value is
greater than 1.0). Kn is calculated as:
Kn = 1 + 0.25(As/sn) (log10(n) - 3)
Where:
UKOOA. This is the ratio r from the material UKOOA idealized allowable stress envelope. This ratio is defined as
sa(0:1)/sa(2:1) as shown on the figure below. One value should be given for each of the operating temperature cases.
EN-13480 - The stress range reduction factor should be taken from Table 12.1.3-1 (which matches the B31.1 table above),
or computed from equation 12.1.3-4. Note that for EN-13480, the number of cycles can be specified in this field, which
allows CAESAR II to compute the cyclic reduction factor according to equation (12.1.3-4).
Eff
The longitudinal weld joint efficiency. The use of this parameter by CAESAR II varies with the piping code. Depending
upon code requirements, the allowable stress may be either divided by Eff for use in the flexibility calculations or
multiplied by Eff for use in the minimum wall calculations. The following describes the effect of the longitudinal joint
efficiency for each of the piping codes.
B31.1, B31.1-1967, B31.5. Allowable stress tables include Longitudinal Weld Joint Efficiencies where applicable. If Eff is
entered, values for SC and SH will be divided by Eff before being used in the flexibility calculations. Eff will be ignored in
the minimum wall calculation.
B31.3, B31.4, B31.8, B31.11, NAVY 505, Z662 (J), BS 806 (e), CODETI (z), FDBR (vl), GPTC/Z380, HPGSL, JPI.
Allowable stress (or yield stress) tables do not include Longitudinal Weld Joint Efficiencies, Eff will be ignored for the
flexibility calculations. SH will be multiplied by Eff when calculating the minimum wall thickness.
B31.4 Chapter IX, B31.8 Chapter VIII, ASME NC, ASME ND, RCCM-C, RCCM-D. Eff is ignored for both
flexibility and minimum wall thickness calculations, and therefore the field is disabled for these codes.
Swedish Method 1, Swedish Method 2, Norwegian TBK 5-6. Eff is the circumferential joint factor z and is used in the
calculation of the code stresses, rather than in the calculation of the allowables (either for flexibility or minimum wall
thickness).
Stoomwezen. For this code, this Eff is the cyclic reduction factor, referred to as Cf in the code. Weld joint efficiency is
not considered for this code in CAESAR II.
BS 7159. This code replaces this field with Eh/Ea, the ratio of the hoop modulus to the axial modulus of elasticity. If
omitted, a default value of 1.0 is used, as though the material is isotropic.
UKOOA, IGE/TD/12. These codes replace this field with f2 and Dfac, respectively, the system design factor (typically
0.67).
DNV. This code replaces this field with usage factor Ns (pressure yielding) from Tables C1 or C2. The value must be
between 0.77 and 0.96.
EN-13480. Eff will be ignored for the flexibility calculations. SH will be multiplied by Eff when calculating the minimum
wall thickness.
PD-8010 Part 1. Eff is the weld joint factor used in determining the allowable hoop stress. See Section 6.4.3.1 for details.
Note: Unless explicitly entered by the user, this value will be taken from the Material Database, if available and
applicable.
Note: Unless explicitly entered by the user, this value will be taken from the Material Database, if available and
applicable.
3-82 Piping Screen Reference
Note: Unless explicitly entered by the user, this value will be taken from the material database, if available and applicable.
Sy
This is a code-specific field, generally requiring input only for the transmission and non-US piping codes. Code-specific
input requirements are described as follows:
B31.5. Used to satisfy the requirements of Paragraph 523.2.2.f.4. This paragraph addresses ferrous materials in piping
systems between -20F and -150F. The value entered here should be the quantity (40% of the allowable) as detailed in the
Code. When Sy is defined, the OPE case will be considered a "stress case". The allowable reported in the output report will
be the value entered here. The computed operating stress will include all longitudinal components, and ignore torsion.
ASME Sect III Class 2 and 3. Basic Material Yield Strength at design temperature for use in Eqn. 9 for consideration of
Level A and B service limits. Level C and Level D service limits must be satisfied in separate runs by adjusting the value
for the occasional factor in the CAESAR II configuration file. If the occasional factor is set to 1.2, the allowable stress is the
minimum of 1.2 x 1.5 SH or 1.5 SY. If the factor is 1.5, the allowable is the minimum of 1.5 x 1.5 SH or 1.8 SY, while if the
factor is 2.0, the allowable is the minimum of 2.0 x 1.5 SH or 2.0 SY. (Note, in order to satisfy the code SH should be
replaced by SM for the latter two.)
CAN Z662. Specified Minimum Yield Strength taken from the standards or specifications under which the pipe was
purchased or as per clause 4.3.3.
BS 806. Sustained Stress Limit. The lower of 0.8 X 0.2% Proof stress value or the creep rupture design stress value defined
in Appendix A under cold or any other operating condition. See 17.2(c)
Swedish Method 1. Not Used. The yield stress at temperature is entered in the respective SHn fields for the up to nine
possible thermal states.
Stoomwezen (1989). SY is the tensile strength at room temperature, referred to as Rm in the code.
Norwegian. This should be the allowable stress at 7000 load cycles, RS, from Code Table 10.2. If not entered, this factor is
not considered to control the expansion stress allowable.
Chapter 3 Piping Screen Reference 3-83
Note: Unless explicitly entered by the user, this value will be taken from the Material Database, if available and
applicable.
3-84 Piping Screen Reference
Fac
A unitless multiplication factor used by some transmission and non-U.S. piping codes. The specific input required for each
piping code is discussed as follows:
B31.4. Amount the pipeline may be considered under complete axial restraint, i.e. long and buried. This option is used
primarily when the user is adding bending stresses to the stresses already developed in the pipeline due to its buried
restraint. This condition occurs when, for example a branch is tieing into a long buried header and the soil supports are not
modeled. The equation for stress in CAESAR II is:
Where:
E = elastic modulus
= thermal expansion coefficient per degree
T2 = operating temperature
T1 = ambient temperature
= Poisson's ratio
Shoop = hoop stress in the pipe.
SE = expansion stress due to bending
SL = sustained stress due to pressure.
Fac should be a number between zero and one. One, when the pipe is fully restrained, i.e. buried for a long distance. Zero
when the pipe is subject to no buried axial restraint. The default value for Fac is 0.0. Note that when Fac is 0.001, this
indicates to CAESAR II that the pipe is buried but that the soil supports have been modeled. This will cause the hoop stress
component, rather than the longitudinal stress, to be added to the operating stresses, conforming to the spirit of the
restrained line stress calculation above.
B31.4 Chapter IX. This value is F1, Hoop Stress Design Factor, as per Table A402.3.5(a) of B31.4. Appropriate values are
0.72 for Pipelines or 0.60 for Platform piping and Risers.
D (CLASS 4) Multi-Story Buildings are prevalent, Traffic is heavy 0.40 (0.4 is the default if not entered.)
B31.8 Chapter VIII. This value is F1, Hoop Stress Design Factor, as per Table A842.22 of B31.8. Appropriate values are
0.72 for Pipelines or 0.50 for Platform piping and Risers.
Chapter 3 Piping Screen Reference 3-85
B31.11. Amount the pipeline may be considered to be under complete axial restraint (see discussion under B31.4 above).
CAN Z662. Indicates whether the pipe is restrained (i.e. long or buried) or unrestrained.
Where:
E = elastic modulus
= thermal expansion coefficient per degree
T2 = operating temperature
T1 = ambient temperature
= Poisson's ratio
Shoop = hoop stress in the pipe.
SE = expansion stress due to bending
SL = sustained stress due to pressure.
Fac should be 1.0, 0.0, or 0.001. One, for pipe under complete axial restraint. One, when the pipe is fully restrained, i.e.
buried for a long distance. The default value for Fac is 0.0. Note that when Fac is 0.001, this indicates to CAESAR II that the
pipe is buried but that the soil supports have been modeled. This causes the hoop stress component, rather than the
longitudinal stress, to be added to the operating stresses if the axial stress is compressive.
Swedish Power Code, Method 1. Sigma(tn) multiplier. Usually 1.5. For prestressed (cold sprung) piping this value should
be 1.35. The default used is 1.5.
Stoomwezen. This is a constant whose value is either 0.44 or 0.5. Refer to Stoomwezen Section 5.2 for details.
Norwegian. This should be the material ultimate tensile strength at room temperature, RM. If not entered, this factor is not
considered to control the expansion stress allowable.
FDBR. This cell can be used to over-ride the ratio of Ehot/Ecold, which is automatically determined by CAESAR II.
The modulus ratio is used to compute the expansion case allowable stress, based on the material and temperature.
Normally, this field can be left blank. However, if desired, a value (greater than zero and less than one) can be entered in
this field to over-ride the program determined ratio.
To correctly utilize FBDR, the user should enter the Hot Modulus in the Elastic Modulus cell of the spreadsheet. CAESAR II
will look up the Cold Modulus and compute this necessary ratio. Note that the use of the Hot Modulus in the flexibility
analysis is a deviation of FBDR from every other piping code in
CAESAR II.
3-86 Piping Screen Reference
Note that if expansion coefficients are entered directly instead of temperatures, the program cannot determine Ecold. In this
case, a value of 1.0 should be entered in this cell and the cyclic reduction factor fields should be used to specify the product
of
BS 7159. Mean temperature change multiplier k, as defined in Section 7.2.1 of the code. This should be 0.85 for liquids, 0.8
for gases, and 1.0 for ambient temperature changes. If left blank, this value will default to 1.0.
UKOOA. Mean temperature change multiplier k, as defined for the BS 7159 code above. If left blank, this value will
default to 1.0.
DNV. Usage factor Nu (pressure bursting) from Tables C1or C2. Values must be between 0.64 and 0.84.
Material Fatigue Curve data may be entered here, permitting the evaluation of fatigue load cases and cumulative usage
scenarios. Cycle vs. Stress data may be entered for up to eight data points. (Note IGE/TD/12 provides the opportunity to
enter up to five fatigue curves, representing fatigue classes D,E, F, G, and W.) Fatigue evaluations are explicitly specified
by IGE/TD/12; CAESAR II offers them as extensions to other codes.
The user is also given the option of reading in fatigue curve data from a file, several of which are provided with CAESAR II.
Cycle/Stress pairs should be entered in ascending order (ascending by cycles). Stress values should be entered as the
allowable Stress Range rather than allowable Stress Amplitude. Fatigue Curves will be considered to be entered using a
logarithmic interpolation.
Note: Fatigue Curves may also be read in from files, using the Read From File button. Static FATigue cases will be
evaluated against the full range of the fatigue curve, while dynamic FATigue cases are assumed to represent amplitudes,
and are therefore evaluated against half of the range of the fatigue curve.
Note, this setting is duplicated to subsequent elements, just like all of the other allowable stress data.
For this set of radio buttons, "On" means the pipe is restrained while "Off" means the pipe is not restrained.
3-88 Piping Screen Reference
In general, restrained piping is piping in which the soil or supports prevent axial displacement of flexure at bends.
Conversely, unrestrained piping is piping that is free to displace axially or flex at bends. Additional details are provided in
Section 833.1, and users are urged to consult the Code directly.
Pvar
ASME and RCC-M C, D. This is the variance in the pressure between operating and “peak” to be used as the component
in equation 9 above that found from B1 * P * Do / 2tn. Do not enter the peak pressure for Pvar, enter the difference between
the operating pressure and the peak pressure.
Swedish Power Code, Methods 1 & 2. This is BETA for the “Seff” calculation. If not given, “beta” defaults to 10%. Ten
percent would be entered as 10.0. Values entered must be between 0.1 and 25.0. Values entered outside of this range will be
automatically adjusted to the outer limit of the allowed range. The definition for “beta,” as given in the Swedish piping code
in section 5.6.2.1, is the “maximum allowable minus the tolerance as a percentage of the nominal wall thickness.”
Stoomwezen. PVAR is the Cm coefficient in the code whose value is usually 1.0.
Norwegian. PVAR is the difference between design pressure P (in equation 10.7) and peak pressure Pmaks (in equation
10.8).
The table that follows defines when each of these parameters is valid input for the piping code (V) or not required (N).
DNV. Usage factor N for equivalent stress check from Table C4. Values must be between 0.77 and 1.00.
PD-8010 Part 1. This is the Design Factor as discussed in Section 6.4.1.2. Typical limits on this value are 0.3 and 0.72,
depending on categories and class locations. This Design Factor is used in determining the allowable hoop stress. (This
value has no units for PD-8010 Part 1.)
PD-8010 Part 2 This is the Design Factor as discussed in Section 6.4.1 Table 2. Enter the value of "fd" for the Hoop Stress
evaluation, which should be either 0.6 (riser/land fall) or 0.72 (seabed/tie-in). CAESAR II will determine the appropriate "fd"
values for the equivalent stress from Table 2. (This value has no units for PD-8010 Part 2.)
Note: Unless explicitly entered by the user, this value will be taken from the Material Database, if available.
If both hl(1:1) and al(1:1) are left blank, CAESAR II will assume that a simplified envelope will be user for plain pipe.
If hl(1:1) is left blank and al(1:1) is specified then CAESAR II will assume that hl(1:1) is equal to al(1:1), and the error checker
will display a warning message. For more information users may also refer to the help for al(1:1).
Chapter 3 Piping Screen Reference 3-89
If hl(2:1) is left blank and al(2:1) is specified, then CAESAR II will assume that hl(2:1) is equal to twice al(2:1), and the error
checker will display a warning message. For more information users may also refer to the help for al(2:1)
where:
In CAESAR II qualified stress joints qs, for plain pipe is not directly required, although users should be aware that ( qs)pipe=
hl(2:1), and hl(2:1) is required input for plain pipe.
If a piping system has no qualified stress qs should not be required. However, users still need to input a positive value say
1000.00 for qs in order to get rid of the error message. The same is true for bends and tees.
Note: CAESAR II requires users to provide qualified stresses for fittings, bends, tees, and joints, although strictly speaking,
these stresses might not be applicable if the bends, tees or joints do not exist in a piping model. If there are no bends, tees or
joints in a model users should enter a dummy positive value to satisfy the Error Checker otherwise, the model will fail.
3-90 Piping Screen Reference
where:
In the absence of data from the manufacture, the default values should be used:
Note: A higher factor may be used for r if justified by testing in accordance with 6.2.6 ISO 14692-2-2002.
In CAESAR II, the bi-axial stress ratio r for tees is assumed to be 1.0 according to ISO 14692.
And a warning message will be given in the error checker if a value greater than 2.0 is inputted by the user for bi-axial stress
ratio r for bends or joints, and a user might choose to ignore the warning message. For more information refer to the note at
the bottom of the table.
If a piping system has no joints or bends. the corresponding bi-axial stress ratio r should not be required. However, a user
still need to input a positive values (say 1.0) for r in order to get rid of error messages.
Eh / Ea
Eh / Ea is the ratio of the hoop modulus to the axial modulus of elasticity. If omitted, a default value of 2.0 will be used.
Hand Lay
Enable this box if the bend is hand-layed. If this box is not enabled, smooth bends are assumed. This will affect the
calculations of both the flexibility factor and the SIFs (for the bend).
The following passage is quoted from ISO14692-3:2002(E) section 7.4.2 Design Temperature.
The effect of temperature on reduction of mechanical properties shall be accounted for by the partial factor A1, which is
determined according to Annex D in ISO 14692-2:2002.
The maximum operating temperature of the piping system shall not exceed the temperature used to calculate the partial
factor A1 of the GRP components. If the operating temperature is less than or equal to 65 °C, then A1 will generally be equal
to 1.0
The effect of low temperatures on material properties and system performance shall be considered. For service temperatures
below 0 °C, the principal should consider the need for additional testing, depending on the resin system. Both qualification
as well as additional mechanical tests should be considered.
Note: Glass Reinforced Plastic GRP materials do not undergo ductile/brittle transition within the temperature range of this
part of ISO 14692, hence, there is no significant abrupt change in mechanical properties at low temperatures. A concern is
that at temperatures lower than –35 °C, internal residual stresses could become large enough to reduce the safe operating
envelope of the piping system.
The effect of chemical degradation of all system components from either the transported medium or the external
environment shall be considered on both the pressure and temperature ratings. System components shall include adhesive
and elastomeric seals/locking rings, if used, as well as the basic glass fiber and resin materials.
The effect of chemical degradation shall be accounted for by the partial factor A2 for chemical resistance, which is
determined in accordance with Annex D in ISO 14692-2:2002. If the normal service fluid is water, then A2 = 1. Reference
shall be made to manufacturers' data if available.
Note 1: In general, the aqueous fluids specified in the qualification procedures of ISO 14692-2:2002 are among the more
aggressive environments likely to be encountered. However, strong acids, alkalis, hypochlorite, glycol, aromatics and
alcohol can also reduce the properties of Glass Reinforced Plastic(GRP) piping components; the effect depends on the
chemical concentration, temperature and resin type.
Note 2: The information from the manufacturers' tables are based on experience and laboratory tests at atmospheric
pressure, on published literature, raw material suppliers' data, etc. Chemical concentrations, wall stresses, reinforcement
type and resin have not always been taken into account. Therefore the tables only give an indication of the suitability of the
piping components to transport the listed chemicals. In addition, the mixing of chemicals may cause severe situations.
Cyclic loading is not necessarily limited to pressure loads. Thermal and other cyclic loads shall therefore be considered
when assessing cyclic severity.
If the predicted number of pressure or other loading cycle is less than 7000 over the design life, the service shall be
considered static. If required, the limited cyclic capability of the pipe system components can be demonstrated according to
6.4.5 of ISO 14692-2:2002.
3-92 Piping Screen Reference
If the predicted number of pressure or other loading cycles exceeds 7000 over the design life, then the designer shall
determine the design cyclic severity, Rc, of the piping system. Rc is defined as:
where Fmin and Fmax are the minimum and maximum loads (or stresses) of the load (or stress) cycle.
This equation is intended for cyclic internal pressure loading only, but may be applied with caution to axial loads provided
they remain tensile, i.e. it is not applicable for reversible loading.
The purpose of the System Design Factor is to define an acceptable margin of safety between the strength of the material
and the operating stresses for the three load cases, occasional, sustained including thermal loads and sustained excluding
thermal loads. The following table shows the relationship between the System Design Factor, the Occasional Load Factor
and f2, along with their default values.
Note: To determine the Part Factor For loading use the following equation f2 = SDF*k.
k - Thermal Factor
The Thermal Factor, is defined in Section 8.4 of ISO-14692-3:2002(E). In the absence of further information, the thermal
factor k should be taken as 0.85 for liquids and 0.8 for gasses. If omitted, it is default to 1.0.
Chapter 3 Piping Screen Reference 3-93
Available Commands
Break Command
This command is initiated with the Model - Break command. This option is available from the Pipe Element Spreadsheet
and allows the user to “break” an element into two or more individual elements. The “break” option was designed for
situations where:
A straight run of pipe between two nodes needs to be broken to insert a restraint, or some other change in properties.
A long straight run of pipe needs to be broken into multiple, uniform lengths of pipe with similar support conditions on
each length, i.e. a long straight run of rack piping, or a buried run with multiple soil supports at each point in the run.
An example “break” screen is shown in the following figure:
The example above illustrates a “single nodal insert” between the nodes 100 and 110. The node to be inserted is 105 and is
6 ft. from the node 100. Alternatively we could insert node 105 an appropriate distance from the To Node 110. If there was
some other node in the model with a restraint (or imposed displacements) like the one to be put on the newly generated node
105, then the node identifying that restraint location could be filled in at the line Get Support From Node and the restraint
would be automatically placed at 105.
For multiple inserts in a rack piping system the prompts might appear as follows:
3-94 Piping Screen Reference
At the prompt for “support condition” if the user entered the node where a +Y restraint had already been defined, a +Y
restraint would be placed at all of the generated nodes, namely 110, 112, ... , 120. The multiple insert BREAK is used
primarily for three reasons:
Rack piping supports where the total length and node spacing is known and entered directly when requested at the
“break” prompts.
Underground pipe runs where the overall length of the run is known, and the lengths of the individual elements in the
run are known.
To add mass points in order to refine a model for dynamic analysis.
Note: There are two occasions when “Break” will not work when the element is an expansion joint, or the delta
dimensions in the DX, DY, and DZ fields are blank or zero.
Valve/Flange Database
The Valve and Flange database is accessed through the Model - Valve command or by clicking the .
The CRANE database contains all flanged and welded fittings in the CRANE steel valve catalog. The GENERIC database
contains information from a variety of sources. In some cases (i.e. weights for control valves) information from different
sources was found to vary considerably. In these cases the largest reasonable weight was selected for use in the database. In
other cases only the length of the fitting was available.
The default database, CADWorx Plant, is a subset of the full component database provided with CADWorx Plant, COADE's
piping design and drafting program. This database offers nine different component types (gate, globe, check, control, ball,
plug, and butterfly valves; flange pair and single flange) as well as four different end types (flanged, no-flanged, threaded,
or socket). Selection of flanged-end components or flanges themselves automatically provides for gaskets.
Note: Selecting flanged ends (FLG) for a valve simply adds the length and weight of two flanges and gaskets to the valve
length and weight. No FLG selects a valve without including the two mating flanges.
3-96 Piping Screen Reference
The assumed orientation of the rigid is taken from the preceding element. Users should note that CAESAR II is doing a table
lookup based on line size, and is inserting the selected table values into the spreadsheet. Should the line size change at a
later time, the user must come back and ask CAESAR II to perform another table look-up for the new size.
Use of the CADWorx Plant database offers several benefits over the use of other databases:
The CADWorx Plant database provides more accurate component lengths and weights than those typically available in
the GENERIC database.
Using the same component data for CAESAR II and CADWorx Plant modeling promotes the efficiency of the bi-
directional interface between the two programs, for those who are using both programs. Total sharing of data files and
specifications between CAESAR II and CADWorx Plant occurs when the CADWorx installation directive is saved in the
registry. In that case, the third line of the CADWORX.VHD file should be edited to name the actual CADWorx
specifications (located in the CADWORX\SPEC subdirectory). For more information on editing this file, see below.
Users may more easily modify the CADWorx Plant Valve and Flange database, since the specification files and
component data files are ASCII text files. This process, which involves possibly editing the CADWORX.VHD,
specification, and data files, is described below.
The CADWORX.VHD file is structured as such:
CADWORX.DAT
0 7
150 300 600 800 900 1500 2500
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
4
FLG NOFLG THREADSOCKET
9
GATE GLOBE CHECKCONTRL BALL PLUGBTRFLYFLG.PRFLANGE
0
in the file list the library (subdirectory to the LIB_I or LIB_M directory, depending on whether English or Metric units are
in effect), file name (with an extension equal to the library name), range of nominal pipe sizes for which the specified data
file applies. Any of these items may be edited by the user; the last item on the line is the component type number, and
should not be changed. Other items in the file pertain to CADWorx Plant and are not significant to the CAESAR II user.
The data files hold the dimensional and weight values. Data files for different types of components hold different types of
data; the data columns are labeled. The only data with significance to the CAESAR II user involves the weight and lengths –
these may be changed by the user. The following is a typical component data file for weld neck flanges:
More extensive information on editing of these files can be found in the CADWorx Plant User Manual.
Find Distance
Click Origin and Current Node to calculate the distance between coordinate (0.0,0.0,0.0) and the TO node of the current
element.
Click Nodes, and then enter two node numbers to calculate the distance between those two nodes.
3-98 Piping Screen Reference
Find Element
Enter a single node number to find the next element containing that node number (either as a FROM or TO node).
Enter two node numbers to find the next element containing BOTH of those node numbers (in either order).
Global Coordinates
Enter absolute (global) coordinates for the start node of each discontiguous system segment. This may be required for three
reasons:
1 -- the user may wish to show nodal coordinates in absolute, rather than relative coordinates.
2 -- defining global coordinates for discontiguous segments allow the piping segments to plot in the correct locations, rather
than superimposed at the origin.
3 -- if WIND loading is present, it is important that the pipe be given the correct elevation.
Insert Element
Selecting BEFORE inserts a new element prior to the current element, with the FROM node equal to the FROM node of the
current element.
Selecting AFTER inserts a new element following the current element, with the FROM node equal to the TO node of the
current element.
Node Increment
When generating the FROM and TO nodes for new elements, CAESAR II uses the nodal increment set in CONFIGURE/SETUP.
This may be overridden by entering a different value here.
-------------------------------------------------------------
The "TYPE" only needs to be entered once for each intersection or joint in the problem. Users CANNOT specify two
different SIFs at a single node and get an increased SIF. For example a socketweld TYPE and an intersection TYPE cannot
be specified at the same point.
Intersection SIFs can be calculated for one, two or three pipe junctions. Conservative assumptions are made with regard to
missing information and orientations. Warning messages are printed during error checking for each intersection where
assumptions must be made to apply code rules. For 2 element joints the largest diameter and the smallest thickness are used
when discrepancies exist between the two adjoining pipes, (unless the two element fitting is a socket weld, and then the
largest thickness is used). These selections are made to generate the largest SIFs and thus the most conservative stress
calculations.
Intersection SIFs can be calculated for dummy leg intersections on bend curvatures. This is a crude method for estimating
bend/dummy leg SIFs, but is often considered an improvement over an unintensified dummy leg.
Code calculated bend stress intensification factors will always take precedence over any other SIF that may be defined at
the bend node. (A setup file directive: ALLOW_USERS_BEND_SIF=YES permits the user to override code SIFs at bends
if necessary.)
Pad Thickness
Thickness of the REINFORCING PAD for reinforced fabricated tees, Intersection type 1.
Note: In most piping codes this beneficial effect of the pad's thickness is limited to pads of a thickness less than 1.5 times
the nominal thickness of the fitting. This factor does not apply in BS806 or Z662, and is 2.5 in the Swedish piping code.
Crotch Thickness for B31.3 Welding Tees and Sweepolets (intersection types 3 and 4). The crotch thickness and radius are
necessary for CAESAR II to determine if the fitting meets B16.9 requirements.
3-100 Piping Screen Reference
SETUP file directives also exist to limit the application of the reduced branch connection rules to UNREINFORCED
FABRICATED TEES, SWEEPOLETS, WELDOLETS and EXTRUDED WELDING TEES. (i.e. omitting REDUCED
WELDING TEES and REDUCED REINFORCED FABRICATED TEES.) If omitted, FTG ro defaults to the outside
radius of the branch connection if omitted.
Crotch Radius
CROTCH RADIUS for extruded welding tees, intersection type 6.
Specifying this value when it is known can result in a 50% reduction in the stress intensification at the intersection. This
reduction only applies when WRC329 intersection options are selected from the setup file, and for unreinforced fabricated
tees, sweepolets, weldolets, and extruded welding tees, i.e. intersection types 2, 4, 5, and 6.
This value must be larger than Tb/2 and Th/2 to be effective in reducing the stress intensification. (There is another value in
the code that must be checked by the user and that is (Tb'+y)/2 (y) is the largest thickness at the intersection. The crotch
radius must be larger than this value also.)
If this value is left blank, a value of zero will be used. This indicates no crotch, i.e. a corner.
Weld ID
The following are valid Weld ID values.
Values:
0 or BLANK - As Welded
1 - Finished/Ground Flush
Used for:
BONNEY FORGE SWEEPOLETS
BONNEY FORGE INSERT WELDOLETS
BUTT WELDS IN THE SWEDISH PIPING CODE
If entered as 1 then the weld is considered to be ground flush on the inside and out and the SIF is taken as 1.0.
Refer to the help on Weld Mismatch (Weld d) for more detail on how input parameters are used to compute SIFs for girth
butt welds.
Weld d (Mismatch)
Average circumferential weld mismatch measured at the inside diameter of the pipe. Used for Butt Welds and Tapered
Transitions.
Note: This is the average, and not the maximum mismatch. Users must verify that any maximum mismatch requirements
are satisfied for their particular code.
For B31.1:
Where TR is the pipe thickness (inches), and DMIS is the entered weld mismatch. See Table D1 in the B31.1 appendix for
further discussion and assumptions.
For B31.3, B31.4, B31.8 (including Ch VIII), BS 806, Canadian, Navy and B31.1-1967:
The SIF for girth butt welds is always taken as 1.0 regardless of the input for thickness and mismatch.
For CODETI:
For FDBR:
For Tapered Transitions this value is the mismatch of the inside diameters at the small end weld, and is used as the "delta"
in the equation:
Note: If a fillet leg size is entered, both socket weld types result in the same SIF.
The SIF is calculated as (2.1)(T) / Leg, where T is the pipe wall thickness and Leg is the fillet leg length. A minimum SIF
of 1.3 required.
For an unequal leg fillet weld, use the length of the shorter leg.
Chapter 3 Piping Screen Reference 3-103
If the fitting is a taper (TYPE = 10), enter the actual outside diameter of the small end of the tapered connection.
If the fitting is a taper (TYPE = 10), enter the wall thickness of the small end of the tapered connection.
The user may override the program calculated bend radius at any time.
The long radius bend value is obtained from a look-up table based on the user's specified diameter. Users of pipes with
diameters not listed as standard CAESAR II nominal diameters should compute and enter the bend radius by hand. CAESAR
II's "ON-SCREEN-MULTIPLICATION" simplifies this chore, i.e. the bend radius for a three-eighths inch pipe could be
entered: .375*1.5.
This entry serves only to modify the stiffness and stress intensification factors for the bend.
The British Piping Code BS 806 defines a bend's end cross section as resisting ovalization whenever a rigid fitting is within
two diameters of the bend's end.
3-104 Piping Screen Reference
For the BS 7159 and UKOOA codes, this entry refers to the material laminate type, and may be 1, 2, or 3. These laminate
types are:
1 - All chopped strand mat (CSM) construction with internal and external surface tissue reinforced layer
2 - Chopped strand mat (CSM) and woven roving (WR) construction with internal and external surface tissue reinforced
layer
3 - Chopped strand mat (CSM) and multi-filament roving construction with internal and external surface tissue reinforced
layer.
Laminate type affects the calculation of flexibility factors and stress intensification factors for the BS 7159 and UKOOA
codes only.
Fitting Thickness
Enter the thickness of the bend if different than the thickness of the matching pipe. If the entered thickness is greater than
the matching pipe wall thickness, then the inside diameter of the bend will be smaller than the inside diameter of the
matching pipe. Section modulus calculations for stress computations are made based on the properties of the matching pipe
as defined by the codes.
The pipe thickness is used twice when calculating SIFs and flexibility factors -- once as Tn, and once when determining the
mean cross-sectional radius of the pipe in the equation for the flexibility characteristic (h):
h = (Tn)(R) / (r2)
Tn = Thickness of bend or fitting
R = Bend radius
r = Mean cross-sectional radius of matching pipe
= (OD - WT) / 2
OD = Outside Diameter of matching pipe
WT = Wall Thickness of matching pipe
Most codes use the actual thickness of the fitting (this entry) for Tn, and the wall thickness of the matching pipe for the
calculation of the mean cross-sectional radius of the pipe (the WT value). More specifically, the individual codes use the
two wall thicknesses as follows:
The bend fitting thickness (FTG) is always used as the pipe thickness in the stiffness matrix calculations; however, note
that the thickness of the matching pipe (WT) is always used in the bend stress calculations.
Miter Points
Number of CUTS (or changes of direction) in the mitered bend.
The "NUMBER OF CUTS" and the "BEND RADIUS" are the only inputs required (along with the program-determined
bend angle) to calculate the SIFs and flexibilities defined in the various piping codes for mitered elbows.
The RADIUS of the bend and the spacing of the cuts are directly related to one another, given one, the other can be
calculated. Closely spaced miters typically have a radius equivalent to the standard long radius bend for the given pipe size.
Closely spaced mitered bends; regardless of the number of miter cuts can be modeled as a single bend element.
Widely spaced mitered bends should be modeled as "n" single cut miters, where "n" is the number of cuts in the bend. This
means that "n" bend elements should be defined, each one a single cut miter. The bend radius associated with these
individual, single cut miters is smaller than the standard long radius bend and must be calculated separately. Examples in
the CAESAR II User Guide illustrate this application.
r2 = (OD - WT) / 2
OD = Outside Diameter as entered
WT = Wall Thickness of attached pipe
The B31.3 (1993) code defines r2 as the "mean radius of matching pipe".
3-106 Piping Screen Reference
This wall thickness is used in the mean radius (r2) calculation as defined in the piping codes.
Elastic Modulus
Enter the Cold Modulus of Elasticity of the pipe material.
Maximum Pressure
This is used for the pressure stiffening calculations.
For the BS 7159 or UKOOA codes, this entry should be the product of the material Design Strain, €, and the material
modulus of elasticity.
An example selection session is illustrated as follows. Of particular note are the following items:
Any of four material types may be selected. These material types are used to adjust the bellows stiffnesses to the actual
highest temperature in the model. This will typically result in higher stiffnesses than those shown in the vendor’s
catalog because the stiffnesses in the catalog may be based on a higher design temperature.
Any combination of end types may be selected.
Bellows, liner, cover, rod, and hinge/gimbal assembly weights are looked up from the stored database and
automatically included in the expansion joint model.
For universal joints, the minimum allowed length is stored, but when the available space exceeds the minimum
allowed, the user is prompted for the length that he wishes the expansion joint assembly to occupy.
The last screen that follows shows the “proposed” model to the user before it is inserted into the CAESAR II input. This
allows the user to investigate the characteristics of several joints before settling on one.
Actual maximum pressure ratings are also a part of the database, and in many cases exceed the nominal pressure rating
shown in the catalog. Users will be permitted to use pressures up to these actual allowed maximums.
Allowed joint movements are also stored as part of the database and are printed with each proposed model. These
values should be recorded for use in checking the model after a successful design pass has been completed.
Pressure thrust is included in the modeling considerations for each of the expansion joint styles, removing this concern
from the user.
In the case of “tied” expansion joints, rigid elements are used to model the tie-bars. Restraints with connecting nodes
are used to contain the pressure thrust, and to keep the ends of the expansion joint parallel.
The Expansion Joint Modeling session is started by clicking the Expansion Joint button on the toolbar or selecting the
MODEL - EXPANSION JOINT menu item from the pipe spreadsheet:
Chapter 3 Piping Screen Reference 3-107
3-108 Piping Screen Reference
For example, if the hinge can rotate about the X-axis, enter:
The default expansion joint vendor may be changed in CONFIGURE/SETUP (see "Expansion Joints" on page 2-9).
The lower window shows the bellows stiffness parameters and allowable movements (from the vendor catalog). The
allowable movements should be noted for later evaluation of the expansion joint.
There does not have to be a length given on the element where the expansion joint is to be inserted.
The six types of expansion joint models supported currently by CAESAR II are as listed below:
Untied single bellows
Tied single bellows
Hinged single bellows
Gimballed single bellows
Untied universal bellows
Tied universal bellows
The four possible joint end types are
Welded-end
Slip-on flange
Weld neck flange
Plate flange
If the length of the element to receive the expansion joint model is given, then the expansion joint assembly should fit
within this length. If it does not, a warning message will be displayed to the user. If a universal joint has been requested, the
length of the receiving element should be at least long enough to accept the smallest possible universal length, as defined by
the minimum spool piece size from the manufacturers' database. If the element to receive the universal expansion joint
model is zero, the user will be prompted for the desired expansion joint length. If the element to receive the universal
expansion joint model had an original length, then the maximum possible space available for the universal will be reported
and the user asked for the length desired. If the element to receive any expansion joint is longer than the expansion joint to
be inserted, the user will be prompted for the end of the element where the joint should be inserted, i.e. the From or To end.
Overall universal lengths should be limited to about 10 times the pipe diameter before the center spool piece weight begins
to become a problem.
If there is a bend at either the From or the To end of the element to receive the expansion joint, then the length of the
element must be defined.
To find extra nodes needed for the expansion joint model, CAESAR II starts with the element FROM node and increments
by one until a sufficient number of nodes not used elsewhere in the model are encountered. It is these nodes that are
reported in the “proposed-model” pop-up window.
Note that angular stiffnesses reported are given in the current set of units. Only the translational stiffness label is found at
the top of the bellows stiffness report. If users are unsure about the rotational stiffness units, they may be seen either in the
help screens or in the UNITS report from the LIST option.
3-110 Piping Screen Reference
The user is prompted to adjust the stiffness for the expansion joint if the highest operating temperature is given and not
equal to the expansion joint catalog design temperature. Note that this will in general produce bellows stiffnesses greater
than those published in the catalog.
Bellows, tie-bar, and hinge/gimbal assembly weights are combined together and distributed over the expansion joint rigid
end pieces.
The expansion joint modeler makes every attempt possible to generate nodes in the model that are unique. The user should
inspect the nodes that are generated closely and make sure that he does not use them unintentionally in any future model
building.
There is a fair amount of computer logic set up to make intelligent decisions about the configuration that the user wants
insofar as bends, hinges, tied bellows, and pressure thrust are concerned. Users should review generated CAESAR II models
and be sure that everything is consistent with the user’s intentions.
The deadweight and thermal forces are normally small compared to the pressure and pressure thrust.
Designers laid out expansion joints so that the thermal forces were very low and hence not significant.
The allowable stresses used in hardware designs have a significant safety factor.
The forces and moments generally were not known. Today when an expansion joint is modeled, it is recommended that
ALL information relating to the joint be submitted to the expansion joint manufacturer. This is especially true of the forces
and moments resulting from the operating loads, i.e. deadweight, thermal forces, and operating deflections. Better
evaluations of the loading conditions on the bellows and hardware simply help the manufacturer make sure that his design is
suited for the intended installation and service.
Movement Capability
The more convolutions selected the greater the movement capacity of the bellows. It is a common practice to perform a
quick hand calculation to estimate the required movement and then select the number of convolutions from the rated
movements in the catalog. Once an analysis is performed, the exact evaluation of the bellows performance can be made
using the expansion joint rating module program provided with CAESAR II.
Chapter 3 Piping Screen Reference 3-111
Spring Forces
The more convolutions selected, the lower the resulting bellows spring forces will be. This is particularly critical when the
expansion joint is located near rotating equipment.
Available Space
The more convolutions selected, the greater the required overall length. If working in a confined area, the number of
convolutions may be restricted by the space.
Welded
Standard pipe beveled for welding.
Slipon
Slip-on flange.
WN
Weld neck flange.
Plate
Plate flange in accordance with the manufacturers catalog.
Slip-on, weld neck, and plate flanges may not be available in all diameters and pressure ratings, i.e. over 24-in. diameters.
Consult the catalog for specific interface dimensions, codes and materials. When the user selects a combination not
available, he is warned that there are no database values for his particular geometry and line size.
Pressure Rating
The pressure rating should be equal to, or larger than the design pressure of the system. Note, however, that in many
instances larger pressures can be tolerated than the rated pressure shown, in fact in many small diameter expansion joints
the same bellows is used in 50, 150, and 300 psi-rated joints. The CAESAR II modeler contains the true minimum pressure
limits for all of the bellows in the database, and checks the maximum pressure in the line (as entered by the user) against the
allowed pressure (which as stated, is often greater than the rated pressure). This particular feature allows the user to select a
smaller joint with more flexibility for certain applications.
Untied
Single unrestrained expansion joint. This type of joint can absorb movement in all directions. It will also subject the system
to pressure thrust which must be designed for, external to the expansion joint!!! This type of joint should almost never be
used by the expansion joint novice needing to protect hot, pressurized equipment. Guide restrictions limiting displacements
into the joint, regular maintenance problems (because of all of the support hardware away from the bellows), and pressure
thrust make using and analyzing this type of bellows difficult.
3-112 Piping Screen Reference
Tied
Tied single expansion joint that is capable of transverse (lateral) movement only. Pressure thrust is restrained internally via
the tie-bars. This is a good, dependable expansion joint to use because pressure thrust does not have to be designed for, tie
rods provide stability to the overall joint (making working with it in the field easier), and there is a single displacement
mode (i.e. lateral) that can be directly compared to the rated lateral movement in the catalog, without the need for the
relatively complicated geometric calculations in the Expansion Joint Rating program. The drawbacks to the single TIED
expansion joint are that they are fairly stiff in practice (often not providing the needed flexibility to sufficiently reduce the
loads on sensitive equipment), and that the tie-bar assembly does provide some nonlinear restraining effect on flexibility
that is unaccounted for in the analysis that may be appreciable when the bellows displacement becomes large (i.e. when it is
most critical that it perform as predicted.)
Hinged
Single hinged expansion joint. This type of joint can only angulate about one axis. Pressure thrust is retained internally by
the hinge mechanism. Hinge joints are often used in pairs to absorb considerable displacement in a single plane, while
transmitting very little load to any attached equipment. The piping system must, however, be designed to assure that
displacement into the hinges is planar for all types of thermal and occasional loadings to be experienced by the system.
Where pressure loads to be absorbed by the hinge mechanism are high, considerable friction forces can be generated that
will somewhat limit further flexing of the joint, thus transmitting larger loads than expected back into the piping system.
Gimbal
Single gimbal expansion joint. This type of joint can angulate about two axes. Gimballed joints restrain both pressure thrust
and torsion via the gimbal mechanism. These joints are often used in pairs to absorb considerable displacement in several
directions, while transmitting very little load to any attached equipment.
U-UNIV
Untied universal expansion joint. This type of unit is similar to a single unrestrained expansion joint. It can absorb
movement in all directions and normally has a much higher capacity for transverse (lateral) deflection than a single bellows.
An untied universal will subject the system to pressure thrust loads which must be designed for, external to the expansion
joint. Even when pressure is negligible these joints can often be difficult to use in practice unless proper guiding of the
thermal displacement protects the joint against undesired movement. Additionally, calculations for computing effective
bellows axial movements for arbitrary movements in three dimensions are not trivial.
T-UNIV
Tied universal expansion joint. Similar to a tied single joint, except that the tied universal has much higher transverse
(lateral) movement capability. Pressure thrust loads are restrained internally via the tie-bars. These types of joints are a good
option where vertical pipe runs close to the equipment are available. The tie-bars restrict movement to a single mode
(lateral) and eliminate the worry about pressure thrust design. Longer lengths result in smaller lateral stiffnesses, but overall
length is somewhat restricted by the weight of the center spool. A good rule of thumb is to restrict the overall length of the
assembly to ten times the pipe diameter. Users should be careful not to put the assembly into compression, as the tie bar
mechanisms are not designed to take this load and damage to the bellows can result.
These six types of expansion joints are not all of the types available, but are the most common. If a joint is needed that is not
covered by the above, it is suggested that the user select the style closest to that required, and then edit the resulting input
once the EJ Modeler is complete and processing returns to the piping spreadsheet.
Chapter 3 Piping Screen Reference 3-113
Materials
Bellows can be formed from most ductile materials that can be welded by the automatic T.I.G. butt welding process and
yield a homogeneous ductile weld structure. Due to the fact that the specific “media” content varies from system to system,
and that most “media” data specified prior to system operation is approximate, with considerable fluctuation possible, it is
not feasible to make specific recommendations concerning bellows materials. The following are the four most common
bellows materials that are supported by CAESAR II:
304SS—A240 tp 304 Stainless Steel
316SS—A240 tp 316 Stainless Steel
600Inc—Inco 600 High Nickel
625Inc—Inco 625 High Nickel
Liners
Internal liners smooth the flow through the expansion joint. The smooth flow reduces pressure drop and also prevents flow-
induced vibration of the bellows. Liners are generally recommended when the flow velocity exceeds 1.3 ft./sec. as a
minimum, and are definitely recommended when the flow velocity exceeds about 25 ft./sec. Consult the manufacturers
catalog for additional information. Heavy gage liners should be used in high velocity or turbulent flow systems. Also heavy
liners should be used when the media is abrasive.
Covers
External covers are used to protect the very thin bellows, (0.010 to 0.090 in.) from mechanical damage. Covers are also
recommended when the line is to be insulated.
Title Page
By pressing <Ctrl>T at any time during pipe spreadsheet input, the current job's title page will be displayed (also may
access through the MODEL - TITLE menu item). This is up to 60 lines of text that is stored with the problem, and may be used
for detailing run histories, discussing assumptions, etc. These lines may be printed with the output report through the input
echo.
3-114 Piping Screen Reference
Hanger Data
System-wide hanger design criteria are activated from the input spreadsheet by choosing the MODE L- HANGER DESIGN CONTROL
DATA.
Spring hanger design can be globally controlled by entering data into the hanger control spreadsheet shown above. The
Hanger Design Control Spreadsheet contains five items that also appear on each individual hanger design spreadsheet.
These parameters can be set once in the run control spreadsheet, and will apply for all individual hangers to be defined
unless specifically overridden at the individual hanger input level. These items are
short-range springs
rigid support displacement criteria
maximum-allowed travel limit
hanger table
multiple load-case design option
In addition, the Hanger Design Control spreadsheet tells the hanger design algorithm the number of temperature cases to be
used in the hanger design, and whether or not the actual cold loads should be calculated. All of these options will be
discussed in detail on the following pages.
Whenever hanger locations are given for the first time, default parameters are assigned for all of the fields that show up in
the Hanger Auxiliary Data field. These default parameters are taken from the Hanger Design Control spreadsheet. The
user should, therefore, enter any non-default parameters that are to apply globally to all hangers in the Hanger Run Control
Spreadsheet.
An individual description of each Hanger Design Control Spreadsheet Data cell follows.
If this option is not activated, CAESAR II will select a mid-range spring over a short-range spring, assuming they are more
standard, readily available, and in general cheaper than their short-range counterparts.
If the default should be that short range springs are used wherever possible, then check the box on the Hanger Design
Control Spreadsheet.
The Allowable Load Variation is the percentage variation from the hot load:
The Allowable Variation is entered as a percentage, i.e. twenty five percent would be entered 25.0. The Allowable Load
Variation can have different values for different hanger locations if necessary by entering the chosen value on the individual
hanger spreadsheets or it can be entered on the Hanger Design Control Spreadsheet to apply to all hangers in the model.
The hanger design algorithm operates by first running a restrained weight case. From this case the load to be supported by
the hanger in the operating condition is determined. Once the hanger design load is known, an operating case is run with the
hot hanger load installed to determine the travel at the hanger location. If this determined hanger travel is less than the Rigid
Support Displacement Criteria then a rigid Y support is selected for the location instead of a spring.
If the Rigid Support Displacement is left blank or zero, the criteria will not be applied.
3-116 Piping Screen Reference
The Rigid Support Displacement Criteria may be specified on the Hanger Run Control Spreadsheet, or on each individual
hanger spreadsheet. The value specified on the Hanger Run Control Spreadsheet is used as the default for all hangers not
having it defined explicitly.
Important: In some cases a Single directional restraint should be inserted instead of a rigid rod. Rigid rods are double
acting restraints which can in some cases develop large “hold down” forces that don’t really exist because the support has
lifted off, or because the rigid rod has bowed slightly. When this condition develops the user should rerun the hanger design
inserting single directional restraints where rigid rods were put in by CAESAR II.
Hangers should probably never be replaced by rigid rods in very stiff parts of the piping system that are usually associated
with rotating equipment or vessel nozzles that need to be protected.
Constant effort hangers can be designed by inputting a very small number for the Maximum Allowed Travel Limit. A value
of 0.001 is typical to force CAESAR II to select a constant effort support for a particular location.
Hanger Table
The following spring tables are currently included in CAESAR II:
5. Lisega 6. Fronek
27. NHK
Additional design options are invoked by further use of the following checkboxes.
Extended Range
Cold Load Design
Hot load centered (if possible)
Chapter 3 Piping Screen Reference 3-117
For example, to use Grinnell Springs and cold load design the user would check the "cold load design" checkbox.
To use Grinnell “Extended Range” springs, Cold Load Design, and to get the Design Hot load centered in the middle of the
hanger table, if possible, the user would check all three checkboxes.
A single job can use any combination of tables. The hanger table can be specified on the individual hanger spreadsheet, or
can be specified on the Hanger Run Control Spreadsheet (see "Hanger Data" on page 3-114).
If a spring table is entered in the Hanger Design Control Spreadsheet then it is used as the default for all subsequent
hangers defined. The Hanger Design Control Spreadsheet defaults to the hanger table-specified in the configuration file.
The maximum load range was included in CAESAR II to permit the selection of less expensive variable support hangers in
place of constant effort supports when the spring loads are just outside the manufacturers recommended range. Users should
make sure that the maximum load range is available from the manufacturer as a standard item.
Extended Load Range Springs. Extended load ranges are the most extreme ranges on the spring load table. Some
manufacturers build double spring supports to accommodate this range, and others adjust the top or bottom travel limits to
accommodate either end of the extended table. Before using the maximum ranges, the user should make sure that the
manufacturer can properly supply the spring. Use of the extended range often eliminates the need to go to a constant effort
support. Lisega springs do not support the "extended range" idea. A request for extended Lisega springs results in the
standard Lisega spring table and ranges.
Cold Load Spring Hanger Design. Cold Load Spring Hanger Design is a method of designing the springs, whereby the hot
(or operating) load is supported in the cold (or installed) position of the piping. This method of spring design offers several
advantages over the more usual hot load design:
Hanger stops are easier to remove.
There is no excessive movement from the neutral position when the system is cold or when the stops are removed.
Spring loads can be adjusted before the system is brought up to temperature.
Some feel that the cold load approach yields a much more dependable design.
In some system configurations, operating loads on connected equipment are lower. A typical configuration resulting in
this “load-reduction” is one where a hot vertical riser, anchored at the bottom, turns horizontally into a nozzle
connection. The spring to be designed is at the elbow adjacent to the nozzle. Operating loads are lower because the
difference between the hot and cold loads counters the moment produced by the vertical thermal expansion from the
anchor.
The disadvantages to cold load design are
In some systems, in the hot condition the loads on rotating equipment may be increased by a value proportional to the
spring rate times the travel.
Most installations are done on a hot load design basis.
The decision to use hot or cold load hanger design rests with the user.
Middle of the Table Hanger Design (Hot Load Centered). Many designers prefer that the hot load be centered as close as
possible to the middle of the spring table. This is to provide as much “variability” either way before the spring bottoms out
when the system is hot. This was a much more needed feature, before effective computer modeling of piping systems, when
the weights at hangers were approximated by chart methods or calculated by hand. Activating this option does not guarantee
that spring hot loads will be at the middle of the spring table, but CAESAR II makes every effort to move the hot load to this
position. The CAESAR II design algorithm will go to a higher size spring if the design load is closer to the middle of the
larger springs range, but will never switch spring types. This option can only result in a one size larger spring when it is
effective. CAESAR II will attempt to move the hot load to the next higher spring when it is within 10% of the maximum
travel range for the spring. If the new spring is not satisfactory then the old one will be used, even though its hot load is
within 10% of the high end of the table load range, to get a spring's hot load close to the middle of the table.
3-118 Piping Screen Reference
By default CAESAR II does not include the Bourdon effect in the analysis of steel piping systems, i.e. there will be no
displacements of the system due to pressure.
As an option, the user may include pressure displacement effects if he wishes. These effects can be appreciable in long runs
of pipe, or in high pressure, large diameter bends adjacent to sensitive equipment.
Bourdon effects are almost always important in fiberglass reinforced plastic piping systems. For this reason the Bourdon
(Translational) is automatically turned on for all FRP pipe runs and bends.
The Translational and Rotational option should be used when the bends in the system are fabricated by the hot or cold
bending of straight pipe. In these cases the slight residual ovalization of the bend cross section, after “bending,” will cause
the bend to try to “straighten out” when pressurized. Fixed end moments are associated with this “opening” that does not
exist when the original shape of the bend cross-section is circular.
This data is needed the first time CAESAR II prepares a global geometry calculation. This calculation is made on three
different occasions:
Before preprocessor plots are generated
Before global coordinate reports are built
Before error checking is performed
Alternatively, prompting may be avoided by entering the global coordinates by using the Edit - Global (see "Global
Coordinates" on page 3-98) command from the main spreadsheet.
dT = Ttop - Tbottom
For example, consider a horizontal pipe where the temperature on the top is 20 degrees hotter than the temperature on the
bottom. The proper value to enter in this field will be 20, not -20.
f ( 1.25 Sc + .25 Sh )
When the user requests that the “Liberal Allowable” be used, the difference between Sh and Sl, provided Sh > Sl, will be
added to the term inside the parenthesis, i.e.
The liberal expression will only be employed when there is at least one sustained stress case in the load set. If there is more
than one sustained stress case in a single problem, then the largest of Sl, considering all of the sustained cases, for any single
element end will be chosen to subtract from Sh. Because the sustained stress varies from one pipe to another, the allowable
expansion stress will also vary.
By default, CAESAR II uses the liberal stress allowable setting in the configuration file, (see "New Job Liberal Expansion
Stress Allowable" on page 2-26) in its computation of the expansion stress allowable. (New models are created using this
configuration setting.) Users not wishing to utilize this default setting for calculating the expansion can simply change the
state of this check box.
Chapter 3 Piping Screen Reference 3-121
Gravitational loading is used most often to model the static equivalent of a dynamic earthquake loading.
When activated, the uniform load fields on the pipe spreadsheet change from UX, UY, and UZ to GX, GY, and GZ. An
entry of: GX = 1.0, GY = 0.0, GZ = 0.0 represents a lg loading on the piping system in the horizontal X direction. An entry
of: GX = 0.0, GY = -1.0, GZ = 0.0 represents a 1.0g load in the minus Y direction, and is exactly equal to the pipe weight
load.
Gravitational load entries are distributive properties similar to the uniform loads they replace. Once specified, the given g
loading will act on all subsequent pipe elements until changed or zeroed.
The user may activate the gravitational load option at any time during the input of the problem. The gravitational load
option is activated by checking the box.
Note: Earthquake loads are occasional loadings and as such are not directly addressed by the CAESAR II recommended
load case logic. Users must form their own combination cases at the output processor level that represent the algebraic sum
of the stresses due to sustained and occasional loads. See Chapter 6 of the Technical Reference Manual for more on the
Occasional Load Case definition.
Ambient Temperature
The default ambient temperature for all elements in the system is 70°F/21°C. If this does not accurately represent the
installed, or zero expansion strain state, then enter the actual value in this field. The ambient temperature is used in
conjunction with the specified hot temperature and the interpolated expansion coefficient to calculate the thermal expansion
per inch of pipe length experienced by the element when going from the ambient temperature to the hot temperature.
A default ambient temperature can be defined in the configuration file (see "New Job Ambient Temperature" on page 2-6).
This (configuration) value is used when a new model is created to set the value of ambient temperature.
thermal expansion coefficient as a function of temperature. This could prove limiting should there be parts of the system at
different non-ambient temperatures. In this case the user may always calculate the thermal expansion at temperature in
inches per inch and input this value directly into the Temperature field on the pipe spreadsheet.
For new models, the default value is obtained from the configuration file.
For new models, the default value is obtained from the configuration file.
Z-Axis Vertical
Traditionally CAESAR II has always used a coordinate system where the Y-axis coincides with the vertical axis. In one
alternative coordinate system, the Z-axis represents the vertical axis (with the X axis chosen arbitrarily, and the Y-axis
being defined according to the right hand rule. CAESAR II now gives the user the ability to model using either coordinate
system, as well as to switch between both systems on the fly in most cases.
Clicking this check box causes the model to immediately convert to match the new axis orientation (i.e., Y-values become
Z-values) or vice versa, so there is no change in the model only in its representation, as shown in the following figures:
Chapter 3 Piping Screen Reference 3-125
3-126 Piping Screen Reference
This allows any piping input file to be immediately translated from one coordinate system into the other.
When including other piping files in a model, the axis orientation of the included files need not match that of the piping
model. Translation occurs immediately upon inclusion.
When including structural files in a piping model, the axis orientation of the include files need not match that of the piping
model. Translation occurs immediately upon inclusion.
The axis orientation on the Static Load Case Builder (i.e., wind and wave loads), the Static Output Processor, The Dynamic
Input Module, and the Dynamic Output Processor is dictated by the orientation of the model’s input file.
Chapter 3 Piping Screen Reference 3-127
Note: Unlike the piping and equipment files elsewhere in CAESAR II, toggling this setting does not translate the structural
input file, but rather physically rotates the model into the new coordinate system, as shown in the figures below.
When including structural files in a piping model, the axis orientation of the included files need not match that of the piping
model. Translation occurs immediately upon inclusion.
When analyzing a structural model on its own, the axis orientation of the Static Load Case Builder (i.e., wind and wave
loads), the Static Output Processor, the Dynamic Input Module, and the Dynamic Output Processor is dictated by the
orientation of the structural model’s input file.
Configure/Setup module, while an existing equipment model will use the same axis orientation under which it was last
saved. The axis orientation may be toggled from Y-Axis to Z-Axis Vertical by clicking the check box typically found on
the second data input tab of each module.
Clicking this check box causes the model to immediately convert to match the new axis orientation (i.e., Y-values become
Z-values) or vice versa, so there is no change in the model only in its representation, as shown in the following figures:
When using the Get Loads From Output File button to read in piping loads from CAESAR II output files, the axis
orientation of the piping files need not match that of the equipment model. Translation occurs immediately during the read-
in of the loads.
File Name. The user may browse for the file name. The file need not reside in the current data directory.
Chapter 3 Piping Screen Reference 3-129
Read Now (Y/N/L). Y, if the file is to be read immediately and stored as part of the current input (the file read may be
edited as part of the current job). N, if the file is to be read for plotting and fully processed only during error checking (the
file read may not be edited as part of the current job). The L option is discussed under "Large Job Includes," below.
Rotation. If not zero, then gives the angle about the Y axis by which to rotate the model before including it in the current
job. The rotation applies regardless of the (Y/N) setting.
Note: Restraints, uniform loads, and concentrated forces are NOT rotated. Additionally, the rotation of the model can be
accomplished from the LIST Utility.
Node Increment. The increment to be added to all of the nodes in the model before including it in the current job. The node
increment applies regardless of the (Y/N) setting.
Piping systems are usually tied to structural steel models by the use of restraints with connecting nodes. The user should
make absolutely sure there are no node number conflicts between structure and pipe models. Once a restraint with a
connecting node is defined between the pipe and structure, CAESAR II knows where to put the structure in the resulting
preprocessor plot. If no connection between the pipe and the structure is given, the structure will be plotted starting from the
origin of the piping system (and the resulting plot will most likely “look funny”).
3-130 Piping Screen Reference
The List option screen contains a row of tabs at the bottom that are used to select the various list options to be displayed.
When a tab has been selected the row headings at the top of the spreadsheet will reflect the specific input data and
controlling parameters displayed in the corresponding columns. All of the input data can be accessed through the various list
reports. An example list control screen is shown below.
The reports are generated in column format in a window like that shown above that the user can interactively review or
modify. The cursor can be moved into any field and a new value entered to replace the original value. The reports may be
scrolled vertically or horizontally.
Help may be requested by pressing <F1> while in any of the data cells. Cell input may be deleted by highlighting the
selection and pressing the <Delete>. The list spreadsheet supports standard windows commands such as Cut and Paste on a
field-by-field basis.
Users may edit input data on the list spreadsheet, which will then update the input spreadsheets as well. Values that carry
forward on the input spreadsheet are highlighted in red where there is a change in the data value. For example, in the sample
spreadsheet shown, the diameter changes from 219.075 mm to 508.0 mm on the element from node 90 to 100 so the new
diameter is highlighted in red.
Chapter 3 Piping Screen Reference 3-131
The Find command (invoked with <Ctrl> F or EDIT - FIND menu item) is used to quickly jump to the element where the
given node is located. Find remembers the last node number entered, so subsequent “finds” of the same node can be
accomplished by typing <Ctrl> F.
Access to the element Auxiliary Data screens is available by highlighting an element row and choosing the Aux button
from the toolbar or alternatively by right-clicking on an element line and picking the BLOCK OPERATIONS-AUX item in the
popup menu. By single-clicking on any checked items from the window shown below the appropriate Auxiliary Data field
will be displayed. The user may edit the data in the Auxiliary Data field, which will in turn update the input spreadsheet.
Additionally, the user may enter new data by double-clicking on any of the unchecked boxes to bring up that item's
Auxiliary Data screen. An entire Auxiliary Data field may be deleted by double-clicking on the checked item (a prompt
will warn the user of the impending delete operation).
Block Operations
The list editor has the ability to perform global editing operations on selected parts of the piping system. These operations
include varieties of rotations, duplications, node renumbering, and status reporting. Block operations are available on the
element list only.
Move the cursor to the first element in the group to be operated on and click the row number for that item. This element
should become highlighted. Move the cursor to the last element in the group to be operated on and click on the
corresponding row number while pressing the <shift> key. The entire group of elements will be highlighted. This
“highlighting” defines the elements that any block operations will change. A block may contain any number of elements
from a single element to every element in the model. A block must be defined before CAESAR II will allow the user to enter
the BLOCK OPERATIONS menu item.
After the block has been identified select Block and one of the following sub-menu items to perform the indicated operation
(or right-click in the list processor and select one of the following from the pop-up menu):
Rotate
The Rotate dialog box is shown in the following figure. The user may rotate the block through some angle about the X, Y
or Z axis. The Unskew option helps the user take a skewed geometry and return it to an orthogonal orientation. The Setup
option permits the user to determine what in the block should be rotated, including restraints, displacements,
force/moments, uniform loads, and flexible nozzles. The default is for all of these items that appear in the block to be
rotated with the block. Data/message screens illustrating an example rotation are shown as follows.
Delete
This command deletes the selected block.
Duplicate
The Duplicate dialog is shown in the figure below. The user can make identical copies of the block or can make mirror
image by "flipping" the chosen elements in one of the orthogonal planes. Mirror imaging is done on the piping delta
3-132 Piping Screen Reference
dimensions only (i.e. restraints are copied, but not mirror imaged, i.e.: a +Y restraint will not become a -Y restraint when
mirrored in the XZ plane.)
The duplicate “setup” option works just like the rotation setup option. Restraints, displacements, forces/moments, uniform
loads and nozzles may individually be included or excluded from the duplication.
Once the type of duplication is determined the user must decide the following:
Where in the input to put the duplicated group of elements. Either at the end of the current block, the end of the input
file, or after a specific element in the model.
What node increments to add to the nodes in the block so that they define unique pipe elements. Be sure this increment
is large enough to avoid any duplication of node numbers.
Chapter 3 Piping Screen Reference 3-133
Nodes
On certain occasions the node numbering in a particular area of the model may not be to the user's liking. To renumber a
part of the model in a more logical fashion use the Block-Node menu command. The two available options are Increment
and Renumber as shown in the following figure.
The user enters the starting node and the increment for the block's nodal renumbering. Every node in the block on the piping
system will be renumbered. The user must be sure that the starting node and increment will result in unique node numbers
for the elements being renumbered. This feature can be used to clean up part, or all of the piping system. It is not unusual
for an analyst to put the entire model in one block and do a full renumber on all of the nodes. This often presents a much
cleaner picture of the analysis to the client. Users are urged to make copies of any large jobs before renumbering them.
Users should be particularly careful when renumbering systems containing large numbers of interconnected restraints with
CNodes.
Note: It is common for CAESAR II not to renumber a Cnode in a block having perceived that the Cnode is connected to a
node outside the block. (In fact Cnode will not be renumbered if they do not connect to a node in the block and on the
piping system.)
Any possible confusion can be avoided in these instances by starting the renumbering at a node greater than the largest node
in the model. If all of the nodes are renumbered successfully (i.e. there aren't any dangling CNodes), then the node
Increment command can be issued with a negative increment to shift the newly renumbered nodes back into the original
range.
The user can change the report contents through modification of the .inp file.
3-134 Piping Screen Reference
Any time an input listing is written to a file or to the printer, the format of each of the reports is obtained from the .inp file.
The .inp files are ASCII text files which can be modified to create reports of differing styles or content. The file's Initial.inp
can be modified to change the page length in the report, and the starting and stopping column positions. Any text editor
(such as Notepad) can be used to change any of the .inp files. Users changing .inp files may receive fatal errors during
report generation if impossible formats, or invalid commands are requested.
Note: For users preferring a different (more columnar) form of the basic element data, three additional formatting files have
been provided.
To utilize any of these formatting files, change directories to the CAESAR II\System directory. Then, copy the desired
formatting file into Element.inp.
To print an Input Echo from the input spreadsheets, choose FILE - PRINT from the pull-down menu. To write an Input Echo to
the screen for review, choose FILE - PRINT PREVIEW from the pull-down menu.
Note: An input listing may also be printed from the output module, as part of the entire output report.
Uses can modify the flat text file using any Text Editor (such as NotePad). However, for the file to be used again the format
of the file must not be altered. The field width and the number of values per line can not be changed.
When a displacement (text) file is imported into a CAESAR II model, a summary of the containing details of the operation is
displayed in the "List" box on the dialog.
Optimization Type
Select the type of output value (Stress Level or Restraint Load Component) you wish to reduce.
Once the Load Case is selected, Stress or Restraint Load output values will be displayed for review and selection.
Chapter 3 Piping Screen Reference 3-135
Target Stress
Enter the target level to which you would like to reduce the output value. Entering a stress value (or a Load, in conjunction
with a Load Component type) here will act as a filter, showing only elements which have stress values higher exceeding that
level. This Target Value also becomes the stress or load for which the selected target (Maximum System Stress, Restraint
Load Component, or Node) will be optimized.
Note: The [Design] button will not be activated until both a Target and Optimization Type (i.e., Max Stress, Nodal Stress,
or Restraint Load Type) have been designated.
Max. Stress
Checking this box will optimize the maximum stress level in the system (as opposed to a stress level at a single node) to the
value entered in the Target Data field.
Note: The [Design] button will not be activated until both a Target and Optimization Type (i.e., Max Stress, Nodal Stress,
or Restraint Load Type) have been designated.
At Node
Specify either the node 1) at which the stress level is to be optimized (and the element upon which that node is located) or
2) at which a restraint load component is to be optimized (along with the Load Component Type). Double-clicking on one
of the entries in the Element/Node/Stress list or a Load Component in the Restraint Load list will automatically fill in these
entries.
Note: The [Design] button will not be activated until both a Target and Optimization Type (i.e., Max Stress, Nodal Stress,
or Restraint Load Type) have been designated.
On Element
For Stress Optimization:
Specify the element on which the node for which the stress level is to be optimized is located. Double-clicking on one of
the entries in the Element/Node/Stress list will automatically fill in this entry.
Note: The [Design] button will not be activated until both a Target and Optimization Type (i.e., Max Stress, Nodal Stress,
or Restraint Load Type) have been designated.
Specify the Restraint Load Component which is to be optimized. Double-clicking on one of the Load Component entries in
the Restraint Load list will automatically fill in this entry.
Note: The [Design] button will not be activated until both a Target and Optimization Type (i.e., Max Stress, Nodal Stress,
or Restraint Load Type) have been designated.
Loop Type
Select the general configuration of the loop that you would like to try. For example, viewing the types down by column, left
to right: Type #1 places the loop at the From end of the original element, in the plane of the Major Direction; Type #2
places a 2-D (both dimensions the same size) loop at the From end of the original element, first in the plane of the Major
Direction and then in the plane of the Minor Direction; Type #3 places the loop in the middle of the original element, in the
plane of the Major Direction; Type #4 places 2-D (both dimensions the same size) loop in the middle of the original
element, first in the plane of the Major Direction and then in the plane of the Minor Direction; Type #5 places the loop at
the To end of the original element, in the plane of the Major Direction; Type #6 places 2-D (both dimensions the same size)
loop at the To end of the original element, first in the plane of the Major Direction and then in the plane of the Minor
Direction; Type # 7 builds a loop of the same size as the original element; while Type # 8 builds a 2-D (both dimensions the
same size) loop of the same size as the original element, first in the Major Direction and then in the Minor Direction. Type
#9 will cause CAESAR II to try all 8 loop types and find the most economically efficient solution (based on total pipe length
and number of bends) from the 8 types.
Draw Cube
This button will graphically create the anticipated area where the loop will be installed. This cube may then be re-sized or
moved to reflect the preferred area for the loop. The Loop Optimization Wizard will try its best to design a loop that fits in
the allocated space.
Major Direction
Enter the direction and distance of the primary direction of the loop.
Minor Direction
Enter the direction and distance of the secondary direction of a 2-D loop.
Design (Button)
Click this button to begin the Loop Optimization process. In the event that an appropriate loop cannot be designed, it may
be necessary to change some of the entered parameters and try again.
Chapter 3 Piping Screen Reference 3-137
To use the optimization wizard, the job must be run at least once (so that there is an issue, such as an overstress, to resolve),
plus no changes can have been made subsequently (in other words, the results to be optimized must be current). The
process is illustrated by the example LOOP-WIZARD.C2, as displayed below.
Reviewing the results of the LOOP-WIZARD job shows that it is suffering an expansion overstress of 46,741 psi vs. an
allowable of 41,288 psi at node 20. We may postulate that this is due to the expansion of the long run 60-140, and that a
loop should be installed somewhere along that run. The question is where, and how big should it be?
3-138 Piping Screen Reference
Prior to launching the Loop Optimizer it may be a good idea to examine the area of the plant surrounding the piping
system. This can be done by importing the CADWorx (or AutoCAD) plant model, using the icon. In this case, the
model ..\EXAMPLES\LOOP-WIZARD-PLANT\OVERALL.DWG should be imported – it shows that there is a convenient
area to place a loop beside element 60-70.
This element should be selected, and then the Optimizer wizard invoked from either the Model menu or from the toolbar
by clicking . This button displays the Optimizer dialog as shown in the figure below.
Chapter 3 Piping Screen Reference 3-139
1 Loop 60-70 is already indicated as the element upon which the loop will be installed – it may be changed from the drop
list, or by selecting other elements graphically.
2 Designate the Optimization type (Stress, in this case). Optionally, restraint load components may be optimized as well.
3 Select the load case to be optimized (Expansion for this example). This fills in the “element list” (showing stresses) on
the left of the dialog.
4 Define a “target maximum” stress. This value refines the “element list”, showing only those elements with stress levels
higher than the target. For this example, we may wish to optimize the stress level to 36,000 psi.
5 From this reduced element list, click on the node/element combination whose stress should be optimized to that level.
Alternatively, clicking the “Max Stress” box limits the maximum stress in the system to the target value. That is what
should be done in this example.
6 Select the “loop type” from the available icons. In this example the 1st loop type – “loop installed at From-end of
element” is selected.
7 Select the “Height to Width” ratio. Standard ratios such as 2.0, 1.0, or 0.5 may be selected. Or the loop height may be
allowed to vary to any size (while keeping the width constant) by picking the <none> option (in this case, the terminal
3-140 Piping Screen Reference
run of pipe will be set to one bend radius, with the loop width fixed to the remaining length of element 60-70). This is
what should be selected for this example.
At this point there are two alternatives to indicating where the loop should be placed.
8a) Based on the “loop type” selected, the loop direction (or directions) should be defined next. The “major direction” is
the direction off of the element where the loop is to be inserted. The “minor direction” (if necessary) is perpendicular to the
“major direction” and is used to indicate the second direction of the 2-D loop types.
8b) Click on the Draw Cube button. This will generate a transparent cube anchored on the selected element. The mouse
can be used to adjust the size and location of this cube. Using the corner points (Pt1 or Pt2) adjusts the major direction of
the loop and available space. Using the “triangle” adjusts the minor axis of the loop and available space. This cube should
be dragged over the decking adjacent to element 60-70, to build a cube with a Major dimension of 17 ft 11 inches in the –X
direction.
Chapter 3 Piping Screen Reference 3-141
The completed dialog for methods “8b” is shown in the figure below.
Once the dialog is completed, the Design button can be clicked to invoke the optimization procedure. The progress of the
design scheme is shown in a “monitor window”.
3-142 Piping Screen Reference
Once the appropriate loop has been designed, the user is informed of how much pipe and how many bends were required to
create the loop. By using the undo button , followed by subsequent invocations of the Loop Wizard using different loop
types, this information can be used to find the most economical implementation.
Chapter 3 Piping Screen Reference 3-143
When the optimizer finishes, the new expansion loop is inserted into the selected element as shown in the figure below.
A final analysis should be run to verify all results. Note that there are instances where the optimizer will report an error.
Examples of such situations are: (a) requesting a loop insertion in an element that is not long enough, or (b) setting an
impossible target maximum.
3-144 Piping Screen Reference
There is one other control on the Loop Optimization Wizard dialog that deserves special note -- the “special loop type”
indicated on the dialog by the “lightning bolt”. This is circled in the image below.
Clicking this loop type enables CAESAR II to select the best loop to reach the indicated target. The best characteristic of
each loop is based on the relative cost of bends to straight pipe. When the “lightning bolt” loop type is selected, the Bend
Cost Factor edit box is activated. The default value of 100 indicates that a bend costs 100 times as much as the equivalent
length of straight pipe. This value can be adjusted as necessary.
CH AP TER 4
In This Chapter
Overview ................................................................................................. 4-2
The Structural Steel Property Editor........................................................ 4-3
General Properties ................................................................................... 4-10
UNITS Specification - UNIT................................................................... 4-11
Axis Orientation Vertical......................................................................... 4-12
Material Identification - MATID............................................................. 4-13
Section Identification - SECID ................................................................ 4-15
Setting Defaults - DEFAULT .................................................................. 4-17
Setting Nodes in Space - NODE, NFILL, NGEN.................................... 4-18
Building Elements - ELEM, EFILL, EGEN, EDIM................................ 4-22
Resetting Element Strong Axis - ANGLE, ORIENT............................... 4-29
End Connection Information ................................................................... 4-32
Defining Global Restraints - FIX............................................................. 4-40
Loads ....................................................................................................... 4-42
Utilities .................................................................................................... 4-48
Structural Databases ................................................................................ 4-49
4-2 Structural Steel Modeler
Overview
The following pages contain descriptions of each of the structural element keywords. These definitions and examples
arranged in usage order. The following list of all the keywords is arranged alphabetically and gives the page number for
each keyword where its input description can be found.
Keyword/Page Number
ANGLE (on page 4-29)
New File
From the CAESAR II Main Menu, select FILE/NEW to begin the process. Type the name of the structural steel file you want to
create. To begin this process, click the Structural Input radio button and click OK to launch the Structural Steel Wizard.
Units File
Select the units file that the structural file will be based on from the pull-down list on this screen. To continue, click Next.
4-4 Structural Steel Modeler
Vertical Axis
Select either the Y or Z axis as the vertical axis aligned with gravity from the pull-down list on this screen. To continue,
click Next.
Chapter 4 Structural Steel Modeler 4-5
Material Properties
Enter the material properties for the structural steel members here before continuing. These include Density, Young's
Modulus, Yield Strength, Poisson's Ration, and Thermal Expansion Coefficients. The latter corresponds to operating
temperatures 1 through 9 if used. You may have multiple materials using a unique Material ID for each. For additional
materials you must complete the wizard first, then continue in the Structural Steel Modeler as instructed later in this
chapter. To continue, click Next.
4-6 Structural Steel Modeler
Enter the appropriate cross sectional type (note these must be entered exactly as listed at the end of this chapter). An easier
method is to click the Select Section ID button and then expand the appropriate tree (beams, channels, tees, or angles) as
shown below. All of the cross section types supported by CAESAR II are then available for selection.
If the section type is to be user-defined, check the User Defined box and enter the data in the area to the right as shown
below.
Chapter 4 Structural Steel Modeler 4-7
Enter the Cross Sectional Area, Strong and Weak axis moments of inertia, the torsional resistivity constant, and the height
and width of the rectangle for plotting purposes.
Note: In the plot of a User Defined Cross Section, the section will appear as a simple rectangle with dimensions in the
BoxH and BoxW fields.
Select either Type 1 (element Definition using the EDIM commands) or Type 2 (Node and Element Definition using the
NODE and ELEM commands). Click Finish to complete the wizard and the main Structural Steel Modeler window
appears populated with data from the wizard.
Chapter 4 Structural Steel Modeler 4-9
Once this portion of the model is complete you can make further entries as detailed in the following section.
4-10 Structural Steel Modeler
General Properties
All directives are picked from either the menu or the toolbar. After the information is filled out in the input fields on the left
side of the window, press the +-sign button to add the command to the model (or drag the dialog to the appropriate position
in the text). The appropriate text will appear on the right side of the window (the white section). The following graphics
show how to choose the commands, the input fields, and the resultant input file text (always the last line of text on the
right). There is no provision to type in commands directly in the text section.
Add
Click on the + button to add the data in the edit dialog to the end of the model.
Insert
Highlight a given command line in the input list section and click the Insert button to insert the data in the edit dialog in
front of the highlighted command.
Replace
Click the Replace button to replace the currently highlighted command line with the data in the Edit dialog.
Delete
Click the Delete button to remove the highlighted command line from the model.
Note: The data in the Edit dialog may also be dragged to its appropriate position in the model text area.
Chapter 4 Structural Steel Modeler 4-11
Units Specification
Used to specify the UNITS file to be used, instead of the UNITS file currently designed in the configuration file. This
command should appear first, before entering any material, section, or dimensional data.
4-12 Structural Steel Modeler
Orienting a structural model to Z-Axis Vertical. A new structural model will determine its axis orientation based on the
setting in the Configure/Setup module, while an existing structural model will use the same axis orientation under which it
was last saved. The axis orientation may be toggled from Y-Axis to Z-Axis Vertical by changing the value of the Vertical
command, activated by clicking the button on the toolbar, or through the COMMANDS/MISCELLANEOUS/VERTICAL menu
option, as shown in the figure below.
Note: Unlike the piping and equipment files elsewhere in CAESAR II, toggling this setting does not translate the structural
input file, but rather physically rotates the model into the new coordinate system.
When including structural files in a piping model, the axis orientation of the included files need not match that of the piping
model. Translation occurs immediately upon inclusion.
When analyzing a structural model on its own, the axis orientation of the Static Load Case Builder (i.e., wind, and wave
loads), the Static Output Processor, and the Dynamic Input Processor is dictated by the orientation of the structural model’s
input.
Chapter 4 Structural Steel Modeler 4-13
MATID
User defined material ID number. Usually 1, and sequentially thereafter.
YM
Young’s Modulus of Elasticity.
4-14 Structural Steel Modeler
POIS
Poisson’s Ratio, usually 0.3.
G
Shear Modulus of Elasticity Usually about one third of YM
YS
Yield Strength (Currently not used)
DENS
Material Density
ALPHA
Material coefficient of thermal expansion. There can be up to three thermal cases (corresponding to thermal cases T1, T2,
and T3) defined for structural steel members. Thermal effects on structural members are entered using thermal expansion
coefficients in terms of in./in, mm./mm., i.e. unitless. The three thermal coefficients are entered after the density.
Chapter 4 Structural Steel Modeler 4-15
Section Definition
Section ID
Used to assign member cross section properties to Section ID numbers. SECID secid, NAME = <label>
SECID
A user defined Section ID to be used for all future referencing of this set of cross section properties. Usually Section IDs
start at 1 and go up, but the user may assign values in any order that is convenient.
Name
Either an AISC shape name or the word “USER.” All AISC names should be entered exactly as shown in the AISC
handbook with the exception that fractions should be represented as decimals., i.e. the angle: LX6X3-1/2X1/2 should be
entered: L6X3.5X0.5. Leading or trailing zeros may be omitted. Alternatively, the user may select the appropriate section
name from the window provided after clicking the Select Section ID button. A full list of available Section types are found
at the end of this chapter.
User-Defined
For a user-defined shape click the User Defined check box. There are six additional parameters users must enter to fully
define the user’s cross section:
4-16 Structural Steel Modeler
Area
Cross section area (length2).
Ixx
Strong axis moment of inertia (length4).
Iyy
Weak axis moment of inertia (length4).
Torsional R
Torsional resistivity constant (length4).
BOXH
Height of a rectangular box for plotting (height is along the weak axis).
BOXW
Width of a rectangular box for plotting (width is along the strong axis).
Node Definition
Node is used to define the absolute coordinates of a point in global X, Y, and Z space.
NODE num X, Y, Z
Chapter 4 Structural Steel Modeler 4-19
NFILL
NGEN
n1
First node in the base node pattern (must exist before the NGEN command is issued).
TO
Last node in the base node pattern (must exist before the NGEN command is issued).
BY
Increment to get from the starting node to the ending node in the base pattern. n1, TO and BY define the nodes in the base
pattern. All subsequent nodal patterns generated start from the base pattern. If omitted the default is 1.
Chapter 4 Structural Steel Modeler 4-21
LAST
Last node in the last nodal pattern to be generated. If omitted then single pattern duplication will occur.
NODEINC
Increment to get from the nodes in the base pattern to the nodes in the first generated pattern, and then from this pattern to
the next generated pattern, etc.
DX, DY, DZ
Coordinates offset to get from the nodes in the base pattern to the nodes in the first generated pattern, and then from this
pattern to the next generated pattern, etc.
Example
In the preceding figure, the nodes from 1100 to 2000 with an increment of 100 are duplicated twice, each new pattern offset
10 ft. in the z-direction. The new nodes created are from 2100 to 3000 and also from 3100 to 4000. Note that the NFILL
command previous to this NGEN command was not necessary.
4-22 Structural Steel Modeler
EFILL
EFILL n1, TO, INC, INCTO, LAST, SECID, MATID, INCSECID, INCMATID
n1
“FROM” node number on the first element generated.
TO
“TO” node number on the first element generated.
INC
Increment to get from the “FROM” node on the first element to the “FROM” node on the second element. If omitted, INC
defaults to 1.
4-24 Structural Steel Modeler
INCTO
Increment to get from the “TO” node on the first element to the “TO” node on the second element. If INCTO is not given, it
defaults to INC.
LAST
“TO” node on the last element to be generated.
SECID
Section ID for the first element generated.
MATID
Material ID for the first element generated.
INCSECID
Increment to get from the Section ID for the first element to the Section ID for the second element. (Default=0)
INCMATID
Increment to get from the Material ID for the first element to the Material ID for the second element. (Default=0)
Example
In the preceding figure elements were generated between each pair of nodes between node 1200 and 2000. The increment
between From to From nodes and To to To nodes is the same in this case, being equal to 100. Eight elements were created
in this example, together with the one element previously created using the ELEM command for a total of nine elements.
Note that the ELEM command would not have been necessary here, since all nine elements could have been created using
the EFILL command by simply substituting node 1100 in place of node 1200 in the From Node field.
Chapter 4 Structural Steel Modeler 4-25
EGEN
Duplicating Elements
Used to duplicate patterns of elements. EGEN is a very flexible and very powerful generation command that should be used
carefully. The form of EGEN shown below does not presume that any of the elements in the base pattern exist before the
generation. If elements in the base pattern do exist before the generation they will be redefined during the generation
process.
n1
“FROM” node on the first element in the base pattern.
TO
“TO” node on the first element in the base pattern.
4-26 Structural Steel Modeler
INC
Increment to get from the “FROM” node on the first element in the base pattern to the “FROM” node on the second element
in base pattern. If omitted defaults to 1.
INCTO
Increment to get from the “TO” node on the first element to the “TO” node on the second element. If INCTO is not given, it
defaults to INC.
LAST
“TO” node on the last element in the base pattern. The EGEN command is set up to generate multiple copies from the base
pattern of elements.
GENINC
Increment to get from the “FROM” node on the first element in the base pattern to the “FROM” node on the first element in
the first duplicate pattern.
GENINCTO
Increment to get from the “TO” node on the first element in the base pattern to the “TO” node on the first element in the
first duplicate pattern. If omitted defaults to GENINC.
GENLAST
The “TO” node on the last element in the last pattern to be duplicated from the base pattern.
SECID
Section ID to be used for the elements in the base pattern. If omitted the default Section ID is used. For more information
see the “help” for DEFAULT (see "Setting Defaults - DEFAULT" on page 4-17) for an explanation of how the default
Section ID is set up. On start-up the default Section ID is 1.
MATID
Material ID to be used for the elements in the base pattern. If omitted the default Material ID is used. For more information
see “help” for DEFAULT (see "Setting Defaults - DEFAULT" on page 4-17) for an explanation of how the default material
ID is set up. On start-up the default material ID is 1.
INCSECID
Section ID increment to be used between patterns. i.e. the first pattern of elements generated from the base pattern of
elements will have a Section ID of SECID + INCSECID. If omitted defaults to zero.
INCMATID
Material ID increment to be used between patterns. If omitted defaults to zero.
Example
In the preceding figure the base element pattern from 1100 to 2000 was reproduced two more times, from 2100 to 3000 and
from 3100 to 4000. Each element has nodal increments of 100. The increment between the base element list and the next
element list is 1000 and the last node in the last pattern is 4000. Then the cross members were created using the base pattern
from 1100 to 2100 and reproducing it in nodal increments of 100 until node 4000 was reached. The following figure shows
the resultant model.
Chapter 4 Structural Steel Modeler 4-27
EDIM
Define elements using the dimensions of the element rather than references to nodes. Any existing elements encountered
will be redefined.
The EDIM element definition is probably more familiar to piping engineers while ELEM, EGEN, and EFIL are more
familiar to structural engineers. INC, INCTO, and LAST may be omitted to define a single element.
n1
"FROM" node on the first element to be defined.
TO
"To" node on the last element to be defined.
INC
Increment to get from the “FROM” node on the first element to the “FROM” node on the second element. If omitted, INC
defaults to 1.
4-28 Structural Steel Modeler
INCTO
Increment to get from the “TO” node on the first element to the “TO” node on the second element. If INCTO is not given, it
defaults to INC.
Last
"TO" node on e the last element to be defined.
DX, DY, DZ
Coordinates offset to get from the nodes in the base pattern to the nodes in the first generated pattern, and then from this
pattern to the next generated pattern, etc.
SECID
Section ID for the first element. If not given, then the current default is used.
MATID
Material ID for the first element. If not given, then the current default is used.
INSECID
Section ID increment to get from the Section ID of the first element to the Section ID of the second element.
INCMATID
Material ID increment to get from the Material ID of the first element to the Material ID of the second element.
Examples
EDIM 5 to 10 DY = 12-3 SECID=2..Column 12-3 high from 5 to 10
EDIM 2 TO 3 LAST=8 DX=13-3..Defining beams 13-3 long and elements 2-3, 3-4, 4-5, 5-6, 6-7and 7-8. INC defaults to 1.
Enter the 4 EDIM commands top define the <------------> 10-0 (typ)
small frame shown to the right. Remember that
every thing after a (:) or (:) on the line is treated
as a comment.
ANGLE is most often used when defining columns whose strong axes are not parallel to the X axis. (Usually for columns
the strong axis is parallel to either the X or the Z axis.) In the case where the column strong axis is parallel to the Z axis,
first ANGLE is used to redefine the default orientation, i.e. ANGLE=90. Next the column elements are defined. Then
ANGLE is used again to reset the default orientation back to its original value, i.e. ANGLE=0.0.
The ORIENT and ANGLE keywords similarly define the angle of rotation (in degrees) about the element center line from
the standard orientation to the element strong axis. ORIENT defines this angle for a single element or for a group of
elements, and ANGLE sets the default orientation back to its original value, i.e. ANGLE=0.0.
Positive angular rotation is found using the “right-hand rule” by extending the thumb along the element in the direction of
the “TO” node. The fingers of the right hand circle in the direction of a positive orientation angle.
4-30 Structural Steel Modeler
ANGLE n1
n1
Default strong axis orientation angle to be used for all subsequently defined elements.
ORIENT
Used to define the element strong axis orientation. Note that values for n1 and “TO” may be given as node numbers or
element indices. Element indices are enclosed in parentheses. An example of the index input is given at the bottom.
n1
“FROM” node on the first element.
TO
“TO” node on the first element.
INC
Increment to get from the “FROM” node on the first element to the “FROM” node on the second element. If omitted, INC
defaults to 1.
INCTO
Increment to get from the “TO” node on the first element to the “TO” node on the second element. If INCTO is not given, it
defaults to INC.
LAST
“TO” node on the last element to have its orientation angle defined.
ANGLE
Rotation in degrees from the default position to the actual position of the member strong axis.
Chapter 4 Structural Steel Modeler 4-31
Examples
ORIENT 1 TO 2 ANGLE=90. The strong axis for the element from 1 to 2 is 90 degrees away from the default position.
ORIENT 5 TO 10 INC=5 LAST=30 ANGLE=90. The elements: 5-10, 10-15, 15-20, 20-25, and 25-30 all have their strong
axis 90 degrees away from the default position. If each of these members is a vertical column, then their new strong axis of
bending is along the Z axis. (This means that the columns with their new orientation are better suited to take X direction
forces.)
4-32 Structural Steel Modeler
n1
“FROM” node on the first element that this FREE spec is to apply to.
TO
“TO” node on the first element that this FREE spec is to apply to.
Chapter 4 Structural Steel Modeler 4-33
INC
Increment to get from the “FROM” node on the first element to the “FROM” node on the second element. If omitted, INC
defaults to 1.
INCTO
Increment to get from the “TO” node on the first element to the “TO” node on the second element. If INCTO is not given, it
defaults to INC.
LAST
“TO” node on the last element this FREE spec is to apply to. LAST, INC, and INCTO can be omitted if the FREE spec is
only to apply to a single element.
Enter those <free end parms> that define the degrees of freedom at the element end that should be “FREE.”
In the case where a small WF shape attaches to a large I beam the connection might be designed so that weak axis bending
of the WF shape is not transmitted to the web of the I beam. If the element defining the WF shape went from nodes 1040 to
1045 then the “FREE” spec for this element might appear:
FREE 1040 TO 1045 FBNDWEAK, TBNDWEAK
The westward side of a building has a row of beams on the ground floor that are attached rigidly to columns at the other
end. The beams are identified by the pattern of nodes: 610-710, 620-720, 630-730, ...,690-790. There are eight beams in all
in this group. The 600 end is the end that is pinned. The FREE spec for this group might appear:
Auxiliary Data Area for Defining Default End Connections for BEAMS
Defines default end connection types for members identified by the orientation of their center line. The definition of BEAM
is any member whose center line lies completely along either the global X or global Z axis. Once the BEAMS keyword is
used to define element end connection freedoms any element subsequently defined that fits the above definition for a beam
will have those same end connection freedoms. This will continue until the BEAMS keyword is reset or re-specified. The
default condition is for each end of any member to be fixed in all six degrees of freedom to its nodes.
BEAMS have two possible setting modes: FIX and FREE. The FREE mode is to set “FREE” end connection defaults, and
the FIX mode is to reset the end connection types once all beams with that particular “FREE” end connection have been
defined.
The <free end parms> are discussed in greater detail with the “FREE” keyword. The <free end parms> defining the 12 local
degrees of freedom for each element are:
FAXIAL TAXIAL
Chapter 4 Structural Steel Modeler 4-35
FSHRSTR TSHRSTR
FSHRWEAK TSHRWEAK
FTORS TTORS
FBNDSTR TBNDSTR
FBNDWEAK TBNDWEAK
Example
Just before defining a group of beams that had both ends pinned, the following BEAMS command would be issued:
Just after defining the pinned end beams, to return the end connection defaults to their regular values the following BEAMS
command would be issued:
As shorthand notation, if the word “FIX” is all that appears on the line following “BEAMS,” then all end connections for
the beam will be fixed, i.e. BEAMS FIX
4-36 Structural Steel Modeler
BRACES
BRACES have two possible setting modes: FIX and FREE. The FREE mode is used to set “FREE” end connection defaults,
and the FIX mode is used to reset the end connection types once all braces with that particular “FREE” end connection have
been defined.
BRACES FREE <free end parms> ...use to release end connections
BRACES FIX <free end parms> ...use to reset released end connections
The <free end parms> are discussed in greater detail with the “FREE” keyword. The <free end parms> defining the 12 local
degrees of freedom for each element are:
FAXIAL TAXIAL
FSHRSTR TSHRSTR
Chapter 4 Structural Steel Modeler 4-37
FSHRWEAK TSHRWEAK
FTORS TTORS
FBNDSTR TBNDSTR
FBNDWEAK TBNDWEAK
Example
Just before defining a group of braces that had both ends pinned to the adjoining columns, the following BRACES
command would be issued:
Just after defining the pinned end braces, to return the end connection defaults to their regular values the following
BRACES command would be issued.
As shorthand notation, if the word “FIX” is all that appears on the line following “BRACES,” then all end connections for
the brace will be fixed, i.e. BRACES FIX
4-38 Structural Steel Modeler
COLUMNS
Auxiliary Data Area for Defining Default End Connections for Columns
Used to define default end connection types for members that can be identified by the orientation of their center line. The
definition of COLUMN in-so-far as this keyword is concerned is any member whose center line is completely vertical.
Once the COLUMN keyword is used to define element end connection freedoms any element subsequently defined that fits
the above definition for a column will have those same end connection freedoms. This will continue until the COLUMN
keyword is reset or re-specified. The default condition is for each end of any member to be fixed in all six degrees of
freedom to its nodes.
COLUMNS have two possible setting modes: FIX and FREE. The FREE mode is to set “FREE” end connection defaults,
and the FIX mode is to reset the end connection types once all columns with that particular “FREE” end connection have
been defined.
COLUMNS FREE <free end parms> ..use to release end connections
COLUMNS FIX <free end parms> ..use to reset released end connections
The <free end parms> are discussed in greater detail with the “FREE” keyword. The <free end parms> that define the 12
local element degrees of freedom are:
FAXIAL TAXIAL
FSHRSTR TSHRSTR
Chapter 4 Structural Steel Modeler 4-39
FSHRWEAK TSHRWEAK
FTORS TTORS
FBNDSTR TBNDSTR
FBNDWEAK TBNDWEAK
Example
Just before defining a group of corner columns that were pinned at there “TO” ends, the following COLUMN command
would be issued:
Just after defining the pinned end columns, to return the end connection defaults to their regular values the following
COLUMNS command would be issued:
As shorthand notation, if the word “FIX” is all that appears on the line following “COLUMNS”, then all end connections
for the column will be fixed, i.e. COLUMNS FIX
Note: As a general rule an element cannot undergo rigid body motion. Therefore, an element can not have both TTORS
and FTORS released at the same time. Additionally beams typically have moment releases only at their ends, not at
intermediate nodes used to apply loads or connect bracing.
4-40 Structural Steel Modeler
FIX n1, n2, n3, n4, n5, n6, n7, n8, n9, n10
Examples
FIX 1
FIX 5 X1000 Y1000 Z1000 Fix X, Y and Z degrees of freedom at node #5, and use 1,000 lb./in. springs
Chapter 4 Structural Steel Modeler 4-41
FIX 100 TO 110. ALL Fix rigidly all degrees of freedom for the nodes from 100 to 110. The increment between 100 and
110 defaults to 1. Eleven nodes have their fixities defined here.
FIX 105 TO 125 BY 5 X1000,1000,1000 Fix X, Y, and Z degrees of freedom for the nodes: 105, 110, 115, 120, and 125,
and use 1,000 lb./in. springs.
FIX (1) to (10) ALL Fix all degrees of freedom for the first 10 nodes in the node list.
4-42 Structural Steel Modeler
Loads
Point Loads - LOAD
Examples
LOAD 305 FY-1000. Have minus 1,000 lb. Y direction load acting at the structural node #305.
LOAD 10 TO 18 BY=1 FX=707,FZ=707. Have skewed load in the horizontal plane acting at each of the nodes
10,11,...,17,18. “BY” could have been omitted here, its default is 1.
LOAD (15) to (25) FY=-383. A load of 383 pounds acts in the minus Y direction on the 15’th through the 25’th nodes in
the node list.
Chapter 4 Structural Steel Modeler 4-43
n1
“FROM” node on the first element this uniform load is to act on.
TO
“TO” node on the first element this uniform load is to act on.
4-44 Structural Steel Modeler
INC
Increment to get from the “FROM” node on the first element to the “FROM” node on the second element. If omitted, INC
defaults to 1.
INCTO
Increment to get from the “TO” node on the first element to the “TO” node on the second element. If INCTO is not given, it
defaults to INC.
LAST
“TO” node on the last element this uniform load is to act on.
UX,UY,UZ
Magnitude of the uniform load in the global X, Y and Z directions. Unless used in a piping analysis employing “g” loads,
uniform loads are in units of force per unit length of member. When used in a piping analysis with “g” loads the uniform
loads are in units of gravitational acceleration., i.e. UY=-1 would define a uniform load identical to the member weight
load.
Examples
UNIF 1 TO 2 UY=-2.3 On the element from 1 to 2 a uniform load with a magnitude of 2.3 lbs. per inch acts in the minus Y
direction.
LAST=500 UX=0.03, -1,0.03. Uniform load acting on elements 100-200, 102-203,...,300-500 with a small horizontal
component and a -1 load in the Y. (Looks like have “g” load input for piping problem.)
UNIF (1) to (30) UY=-2.3. The first 30 elements in the element list have a uniform load of -2.3 pounds per inch acting in
the minus Y direction.
Chapter 4 Structural Steel Modeler 4-45
Important: If structural and piping models are mixed the GLOAD flags must match (i.e., uniform loads in the piping model
must be designed as "G" loads in the special execution parameters).
n1
“FROM” node on the first element the wind load is to act on.
TO
“TO” node on the first element the wind load is to act on.
INC
Increment to get from the “FROM” node on the first element to the “FROM” node on the second element. If omitted, INC
defaults to 1.
Chapter 4 Structural Steel Modeler 4-47
INCTO
Increment to get from the “TO” node on the first element to the “TO” node on the second element. If INCTO is not given, it
defaults to INC.
LAST
“TO” node on the last element the wind load is to act on.
SHAPE
Magnitude of the wind shape factor. For structural steel members this value is usually 2.0. Wind loading on the structure
can be turned on and off by resetting this parameter to zero, for elements not exposed to the wind.
Examples
WIND 1 TO 2 SHAPE=2.0. On the element from 1 to 2 a shape factor with a magnitude of 2.0 is applied. This value is
applied to all following elements.
Utilities
LIST
To access the List option, click the List tab located at the bottom of the Structural Steel Modeler. List enables users to
display node and coordinate data; enter node ranges; and also select input list reports. Note, selecting all displays a of each
report in the order they appear on the modeler window.
Structural Databases
The CAESAR II Structural databases contain over 20 different properties for each cross section. For the finite element
solution, only six of these items are employed:
Area
Strong axis moment of inertia
Weak axis moment of inertia
Torsional resistivity constant
Member section height
Member section depth
There are seven different structural databases included in CAESAR II
AISC 1977
AISC 1989
German 1991
Australian 1990
South African 1992
Korean 1990
UK 1993
Member designations for each database display in the tables that follow.
4-50 Structural Steel Modeler
W4X13
Chapter 4 Structural Steel Modeler 4-51
M5X18.9 M4X13
S3X5.7
D2.5X2X0.1875
Chapter 4 Structural Steel Modeler 4-55
B2.5X2X0.1875
4-56 Structural Steel Modeler
WT7X155.
ST1.5X2.85
Chapter 4 Structural Steel Modeler 4-59
IPEO600
T120 T140
Chapter 4 Structural Steel Modeler 4-63
1/2IPEO600
TFB125X65 TFB100X45
PFC150X75
EL25X25X3
UL65X50X5
4-66 Structural Steel Modeler
W125X125 W100X100
UK 1993 Database
CH AP TER 5
In This Chapter
Dynamic Analysis Input .......................................................................... 5-2
Dynamic Analysis Overview ................................................................... 5-3
Harmonic Analysis .................................................................................. 5-7
Response Spectra / Time History Load Profiles ...................................... 5-13
Building Spectrum / Time History Load Cases ....................................... 5-19
Spectrum Time History............................................................................ 5-31
Lumped Masses ....................................................................................... 5-35
Dynamic Control Parameters................................................................... 5-39
Advanced Parameters .............................................................................. 5-64
Pulsation Loads........................................................................................ 5-67
Relief Valve Thrust Load Analysis ......................................................... 5-69
5-2 Controlling the Dynamic Solution
The analysis type is selected from the drop list on the upper left portion of the window and the tabbed items will be
modified depending on the type of analysis to be performed. If the model contains spring hangers to be designed, or single
directional supports, gaps, rods, or friction, then a static analysis must be performed before the dynamic analysis to
determine how the nonlinear supports are acting. The following sections describe the specific input for each of the options
available from the Dynamics Input Menu.
See Chapter 8 of the User Guide for a thorough discussion of basic dynamic load cases and data, and for a description of
“how to” interact with the dynamics input processor.
The current units applicable to the dynamics input are pulled from the piping input file (or from the Configuration file in the
event of a structural-only job).
Chapter 5 Controlling the Dynamic Solution 5-3
With a dynamic load—a load which changes quickly with time—the piping system may not have time to internally
distribute the loads, so forces and moments are not always resolved—resulting in unbalanced loads, and therefore pipe
movement. Since the sum of forces and moments are not necessarily equal to zero, the internally induced loads can be
different—either higher or lower—than the applied loads.
For this reason, different analysis methods must be used to determine response of a system when subjected to dynamic
loads. CAESAR II provides several methods for analyzing different types of dynamic loadings, which help optimize the
trade-off of accuracy vs. computing requirements—these include harmonic solution, response spectrum method, and time
history analysis.
The force vs. time profiles of the dynamic loads most often encountered during the design of piping is usually one of three
types—random, harmonic, or impulse. Each of these load profiles has a preferred solution method as well. These profiles,
and the load types identified with them, are described below.
Random
With this type of profile, the load changes direction and/or magnitude unpredictably with time, although there may be
predominant characteristics within the load profile. Loads with random force/time profiles are best solved using the
Spectrum method. Major types of loads with random time profiles are
Wind—Wind velocity causes forces due to the decrease of wind momentum as the air strikes the pipe, creating an
“equivalent pressure” on the pipe. Wind loadings, even though they may have predominant directions and average
velocities over a given time, are subject to gusting, i.e., sudden changes in direction and velocity. As the observed time
period lengthens, the observed number of changes increases in an unpredictable manner as well, eventually
encompassing nearly all directions and a wide range of velocities.
Earthquake—Seismic (earthquake) loadings are caused by the introduction of random motion (accelerations,
velocities, and displacements) of the ground and corresponding inertia loads (the mass of the system times the
acceleration) into a structure through the structure-to-ground anchorage. The random ground motion is actually the sum
of an infinite number of individual harmonic (cyclic) ground motions. Two earthquakes may be similar in terms of
predominant direction (along a fault, for example), predominant harmonic frequencies (if certain of the underlying
cyclic motions tend to dominate), and maximum ground motion, but their exact behavior at any given time may be quite
different and unpredictable.
Harmonic
With this type of profile, the load changes direction and/or magnitude following a harmonic profile, ranging from its
minimum to its maximum over a fixed time period. For example, the load may be described by a function of the form:
F(t) = A + B cos( t + Q)
Where:
Loads with harmonic force/time profiles are best solved using the Harmonic method. Major types of loads with harmonic
time profiles are
Equipment vibration—If rotating equipment attached to a pipe is slightly out of tolerance (drive shaft out of round,
for example), it may impose a small cyclic displacement onto the pipe at the point of attachment, where the
displacement cycle would most likely correspond to the equipment’s operating cycle. The displacement at the pipe
connection may be so small as to not even be noticeable, but dynamically it could cause significant problems. The
loading vs. time can be easily predicted once the equipment’s operating cycle and variation from tolerance is known.
Acoustic vibration—If fluid flow characteristics are changed within a pipe (for example if flow conditions change
from laminar to turbulent as the fluid goes through an orifice), slight lateral vibrations may be set up within the pipe.
Often these vibrations fit harmonic patterns, with predominant frequencies somewhat predictable based upon the flow
conditions. For example, Strouhal’s equation predicts that the developed frequency (Hz) of vibration caused by flow
through an orifice will be somewhere between 0.2 V/D and 0.3 V/D, where V is the fluid velocity (ft./sec) and D is the
diameter of the orifice (ft). Wind flow around a pipe sets up lateral displacements as well (a phenomenon known as
vortex shedding), with an exciting frequency in the area of 0.18 V/D, where V is the wind velocity and D is the outer
diameter of the pipe.
Pulsation—During the operation of a reciprocating pump or a compressor, the fluid is compressed by pistons driven by
a rotating shaft. This causes a cyclic change (vs. time) in the fluid pressure at any specified location in the system. If the
fluid pressures at opposing elbow pairs or closures are unequal, this creates an unbalanced pressure load in the system.
Since the pressure balance changes with the cycle of the compressor, the unbalanced force changes as well. (Note that
the frequency of the force cycle will most likely be some multiple of that of the equipment operating cycle, since
multiple pistons will cause a corresponding number of force variations during each shaft rotation.) The pressure
variations will continue to move along through the fluid, so in a steady state flow condition, unbalanced forces may be
present simultaneously at all elbow pairs in the system. The load magnitudes may vary, and the load cycles may or may
not be in phase with each other, depending upon the pulse velocity, the distance of each elbow pair from the
compressor, and the length of the piping legs between the elbow pairs.
For example, if the pressure at elbow a is denoted by Pa(t) and the pressure at elbow b is denoted by Pb(t), then the
unbalanced force acting along the pipe between the two elbows is:
Where:
The expression for Pa(t) can be calculated as (assuming that the pressure peak hits the elbow “a” at time t = 0):
Where:
If the length of the pipe between the elbows is L, then the pressure pulse will reach elbow b ts after it has passed elbow a:
s
t =L/c
Where:
Where:
Combining these equations, the equation for the unbalanced pressure force acting on an elbow pair can be written as:
Under steady-state conditions, a similar situation would exist at all elbow pairs throughout the piping system.
Impulse
With this type of profile, the load magnitude ramps up from zero to some value, remains relatively constant for a time, and
then ramps down to zero again. For rapid ramping times, this type of profile resembles a rectangle. Loads with impulse
force/time profiles are best solved using the Time History or Force Spectrum methods. Major types of loads with impulse
time profiles are
Relief valve—When system pressure reaches a dangerous level, relief valves are set to open in order to vent fluid and
reduce the internal pressure. Venting through the valve causes a jet force to act on the piping system; this force ramps
up to its full value, from zero, over the opening time of the valve. The relief valve remains open (and the jet force
remains relatively constant) until sufficient fluid is vented to relief the over-pressure situation. The valve then closes,
ramping down the jet force over the closing time of the valve.
Fluid hammer—When the flow of fluid through a system is suddenly halted at one point, through valve closure or a
pump trip, the fluid in the remainder of the system cannot be stopped instantaneously as well. As fluid continues to flow
into the area of stoppage (upstream of the valve or pump), the fluid compresses, causing a high pressure situation at that
point. Likewise, on the other side of the restriction, the fluid moves away from the stoppage point, creating a low
pressure (vacuum) situation at that location. Fluid at the next elbow or closure along the pipeline is still at the original
operating pressure, resulting in an unbalanced pressure force acting on the valve seat or the elbow.
The fluid continues to flow, compressing (or decompressing) fluid further away from the point of flow stoppage, thus
causing the leading edge of the pressure pulse to move through the line. As the pulse moves past the first elbow, the
pressure is now equalized at each end of the pipe run, leading to a balanced (i.e., zero) pressure load on the first pipe leg.
However the unbalanced pressure, by passing the elbow, has now shifted to the second leg. The unbalanced pressure load
will continue to rise and fall in sequential legs as the pressure pulse travels back to the source (or forward to the sink).
The ramp up time of the profile roughly coincides with the elapsed time from full flow to low flow, such as the closing time
of the valve or trip time of the pump. Since the leading edge of the pressure pulse is not expected to change as the pulse
travels through the system, the ramp down time is the same. The duration of the load from initiation through the beginning
of the down ramp is equal to the time required for the pressure pulse to travel the length of the pipe leg.
Slug flow—Most piping systems are designed to handle single-phase fluids (i.e., those which are uniformly liquid or
gas). Under certain circumstances, however, the fluid may have multiple phases. For example, slurry systems transport
solid materials in liquids, and gases may condense, creating pockets of liquid in otherwise gaseous media. Systems
carrying multi-phase fluids are susceptible to slug flow.
In general, when fluid changes direction in a piping system, this is done through the application of forces at elbows. This
force is equal to the change in momentum with respect to time, or
r 2 1/2
F = dp / dt = v A [2(1 - cos )]
5-6 Controlling the Dynamic Solution
Where:
dp = change in momentum
dt = change in time
= fluid density
v = fluid velocity
A = internal area of pipe
= inclusion angle at elbow
Normally this force is constant, and is small enough that it can be easily absorbed through tension in the pipe wall, to be
passed on to adjacent elbows which may have equal and opposite loads, zeroing the net load on the system. Therefore these
types of momentum loads are usually ignored by the stress analyst. However, if the fluid velocity or density changes with
time, this momentum load will change with time as well, leading to a dynamic (changing) load, which may not be cancelled
by the load at other elbows.
For example, consider a slug of liquid in a gas system. The steady state momentum load is insignificant, since the fluid
density of a gas is effectively zero. Suddenly the liquid slug hits the elbow, increasing the momentum load by orders of
magnitude. This load lasts only as long as it takes for the slug to traverse the elbow, and then suddenly drops to near zero
again, with the exact profile of the slug load depending upon the shape of the slug. The time duration of the load depends
upon the length of the slug divided by the velocity of the fluid.
Where:
2
Fx = v A(1 - cos )
2 ½
Fr = v A [2(1 - cos )]
2
Fy = v A sin
Chapter 5 Controlling the Dynamic Solution 5-7
Harmonic Analysis
Input Excitation Frequencies
Ending Frequency
Last frequency in the user’s defined excitation frequency range. If omitted then it defaults to the Starting frequency.
Increment
Frequency increment. If omitted then defaults to 1.0 Hz.
5-8 Controlling the Dynamic Solution
The frequencies for harmonic excitation are taken from each frequency range defined by the user. Individual frequencies for
excitation are computed using a “DO LOOP” type of logic as follows:
X = STARTING FREQUENCY
5 CONTINUE
COMPUTE SOLUTION FOR FREQUENCY “X”
X = X + INCREMENT
IF( X .LT. ENDING FREQUENCY+0.001) GO TO 5
Using this logic the user can determine exactly which frequencies in a specified frequency range will be analyzed. The sign
of the frequency increment may be modified by CAESAR II to properly step from the user’s starting frequency to his ending
frequency.
Either the starting frequency, the ending frequency, or the frequency increment may be given as a fraction or a whole part
with fraction.
Any number of user comment lines may be included. There can be any number of line entries in the Excitation frequency
data.
EXAMPLES:
Load Cycles
Number of cycles expected for this loading. If entered, this signals to CAESAR II that the harmonic load case should be
treated as a fatigue stress case with the allowable stress based on the number of anticipated cycles.
Chapter 5 Controlling the Dynamic Solution 5-9
Harmonic Forces
Either the Harmonic Forces or the Displacements must be entered in addition to the Excitation Frequency Data. Click the
Harmonic Forces button to bring up a window like that shown below. Click the + button on the toolbar to add a harmonic
force.
Force
Amplitude of the harmonic force. The form of the harmonic forcing function is: F(t) = A*cosine( t- ), where “F(t)” is the
force as a function of time. “A” is the maximum amplitude of the dynamic force. “ ” is the frequency of the excitation (in
radians per second), and “p” is the phase angle (in radians). Enter the force in the units shown. These units are taken from
the current set which resides on the file UNITS.FIL.
Direction
Enter the line of action of the force as either X, Y, Z, or as direction cosines or direction vectors. The format for direction
cosines is (cx,cy, cz), i.e. (0.707,0.0,0.707). The format for direction vectors is (vx, vy, vz), i.e.. (1,0,1).
5-10 Controlling the Dynamic Solution
Phase
Enter the phase angle in degrees. The harmonic loading can start with its maximum load at time equal to zero, or the
harmonic load can start with its maximum at any time between zero and t=2*pi/w seconds. The phase angle is the method
used to specify this time shift in the dynamic load waveform. The phase angle can be calculated from the time shift using
the equation: p(degrees) = 180tw/pi, where t is given in seconds and w is given in radians per second. Most frequently the
phase angle is entered as either zero or 90. The phase specification is most useful when defining eccentric loads on rotating
equipment. Some of the examples that follow discuss common applications of the phase angle input. The phase angle is a
required input. If the phase angle is zero, then 0.0 must be entered !
Start Node
The node where the force is to act. This entry is required. If entered without a Stop Node and Increment, then this node must
exist in the piping system. If entered with a Stop Node and Increment, then the range of nodes identified by the loop must
include at least one node in the piping system.
Stop Node
Used as a part of a “range of nodes” force loading command. This entry is optional.
Increment
Used as a part of a “range of nodes” force loading command. This entry is optional.
EXAMPLES
It is assumed that a pressure pulse traveling in the line between nodes 95 and 100 causes the line to shake at about 2 hertz.
The magnitude of the pressure loading (See the examples for calculating forces from pressures) is estimated to be about 460
lb. The pressure wave travels from 95 to 100. The harmonic force to model this load is shown as follows. Note that the
magnitude is divided by 2 because the total variation in the dynamic load is a function of the cosine, which varies from -1 to
1. To find the true response magnitudes from a positive only harmonic load pulse, a static solution with 460/2 lb. acting in
the plus X direction would have to be superimposed on the static 460/2 lb. solution to provide the constant shifting of the
load axis (i.e. as defined in the following example, there will exist a negative load at node 95 due to the negative sign on the
cosine). The pressure pulse will always be positive and so a negative load will never exist. The superposition of the 460/2
static solution makes sure that the dynamic load (and probably the resulting displacements) are always positive.
460 LB PRESSURE LOAD AT 2 HERTZ 460/2 X 0.0 95
A pump is shaking in the X-Y plane. The pump axis is along the global Z axis. The magnitude of the dynamic load is
computed to be 750 lb. from the manufacturers provided masses and eccentricities. Apply this rotating equipment loading
on the inline pump at node 350. The X and Y loads are 90 degrees out of phase with one another. When the X load is at its
maximum the Y load is zero, and when the Y load is at its maximum the X load is zero.
ESTIMATED ECCENTRIC LOAD ON INLINE PUMP DOH-V33203001
750 X 0.0 350
750 Y 90.0 350
Chapter 5 Controlling the Dynamic Solution 5-11
Harmonic Displacements
Displacement
Amplitude of the harmonic displacement. The form of the harmonic displacement function is: D(t)=(A)*cosine( t- ), where
“D(t)” is the displacement as a function of time, “A” is the maximum amplitude of the dynamic displacement. “ ” is the
frequency of the excitation (in radians per second), and “ ” is the phase angle (in radians). Enter the displacements in the
units shown.
Direction
Enter the line of action of the displacement as either X, Y, Z, or as direction cosines or direction vectors. The format for
direction cosines is (cx,cy,cz), i.e (0.707,0.0,0.707). The format for direction vectors is (vx, vy, vz), i.e. (1,0,1).
Phase
Enter the phase angle in degrees. The harmonic displacements can start with its maximum displacement at time equal to
zero, or the harmonic displacements can start with its maximum displacements at any time between zero and t + 2 /
seconds. The phase angle is the method used to specify this time shift in the dynamic load waveform. The phase angle can
be calculated from the time shift using the equation: (degrees) = 180t / , where t is given in seconds and is given in
radians per second. Most frequently the phase angle is entered as either zero or 90. The phase specification is most useful
when defining eccentric displacements on rotating equipment. Some of the examples that follow discuss common
5-12 Controlling the Dynamic Solution
applications of the phase angle input. The phase angle is a required input. If the phase angle is zero, then 0.0 must be
entered!
Start Node
Node where the dynamic displacement is defined. If the node is a supported node, then the dynamic displacement will be
assumed to act at the support point. If the node is not supported, then the dynamic displacement will be assumed to describe
the exact motion of the pipe at that point. This differentiation only becomes important when the node is supported by a
flexible restraint. For example, node 55 is supported in the Y direction by a restraint having a stiffness of 5000 lb./in. A
harmonic displacement is also specified at node 55, in the Y direction. In this case, the harmonic displacement does not
describe the displacement that is attached to 55!
If the Start Node is entered without a Stop Node and Increment, then this node must exist in the piping system. If the Start
Node is entered with a Stop Node and Increment, then this range of nodes must include at least one node in the piping
system.
Stop Node
Used as a part of a “range of nodes” force displacement loading. This entry is optional.
Increment
Used as a part of a “range of nodes” force displacement loading. This entry is optional.
EXAMPLES
A large ethylene compressor shakes the node exiting the compressor flange in the Y direction a field measured 8 mils, and
in the Z direction an amount equal to 3 mils. Define these dynamic displacements. The displacements are assumed to be
simultaneous, with no phase shift. This is because the load causing the displacements is believed to be the compressor
plunger moving in the X, or axial direction. (The displacements are skewed because the piping configuration entering
the compressor is itself skewed.)
Applying estimated eccentric forces to the pump described in the harmonic force example did not produce the
displacements witnessed in the field. Field personnel have measured the dynamic displacements in the vertical (Y) and
transverse (Z) directions at the pump piping connections. The centerline of the pump, at the intersection of the
horizontal suction and vertical discharge is node 15. The magnitude of the Z displacement was measured to be 12 mil.
The magnitude of the Y displacement was measured to be 3 mils. It is assumed that the vibration is due to the rotation
of the pump shaft, and so the Z and Y loads will be taken to be 90 degrees out of phase.
HARMONIC DISPLACEMENTS MODELING PUMP VIBRATION ON THE INLINE PUMP DOH-V33203001.
MODELLING THE PUMPS
DYNAMIC LOAD WITH FORCES DID NOT RESULT IN THE
DISPLACEMENTS WITNESSED BY FIELD PERSONNEL. NOW TRY
IMPOSING THE DISPLACEMENTS AND SEE WHAT THE RESULTING
FORCES ARE. ALSO CHECK TO SEE IF THE ATTACHED PIPING
MOVES AROUND AS EXPECTED.
Z MAGNITUDE OF THE LOAD - ZERO PHASE SHIFT
0.012 Z 0.0 15
Y MAGNITUDE OF THE LOAD - 90 DEG. PHASE SHIFT
0.003 Y 90.0 15
Chapter 5 Controlling the Dynamic Solution 5-13
Spectrum Definitions
Name
Can be any 24-character identifier. This name is associated with a particular spectrum or load profile. The complete
definition of a shock includes its name, range type, ordinate type, range interpolation method, ordinate interpolation method,
and the shock data point table. Everything but the shock data point table can be entered here. There are 14 predefined
spectra for which no extra definitions are required and they are:
El Centro
5-14 Controlling the Dynamic Solution
For the El Centro California N-S component taken from Biggs, “Introduction to Structural Dynamics,” and applies for
systems with 5-10 percent critical damping.
REG. GUIDE 1.60
1.60H.5 and 1.60V.5
1.60H2 and 1.60V2
1.60H5 and 1.60V5
1.60H7 and 1.60V7
1.60H1.0 and 1.60V10
Each of these spectra defines respectively the horizontal and vertical components for 0.5, 2, 5, 7, and 10 percent critically
damped systems. Associated with each of these spectra is a value for the Maximum ground acceleration at the site, the ZPA.
(Zero Period Acceleration) This value defaults to 0.5 g and can be changed on the control parameter spreadsheet.
Uniform Building Code
UBCSOIL1
UBCSOIL2
UBCSOIL3
These spectra represent the normalized (horizontal) response spectra for three soil types provided in Figure 23-3 of the
Uniform Building Code, (1991 Edition).
Note The spectrum name (or load profile) can be preceded by a (#) sign. The (#) sign instructs CAESAR II to read the
spectrum table from a file having the same name as the spectrum with no extension.
Entering the spectrum table in an ASCII file allows several jobs to access the same spectrum table data without the user
having to retype it for each job. If data is to be read directly from within the Dynamic Output then click the Data Points
button and enter the appropriate Range and Ordinate values.
Range Type
This entry defines the table “range”, or horizontal axis, and can be either “Period”, “Frequency”, or "Time". If the range
type is Period then the spectrum table data must be entered in seconds. If the range type is Frequency then the spectrum
table data must be entered in Hertz, (cycles per second). Time may be used for Time History load profiles only, and must be
entered in milliseconds (ms).
Ordinate Type
This entry defines the spectrum table “ordinate”, or vertical axis, and can be either Acceleration, Velocity, Displacement or
Force (multiplier). Any part of the word for the ordinate type can be spelled out, but only the first letter is required. Note
that acceleration units are length per second squared. Users may enter the spectrum table ordinate in g’s by selecting
acceleration as the ordinate type and then using a shock scale factor of 386, for length units of inches. For Time History
load profiles, the only valid ordinate type is Force (multiplier).
Range Interpolation
Interpolation between range values may be done logarithmically or linearly (valid input is LOG or LIN). See the examples
shown for additional discussion.
Ordinate Interpolation
Interpolation between ordinate values may be done logarithmically or linearly (valid input is LOG or LIN). See the
examples shown for additional discussion.
One job may have any number of different spectrum types and definitions.
Chapter 5 Controlling the Dynamic Solution 5-15
Special FORCE spectrum data files are created by the DLF Spectrum generator. See the documentation covering this item
later in this chapter.
When a new job is started up the 14 predefined spectra is already included in the spectrum definition list. Any combination
of these predefined spectra may be used as is, deleted or used with any other user defined spectra.
ASCII files that contain spectrum table data can contain comment lines starting with an asterisk just like regular terminal
entered data lines. The user is encouraged to include the basic spectrum data definitions in the comments for each ASCII
spectrum file. See the example that follows.
Example
The job requires that the El Centro shock be applied in the X and Z directions using a factor of 1.0, and in the Y direction
using a factor of 0.667.
There is no spectrum definition required for this shock. El Centro is a predefined spectrum. All of its shock data resides in
the CAESAR II shock database.
The job requires the use of the Nuclear Regulatory Guide 1.60 shock loads. At a maximum acceleration value of 0.25 g’s,
analysis is to be performed using 1.0 times the horizontal and vertical components of the shock as specified in Reg. Guide
1.60.
There is no spectrum definition required for either of these two shock loads. The Reg. Guide 1.60 shock spectra are
predefined. The user must only specify the maximum acceleration (ZPA) of 0.25 g’s on the control parameter spreadsheet,
and must use the reg. guide spectra which correspond to the anticipated system damping. Lower damping values mean
more conservative results.
The job requires a shock spectrum that is given by the client and developed for the site. A plot of the spectrum appears as
follows. The horizontal axis is period and the vertical axis is acceleration. From the variation of the numbers along each axis
it can be seen that a logarithmic interpolation for each axis should be used. Because the shock name is NOT preceded by
a (#) sign the user will have to enter the points for this spectrum during this interactive input session.
All jobs on a particular project require the use of the spectrum table shown as follows. Since we only want to type the
spectrum’s data points in one time, the points will be entered into a file named “BENCH1”. The ASCII file BENCH1 can be
created using any standard editor or the CAESAR II text editor. The listing of the ASCII file for BENCH1 is shown following
the plot of the spectrum.
0.1698E-02 0.1450E+03
0.2800E-01 0.3800E+03
0.5800E-01 0.7750E+03
0.7100E-01 0.7750E+03
0.9100E-01 0.4400E+03
0.1140E+00 0.1188E+04
0.1410E+00 0.1188E+04
0.1720E+00 0.7000E+03
0.2000E+00 0.8710E+03
0.2500E+00 0.8710E+03
0.3230E+00 0.4000E+03
Data points for user-defined spectra may be entered through the menu option Tools /Spectrum Data Points.
Range
Spectrum table range value. There should be at least one range-ordinate pair for each spectrum.
Ordinate
Spectrum table ordinate value. There should be at least one range ordinate pair for each spectrum.
Values may be entered in exponential format (i.e. 0.3003E+03, or 0.3423E-03, or 0.3003E3,...), or can have explicit
multiplication or division (i.e. 4032.3/386, or 1.0323*12). Sufficient data points should be entered to fully describe the
spectrum or load profile.
Chapter 5 Controlling the Dynamic Solution 5-17
There can be any number of line entries in the spectrum data. Data may also be read from a file using the Read From File
button.
Create Table
When the Create Table button is clicked, a dialog box will appear with the input table as displayed below. Enter the Time /
Force data and click the OK button to create the DLF curve on the hard drive.
5-18 Controlling the Dynamic Solution
Force
Enter the forces that correspond to the points on the force/time curve. Units are as shown. Note that the absolute magnitude
of the force is not important, only the form of the time history loading is important. The actual maximum value of the
dynamic load is taken from the force pattern defined in: SPECTRUM/TIME HISTORY FORCE SETS.
There can be any number of line entries in the Excitation frequency data.
Chapter 5 Controlling the Dynamic Solution 5-19
Factor
Constant by which to multiply the shock table. Usually 1.0, or if the spectrum table data points were read in units of g’s, to
convert to in/sec/sec then this factor would be 386. There are several examples that follow which illustrate various
applications of this value.
Direction
Defines the direction of application of the shock. To define an earthquake type of loading, CAESAR II must know what the
earthquake shock “looks like,” which comes from the shock spectrum table. CAESAR II must also know in which direction
this shock acts. Typically a shock load case will be comprised of three shock components. One acts in the X direction, one
5-20 Controlling the Dynamic Solution
in the Z, and one in the Y. The combination of each of these three “shocks” defines the earthquakes dynamic loading of the
piping system.
Skewed directions may be entered by giving a direction cosine or direction vector. Skewed shock contributions are entered
when the piping or structural system appears particularly sensitive to a shock along a skewed line. This most often occurs
when a majority of the piping system lies along a 45 degree line in the horizontal plane. An example shock input for this
type of system is shown among the examples on the following pages.
Any number of shock components can act in the same direction. i.e. there can be two X direction components. This usually
occurs with independent support shock contributions where one X direction component would apply to one support group
and another X direction component would apply to a different support group. (However, there can be two shock
components in the same direction without having independent support contributions defined. This would just involve
defining two shock contributions in the same direction without start, stop, or increment node entries.)
In the simplest form of force spectrum loading there is only a single shock component in the load case, i.e. there is only a
single line of input on the load case screen. When there are multiple lines of input on the load case screen, as when the user
is analyzing a traveling pressure wave that impacts different elbow-elbow pairs, there can be many components to the shock
load case. The combination of responses from each of these shock loading components can be established in one of two
ways. If the Direction field is the same for each load component, then the Directional Combination method will be used to
combine the responses from each load component. If the Direction field is different for each load component, then the
spatial combination method will be used to combine the responses from each load component. The difference between
Spatial and Directional combination methods is that Directional combinations are always made before Modal combinations,
while Spatial combinations can be made before or after Modal combinations, (it is user controlled). The default is to
perform the Modal combinations before Spatial combinations. Either Spatial or Directional combinations can be made using
the ABS or SRSS method. Some of the following force spectrum examples illustrate these differences.
Note: Since Time History combinations are all algebraic (in-phase), this entry is used as nothing more than a label during
this type of analysis.
Force Set #
If the Spectrum/Load Profile Name describes a Force-type spectrum (rather than displacement, velocity, or acceleration),
then the fourth entry in the load case screen is the force set number. This force set number corresponds to the loads entered
in the Force Sets option. Examples shown on the following pages illustrate this application. Note that if a force set # is
entered, the last three fields must be left blank!
Start Node
Start node, stop node, and increment are only used to define the component of an independent support shock (ISM). This is
a shock component that applies only to a group of support points. For example, different shock spectrum may have been
generated for rack level piping and for ground level piping. In this case the rack supports would be subject to one shock
excitation (influenced by the rack’s response to the earthquake), and the ground level supports would be subject to a
different shock excitation (not influenced by the rack). In this case, one node range would be used to define the rack support
shock contributions and another would be used to define the ground support shock contributions. The range of nodes
defined by the start node, stop node, and increment must include at least one support point.
Stop Node
Part of the “range of nodes.” If omitted, defaults to the start node. See the examples that follow for clarification.
Increment
Part of the “range of nodes.” If omitted, defaults to 1. See the examples that follow for clarification.
relative displacement of the individual restraint sets. If omitted, the default is taken from the lowest frequency entry of the
response spectrum: specified displacement, velocity/frequency, or acceleration/frequency2 (where frequency is angular
frequency).
Directives
A number of directives can be set for each individual load case using the Directives button. These parameters are optional
extensions to the global options set for all load cases on the Control Parameter spreadsheet. Typically users will not need
to specify any of these options.
Directional Combination Method. Similar directional components will be combined using either the ABS or the SRSS
summation method. If there are two shock components in the X direction, the components from each shock’s effect on the
system will be summed absolutely. Directional combinations are performed before all other combinations. (There are three
types of combinations: DIRECTIONAL, SPATIAL AND MODAL). The default DIRECTIONAL combination method is
ABS.
Modal (Group) Modal components will be combined using the Reg. Guide 1.92 “GROUPING” method. CAESAR II uses
the Revision 1, February 1976 issue of the Regulatory Guide 1.92. See the discussion of the SPATIAL(ABS) directive for a
description of the relationship that exits between modal and spatial response combinations.
Modal (10%) Modal components will be combined using the Reg. Guide 1.92 “10%” method.
Modal (DSRSS) Modal components will be combined using the Reg. Guide 1.92 “Double Square Root of the Sum of the
Squares” method. Damping is assumed to be equal for all modes and is taken from the control parameter spreadsheet.
Modal (ABS) Modal components (response quantities) will be combined absolutely. (i.e. the absolute value of each
response quantity will be summed.)
Modal (SRSS) Modal components will be combined using the square root of the sum of the squares method of
combination.
Spatial Combination Method (ABS or SRSS). Spatial components will be combined using the ABS summation method.
There are typically three spatial components in a single earthquake type shock load case. The three usual excitation
directions are the X, Y, and Z global axes. (Although there can be any number of spatial components along any global or
skewed axes.)
5-22 Controlling the Dynamic Solution
Spatial or Modal Combination First. Modal before Spatial summations are “Independent.” An Independent shock is one
where the X, Y, Z components are random and temporally independent of one another. (i.e. time histories for each
directional component of the shock are not equal.) Spatial before Modal summations are “Simultaneous.” A simultaneous
shock is one where the X, Y, and Z components are random, but temporarily the same (i.e. time histories for each
directional component of the shock are equal).
Pseudostatic Combination Method (ABS or SRSS). Pseudostatic components for each ISM are added into the response
quantities either absolutely or using the SRSS method of combination. Pseudostatic combinations are performed after all
spatial and modal combinations. The user can deactivate the inclusion of pseudostatic component from the control
parameter spreadsheet.
Missing Mass Combination Method (ABS or SRSS). Missing mass components for each shock load are added into the
response quantities either absolutely or using the SRSS method of combination. The user can deactivate the inclusion of
missing mass components from the control parameter spreadsheet. Missing mass components are added in following modal
summation.
Stress Type (EXP). Stress type for the load case is set using the stress type drop list. If FATigue is selected, the expected
number of load cycles must be entered. The user can change the default stress type dynamic loads to any of the allowed
stress types in CAESAR II. Available stress types are EXP, SUS, OCC, OPE, and FAT. The OCC or occasional stress type is
the default.
The entry of node groups causes a pseudostatic component of the shock to be created. This pseudostatic contribution
can be added or omitted from the final shock loading effects. Additional parameters can be entered on the control
parameter spreadsheet.
The order of input of the shock contributions is not important, and has no bearing on the results.
There is no limit to the number of shock load cases the user can define. The dynamic output processor lets the user
decide which of the Spectrum/Time History Load Cases he wants to process.
Any number of user comment lines may be included. There can be any number of line entries in the spectrum data.
EXAMPLES
Define a shock load case that excites the piping system with a vibration of one times the El Centro earthquake in the X
direction, one times the El Centro earthquake in the Z, and 0.667 times the El Centro earthquake in the Y direction.
ELCENTRO 1 X
ELCENTRO 1 Z
ELCENTRO 0.667 Y
Define a shock load case that excites the piping system with the horizontal and vertical components of the Reg. Guide 1.60
shock spectra for a 2 percent critically damped system. The maximum ground acceleration should be 0.22 g’s.
The maximum ground acceleration is set on the control parameter spreadsheet and has no effect on the shock load case
definitions.
1.60H2 1 X
1.60H2 1 Z
1.60V2 1 Y
Define a shock load case that is comprised of the users' shocks BENCH1 and BENCH2. BENCH1 should act in the X and Z
directions, and shock BENCH2 should act in the Y direction. The scale factor for all shocks is 1.0.
BENCH1 1 X
BENCH2 1 Y
BENCH1 1 Z
Chapter 5 Controlling the Dynamic Solution 5-23
One of the shock load cases for this particular job should excite the piping system along a line that is 45 degrees off of the
global axes in the horizontal plane. It is suspected that this direction of excitation will yield the worst possible results. Apply
the user defined shock BENCH1 in the horizontal direction and BENCH2 in the vertical direction.
BENCH1 1 (1,0,1)
BENCH1 1 (-1,0,1)
BENCH2 1 Y
Define a shock load case that excites the piping system with a vibration of two times the El Centro earthquake in the X, Y,
and Z directions. There should be two shock load cases in this job. The first should use an independent summation and the
second a simultaneous.
The load cases would be defined as shown. (There are several ways to accomplish the same objective here using parameters
on the control parameter spreadsheet, etc. Only the method using the explicit definition of the load case combination
method will be presented.) Remember that independent summation means MODAL then SPATIAL, and simultaneous
means SPATIAL then MODAL.
ELCENTRO 2 X
ELCENTRO 2 Y
ELCENTRO 2 Z
ELCENTRO 2 X
ELCENTRO 2 Y
ELCENTRO 2 Z
Define a shock case that has the user defined spectrum “1DIR” acting in the Z direction only. Set the stress type for the case
to be operating and use modal summations before spatial summations. Note that there is no mention of modal or spatial
summations in the load data shown as follows (only the stress type). This is because “modal summation first” is the
CAESAR II default and would have to be changed on the control parameter spreadsheet for it not to still apply.
1DIR 1 Z
STRESSTYPE(OPE)
The support nodes 5, 25, 35, 45, and 56 are pipe shoes sitting on concrete foundations. The support nodes 140, 145, 157,
160, and 180 are second level rack supports, i.e. pipe shoes sitting on structural steel beams in the second level of the rack.
The ground level shock spectrum name is “GROUND04”, and the second level rack spectrum name is “RACKLEVEL2-
04”. Set up the shock load case to define these independent support excitations. Note that an option exists on the control
parameter spreadsheet to neglect the pseudostatic component of the Independent Support Excitation. Assume that this
option is activated. The default is to include the pseudostatic component in an absolute (ABS) summation method.
5-24 Controlling the Dynamic Solution
Set up a shock load case, and define all combinations options explicitly. Use the same shock components as defined in the
above example, except assume that the pseudostatic component is to be added using the SRSS combination method. Also
change the modal summation method is SRSS. (This is the recommended method.) Note that when the modal summation
method is SRSS it doesn't matter whether modal or spatial combinations are performed first. The order is only a factor when
closely spaced modes are considered as in the grouping, ten percent, and DSRSS methods.
MODAL(SRSS),PSEUDOSTATIC(SRSS),SPATIAL(SRSS)
GROUND LEVEL EXCITATION
GROUND04 1.0 X 5,56,1
GROUND04 1.0 Y 5,56,1
GROUND04 1.0 Z 5,56,1
RACK LEVEL 2 EXCITATION
RACKLEVEL2-04 1.0 X 140,180,1
RACKLEVEL2-04 1.0 Y 140,180,1
RACKLEVEL2-04 1.0 Y 140,180,1
The last elbow in the relief valve piping is at node 295. The spectrum name: “BLAST” contains the DLF response spectrum
for this relief valve’s firing. SPECTRUM/TIME HISTORY FORCE SET #1 contains the load information and its point of
application. Show the load case input that would provide the most conservative combination of modal results. (Because
there is only a single loading there is no consideration given to spatial or directional combinations.)
Use the same example above and combine the modes using the grouping method. This will produce the most realistic
solution.
BLAST, 1, X, 1
MODAL (GROUP)
There are two elbow-elbow pairs that are of significance in this job. Waterhammer loads act on the elbow at 40 in the X
direction and on the elbow at 135 in the Y-direction. In the SPECTRUM/TIME HISTORY FORCE SET input, force set #1
is defined as the load at 40 and force set #2 is defined as the load at 135. Add the response quantities from each load
component first, using an ABS summation, and then the resulting modal response quantities second, using the grouping
summation method. Two identical methods for achieving the same results are shown.
Chapter 5 Controlling the Dynamic Solution 5-25
<or>
BECAUSE THE “DIRECTION” INPUT IS DIFFERENT, I.E. “X” AND “Y,”
THE SPATIAL COMBINATION METHOD WILL GOVERN HOW THE
HAMMER40 AND HAMMER135 RESPONSES ARE COMBINED. NOTE THAT
ON THE DIRECTIVE LINE THE “SPATIAL” DIRECTIVE COMES BEFORE
THE “MODAL” DIRECTIVE.
HAMMER40, 1, X, 1
HAMMER135, 1, Y, 2
SPATIAL(ABS), MODAL(GROUP)
5-26 Controlling the Dynamic Solution
Static/Dynamic Combinations
Load Case
Defines the static or dynamic load case that is to be a part of this combination case. The load case label must always start
with an S or a D for Static and Dynamic, and must be immediately followed by a load case number. Valid entries are: S1,
STATIC1, S3, STATIC3, D1, DYNAMICS1, S#1, D#1, ...etc... The user can use any length up to 24 characters to define
the load case label so long as the name starts in an S or a D, and ends in a valid load case number. For static load case
definitions, the static case must exist and have already been run (also, the S can’t refer to a spring hanger design case). For
dynamic load case definitions, the dynamic load case number refers to the shock load case. Several examples are given as
follows.
Factor
This entry is required and multiplies the response quantities from the respective static or dynamic run.
<Directive Data>
The Stress Type drop list or the Directive button may be used to set optional extensions to global options set for all load
cases on the Control Parameter spreadsheet. Typically the user will not need to specify any of these options. Some of the
examples included on the following pages illustrate cases where these directives provide extra desired flexibility.
STRESSTYPE (EXP)
Chapter 5 Controlling the Dynamic Solution 5-27
STRESSTYPE (SUS)
STRESSTYPE (OPE)
STRESSTYPE (OCC)
STRESSTYPE (FAT)
The user can change the default stress type for the combination case to any of the four shown here. The default stress type is
OCC - occasional.
COMBINATION (SRSS)
COMBINATION (ABS)
Defines how the load cases listed are to be combined. The ABS method takes the absolute value of all displacement, force,
and stress data for each load case and adds them together. The SRSS method sums the square of all displacement, force, and
stress data for each load case and then takes the square root of the result.
Any number of separate static and dynamic cases can exist in the Combination Load Case list provided each reference
to a static or dynamic case is on a separate line.
The order of input of the load case definitions is not important, and has no bearing on the results.
Any number of user comment lines may be included.
Static cases alone can be combined without dynamic cases.
Dynamic cases alone can be combined without static cases.
EXAMPLES:
1 = W+P1+D1+T1+F1 (OPE)
2 = W+P1+F1 (SUS)
3 = L1 - L2 (EXP)
The user must combine the Operating Basis Earthquake Stresses with the Sustained Static Stresses. The specification for
this combination case is:
STATIC2 1.0
DYNAMIC1 1.0
<or>
S2 1
D1 1
5-28 Controlling the Dynamic Solution
There was one dynamic load case. The user is required to turn an occasional case that is the sum of the sustained and the
dynamic stresses using the SRSS Combination method and the ABS Combination method. Additionally, the user must
combine the expansion static case and the dynamic case using the SRSS Combination method. This is a total of three
combination load cases. Note that since the job had hanger design the first two static load cases cannot be used in a
combination case. The input for each case is shown as follows:
COMBINATION CASE 1:
STRESSTYPE(OCC), COMBINATION(SRSS)
STATIC4 1
DYNAMIC1 1
COMBINATION CASE 2:
STRESSTYPE(OCC), COMBINATION(ABS)
STATIC4 1
DYNAMIC1 1
COMBINATION CASE 3:
STRESSTYPE(OCC), COMBINATION(SRSS)
STATIC5 1
DYNAMIC1 1
1 = W+T1+P+D1+F1 (OPE)
2 = W+P+F1
3 = U1 (OCC) ... Static seismic simulation
4 = L1-L2
5 = ST2+ST3
Chapter 5 Controlling the Dynamic Solution 5-29
The user is instructed to perform an SRSS Combination of the static seismic case and both the sustained and operating
static cases. The combination case lists for these two cases would appear:
COMBINATION CASE 1:
COMBINATION(SRSS), STRESSTYPE(OCC)
STATIC2 1
STATIC3 1
COMBINATION CASES 2:
COMBINATION(SRSS), STRESSTYPE(OCC)
STATIC1 1
STATIC3 1
Spectrum/Time History Load Cases 1 through 6 were defined by the client. The static sustained stresses are to be combined
with 1/2 the shock case 1 results, 1/2 the shock case 2 results, and 1.333 times the shock case 3 results. The combination
method is to be SRSS. A second combination case is to combine 1/2 the shock case 4 results, 1/2 the shock case 5 results,
and 1.333 times the shock case 6 results. These two combination load cases would be defined as shown as follows:
COMBINATION CASE 1:
COMBINATION(SRSS)
STATIC6 1
DYNAMIC1 1/2
DYNAMIC2 1/2
DYNAMIC3 1.333
<or>
COMB(SRSS)
S6 1
D1 0.5
D2 0.5
D3 1.333
COMBINATION CASE 2:
5-30 Controlling the Dynamic Solution
COMBINATION (SRSS)
STATIC6 1
DYNAMIC4 0.5
DYNAMIC5 0.5
DYNAMIC6 1.333
Chapter 5 Controlling the Dynamic Solution 5-31
Direction
Direction of the dynamic load. Can be entered as X, Y, or Z or direction cosines or direction vectors. Direction cosines are
entered in the form (cx,cy,cz), i.e. (0.707, 0, 0.707). Direction vectors are entered in the form: (vx, vy, vz), i.e. (1,0, and 1).
Node
Node number where the force acts.
Force Set #
Number to uniquely identify this particular force load pattern. See the examples that follow for clarification. This value
defaults to 1.
1 Determine the pulse time history that acts at a single node or over a group of nodes. Only the pulse waveform must be
the same for all nodes in group, the maximum pulse amplitude may vary. For example, a particular shock load due to
ocean current loading acts over the nodes 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30 on a production piping system, and the magnitude of
the dynamic loading is 50 lb. at 5, 100 lb. at 10, 200 lb. at 15, and so on up to 500 lb. at 30. Also the dynamic load as a
function of time at each point is equal to half of a sine wave with a period of one second. Even though the magnitude of
the dynamic load varies over the nodes from 5 to 30, the pulse waveform does not (The pulse waveform is the half sine
wave, and its shape is the same for each node). Thus the group of nodes from 5 to 30 can be included in the same force
set #, each node having a different dynamic force magnitude.
2 Using the CAESAR II DLF Spectrum Generator build a DLF vs. frequency file for the time-pulse waveform.
3 Using the Spectrum Definitions option, define the DLF vs. frequency file just created as a Force spectrum data file with
linear interpolation along the frequency axis and linear interpolation along the ordinate axis. (The DLF Spectrum
Generator builds a standard shock table file. Until the type of shock data in the file is described to CAESAR II, the file
can’t be used.) Remember to precede the shock name with a “#” sign when defining it in the Spectrum Definitions so
that CAESAR II knows to read the shock table from the data file.
4 Determine the maximum force magnitude that acts on each node subject to the pulse load.
5 Using the Force Set Editor specify the maximum amplitude of the dynamic load, its direction, and the nodes it acts on.
6 Build the Spectrum/Time History Load Cases by entering the Force spectrum name (this is the name that is preceded by
the “#” sign, defined in the Spectrum Definitions editor), the table multiplication factor (usually 1.0), a direction (this is
only a label used for output processing and should be characteristic of the shock, the actual force spectrum loads can act
in multiple directions), and the Force Set #. (The Force Set # refers to the force pattern defined in the Force Spectrum
Editor in step 5 above.) It is step 6 that defines the link between the force spectrum and the force loading pattern.
7 Setup any other parameters needed to run the spectrum analysis for this job. Perform error checking, and once there are
no fatal errors, run the job.
For a Time History analysis, the load profile used in step 2 would be entered directly in step 3, with the rest of the process
remaining the same.
Any number of user comment lines may be included. There can be any number of line entries in the Force spectrum data.
5-32 Controlling the Dynamic Solution
If there are multiple force spectrum components in a single dynamic load case, the user should be particularly careful with
the combination method selected. In this case, the same rules that cover earthquake shocks and components apply to force
spectrum shocks and components.
EXAMPLES:
The nodes 5, 10, and 15 define a cantilever pipe leg that is part of an offshore production platform. The dynamic load as a
function of time is equal to a half sine wave. The waveform is the same for all three nodes, but the maximum dynamic load
on node 5 is 5030 lb., on node 10 is 10,370 lb., and on node 15 is 30,537 lb. Three force sets are to be built for this problem.
One is with the dynamic loads acting in the X direction. One is with the dynamic loads acting in the Z direction, and the
third is with the dynamic loads acting simultaneously in the X an Z directions. The force spectrum input data for this job is
as follows:
5030 X 5 1
10370 X 10 1
30537 X 15 1
5030 Z 5 2
10370 Z 10 2
30537 Z 15 2
5030 X 5 3
5030 Z 5 3
10370 X 10 3
10370 Z 10 3
30537 X 15 3
30537 Z 15 3
A relief valve at node 565 is being investigated for several different reactor decompression conditions. The maximum load
for the first condition is 320 kips in the X direction. This is a ramped time waveform. The valve opens and closes in 5
milliseconds. The duration for the first decompression condition is 50 milliseconds. The maximum load for the second
decompression condition is 150 kips in the X direction. This also is a ramped time waveform. The valve opens and closes in
5 milliseconds and the duration for the second decompression condition is 4 seconds. The third decompression condition
maximum load is 50 kips, and has the same time waveform as the second condition. (It is this decompression state that is
expected to be the most frequent.)
There must be two shock tables defined, one for the 50 ms duration waveform, and one for the 4 second duration waveform.
Chapter 5 Controlling the Dynamic Solution 5-33
320000 X 565 1
150000 X 565 2
50000 X 565 3
A startup shock wave passes through a single elbow system. Nodes in the piping model are 5, 10, and 15. The system is
shown as follows:
As the wave starts off between 5 and 10 there is an initial dynamic axial load on the anchor at 5. When the shock wave hits
the elbow at 10, the axial load in the 5-10 element balances the initial imbalance at node 5, and there becomes an axial
imbalance in the 10-15 element. This shock load will be modeled as two completely separate impacts on the piping system
The first is the dynamic anchor load at 5. (If 5 is a flexible anchor then this load may cause dynamic displacements of the
piping system and 5 will just be subject to the dynamic time history pulse due to the shock.) Assume the anchor at 5 is a
flexible vessel nozzle. The second shock load is the unbalanced dynamic pressure load in the 10-15 element that exists until
the shock reaches the node 15. Friction in the line resisting movement of the shock wave is considerable. In the time the
wave leaves the anchor at 5 until it encounters the bend at 10 there is a 50% drop in the pulse strength as shown in the
following plot.
5-34 Controlling the Dynamic Solution
This pressure drop was computed using a transient fluid simulator. Between node 10 and node 15 the pulse strength drops
even further as shown as follows.
-5600 X 5 1
2800 Z 10 2
Chapter 5 Controlling the Dynamic Solution 5-35
Lumped Masses
Lumped Masses
Mass
Enter the concentrated mass in the units shown, a positive concentrated mass is added to the mass at the node. A negative
concentrated mass is subtracted from the mass at the node and a zero entry deletes all mass for the node.
Direction
Can be X, Y, Z, or ALL. ALL can be abbreviated “A”. If X, Y, or Z is entered, then the mass is only added or subtracted for
that direction.
Start Node
Node where the mass is to act. This entry is required. If entered without a stop node and increment, then this node must
exist in the piping system. If entered with a stop node and increment then the range of nodes identified by the loop must
include at least one node in the piping system. See the examples that follow.
5-36 Controlling the Dynamic Solution
Stop Node
Used as part of a “range of nodes” lumped mass command. See the examples that follow. This entry is optional.
Increment
Used as part of a “range of nodes” lumped mass command. See the examples that follow. This entry is optional.
There can be any number of line entries in the lumped mass data.
The zero mass capability with the “range of nodes” entry is particularly useful when the user has a part of the system for
which he is not interested in the modes. That part of the system would have been modeled for its stiffness effect only. One
example is structural steel models. It is not uncommon for a user to delete all of the mass for nodes in the structural steel
model. (Steel models are often only entered to include their stiffness effects and so the omission of their dynamic effects is
often not significant.)
EXAMPLES:
450 ALL 40
Note: The node range loop starts from node 12, which is not defined and goes through node 25 in steps of 1. Some nodes
don’t exist in this range but this is not an error as long as at least one node in the range defined by 12 through 25 by 1, exists
in the system.
0.0 ALL 12 25 1
375 A 25 50 5
0.0 X 1 600 1
0.0 Y 1 600 1
Chapter 5 Controlling the Dynamic Solution 5-37
Snubbers
Snubbers
Stiffness
Enter the stiffness for the snubber in the units shown. If the snubber is rigid enter a value of 1.0E12. The stiffness of the
snubber must be given and must be positive.
Direction
Enter the line of action of the snubber as either X, Y, Z, or as direction cosines or direction vectors. The format for direction
cosines is (cx,cy,cz), and for direction vectors is (vx, vy, vz). See the example that follows for the entry of some typical
skewed snubbers.
Node
Enter the node where the snubber acts. This is a required entry. If the snubber acts between the piping system and a fixed
point in space, then leave the CNode field blank. Connecting Nodes work for snubbers just like they do for restraints.
5-38 Controlling the Dynamic Solution
CNode
If the snubber acts between one point on the piping system and another point on the piping system, then enter the node that
the snubber connects to.
EXAMPLES:
HORIZONTAL SNUBBER BETWEEN STEAM LINE AND STEEL 5000 X 500 1050.
VERTICAL SNUBBER BETWEEN STEAM LINE AND OVER HEAD COOLING WATER LINE
5000 Y 500 743
Chapter 5 Controlling the Dynamic Solution 5-39
Control Parameters
The type of analysis chosen by the user in the Dynamic Input Processor determines the active Control Parameters.
CAESAR II will only display this list of active Control Parameters. In addition, the calculation details can be fine-tuned using
many of the other Control Parameters, maximizing accuracy of results for most dynamic problems. The impact and use of
these parameters, as well as their technical bases, are described in this section.
The list of the control parameters, along with the Analysis Types for which they are active, displays in the table on the
following page.
5-40 Controlling the Dynamic Solution
Notes:
X-required
1 If system has nonlinear restraints or hanger design
2 If any restraints have friction
3 Either "Max. No. of Eigenvalues" or "Frequency Cutoff" required
4 If modal combination method is GROUP or 10%
5 If modal combination method is DSRSS
6 If USNRC Regulatory Guide 1.60 or Uniform Building Code seismic spectra are used
7 If independent support movement (USM) loads are present
8 If pseudo-static components are inducted
9 If missing mass components are included
10 If multiple spectrum loads are applied in the same direction
Harmonic Analysis
Generally, the response of a system to a dynamically applied load is expressed through the dynamic equation of motion:
Where:
Unfortunately, this differential equation cannot be solved explicitly, except in a few specific cases. Harmonic analysis looks
at one of these cases—the set of dynamic problems where the forces or displacements (i.e., pulsation or vibration) acting on
the piping system take sinusoidal forms. Under harmonic loading, when damping is zero, the dynamic equation of the
system can be reduced to
Where:
This differential equation can be solved directly, yielding the nodal displacements at any time (and from there the system
reactions, forces and moments, and stresses).
x (t) = A cos ( t + Q)
Where:
Inserting these equations for displacement and acceleration back into the basic harmonic equation of motion yields,
2
-M A cos ( t + Q) + K A cos ( t + Q) = Fo cos ( t + Q)
This is exactly the same form of the equation as is solved for all linear (static) piping problems. The appealing thing about
this is that the solution time for each excitation frequency takes only as long as a single static solution, and, when there is no
phase relationship to the loading, the results give the maximum dynamic responses directly. Due to the speed of the
analysis, and because the solutions are so directly applicable, it is advisable to make as much use of this capability as
possible. Two considerations must be kept in mind:
When damping is not zero, the harmonic equation can only be solved if the damping matrix can be defined as the sum
of multiples of the mass and stiffness matrix (Rayleigh damping), i.e.:
[C] = a [M] + b [K]
On a modal basis, the relationship between the ratio of critical damping Cc and the constants a and b is given as
Cc = +
2 2
Where:
For practical problems, is extremely small, and so may be ignored. Therefore the definition of reduces to
= 2 Cc/
CAESAR II uses this implementation of damping for its harmonic analysis; however there are still two problems. First, for
multi-degree-of-freedom systems, there is not really a single b, but there must be only a single b in order to get a solution of
the harmonic equation. The second problem is that the modal frequencies are not known prior to generation of the damping
matrix. Therefore the w used in the calculation of b is the forcing frequency of the load, instead of the natural frequency of a
mode. When the forcing frequency of the load is in the vicinity of a modal frequency, this gives a good estimation of the
true damping.
If multiple harmonic loads occur simultaneously, and they are not in phase, system response is the sum of the responses
due to the individual loads:
x(t) = S Ai cos ( t + Qi)
Where:
In this case, an absolute maximum solution cannot be found. Rather, solutions for each load, and the sum of these, must be
found at various times in the load cycle. These combinations should then be reviewed in order to determine which one
causes the worst load case. Alternatively, CAESAR II can select the frequency/phase pairs which maximize the system
displacement.
The biggest use by far of the harmonic solver is in analyzing low frequency field vibrations resulting from either fluid
pulsation or out-of-round rotating equipment displacements. The approach typically taken towards solving this type of
problem is described briefly below:
1 A potential dynamic problem is first identified in the field—either in terms of large cyclic vibrations or high stresses
(fatigue failure) being present in an existing piping system, raising questions of whether this represents a dangerous
Chapter 5 Controlling the Dynamic Solution 5-43
situation. As many symptoms of the problem (quantifiable displacements, overstress points, etc.) are identified as
possible, for future use in refining the dynamic model.
2 A model of the piping system is built using CAESAR II. This should be done as accurately as possible, since system, as
well as load, characteristics affect the magnitude of the developed response. Particular attention should be paid when
modeling the area where the vibration occurs. This might include accurately representing valve operators, flange pairs,
orifice plates and other in-line equipment. It may also be a good idea to add additional nodes in the area of the vibration.
3 The engineer next postulates the cause of the load, and from that, an estimate of the frequency, magnitude, point, and
direction of the load. This is somewhat difficult because the dynamic loads can come from many sources. Dynamic
loads may be due to internal pressure pulses, external vibration, flow shedding at intersections, two phase flow, etc., but
in almost all cases, there is some frequency content of the excitation that corresponds to (and therefore excites) a system
mechanical natural frequency. If the load is caused by equipment, then the forcing frequency is probably some multiple
of the operating frequency; if the load is due to acoustic flow problems, then the forcing frequency can be estimated
through the use of Strouhal’s equations (from fluid dynamics). Using the best assumptions available, the user should
estimate the magnitudes and points of application of the dynamic load.
4 The loading is then modeled using harmonic forces or displacements (normally depending upon whether the cause is
assumed to be pulsation or vibration) and several harmonic analyses are done, sweeping the frequencies through a
range centered about the target frequency (in order to account for uncertainty). The results of each of the analyses are
examined for signs of large displacements, indicating harmonic resonance. If the resonance is present, the results of the
analysis are compared to the known symptoms from the field. If they are not similar (or if there is no resonance), this
indicates that the dynamic model is not a good one, so it must be improved, either in terms of a more accurate system
(static) model, a better estimate of the load, or a finer sweep through the frequency range. Once the model has been
refined, this step is repeated until the mathematical model behaves just like the actual piping system in the field.
5 At this time, there is a good model of the piping system and a good model of the loads (or, more accurately, a good
model of the relationship of the load characteristics to the system characteristics). The results of this run are evaluated
in order to determine whether they indicate a problem. Since harmonic stresses are cyclic, they should be evaluated
against the endurance limit of the piping material; displacements should be reviewed against interference limits or
esthetic guidelines.
6 If the situation is deemed to be a problem, its cause must be identified, where the cause is normally the excitation of a
single mode of vibration. For example, the Dynamic Load Factor for a single damped mode of vibration, with a
harmonic load applied is
2
1 + (2Cc f m)
DLF = 2 2
[1 ( f m) ] + (2Cc f m)
Where:
A modal extraction of the system is done; one (or more) of these modes should have a natural frequency close to the forcing
frequency of the applied load. The guilty mode can be further identified as that one having a shape very similar to the shape
of the total system vibration, since this mode shape has certainly been dynamically magnified far beyond the other modes
(and thus predominates in the final vibrated shape).
7. Once the guilty mode has been identified, it must be eliminated. This is done most easily by adding a restraint at a high
point (and in the direction thereof) of the mode shape. If this cannot be done, the mode may also be altered by changing the
mass distribution of the system. If no modification of the system is possible, it may be possible to alter the forcing
frequency of the load. If the dynamic load was postulated to be due to internal acoustics, it is recommended that the pipe not
5-44 Controlling the Dynamic Solution
be rerouted at this point, as rerouting the pipe will change the internal flow conditions (which may resolve or amplify the
problem, but in either case will void CAESAR II’s “good model” of the system). After modifying the system, the harmonic
problem (using the single forcing frequency determined as a “good model”) is then re-run, and the stresses, displacements,
etc. are re-evaluated.
8. If the dynamic problem has been adequately solved, the system is now re-analyzed statically to determine the effects of
any modifications on the static loading cases. (Remember, adding restraint normally increases expansion stresses, while
adding mass increases sustained stresses.)
The user may process output from a harmonic analysis in two ways:
Use of the output processor to review displacement, restraint, force, or stress data either graphically or in report form.
Animation of the displacement pattern for each of the frequency load cases.
Note: The results of harmonic dynamic loads cannot be combined using the Static/Dynamic Combination option.
Spectrum Analysis
A spectrum analysis represents an attempt to estimate the maximum response developed in a system during a transient load.
The results are a statistical summation of the maximum displacements, forces, reactions, stresses, etc; the individual
responses do not represent an actual physical loading case in that the maxima may all occur at different times. Spectrum
analyses are especially useful when the loading profile is random, or otherwise not known exactly, such as with seismic
loads. CAESAR II provides the ability to perform two types of spectrum analyses (which may be combined): for seismic and
force loadings. Seismic loadings may be evaluated either uniformly over the entire system, or applied through individual
support groups (with corresponding anchor movements). Force spectra analyses may be used to analyze impulse loadings,
such as those due to relief valve, fluid hammer, or slug flow. These two types are described in the following paragraphs.
Seismic Spectrum Analysis. Seismic loads cannot be solved through time history analyses, since earthquakes cause random
motion, which may be different for each earthquake, even those occurring at the same site. To simplify the analytical
definition of the earthquake, it is necessary to get the expected random waveform of acceleration (or velocity or
displacement) vs. time into some simple frequency-content plot. The most predominantly used frequency-content plot is the
response spectrum. A response spectrum for an earthquake load can be developed by placing a series of single degree-of-
freedom oscillators on a mechanical shake table and feeding a “typical” (typical for a specific site) earthquake time history
through it, measuring the maximum response (displacement, velocity, or acceleration) of each oscillator.
Chapter 5 Controlling the Dynamic Solution 5-45
The expectation is that even though all earthquakes are different, similar ones should produce the same maximum
responses, even though the time at which they occur will differ with each individual occurrence. (Responses will be based
on the maximum ground displacement and acceleration, the dynamic load factors determined by the ratios of the pre-
dominant harmonic frequencies of the earthquake to the natural frequencies of the oscillators, and system damping.)
Response spectra for a number of damping values can be generated by plotting the maximum response for each oscillator. A
plot of a set of typical response spectra is shown in the following figure.
Seismic response spectra resemble harmonic Dynamic Load Factor curves, since seismic loads evidence strong harmonic
tendencies. As damping value increases, the system response approaches the ground motion. Seismic spectra usually also
show strong evidence of flexible, resonant, and rigid areas. Spectra may have multiple peaks due to filtering by the building
and/or piping system; however multiple peaks are usually enveloped in order to account for uncertainties in the analysis.
Seismic response spectra peaks are typically spread to account for inaccuracies as well.
The idea behind the generation of the response spectra is that a system’s modes of vibration will respond to the load in the
exact same manner as will a single degree-of-freedom oscillator. System response may be plotted in terms of displacement,
velocity, or acceleration, since these terms of the spectra are all related by the frequency:
2
d=v/ =a/
Where:
1 Modes of vibration are extracted from the system using an Eigensolver algorithm. Each mode has a characteristic
frequency and mode shape.
2 The maximum response of each mode under the applied load is determined from the spectrum value corresponding to
the mode’s natural frequency.
3 The total system response is determined by summing the individual modal responses, using methods that reflect the
time independence of the responses and the portion of system mass allocated to each mode.
There are four major sources of earthquake spectra available to the CAESAR II user:
5-46 Controlling the Dynamic Solution
Predefined El Centro (available in the CAESAR II database—spectrum name = ELCENTRO): This data is taken from J.
Biggs’ Introduction to Structural Dynamics and is based on the north-south component of the May 18, 1940 El
Centro California earthquake. The recorded maximum acceleration was 0.33 g. The spectrum provided here is intended
to apply to elastic systems having 5 to 10 percent critical damping.
Predefined Nuclear Regulatory Guide 1.60 (Available in the CAESAR II database): The predefined spectrum names are:
1.60H.5 1.60V.5-- Horizontal/vertical,0.5% damping
1.60H2 1.60V2 -- Horizontal/vertical,2.0% damping
1.60H5 1.60V5 -- Horizontal/vertical,5.0% damping
1.60H7 1.60V7 -- Horizontal/vertical,7.0% damping
1.60H10 1.60V10 -- Horizontal/vertical,10.0% damping
These spectra are constructed according to the instructions given in Regulatory Guide 1.60 for seismic design of nuclear
plants. They must also be scaled up or down by the maximum ground acceleration (ZPA—zero period acceleration), which
can be specified in the CAESAR II control parameter spreadsheet.
Predefined Uniform Building Code (Available in the CAESAR II database). The predefined spectrum names are:
UBCSOIL1 Spectrum for rock and stiff soils
UBCSOIL2 Spectrum for deep cohesionless or stiff clay soils
UBCSOIL3 Spectrum for soft to medium clays and sands
These spectra represent the normalized response spectra shapes (for three soil types) provided in Figure 23-3 of the Uniform
Building Code (1991 Edition). When used, they must be scaled by the ZPA, which is the product of Z and I (Where Z is the
seismic zone coefficient and I is the earthquake importance factor, from UBC Tables 23-I and 23-L, respectively). The ZPA
can be specific using the CAESAR II control parameter spreadsheet.
User defined spectra: User defined spectra may be entered with period or frequency as the range, and displacement,
velocity, or acceleration as the ordinate. These spectra may be read in from a text file or entered directly into a spectrum
table during dynamic input processing.
Independent Support Motion Applications. Earthquake ground motions are caused by the passing of acoustic shock
waves through the earth’s soil. These waves are usually hundreds of feet long. If supports having foundations in the soil are
grouped together within a several hundred foot radius of each other they will typically see exactly the same excitation from
the earthquake. If all of the supports for a particular piping system are attached directly to ground type supports, each
support will be excited by an essentially identical time waveform. This type of excitation is known as uniform support
excitation. Often pipe is supported from rack, building, or vessel structures as well as from ground type supports. These
intermediate structures serve to, in some cases, filter and in some cases accentuate the effect of the earthquake. In this
situation, the supports attached to the intermediate structure are not exposed to the same excitation as those that are attached
directly to ground foundations. To accurately model these systems different shocks must be applied to different parts of the
piping system. This type of excitation is known as independent support motion (ISM) excitation. While the different support
groups are exposed to different shocks, there are also relative movements between support groups that don’t exist for
uniform support excitation. The movement of one support group relative to another is termed pseudostatic displacement, or
seismic anchor movements. For uniform support excitation there are spatial and modal response components available for
combination. For independent support excitation there are spatial and modal response components available for each
different support group, plus pseudostatic components of the earthquake that must be added into the dynamic response as
well.
The major difference when running ISM type earthquake loads comes while building the shock load cases. Whereas in the
uniform excitation case the shock acts implicitly over all of the supports in the system, in the ISM case different shocks act
on different groups of supports. The shock load case input form appears:
SHOCK NAME FACTOR DIR START NODE STOP NODE INCR ANCHOR
MVMT
Name, Factor, and Direction are all that is entered for uniform support excitations. For ISM type shocks, the group of nodes
over which the shock acts must be specified as well, using the Start Node, Stop Node, and Increment entries. The Anchor
Movement entry is used to explicitly define the seismic displacement of the restraint set. This displacement is used to
Chapter 5 Controlling the Dynamic Solution 5-47
calculate the pseudostatic load components. If omitted, the program defaults to the displacement derived from the response
spectrum entry corresponding to the lowest frequency.
Force Spectrum Analysis. A similar method can be followed for non-random loads, such as an impulse load for which the
force vs. time profile is known. A look at the equation for the earthquake problem explains why the force spectrum solution
is very similar to the earthquake solution:
The term on the right hand side is nothing more than a dynamic force acting on the piping system, i.e. F = Ma, so the
analogous equation to be solved for the force spectrum problem is:
Where:
Instead of the displacement, velocity, or acceleration spectrum used for the seismic problem, a Dynamic Load Factor
spectrum is used for a force spectrum problem. A DLF spectrum gives the ratio of the maximum dynamic displacement
divided by the maximum static displacement. Whereas the earthquake response spectrum analysis method started with the
time history of an earthquake excitation, the force spectrum analysis method is done in exactly the same way—except that
the analysis starts with the force vs. time profile. Just as for the earthquake, this time history loading can be applied to a
shake table of single degree-of-freedom bodies, with a response spectrum (in this case, DLF vs. natural frequency) being
generated by dividing the maximum oscillator displacements by the static displacements expected under the same load. An
alternate means of generating a response spectrum for an impulse load is to numerically integrate the dynamic equation of
motion for oscillators of various frequencies under the applied load. This can be done using the Pulse Table/DLF
Spectrum Generator available from the CAESAR II Main Dynamics Menu.
The user may process output from a spectrum analysis in two ways:
Use of the output processor to review the natural frequencies, mode shapes, participation factors, included mass/force,
displacements, and restraint loads, forces, or stresses in report form. Dynamic results also show the largest modal
contributor, along with the mode and shock load responsible for that contribution.
Animation of the individual mode shapes extracted for the spectrum analysis.
Modal Extraction. A modal extraction performs only an Eigensolution (an eigensolution is also performed as the initial
step of the spectrum or modal time history analyses). The Eigensolution algorithm uses an iterative method to solve for
natural frequencies and mode shapes of a piping or structural system. Each mode of the piping system is associated with a
shape and a frequency, which together define the system’s tendency to vibrate; the mode shape defining the shape the
system would like to take when it vibrates, and the natural frequency defining the desired speed of the vibration. The
eigensolver returns a set of these for each mode, with the dimensionless mode shape called an eigenvector, and the
frequency returned as the square of the angular frequency ( 2), known as the eigenvalue. Given the eigenvalue, the modal
frequency can be expressed in angular frequency (radians per second), cyclic frequency (Hz), or period (seconds per cycle):
2
eigenvalue = (radians squared per second squared)
angular frequency = (radians per second)
cyclic frequency = / 2 (Hz, or cycles per second)
period = 2 / (seconds per cycle)
The absolute magnitude of a mode shape displacement computed by an eigensolver is unknown, with only the shape being
given (i.e. only the ratios of the displacements at various degrees of freedom are known for each mode, with these ratios
being constant for each mode). One eigenpair can potentially be calculated for each degree of freedom in the model that
contains some nonzero mass (node point) and some non-rigid stiffness (i.e., is not fully restrained). CAESAR II omits
5-48 Controlling the Dynamic Solution
rotational degrees of freedom from dynamic models in order to simplify the calculation—this is usually acceptable since
rotational modes of vibration usually have very high frequencies, and correspondingly very low mode participation factors.
The user may process output from a modal analysis in two ways:
Use of the output processor to review the natural frequencies and mode shapes in report form.
Animation of the individual mode shapes.
Time History
Time history analysis is a more accurate, more computationally intensive analytical method than is response spectrum
analysis, and is best suited to impulse loadings or other transient loadings where the profile is known. This method of
analysis involves the actual solution of the dynamic equation of motion throughout the duration of the applied load and
subsequent system vibration, providing a true simulation of the system response at all times.
This differential equation cannot be solved explicitly, but may be integrated using numeric techniques by slicing the
duration of the load into many small time steps. Based on an assumption of the behavior of the system between time slices
(i.e., that the change in acceleration between time slices is linear), the system accelerations, velocities, displacements, and
correspondingly, the reactions, internal forces, and stresses can be calculated at successive time steps.
Since the total response of a system is equivalent to the sum of the responses of its individual modes of vibration, the above
equation can be simplified (assuming the damping matrix C is orthogonal), using the transformation x = FX, to be expressed
in modal coordinates:
x(t ) + hx(t ) = i1 F (t )
x(t ) + C &&
&&
Where:
x(t)
&&
= acceleration vector (in modal coordinates), as a function of time
C´ = diagonal damping matrix, where entry C´i = i ci
This transformation represents N (where N is the number of modes of vibration extracted) uncoupled second order
differential equations, which can then be integrated and summed (using the in-phase, algebraic summation method) to give
the total system response. The CAESAR II program uses the Wilson method (an extension of the Newmark method) to
integrate the equations of motion, which provides an unconditionally stable algorithm, regardless of time step size chosen.
Only one dynamic load may be defined for a time history analysis (this dynamic load case may be used in as many
static/dynamic combination load case as necessary). However, the single load case may consist of multiple force profiles
applied to the system simultaneously, or sequentially. Each force vs. time profile is entered as a spectrum with an ordinate
of FORCE (in current units) and a range of TIME (in milliseconds). The profiles are defined by entering the time and force
coordinates of the corner points defining the profile. (Note that a time can only be entered once, and that times with zero
force outside of the defined profile need not be entered explicitly.)
Chapter 5 Controlling the Dynamic Solution 5-49
For example, the profiles shown in the following figure are entered as:
The load profiles must then be linked with force sets (indicating magnitude, direction, and location of the applied load) in
the shock case. The magnitude of the applied load is determined by the product of the profile force, the force set magnitude,
and the scale in the shock case.
Currently only forces, not moments or restraint displacements, may be entered in the time history load profile. However,
moments can be modeled using force couples, and restraint displacements can be simulated by entering forces equal to the
desired displacement times the restraint stiffness in the direction of the displacement).
The user may process output from a Time History analysis in three ways:
1 Use of the output processor to review the natural frequencies, mode shapes, participation factors, included mass/force,
displacements, and restraint loads, forces, or stresses in report form. CAESAR II’s implementation of time history
analysis provides two types of results—one results case containing the maximum individual components (axial stress,
X-displacement, MZ reaction, etc.) of the system response, along with the time at which it occurred, and several (the
actual number is determined by user request) results cases representing the actual system response at specific times.
Dynamic results also show the largest modal contributor, along with the mode and transient load responsible for that
contribution.
2 Animation of the shock displacement for the transient load cases. During animation, the displacements, forces,
moments, stresses, and other data associated with individual elements may be displayed at every time step and for the
dynamic load alone, or for any of the static/dynamic combinations.
3 Animation of the individual mode shapes included in the time history response.
Currently all of CAESAR II’s dynamic analyses act only on linear systems, so any non-linearities must be linearized prior to
analysis. This means that one-directional restraints will not lift off and reseat, gaps will not open and close, and friction will
not act as a constant effort force. Therefore, for dynamic analyses, all non-linear effects must be modeled as linear—for
example, a one-directional restraint must be modeled as either seated (active) or lifted off (inactive), and a gap must be
5-50 Controlling the Dynamic Solution
either open (inactive) or closed (active). This process is automated when the static load case is selected here—CAESAR II
automatically activates the non-linear restraints in the system to correspond to their status in the selected load case (the user
may think of this as being the loading condition—for example Operating—of the system at the time at which the dynamic
load occurs). It must be noted that this automated linearization does not always provide an appropriate dynamic model, and
it may be necessary to select other static load cases or even to manually alter the restraint condition in order to simulate the
correct dynamic response.
A static load case must precede the dynamics job whenever one or more of the following situations occur:
There are spring hangers to be designed in the job. The static runs must be made in order to determine the spring rate to
be used in the dynamic model.
There are non-linear restraints, such as one-directional restraints, large-rotation rods, bi-linear restraints, gaps, etc. in
the system. The static analysis must be made in order to determine the active status of each of the restraints for
linearization of the dynamic model.
There are frictional restraints in the job, i.e. any restraints with a nonzero j (mu) value.
The most common arrangement of static loads during typical CAESAR II analyses displays below:
As noted above, all of CAESAR II’s dynamic analyses are currently linear, so non-linear effects must be linearized. Modeling
of friction in dynamic models presents a special case, since friction actually impacts the dynamic response in two ways—
static friction (prior to breakaway) affects the stiffness of the system, by providing additional restraint, while kinetic friction
(subsequent to breakaway) actually affects the damping component of dynamic response; due to mathematical constraints,
damping is ignored for all analyses except time history and harmonics (for which it is only considered on a system-wide
basis).
CAESAR II allows friction to be taken into account through the use of this Friction Stiffness Factor. CAESAR II approximates
the restraining effect of friction on the pipe by including stiffnesses transverse to the direction of the restraint at which
friction was specified. The stiffness of these “frictional” restraints is computed as:
Chapter 5 Controlling the Dynamic Solution 5-51
Where:
This factor should be adjusted as necessary in order to make the dynamic model simulate the system’s actual dynamic
response (note that use of this factor does not correspond to any actual dynamic parameter, but is actually a “tweak” factor
to modify system stiffness). Entering a friction factor greater than zero causes these friction stiffnesses to be inserted into
the dynamics job. Increasing this factor correspondingly increases the effect of the friction. Entering a friction factor equal
to zero ignores any frictional effect in the dynamics job.
The first stage of the Spectrum, Modal, and Time History analyses, is the use of the Eigensolver algorithm to extract the
piping system’s natural frequencies and mode shapes. For the Spectrum and Time History analyses, the response under
loading is calculated for each of the modes, with the system response being the sum of the individual modal responses.
Obviously, the more modes that are extracted, the more the sum of those modal responses resembles the actual system
response. The problem is that this algorithm uses an iterative method for finding successive modes, so extraction of a large
number of modes usually requires much more time than does a static solution of the same piping system. The object is to
extract sufficient modes to get a suitable solution, without straining computational resources.
CAESAR II permits the user to specify—either through a mode number cutoff or a frequency cutoff—the number of modal
responses to be included in the system results. This parameter is used, in combination with the Frequency Cutoff described
below, to limit the maximum number of modes of vibration to be extracted during the dynamic analysis. If this parameter is
entered as 0, the number of modes extracted is limited only by the frequency cutoff (and potentially, the number of degrees-
of-freedom in the system model).
If the analyst is more interested in providing an accurate representation of the system displacements, it may only be
necessary to request the extraction of a few modes, allowing a rapid calculation time. However, if an accurate estimate of
the forces, stresses, etc. in the system is the objective, calculation time grows as it becomes necessary to extract far more
modes. This is particularly true in the case when solving a fluid hammer problem in the presence of axial restraints; often
modes with natural frequencies of up to 300 Hz can be large contributors to the solution.
The usual procedure for determining how many modes are sufficient is to extract a certain number of modes and review the
results; then to repeat the analysis while extracting 5 to 10 additional modes, and comparing the new results to the old. If
there is a significant change between the results, a new analysis is made, again extracting 5 to 10 more modes above those
that were extracted for the second analysis. This iterative process continues until the results taper off, becoming asymptotic.
This procedure has two drawbacks, the first one obvious—the time involved in making the multiple analyses, as well as the
time involved in extracting the potentially large number of modes. The second drawback, occurring with Spectrum analysis,
is less obvious—a degree of conservatism is introduced when combining the contributions of the higher order modes.
Possible spectral mode summation methods include SRSS, ABSOLUTE, and GROUP—all methods that combine modal
results as same-sign (positive) values. In reality, theory states that the rigid modes actually act in phase with each other, and
should therefore be combined algebraically, thus permitting the response of some rigid modes to cancel the effect of other
rigid modes (this is actually what occurs in a time history analysis). Because of this conservatism, it is actually possible to
get results which exceed twice the applied load, despite the fact that the Dynamic Load Factor (DLF) of an impulse load
cannot be greater than 2.0.
5-52 Controlling the Dynamic Solution
An alternative method of ensuring that sufficient modes are considered in the dynamic model is through the use of the
Included Mass Data Report. This report (available from the Dynamic Output Screen) is compiled for all spectrum and time
history shock cases, whether missing mass (see description in the section Include Missing Mass Components) is to be
included or not. It displays the percent of system mass along each of the three global axes, as well as the percent of total
force, which has been captured by the extracted modes.
The percent of system mass active along each of the three global axes (X-, Y-, and Z-) is calculated by summing the modal
mass (corresponding to the appropriate directional degree-of-freedom) attributed to the extracted modes and dividing that
sum by the sum of the system mass acting in the same direction:
Summed over i = 1 to n, by 6
Summed over 1 = 2 to n, by 6
Summed over 1 = 3 to n, by 6
Where:
Me = vector (by degree-of-freedom) of sum (over all extracted modes) of effective modal masses
M = vector corresponding to main diagonal of system mass matrix
The maximum possible percent of active mass which is theoretically possible is of course 100%, with 90-95% usually
indicating that a sufficient number of modes have been extracted to provide a good dynamic model.
For example:
x [i]
Fe = Fe
Fx = F[i]
Summed over i = 1 to n, by 6
Summed over i = 2 to n, by 6
Summed over i = 3 to n, by 6
[ Fe x 2 + Fe y 2 + Fe z 2 ]
= 100*
[ Fx 2 + Fy 2 + Fz 2 ]
% Active Force
Where:
FeX,FeY,FeZ = effective force (allocated to extracted modes) acting along the global X-, Y-, and Z-
axes, respectively
Fr = vector of effective forces (allocated to extracted modes)
FX,FY,FZ = total system forces acting along the global X-, Y-, and Z-axes, respectively
F = vector of total system forces
The maximum possible percent which is theoretically possible for this value is also 100%; however, in practice it may be
higher, indicating an uneven distribution of the load and mass in the system model. There is nothing inherently wrong with
an analysis where the included force exceeds 100%—if the missing mass correction is included, the modal loadings will be
adjusted to conform to the applied loading automatically. Often the percent of included force can be brought back under
100% by extracting a few more modes. At other times, the situation can be remedied by improving the dynamic model
through a finer element mesh, or, more importantly, equalizing the mass point spacing in the vicinity of the load.
As noted above, CAESAR II permits the user to specify either a number of modes or a frequency cutoff for extracting modes
to be considered in the dynamic analysis. Modal extraction ceases when the Eigensolver extracts either the number of
modes requested, or extracts a mode with a frequency above that of the Frequency Cutoff, whichever comes first.
One recommendation for selection of a frequency cutoff point is that the user extract modes up to, but not far beyond, a
recognized “rigid” frequency, and then include the missing mass correction (discussed in the section Include Missing Mass
Components). Choosing a cutoff frequency to the left of the response spectrum’s resonant peak will provide a non-
5-54 Controlling the Dynamic Solution
conservative result, since resonant responses may be missed. During spectrum analysis, using a cutoff frequency to the right
of the peak, but still in the resonant range, will yield either over- or under-conservative results, depending upon the method
used to extract the ZPA from the response spectrum. (In the case of time history analysis, selecting a cutoff frequency to the
right of the peak, but still in the resonant range, will probably yield non-conservative results, since the missing mass force is
applied with a dynamic load factor of 1.0). Extracting a large number of rigid modes for calculation of the dynamic
response may be conservative in the case of Spectrum analysis, since all spectral modal combination methods (SRSS,
GROUP, ABS, etc.) give conservative results versus the algebraic combination method (always used during time history
analysis), which gives a more realistic representation of the net response of the rigid modes. Based upon the response
spectrum shown in the following figure, an appropriate cutoff point for the modal extraction would be about 33 Hz.
When the analysis type is SPECTRUM, MODES, or TIMEHIST, either this parameter or the previous one must be entered.
This parameter does double duty, depending upon the analysis type. For a Spectrum analysis type with GROUP modal
Combination Method (as defined by USNRC Regulatory Guide 1.92), this parameter specifies the frequency spacing
defining each modal group—i.e., the percent (of the base frequency) between the lowest and highest frequency of the group.
Regulatory Guide 1.92 specifies the group spacing criteria as 10% (entered here as 0.1), so it is unlikely that the user would
ever wish to change the Closely Spaced Mode Criteria from the CAESAR II default value of 0.1. The GROUP modal
combination method is described in detail in the section Modal Combination Method found later in this chapter.
For a Time History analysis type, this parameter is used to enter the length of the time slice, in milliseconds, to be used by
the program during its step-by-step integration of the equations of motion for each of the extracted modes (CAESAR II uses
the unconditionally stable Wilson q integration method, so any size time step will provide a solution, with a smaller step
providing greater accuracy—and more strain on computational resources). The time step should be sufficiently small that it
can accurately map the force vs. time load profile (i.e., the time step should be smaller than typical force ramp times).
Additionally, the time step must be small enough that the contribution of the higher order modes is not filtered from the
response. For this reason, it is recommended that the time step should be selected such that Time Step (in seconds) times
Chapter 5 Controlling the Dynamic Solution 5-55
Maximum Modal Frequency (in Hz) be less than 0.1. For example, if the modal frequency cutoff is set to 50 Hz, the time
step should be set to a maximum of 2 milliseconds:
This parameter is used to specify the duration of the applied dynamic load. For a Time History analysis, this parameter is
used to specify the total length of time (in seconds) over which the dynamic response is to be simulated. The load duration,
divided by the time step size (see the previous section) gives the total number of integration steps making up the solution
(currently CAESAR II limits the number of time steps to 5000, or as permitted by available memory and system size). It is
recommended that, if possible, the duration be at least equal to the maximum duration of the applied load, plus the period
(in seconds) of the first extracted mode. This allows simulation of the system response throughout the imposition of the
external load, plus one full cycle of the resulting free vibration. After this point, the response will die out, according to the
damping value used. For example, if the applied load is expected to last 150 milliseconds, and the lowest extracted
frequency is 3Hz, the load duration should be set to a minimum of 0.150 plus 1/3, or 0.483 seconds.
For a Spectrum analysis using the Double Sum (DSRSS) modal Combination Method (as defined by USNRC Regulatory
Guide 1.92), this parameter is used to specify the duration of the earthquake, in seconds. This duration is used to compute
the modal correlation coefficients based on empirical data. The DSRSS modal combination method is described in detail in
the section Modal Combination Method later in this chapter.
This parameter is used to specify the system damping value, as a ratio of critical damping. Typical values for piping
systems, as recommended in USNRC Regulatory Guide 1.61 and ASME Code Case N-411, range from 0.01 to 0.05, based
upon pipe size, earthquake severity, and the system’s natural frequencies.
Generally, damping cannot be considered in the mathematical solutions required for spectrum or harmonic analysis. It is
therefore ignored (or solved as specialized cases) in most analyses, and must be instead considered through adjustment of
the applied loads (generation of the response spectrum) and/or system stiffness.
For a Time History analysis, damping is used explicitly, since this method uses a numeric solution to integrate the dynamic
equations of motion.
For a Spectrum analysis using the Double Sum (DSRSS) modal Combination Method (as defined by USNRC Regulatory
Guide 1.92), the damping value is used in the computation of the modal correlation coefficients. (Note that CAESAR II does
not permit the specification of damping values for individual modes.) The DSRSS modal combination method is described
in detail in the section Modal Combination Method later in this chapter.
For a Harmonic analysis, this ratio is converted to Rayleigh Damping, where the damping matrix can be expressed as
multiples of the mass and stiffness matrices:
On a modal basis, the relationship between the ratio of critical damping Cc and the constants a and b is given as:
5-56 Controlling the Dynamic Solution
Where:
For many practical problems, a is extremely small, and so may be ignored, reducing the relationships to:
=0 = 2 Cc /
CAESAR II uses this implementation of damping for its harmonic analysis, with the exception that a single b is calculated for
the multi-degree-of-freedom system, and the w used is that of the load forcing frequency. When the forcing frequency is in
the vicinity of a modal frequency, this gives an accurate estimate of the true damping value.
This parameter does double duty, depending upon the analysis type. When used with certain pre-defined normalized
response spectra, it is used as the acceleration factor (in g's) by which the spectrum is scaled. For example, when a
spectrum analysis uses one of the pre-defined spectra names beginning with "1.60" (i.e., 1.60H.5 or 1.60V7), CAESAR II
constructs an earthquake spectrum according to the instructions given in USAEC (now USNRC) Regulatory Guide 1.60.
That guide requires that the shape of the response spectrum be chosen from the curves shown in the following figures, based
upon the system damping value (for example, the .5 or 7 in the spectrum names 1.60H.5 or 1.60V7). If the analysis uses one
of the pre-defined spectra names beginning with "UBC" (i.e., UBCSOIL1), CAESAR II uses the normalized seismic response
spectra for the corresponding soil type from Table 23-3 from the Uniform Building Code (1991 Edition). Both the Reg
Guide 1.60 and the UBC curves are normalized to represent a ground acceleration (ZPA) of lg; the true value is actually site
dependent. Therefore, entering ZPA value here appropriately scales any Regulatory Guide 1.60 or the Uniform Building
Code response spectra.
Chapter 5 Controlling the Dynamic Solution 5-57
When performing Time History analysis, this parameter is used to specify the number of distinct times at which the results
of the load cases (the dynamic load as well as all static/dynamic combinations) should be generated. In addition, CAESAR II
generates one set of results (for each load case) containing the maximum of each output value (displacement, force, stress,
etc.) along with the time at which it occurred. The times for which results are generated are determined by dividing as
evenly as possible the load duration by the number of output times—for example, if the load duration is 1 second, and 5
output cases are requested, results will be available at 200, 400, 600, 800, and 1000 milliseconds (in addition to the
maximum case). The total number of results cases generated for an analysis is the product of the number of load cases (one
dynamic case plus the number of static/dynamic combination cases) times the number of results cases per load (one maxima
case plus the requested number of output cases). Currently the total number of results cases is 999:
At least one output case (in addition to the automatically generated maxima case) must be requested; more than one is not
really necessary, since the worst case results are reflected in the Maxima case and individual results at every time step are
available through the ELEMENT command when animating the Time History results.
When repeating a dynamic analysis, this parameter may be set to “Yes,” causing CAESAR II to skip the eigensolution
(reusing the results of the earlier analysis), and only perform the computations for displacements, reactions, forces, and
stresses. Activating this option is only valid after an initial eigensolution has been performed and is still available.
Additionally, the mass and stiffness parameters of the model must be unchanged or the previous eigensolution is invalid.
5-58 Controlling the Dynamic Solution
This directive tells CAESAR II whether to combine the Spatial components or the Modal components of the load case first.
When performing a spectrum analysis, each of the modal responses must be summed. In addition, if multiple shocks have
been applied to the structure in more than one direction, the results from different directions must be combined—for
example, spatially combining the X-direction, Y-direction, and Z-direction results. The question arises as to whether the
spatial summations should precede or follow the modal summations. A difference in the final results (of Spatial first vs.
Modal first) arises whenever different methods are used for the spatial and modal combinations.
The combination of Spatial components first implies that the shock loads are dependent, while the combination of Modal
components first implies that the shock loads are independent.
Dependent and Independent refer to the time relationship between the X, Y, and Z components of the earthquake. With a
dependent shock case, the X, Y, and Z components of the earthquake have a direct relationship—a change in the shock
along one direction produces a corresponding change in the other directions. For example, this would be the case when the
earthquake acts along a specific direction having components in more than one axis—such as when a fault runs at a 30°
angle between the X- and Z-axes. In this case, the Z-direction load would be a scaled (by a factor of tan 30°), but otherwise
identical version of the X-direction load. In this case, spatial combinations should be made first.
An Independent shock is one where the X, Y, and Z time histories produce related frequency spectra but have completely
unrelated time histories. It is the Independent type of earthquake that is far more common, and thus in most cases the modal
components should be combined first.
For example, IEEE 344-1975 (IEEE Recommended Practices for Seismic Qualification of Class 1E Equipment for Nuclear
Power Generating Stations) states:
“Earthquakes produce random ground motions which are characterized by simultaneous but statistically INDEPENDENT
horizontal and vertical components.”
This is usually less of an issue for force spectrum combinations, since normally there are no separate spatial components to
combine—i.e., there are not X-, Y-, and Z-shocks acting simultaneously. However, in the event that there is more than one
potential force load (such as when there is a bank of relief valves that can fire individually or in combination), the spatial
combination method may be used to indicate the independence of the loadings. For example, if two relief valves may or
may not fire simultaneously (i.e., they are independent), the two shocks should be defined as being in different directions
(for example, X- and Y-), and the combination method selected should be “Modal before Spatial.” If under certain
circumstances, the two valves will definitely open simultaneously (i.e., the loadings are dependent), the combination
method should be “Spatial before Modal”. (Otherwise, the direction defined for a force spectrum loading has no particular
meaning.)
Nuclear Regulatory Guide 1.92 (published in February, 1976) describes the requirements for combining spatial components
when performing seismic response spectra analysis for nuclear power plants.
Note: Since all Time History combinations are done algebraically (in-phase) this parameter has no effect on Time History
results.
This parameter is used to define the method for combining the spatial contributions of the shocks in a single spectrum load
case. This option is only used for spectrum runs with more than a single excitation direction. Since directional forces are
usually combined vectorially, this points to a Square Root of the Sum of the Squares (SRSS) combination method as being
most appropriate. An Absolute method is provided for additional conservatism.
Chapter 5 Controlling the Dynamic Solution 5-59
Note: Since all Time History combinations are done algebraically (in-phase) this parameter has no effect on Time History
results.
During a spectrum analysis, responses are calculated for each of the individual modes; these individual responses are then
combined to get the total system response. Considering that the response spectrum yields the maximum response at any time
during the course of the applied load, and considering that each of the modes of vibration will probably have different
frequencies, it is probable that the peak responses of all modes will not occur simultaneously. Therefore an appropriate
means of summing the modal responses must be considered.
Nuclear Regulatory Guide 1.92 (published in February, 1976) defines the requirements for combining modal responses
when performing seismic response spectra analysis for nuclear power plants. The four options presented there are also
available, along with one other, for modal combinations under non-nuclear seismic and force spectrum analyses.
1/ 2
N
j
R= Rk 2 + P
q =1 + l =i + j
m =i Rlq Rmq (where 1 m)
k =1 !
Where:
Effectively, this method dictates that the responses of any modes which have frequencies within 10% of each other first be
added together absolutely, with the results of each of these groups then combined with the remaining individual modal
results using the SRSS method.
Note: The 10% figure controlling the definition of a group may be changed by using the Closely Spaced Mode
Criteria/Time History Time Step (ms) parameter. For more information see the corresponding section earlier in this
chapter.
Where:
Ri, Rj = the peak value of the response of the element due to the ith and jth mode, respectively, where
mode i and j are any frequencies within 10% of the each other,
Where:
Note: The 10% figure controlling the definition of closely spaced frequencies may be changed by using the Closely Spaced
Mode Criteria/Time History Time Step (ms) parameter. (See description in corresponding section earlier in this chapter).
Where:
Note: The load duration (td) and the damping ratio (ß) may be specified by using the Load Duration (Time History or
DSRSS method) (sec.) and Damping (Time History or DSRSS) (ratio of critical) parameters described in the
corresponding sections found earlier in this chapter.
Absolute Method
This method states that the total system response is equal to the sum of the absolute values of the individual modal
responses. (This is effectively the same as using the DSRSS method with all correlation coefficients equal to 1.0, or the
Grouping method, with all modes being closely spaced.) The total system response is calculated as:
N
R= Ri
i =1
This method gives the most conservative result, since it assumes that the all maximum modal responses occur at exactly the
same time during the course of the applied load. This is usually overly-conservative, since modes with different natural
frequencies will probably experience their maximum DLF at different times during the load profile.
This method is based upon the statistical assumption that all modal responses are completely independent, with the maxima
following a relatively uniform distribution throughout the duration of the applied load. This is usually non-conservative,
especially if there are any modes with very close frequencies, since those modes will probably experience their maximum
DLF at approximately the same time during the load profile.
Note: Since all Time History combinations are done algebraically (in-phase) this parameter has no effect on Time History
results.
This option is only used when Independent Support Motion (anchor movement) components are part of a shock load case.
The excitation of a group of supports produces both a dynamic response and a static response. The static response is due to
the movement of one group of supports or anchors relative to another group of supports/anchors. These static components of
the dynamic shock loads are called “pseudostatic components.” USNRC recommendations, as of August 1985, suggest that
the following procedure be followed for pseudostatic components:
1 For each support group, the maximum absolute response should be calculated for each input direction.
2 Same direction responses should then be combined using the absolute sum method.
3 Combination of the directional responses should be done using the SRSS method.
5-62 Controlling the Dynamic Solution
4 The total response should be formed by combining the dynamic and pseudostatic responses, using the SRSS method.
Therefore pseudostatic components should be included whenever Independent Support spectral loadings are used.
During spectrum (either seismic or force spectrum) or time history analyses, the response of a system under a dynamic load
is determined by superposition of modal results. One of the advantages of this type of modal analysis is that usually only a
limited number of modes are excited and need to be included in the analysis. The drawback to this method is that although
displacements may be obtained with good accuracy using only a few of the lowest frequency modes, the force, reaction, and
stress results may require extraction of far more modes (possibly far into the rigid range) before acceptable accuracy is
attained.
CAESAR II provides a feature, called the “Missing Mass Correction,” which helps solve these problems. This feature offers
the ability to include a correction which represents the contribution of the higher order modes not explicitly extracted for the
modal/dynamic response, thus providing greater accuracy without additional calculation time. When this option is activated
(by entering Yes for this parameter), the program automatically calculates the net (in-phase) contribution of all non-
extracted modes and combines it with the modal contributions—avoiding the long calculation time associated with the
extraction of the high order modes and the possible excessive conservatives of the summation methods. This feature is
described in Chapter 6 of this manual.
This directive specifies the method by which the pseudostatic responses (see description in the earlier section Include
Pseudostatic (Anchor Movement) Components (see "Include Pseudostatic (Anchor Movement) Components (Y/N)" on page
5-61)) are to be combined with the dynamic (inertial) responses; therefore it is applicable only when there is at least one
Independent Support Motion excitation component in a shock load case. Pseudostatic combinations are done after all
directional, spatial, and modal combinations. Absolute combination gives conservative results, but, as noted in the section
Include Pseudostatic (Anchor Movement) Components, the USNRC recommends using the SRSS method for pseudostatic
combinations.
This directive defines the method used to combine the missing mass/force correction components (see description in an
earlier section, Include Missing Mass Components (see "Include Missing Mass Components (Y/N)" on page 5-62)) with the
modal (dynamic) results. Research suggests that the modal and rigid portions of the response are statistically independent,
so the SRSS combination method (CAESAR II’s default) is usually most accurate. The Absolute combination method
provides a more conservative result, based upon the assumption that the modal maxima occur simultaneously with the
maximum ground acceleration. Missing mass components are combined following the modal combination.
Note: Even though missing mass components may be included during Time History analyses, all Time History
combinations are done algebraically (in-phase), so this parameter has no effect on Time History results.
This directive specifies the method used for combining shock components acting in the same direction. This directive is
used most typically with Independent Support Motion load cases, where it defines the way in which responses from
different support groups caused by excitation in the same direction are combined. Additionally, if there are multiple uniform
Chapter 5 Controlling the Dynamic Solution 5-63
shock spectra acting in the same direction (although this is unusual), this directive would govern their combination. In
general, directional combinations should be made using the absolute method. (As noted in the earlier section, Include
Pseudostatic (Anchor Movement) Components (see "Include Pseudostatic (Anchor Movement) Components (Y/N)" on page
5-61), this is the USNRC recommendation for directional combination of pseudostatic responses.) However, in the case of
force spectrum loads, if several loads (for example, several relief valve loads) are all defined with the same “shock
direction”, using an SRSS combination method would be a way of modeling these as independent loads, while using the
Absolute method would model them as dependent loads.
Note: Since all Time History combinations are done algebraically (in-phase) this parameter has no effect on Time History
results.
In almost all cases, the eigensolver will detect modal frequencies from the lowest frequency to the highest. Sometimes,
when there is some strong directional dependency in the system, the modes may converge in the wrong order. This could
cause a problem if the eigensolver reaches the cutoff number of modes (i.e., 20), but has not yet found the 20 modes with
the lowest frequency (it may have found modes 1 through 18, 20, and 21, and would have found number 19 next).
CAESAR II checks for this anomaly using the Sturm Sequence calculation. This procedure determines the number of modes
that should have been found between the highest and lowest frequencies found, and compares that against the actual number
of modes extracted. If those numbers are different, the user is given a warning. For example, if 22 natural frequencies are
extracted for a particular system, and if the highest natural frequency is 33.5 Hz, the Sturm Sequence check makes sure that
there are exactly 22 natural frequencies in the model between zero and 33.5+p Hz, where p is a numerical tolerance found
from:
The Sturm Sequence check would fail in the case where there are two identical frequencies at the last frequency extracted.
The significance of this failure can only be estimated by the user. For example, consider a system with the following natural
frequencies:
If the user asks for only the first four natural frequencies, a Sturm Sequence failure would occur because there are five
frequencies, rather than four, which exist in the range between 0.0 and 4.5667 + p (where p calculates to 0.0041). To correct
this problem, the user can do either of the following:
Increase the frequency cutoff by the number of frequencies not found. (This number is reported by the Sturm Sequence
Check.)
Increase the cutoff frequency by some small amount, if the frequency cutoff terminated the eigensolution. This will
usually allow the lost modes to fall into the solution frequency range.
Fix the subspace size at 10 and rerun the job. Increasing the number of approximation vectors improves the possibility that
at least one of them will contain some component of the missing modes, allowing the vector to properly converge.
The default here is “Yes,” and should be left alone unless the user has some specific reason for deactivating the check.
5-64 Controlling the Dynamic Solution
Advanced Parameters
This is the approximate number of significant figures in the computed eigenvalues ( 2, where is the angular frequency in
rad/sec). For example, using the default value of 6, if a computed eigenvalue was 44032.32383, then the first digit to the
right of the decimal is probably the last accurately computed figure.
The eigenvectors, or mode shapes, are computed to half as many significant figures as are the eigenvalues. If the
eigenvalues have 6 significant figures of accuracy, then the eigenvectors have 3.
This number should typically never be decreased. Increases to 8 or 10 are not unusual but result in slower solutions with
typically little change in response results.
Eigen analyses are done using an NxN subspace for calculating the natural frequencies and mode shapes for a reduced
problem. The first step is to perform a Jacobi denationalization of the subspace. Iterations are performed until the off-
Chapter 5 Controlling the Dynamic Solution 5-65
diagonal terms of the matrix are approximately zero. The off-diagonal terms are considered to be close enough to zero when
their ratio to the on-diagonal term in the row is smaller the Jacobi Sweep Tolerance.
The default is 1.0E-12. Users wishing to change this value should be aware of the computer’s precision (the IEEE-488
double precision word on the IBM PC has approximately 14 significant figures) and the approximate size of the on-diagonal
coefficients in the stiffness matrix for the problem to be solved (which may be estimated from simple beam expressions).
During the eigensolver’s decomposition of what may be a shifted stiffness matrix, a singularity check is performed to make
sure that the shift is not too close to an eigenvalue that is to be calculated. If a singular condition is detected, a new shift, not
quite as aggressive as the last one, is computed and a new decomposition is attempted. If the new composition fails, a fatal
error is reported from the eigensolver. In certain cases, increasing the singularity tolerance is warranted and eliminates this
fatal error. Values should not be entered greater than 1.0 E13. Singularity problems may also exist when very light, small
diameter piping is attached to very heavy, large diameter, or when very, very short lengths of pipe are adjacent to very, very
long lengths of pipe.
During an eigensolution, the NDOFxNDOF problem constructed by the user is reduced to an NxN problem during each
subspace iteration, where N is the subspace size. If a zero is entered in this field, CAESAR II selects what is expected to be an
optimal subspace size (so this value usually need not be changed); if a non-zero value is entered here, it will override
CAESAR II’s calculation and will be used as the subspace size.
CAESAR II’s default is to use the square root of the bandwidth (with a minimum of 4) as the subspace size, resulting in sizes
of 4 to 8 for typical piping configurations. Increasing the subspace size slows the eigensolution, but increases the numerical
stability. Values in the range between 12 and 15 should probably be used when unusual geometries or dynamic properties
are encountered, or when a job is large (has 100 elements or more, and/or requires that 25 or more frequencies be extracted).
A zero in this field lets CAESAR II select what it thinks will be the most optimal shifting strategy for the eigen problem to be
solved. One way to speed the eigensolution is to improve the convergence characteristics. The convergence rate for the
lowest eigenpair in the subspace is inversely proportional to 1 / 2, where 1 is the lowest eigenvalue in the current
subspace and 2 is the next lowest eigenvalue in the current subspace. A slow convergence rate is represented by an
eigenvalue ratio of approximately one, and a fast convergence rate is represented by an eigenvalue ratio of zero. The shift is
employed to get the convergence rate as close to zero as possible. The cost of each shift is one decomposition of the system
set of equations. The typical shift value is equal to the last computed eigenvalue plus 90 percent of the difference between
this value and the lowest estimated eigenvalue still nonconverged in the subspace. As 1 is shifted closer to zero, the ratio
1/ 2 will become increasingly smaller thus increasing the convergence rate. In certain instances where eigenvalues are
very closely spaced, shifting can result in eigenvalues being lost (the Sturm Sequence Check will detect this condition). A
large value entered for this parameter will effectively disable shifting, so no eigenvalues will be missed; however, the
solution will take longer to run. When the system to be analyzed is very large, shifting the set of equations can be very time
consuming—in these cases, the user is advised to set this parameter to somewhere between 4 and 8.
A zero in this field lets CAESAR II compute what it thinks is an optimal number of subspace iterations per shift. This
parameter, along with the next one (% of iterations per shift before orthogonalization) can work together to control solution
shifting. These two parameters are used to limit the number of Gram-Schmidt orthogonalizations that are performed. Trying
to limit this number is very dangerous for small subspace problems, but less dangerous when the subspace size is large
(around 10-20 percent of the total number of eigenpairs required).
The Gram-Schmidt orthogonalization is by default performed once during each subspace iteration. This orthogonalization
makes sure that the eigenvector subspace does not converge to an already found eigenpair. When a large number of
eigenpairs are to be computed this repeated computation can appreciably slow down the extraction of the highest eigenpairs.
Proper setting of these parameters can cause the eigensolution to perform the orthogonalization every second, third, fourth,
etc. iteration, thus speeding the solution. Unfortunately, once orthogonalized, the subspace may still converge to earlier
eigenpairs during subsequent “non-orthogonalized” subspace iteration passes. Users setting these parameters are urged to
use caution. The Force Orthogonalization After Convergence (see "Force Orthogonalization After Convergence (Y/N)" on
page 5-66) parameter (see corresponding section later in this chapter) should probably also be set if the frequency of
orthogonalization is slowed.
CAESAR II computes a number of iterations per shift that are to be performed, which the user can alter if desired. A
maximum of N eigenpairs can conceivably converge per subspace pass, where N is the subspace size (although this is
highly unlikely). By default a Gram-Schmidt orthogonalization is performed for each subspace pass. This directive allows
the user to alter this default. For example, if there are 12 iterations per shift, and the percentage of iterations per shift is 50
percent (an entry of 0.50), the Gram-Schmidt orthogonalization would be performed every 6 iterations. Users employing
this option should also set the Force Orthogonalization After Convergence (see "Force Orthogonalization After
Convergence (Y/N)" on page 5-66) directive to “Yes”. The Percent of Iterations per Shift Before Orthogonalization
parameter is most often used in conjunction with the No. of Iterations per Shift (see "No. of Iterations Per Shift (0 - Pgm
computed)" on page 5-65) parameter because then the user knows exactly how many iterations will go by without an
orthogonalization.
This parameter is only needed for eigensolutions for which the Percent of Iterations per Shift Before Orthogonalization
(on page 5-66) (the previous section) has been set to a non-zero value. When set to “Yes” in this case, whenever a subspace
pass that sees at least one eigenpair convergence completes, a Gram-Schmidt orthogonalization is performed whether the
specified percentage of iterations has been completed or not.
This parameter is used primarily as a benchmarking and debugging aid. When entered as “Yes”, the out-of-core eigensolver
is automatically invoked regardless of the problem size. Using this solver can take considerably more time than the in-core
solver, but should in all cases produce exactly the same results. Note that if the problem is too big to fit into the in-core
solver (the capacity of which is based upon the amount of available extended memory), the out-of-core solver will be
invoked automatically—this parameter does not need to be changed to have this automatic switch occur when necessary.
This is the maximum number of eigenpairs that can be extracted for the problem. The default value of 100 is arbitrary. If the
user needs to extract more than 100 eigenpairs, then some number greater than the number to be extracted must be entered.
Chapter 5 Controlling the Dynamic Solution 5-67
Pulsation Loads
Unexpectedly, and sometimes after support changes or process modifications, an operating line will begin experiencing
large amplitude, low frequency vibration. The first step in the solution is the construction of the dynamic model. Particular
attention should be paid when modeling the piping system in the area of the field vibration. This might include accurately
representing valve operators, in-line flange pairs, orifice plates and measuring equipment. It is also a good idea to add extra
nodes in the area where vibration is experienced. The extra nodes would be put at bend “near” nodes and at span midpoints.
The next step is the eigenvalue/eigenvector extraction. If the system is large, then degrees of freedom far removed from the
area of local vibration should be eliminated and (6-10) natural frequencies should be extracted. Natural frequencies and
mode shapes define the systems “tendency to vibrate.” The mode shapes extracted should show how the system in the area
of the local vibration problem is tending to displace. In most cases acoustic resonances are coupled with mechanical
resonances to produce the large amplitude vibrations experienced in the field.
Very typically one of the first mode shapes will show exactly the shape displayed by the pipe vibrating in the field. If the
mode shapes extracted do not show movement in the area of the local vibration, then not enough degrees of freedom were
removed from other areas. If the lowest mode shape in the area of the local vibration problem is above (15) Hz. then there is
a good possibility that either the vibration is mechanically induced or the fluid pulsation peak pressures are very high. Either
of these cases may represent critical situations which should be evaluated by an expert.
When the mode shape is identified which corresponds to the observed field vibration, the pulsation load model can be
developed. Pulsation loads will exist at closed ends, at bends, and at changes in diameter. Harmonically varying forces are
put at these points in an attempt to get the mathematical model to vibrate like the real piping system. The driving frequency
for the applied harmonic load should be equal to the frequency that pressure pulses are introduced into the line. The
magnitude of the harmonic load can be estimated within a range of tolerances. The actual design value is selected from this
range such that resulting displacements of the model are close to those observed in the field.
Output from the harmonic analysis can be processed in the static output processor and maximum restraint loads due to the
dynamic forces calculated. It is critical when redesigning supports for dynamic loads that static thermal criteria are not
violated by any new support configuration designed.
Important: Static thermal criteria and dynamic displacement criteria must be satisfied simultaneously.
The ultimate objective of the harmonic analysis will be to find the elbow pair whose unbalanced load results in the observed
field vibration.
Unbalanced loads exist between adjacent elbows because the pressure peak in the traveling wave hits each elbow at a
slightly different time.
If the pressure at elbow “a” is denoted by Pa(t) and the pressure at elbow “b” is denoted by Pb(t), then the unbalanced force
which acts along the pipe connecting the two elbows is:
Where A is the inside area of the pipe. The expression for Pa(t) can be found assuming the pressure peak hits the elbow “a”
at time t = 0:
Where:
If the straight pipe between the elbows “a” and “b” is (L) inches long, then the pressure peak that has just passed elbow “a”
will get to elbow “b” (ts) seconds later, where
(ts) = (L) / c,
(c) being the speed of sound in the fluid. (Remember, pressure pulses travel at the speed of sound, not the speed of the fluid
! ! !) The expression for the pressure at “b” can now be written:
The first step in performing a relief load analysis is to compute the magnitudes of the relieving thrust forces. For open-type
vent systems CAESAR II has a RELIEF LOAD SYNTHESIZER that will make these computations automatically for the
user. There are two procedures incorporated into the synthesizer, one is for gases greater than 15 psig, and the other is for
liquids. Both are discussed as follows.
The input for the gas relief load synthesis is shown as follows:
5-70 Controlling the Dynamic Solution
Line Temperature
Enter the stagnation condition temperature of the gas to be relieved (Usually just the gas temperature upstream of the relief
valve).
Line Pressure
Enter the stagnation pressure of the gas to be relieved (Usually just the gas pressure upstream of the relief valve). Note that
stagnation properties can vary considerably from line properties if the gas flow velocity in the line is high.
Methane 1.226
Propane 1.127
Example input and output from the relief load synthesizer is shown and discussed as follows:
Thrust load acts directly on valve opening. Only the valve pipe/vent stack interface
thrust acts in this configuration.
supply side piping of a waterhammer type system. The magnitude of this wave is estimated from: r*c*dv where r is the fluid
density, c is the speed of sound in the fluid and dv is the change in the velocity of the fluid.
Valve Orifice Gas Conditions /Vent Pipe Exit Gas Conditions/Subsonic Velocity Gas Conditions
These are the thermodynamic properties of the gas at three critical points in the relief system. These three points are shown
in the figure on the opposite page. The entire formulation for the thrust gas properties is based on an ideal gas equation of
state. If the pressures and temperatures displayed above for the gas being vented are outside of the range where the ideal gas
laws apply then some alternate source should be sought for the computation of the system’s thrust loads.
In addition, all three of these points should be sufficiently clear of the gas saturation line. When the exit gas conditions
become saturated, the magnitude of the thrust load can be reduced significantly. In this case the manufacturer should be
consulted. In several instances at COADE, saturated exhaust thrust loads were 50 to 75% less than the CAESAR II computed
values.
The input for the liquid relief load synthesis is shown as follows:
Chapter 5 Controlling the Dynamic Solution 5-75
Supply Overpressure
Enter the stagnation, or zero velocity pressure in the fluid upstream of the relief valve.
ID Manifold Piping
If the relief exit piping runs into a manifold then enter the inside diameter of the manifold. Leave this field blank or zero if
there isn't a manifold.
ID Supply Header
Enter the inside diameter of the supply header.
Fluid Density
Enter the specific gravity of the fluid being relieved.
Note: When running the relief load synthesis for liquids, the error message: NUMERICAL ERROR OR NO FLOW
CONDITION DETECTED, means a physically impossible configuration was described.
5-76 Controlling the Dynamic Solution
Flashing of volatile relief liquids is not considered. If the relieving liquid flashes in the exhaust piping as its pressure drops
to atmospheric then some other means should be used to compute the resulting gas properties and thrust loads.
Orifice Flow Conditions/Exit Pipe End Flow Conditions/Manifold Pipe End Flow Conditions
These are the computed fluid properties at the three critical cross-sections in the relief piping. If pressures or velocities here
do not seem reasonable then some characteristic of the relief model is probably in error.
Chapter 5 Controlling the Dynamic Solution 5-77
Note: If the “L” dimensions are significant in any of the previous figures (several feet) then unbalanced thrust loads will
act between the elbow-elbow pairs that are very similar to a water hammer load. Water hammer pulses travel at the speed of
sound in the fluid, while the fluid/atmosphere interface “pulses” travel at the velocity of the flowing fluid. For this reason,
these unbalanced loads can cause significant piping displacements in much shorter pipe runs. The magnitude of these loads
is equivalent to the computed thrust and the duration may be found from the computed fluid velocity and distance between
each elbow-elbow pair.
CH AP TER 6
In This Chapter
Rigid Element Application ...................................................................... 6-2
In-line Flange Evaluation ........................................................................ 6-3
Cold Spring.............................................................................................. 6-5
Expansion Joints ...................................................................................... 6-7
Hanger Sizing Algorithm......................................................................... 6-9
Class 1 Branch Flexibilities ..................................................................... 6-12
Modeling Friction Effects........................................................................ 6-15
Nonlinear Code Compliance.................................................................... 6-16
Sustained Stresses and Nonlinear Restraints ........................................... 6-17
Static Seismic Loads................................................................................ 6-20
Wind Loads.............................................................................................. 6-22
Hydrodynamic (Wave and Current) Loading .......................................... 6-25
Evaluating Vessel Stresses....................................................................... 6-36
Inclusion of Missing Mass Correction..................................................... 6-40
Fatigue Analysis Using CAESAR II........................................................ 6-44
Pipe Stress Analysis of FRP Piping ......................................................... 6-60
Code Compliance Considerations............................................................ 6-81
Local Coordinates.................................................................................... 6-112
6-2 Technical Discussions
Where:
The user-entered weight for the rigid element is not reflected in the Thermal Expansion/Pipe Weight Report optionally
printed during error checking.
Stresses are not calculated on Rigid elements since they are often used to simulate components that have variable cross-
sections along the length of the element, i.e. a valve, and is normally not of concern for this type of analysis anyway. Forces
and Moments are not normally printed on nodes between two rigid elements, but can be by selecting the appropriate check
box found in Environment-Special Execution Parameters from the Piping Input Spreadsheet.
Zero-weight rigids ("dummy" rigids) are often used to model components whose weight is not important to the analysis, but
where thermal growth may be a consideration. Dummy rigids are often used to model restraints. Tie rods in an expansion
joint, rod hangers, and trunnions are examples of restraints modeled as dummy rigids. Dummy rigids may also be used to
provide connectivity between the center line of an element and it's outside edge. The most common example of this is the
addition of a dummy rigid that runs from the node at the center line of the vessel to the edge where a nozzle is to be
connected. Sometimes equipment is modeled through a series of rigid elements. This is particularly true when multiple
nozzles are attached and the equipment is restrained such that the interactions between the various nozzles must be taken
into account due to the thermal growth of the attached piping system. The use of dummy rigids is explained in the
CAESAR II Applications Guide in various sections as appropriate to a particular modeling technique.
Chapter 6 Technical Discussions 6-3
Where:
Note: CAESAR II’s implementation increases the allowable pressure rating by the Occasional Stress factor where one exists
for the load case type/code combination.
ASME NC-3658.3 Calculation for B16.5 Flanged Joints with High Strength Bolting Method
Note that use of this method should be restricted to joints using flanges, bolting, and gaskets as specified in ANSI B16.5
which use bolting materials having an S value at 100°F (38°C) not less than 20,000 psi (138 MPa). The analysis method for
Service Level A has been implemented in CAESAR II. As stated in NC-3658.3(a)(2):
Mfs @ 3125(Sy/36,000)CAb
or
Mfd @ 6250(Sy/36,000)CAb
Where:
Mfs = bending or torsional moment (whichever is greater) acting on the flange, and due to weight,
thermal expansion, sustained anchor movements, relief valve steady state thrust, and other sustained
mechanical loads (CAESAR II considers any moments developed during a non-Occasional Load Case to
be Mfs)
Mfd = bending or torsional moment (whichever is greater) acting on the flange, as defined for Mfs and
but also including any dynamic loadings (CAESAR II considers any moments developed during an
Occasional Load Case to be Mfd, effectively doubling flange capacity for Occasional loadings)
Sy = yield strength of flange material at design temperature (CAESAR II allows evaluation to be done at
up to 10 different temperatures); Sy/36,000 (where Sy, given in psi, shall not be taken as greater than
36,000 psi)
C = bolt circle diameter
Ab = total cross sectional area of bolts
PD = design pressure
6-4 Technical Discussions
CAESAR II’s implementation calculates an Equivalent Stress S in the flange, which is then compared to Sy (or 2*Sy for
Occasional Load Cases), in the following manner:
Note that for systems of units not expressing stresses in PSI, the 36,000 values in the above equations are converted to the
appropriate set of units.
Note: Flange Evaluation has only been implemented for Static Analysis, but not yet for Dynamic (including Harmonic)
Analysis.
Chapter 6 Technical Discussions 6-5
Cold Spring
Cold spring is the process of offsetting (or pre-loading) the piping system with displacement loads (usually accomplished by
cutting short or long the pipe runs between two anchors) for the purpose of reducing the absolute expansion load on the
system. Cold spring is used to do the following:
hasten the thermal shakedown of the system in fewer operating cycles
reduce the magnitude of loads on equipment and restraints, since often, only a single application of a large load is
sufficient to damage these elements
Note: No credit can be taken for cold spring in the stress calculations, since the expansion stress provisions of the piping
codes require the evaluation of the stress range, which is unaffected by cold spring (except perhaps in the presence of non-
linear boundary conditions, as discussed below). The cold spring merely adjusts the stress mean, but not the range.
Many engineers avoid cold spring due to the difficulty of maintaining accurate records throughout the operating life of the
unit. Future analysts attempting to make field repairs or modifications may not necessarily know about (and therefore
include in the analysis) the cold spring specification.
Due to the difficulty of properly installing a cold sprung system, most piping codes recommend that only 2/3 of the
specified cold spring be used for the equipment load calculations.
Ci = 1/2Li dT
6-6 Technical Discussions
Where:
Note that the 1/2 in the equation for the cold spring amount is used such that the mean stress is zero. In some cases it is
desirable to have the operating load on the equipment as close to zero as possible. In this latter case the 1/2 should be
omitted. The maximum stress magnitude will not change from a system without cold spring, but will now exist in the cold
case rather than the hot.
To model a cold spring in CAESAR II specify the elements as being made of cut short or cut long materials. Cut short
describes a cold sprung section of pipe fabricated short by the amount of the cold spring, requiring an initial tensile load to
close the final joint. Cut long describes a cold sprung section of pipe fabricated long by the amount of cold spring, requiring
an initial compressive load to close the final joint. The software models cut shorts and cut longs by applying end forces to
the elements sufficient to reduce their length to zero (from the defined length) or increase their length to the defined length
(from zero) respectively. (It should be remembered to make the lengths of these cold spring elements only 2/3 of their actual
lengths to implement the code recommendations.) This is effectively what occurs during application of cold spring. The end
forces applied to the elements are then included in the basic loading case F (for force), whereby they can be included in
various load combinations.
Special material numbers 18 and 19 are used to signal CAESAR II that the element currently in the spreadsheet actually
represents a length of pipe that is to be cut short or long during fabrication.
Material # 18 - Cut Short
Material # 19 - Cut Long
The user should be sure to reset the material property on the element following the cold spring element.
The following load cases are recommended when analyzing a cold spring system:
Load Case 1 (OPE) W+T1+P1+CS includes all of the design cold spring
Load Case 2 (OPE) W+P1+CS includes all of the design cold spring but not the temperature.
RUN # 1
Load Case 3 (SUS) W+P1 standard sustained case for Code Stress check
Load Case4 (EXP) L1-L2 expansion case for code stress check.
Cold spring is allowed to reduce the magnitude of equipment loads because, often, only a single application of a large load
is sufficient to cause damage to rotating machinery.
Cold spring does not change the “range” of stresses that the piping system is subject to, and so, no allowance is given for
stress reduction. (The maximum value of the stress is lowered, but the range is unchanged.)
Both the sustained loads and the operating loads should be within the manufacturer’s allowables for the particular piece of
equipment. If the designer isn't careful, the installation of the cold spring in the ambient state can overload a piece of
rotating equipment as the unit starts up.
Chapter 6 Technical Discussions 6-7
Expansion Joints
To define an expansion joint, activate the Expansion Joint check box (see "Expansion Joints" on page 3-20) on the Pipe
Element Spreadsheet.
Expansion joint elements may have a zero or non-zero length. The expansion joint will have a zero length if the Delta fields
in the spreadsheet are left blank or zero. The expansion joint will have a non-zero length if at least one of the element’s
spreadsheet Delta fields is non-blank and non-zero. When an expansion joint has a finite length CAESAR II evenly
distributes the expansion joint stiffnesses over the entire length of the element. This will usually result in a more accurate
stiffness model in what is typically a very sensitive area of the piping system.
The transverse and the bending stiffnesses are directly related when a finite length joint is defined. In this case the bending
stiffness should be left blank and the transverse stiffness entered. CAESAR II will compute the proper bending stiffness from
the relationship between the bending and transverse stiffnesses. Bending stiffnesses from manufacturers' catalogs should
generally only be entered for zero length expansion joints modeling hinges or gimbals. Before a manufacturers bending
stiffness is used for a finite length bellows it should be multiplied by 4.0 (note that in this case the transverse stiffness would
be left blank).
Torsional stiffnesses are often not given by expansion joint manufacturers. In this case the user is recommended to insert a
large torsional stiffness value and ensure that the resulting load on the bellows is not excessive. When the piping system is
tight, and the diameter large, the magnitude of this “large” torsional stiffness can significantly affect the magnitude of the
torsion carried by the bellows, i.e. stiffnesses of 100,000 in.lb./deg. and 1E12 in.lb./deg. can produce considerably different
torsional load results. The tendency would be to go with the larger stiffness, i.e. being conservative, except that the torsional
stiffness value is probably closer to the 100,000 in.lb./deg. In the instance where the “largeness” of the torsional stiffness
6-8 Technical Discussions
value is important, the manufacturer should be pressed for his “best-guess” at the stiffness, or the following equation should
be used to get an estimate, which the user can then conservatively increase to get reasonable torsional loads on the bellows
and surrounding equipment.
( Re)3 (t )( E )
(1 + ) L
Where
= 3.14159
Re = Expansion joint effective radius
t = Bellows thickness
E = Elastic Modulus
= Poisson’s Ratio
L = Flexible bellows length
When the expansion joint has a zero length, none of the expansion joint stiffnesses are related. The user must be sure that a
value is entered into all four of the Stiffness fields.
CAESAR II will calculate pressure thrust on the expansion joint if the bellows effective id is given in the expansion joint
auxiliary screen. The mathematical model for pressure thrust applies a force equal to the pressure times the effective area of
the bellows at either end of the expansion joint. The force will tend to open the bellows if the pressure is positive, and close
the bellows if the pressure is negative. Users should note that this model does not exactly distribute the pressure loads
correctly in the vicinity of the expansion joint. In most cases the misapplied load does not affect the solution. There are two
components of the pressure thrust to be applied in practice, rather than the one component applied in the model. The first
component is equal to the pressure times the inside area of the pipe and acts at the first change in direction of the pipe on
either side of the expansion joint. This load will tend to put the pipe wall between the change in direction and the expansion
joint in tension. The second component is equal to the pressure times the difference between the bellows effective area and
inside pipe area. This load acts at the end of the expansion joint and tends to open the bellows up, putting the pipe between
the expansion joint and the change in direction in compression. In the mathematical model the full component of the
pressure thrust force is placed on the ends of the bellows instead of having a portion shifted out on either side of the
expansion joint. A large number of expansion joint examples can be found in Chapter 5 of the Applications Guide.
Chapter 6 Technical Discussions 6-9
1 Both the hot and the cold loads must be within the spring allowed working range.
2 If the user specified an allowed load variation then the absolute value of the product of the travel and the spring rate
divided by the hot load must be less than the specified variation.
3 If the user specified some minimum available clearance then the spring selected must fit in this space.
If a single spring cannot be found that satisfies the design requirements, CAESAR II will try to find two identical springs that
do satisfy the requirements.
If satisfactory springs cannot be found, CAESAR II recommends a constant effort support for the location.
There are several variations of this approach that arise due to the different design options available in CAESAR II, but for the
most part the general algorithm remains unchanged.
For the restrained weight run, rigid “Y” restraints are placed at each hanger location, and any anchors to be freed are
properly released. Loads on the “Y” restraints at hangers, calculated from the restrained weight case, are the hanger hot
design loads.
Operating Case
Immediately after the restrained weight case, an operating analysis is performed. The “Y” restraints are removed from the
hanger locations and the hot loads just calculated are inserted. Any anchors that were freed for the “restrained weight”
analysis are fixed.
The operating case vertical displacement at each hanger location defines that hanger’s “travel.” If there were single
directional restraints or gaps in the system that changed status in the operating case then the possibility exists that loads on
hangers will be redistributed. When a nonlinear status change is detected CAESAR II reruns the “restrained weight” case with
the restraints left as they were at the end of the operating case. New restraint loads are calculated and another operating case
is run to get the updated “travel.”
The operating case must always be the second load case in the set of defined analysis cases.
The user has the ability to define the restrained weight or operating load cases for hanger design any way he sees fit. For
simplicity, CAESAR II recommends the load cases it thinks should be run whenever it detects the first attempt to analyze a
particular system. The user can accept or reject CAESAR II’s recommendations. The user that sets up his own hanger design
load cases should be sure he understands exactly what is done in the “restrained weight” and operating passes of the hanger
design algorithm.
6-10 Technical Discussions
The theoretical cold, or installed, load is the load on the spring when the pipe has exactly zero displacement. The actual
installed load may differ from the theoretical installed load by (K)(d), where (K) is the spring stiffness and (d) is the
displacement of the pipe in the installed condition. In essence, the actual installed load is calculated by taking the piping
system and “freezing” all displacements at zero. With the pipe in this condition, the hangers are installed and the theoretical
cold load is applied. The pipe is then “defrosted” and allowed to adjust its weight position due to the hanger, restraint, and
anchor stiffnesses and the installed hanger loads. Once the system settles out, the total load on each of the hangers is read
and recorded as the “actual” hanger installed load.
The spring rate becomes part of the global stiffness matrix, and is therefore added into all subsequent load cases. Hanger
installed loads are concentrated forces and are only included in subsequent load cases that contain the first concentrated
force set, (i.e., +H).
Users may specify any number of their own load cases after the required spring load cases are set up.
Spring hanger design does not affect CAESAR II’s ability to check code compliance. In fact, in CAESAR II’s recommended
load cases, the normal code compliance cases always follow the set of load cases required for hanger design.
Multiple operating case spring hanger design implies that hanger loads and “travels” from more than one operating case are
included in the spring hanger selection algorithm.
Each spring in a multiple operating case hanger design has a multiple load case design option. This design option tells
CAESAR II how the multiple loads and travels for a single hanger are to be combined to get a single design load and travel.
The set-up of the analysis cases is slightly different for multiple operating case hanger design, and as might be expected, the
difference is that now there is more than one operating case. The actual number of operating cases is specified by the user
on the Hanger Design Control dialog and can be up to 9.
Load cases that must be set up for a multiple load case hanger design that considers two hanger design operating cases are:
Restrained Weight (this doesn't change)
Operating case #1
Operating case #9
Installed Weight ...if the user requested that actual installed loads are to be calculated.
Chapter 6 Technical Discussions 6-11
Spring Hanger Hot Loads for as designed springs are always included in all Operating Hanger Travel cases. Cold loads can
be included in subsequent load cases through the use of the H load component. (Note that applying thermal and
displacement effects to the system should make the Cold Load move to the Hot Load in the operating case.)
Hanger design load cases, unless specifically designed with a "KEEP" status by the user, show up in the output report as
being “NOT ACTIVE.” Results from these analyses are reflected in the spring hanger table only.
6-12 Technical Discussions
Where:
d = Diameter of branch
D = Diameter of header
T = Wall thickness of header
When the Class 1 branch flexibilities are used, intersection models in the analysis will become stiffer when the reduced
geometry requirements do not apply, and will become more flexible when the reduced geometry requirements do apply.
Stiffer intersections typically carry more load, and thus have higher stresses (lowering the stress in other parts of the system
that have been “unloaded”). More flexible intersections typically carry less load, and thus have lower stresses, (causing
higher stresses in other parts of the system that have “picked up” the extra load).
The branch flexibility rules used in CAESAR II are taken from ASME III, Subsection NB, (Class 1), 1992 Edition, Issued
December 31, 1992, from Code Sections NB-3686.4 and NB-3686.5.
Chapter 6 Technical Discussions 6-13
When the reduced branch rules apply, the following equations are used for the local stiffnesses:
TRANSLATIONAL:
AXIAL = RIGID
CIRCUMFERENTIAL = RIGID
LONGITUDINAL = RIGID
ROTATIONAL:
AXIAL = RIGID
CIRCUMFERENTIAL = (kx)d/EI
LONGITUDINAL = (kz)d/EI
Where:
Users are referred to WRC 329 Section 4.9 “Flexibility Factors.” A brief quote from this section follows:
“The significance of “k” depends upon the specifics of the piping system. Qualitatively, if “k” is small compared to the
length of the piping system, including the effect of elbows and their k-factors, then the inclusion of “k” for branch
connections will have only minor effects on the calculated moments. Conversely, if “k” is large compared to the piping
system length, then the inclusion of “k” for branch connections will have major effects. The largest effect will be to greatly
reduce the magnitude of the calculated moments acting on the branch connection. To illustrate the potential significance of
“k’s” for branch connections, we use the equation [above] to calculate “k” for a branch connection with D=30 in.,
d=12.75 in. T=t=0.375 in.:
1.5 0.5
k = 0.1(80) (0.425) * (1.0) = 46.6
This compares to the more typical rigid-joint interpretation that k=1, rather than k=46.6 !”
Further discussion in section 4.9 illustrates additional problems that can arise by overestimating the stiffness at branch
connections. Problems arise by believing “mistakenly” that the stress at the intersection is too high. Further reference should
be made to this section in WRC 329.
The branch automatic flexibility generation can be used where the user has only defined the branch element in the model,
i.e. has left the header piping out of the analysis. In this case there will be no “offset” equal to one-half of the header
diameter applied to the branch end. A “partial intersection” is one where either the header pipe is not modeled, is modeled
with a single element, or is part of a geometric intersection where the header pipes are not colinear. In the case where there
is no header pipe going to the intersection there will be no modification to the model for the class 1 branch flexibilities.
When at least a single header pipe is recognized, the local flexibility directions are defined by the branch alone and in
accordance with the CAESAR II defaults for circumferential and longitudinal directions for the branch and header. Users are
6-14 Technical Discussions
recommended to build full intersection models at all times (not only when employing the class 1 branch flexibility.) In most
cases building full intersection models will eliminate problems caused by the assumptions necessary when a partial
intersection is described.
In the equations in NB-3686.5 for tn, the thickness of the branch pipe is used in all cases.
When branches are skewed with respect to the header pipe, and where the two header pipes are colinear, the local Class 1
flexibilities are still taken to be the longitudinal and circumferential directions that are tangent to the header surface at its
intersection with the branch.
Class 1 branch flexibilities can be formed at both ends of a single pipe element.
Note: The offsets necessary to form the class 1 intersections are automatically generated by CAESAR II. There is no extra
input required by the user to have CAESAR II build these intersections.
(If there are already user-defined offsets at an intersection end, the computed offset to get from the header centerline to its
surface along the centerline of the branch will be added to the already entered user offset.) Automatic offsets will be
generated providing that the distance from the header centerline to the header surface along the branch centerline is less than
or equal to 98% of the total pipe straight length.
When a bend curved element is part of an intersection model, the offset and flexibility calculations will not be performed.
Chapter 6 Technical Discussions 6-15
Ideally, if there is motion at the node in question, the friction force is equal to (Mu * Normal force). However, since we
have a non-rigid stiffness at that location to resist the initial motion, the node can experience displacements. The force at the
node will be the product of the displacement and the stiffness. If this resultant force is less than the maximum friction
force (Mu * Normal force), the node is assumed to be “not sliding,” even though we see displacements in the output
report.
The maximum value of the force at the node is the friction force, Mu * Normal force. Once this value is reached, the
reaction at the node stops increasing. This constant force value is then applied to the global load vector during the next
iteration to determine the nodal displacements. Basically here is what happens in a “friction” problem.
1 The default friction stiffness is 1,000,000 lb./in. This value should be decreased to improve convergence.
2 Until the horizontal force at the node equals Mu * Normal force, the restraint load is the displacement times the friction
stiffness.
3 Once the maximum value of the friction force is reached, the friction force will stop increasing, since a constant effort
force is inserted.
By increasing the friction stiffness in the setup file, the displacements at the node will decrease to some degree. This may
cause a re-distribution of the loads throughout the system. However, this could have adverse affects on the solution
convergence.
If problems arise during the solution of a job with friction at supports, reducing the friction stiffness will usually improve
convergence. Several runs should be made with varying values of the friction stiffness to insure the system behavior is
consistent.
1 Performing an operating and sustained analysis of the system including in each case the effect of nonlinear restraints.
2 Subtracting the sustained case displacements from the operating case displacements to find the “displacement range.”
3 Calculating the expansion stresses from the displacement range solved for in #2 above.
Approximate approaches usually involve some combination of the above. The approximate combination used depends
typically on the inherent limitations of the base program. In several commonly used programs, the approach taken is
1 Formulate and solve for operating case displacements including an iteration to deal with the effect of nonlinear
restraints in the system.
2 Run the thermal-only analysis of the system to calculate expansion stresses with restraints in the same condition as they
were at the end of #1.
3 Run the weight+pressure only analysis of the system to calculate sustained stresses, again with restraints in the same
condition as they were at the end of #1.
This alternate approach is identical to the first method only when the sustained analysis final stiffness matrix is the same as
the operating analysis final stiffness matrix. The resulting error in the displacement range can be found from
{[Fo] - [Fs]}fs.
Where:
[Fo] - is the operating analysis final flexibility matrix (i.e. the inverse of the stiffness matrix).
[Fs] - is the sustained analysis final flexibility matrix.
fs - is the sustained analysis load vector.
CAESAR II uses the exact method described above for calculating the expansion stress range. In addition CAESAR II scans the
user’s input and recommends loading cases and combinations for performing the operating, sustained and expansion stress
calculations. This recommendation can prove very useful when performing spring hanger analysis of a multiple operating
case system.
Chapter 6 Technical Discussions 6-17
The obvious answer to this question, to the developers of some pipe stress programs, was that the sustained stress
calculation should be done using the operating, or hot boundary condition. This compounded the problem, in that the laws
of superposition no longer held — in other words, the results of sustained (W+P) and thermal (T) cases, when added
together, did not equal the results of the operating (W+P+T) case! One pioneering program, DYNAFLEX, attempted to
resolve this by introducing the concept of the “thermal component of weight” — an oxymoron, in our opinion. Other
programs, notably those which came from the mainframe/linear analysis world, had to approximate the behavior of these
non-linear restraints. Their approach to the problem is to run an operating case, obtain the restraint status, and modify the
model according to these results. All subsequent load cases analyzed use this restraint configuration. The fact that the laws
of static superposition didn't hold was hopefully not noticed by the user. CAESAR II, on the other hand, represents new
technology, developed expressly for operation on the PC, and therefore incorporates directly the effects of non-linear
restraints. This is done by considering each load case independently — the restraint configuration is determined for each
load case by the program as it runs, based upon the actual loads which are considered to be present.
Some users have asserted that there are actually two sustained load cases. In fact, there has been a B31.3 code interpretation
that indicates that the sustained stress may also be checked with the operating restraint configuration. Calculating the
sustained stresses using the operating restraint status raises several other issues; what modulus of elasticity should be used,
and which sustained stresses should be used for occasional cases.
It is COADE’s assertion that there is only one sustained case (otherwise it is not “sustained”) — there can be, however,
multiple sustained stress distributions. The two most apparent are those associated with the cold (installed) and hot
(operating) configurations, however, there are also numerous in-between, as the piping system load steps from cold to hot.
Whether the “true” sustained load case occurs during the installed or operating case is a matter of the frame of reference. If
an engineer first sees a system in its cold condition, and watches it expand to its operating condition, it appears that the first
case (since weight and pressure — primary loads — are present) is the sustained case, and the changes he viewed are
thermal effects (due to heat up) — secondary loads due to displacements. If a second engineer first sees the same system in
the operating case and watches it cool down to the cold case, he may believe that the first case he saw (the operating case) is
the sustained case, and changes experienced from hot to cold are the thermal expansion effects (the thermal stress ranges are
the same in both cases). Consider the further implications of cryogenic systems — where changes from installed to
operating are the same as those experienced by hot systems when going from operating to installed. Once elastic shakedown
has occurred, the question becomes clouded even further, due to the presence of thermally induced pre-stresses in the pipe
during both the cold and hot conditions. We feel either the operating or installed case (or some other one in-between) could
justifiably be selected for analysis as the sustained case, as long as the program is consistent.
We have selected the installed case (less the effect of cold spring) as our reference sustained case, since thermal effects can
be completely omitted from the solution (as intended by the code), and this best represents the support configuration when
the sustained loads are initially applied. If the pipe lifts off of a support when going from installed to operating, we view this
as a thermal effect — consistent with the piping codes’ view of thermal effects as the variation of stress distribution as the
6-18 Technical Discussions
piping system goes from cold to hot (this view is explicitly corroborated by one code — the French petrochemical code,
which states that weight stress distributions due to thermal growth of the pipe should be considered as expansion stresses).
For example, we feel that a change in a rigid support load from 2,000 lbs to zero should be treated no differently than would
be a variable spring load changing from 6,000 lbs to 4,000 lbs (or another rigid support load going 2,000 lbs to 1 lb). In the
former case, if the pipe became “overstressed”, it would yield, and sag back to the support, relieving the stress. This process
is identical to the way that all other expansion stresses are relieved in a piping system.
We are confident that our interpretation is correct. However, we understand that our users may not always agree with us —
that is why CAESAR II provides the greatest ability to custom tailor the analysis to one’s individual specifications. If desired,
a “hot sustained” case can be analyzed by adding two load cases to those normally recommended by CAESAR II. This would
be done by assuming that the pipe expands first, and then the sustained loads are applied (this is of course an idealized
concept, but the stresses can only be segregated by segregating the applied loads, so the sustained loads can only be applied
either before, or after, the expansion loads). Following are the default load cases, as well as those required for a “hot
sustained.”
Default New
W+P1+T1(OPE) W+P1+T1(OPE)
W+P1(SUS) W+P1(SUS)
L1-L2(EXP) T1 (EXP)
L1-L2(EXP)
L1-L3(SUS)
In the new load case list, the second case still represents the cold sustained, while the fourth case represents the expansion
case (note that L1-L2, or W+P1+T1-W-P1, equals T1, with non-linear effects taken into account). The third case represents
the thermal growth of the “weightless,” non-pressurized pipe, against the non-linear restraints.
The fifth case (L1-L3, or W+P1+T1-T1, equals W+P1) represents the application of weight and pressure to that expanded
case, or the “hot sustained” case. Note that when the piping system is analyzed as above, the actual effects of the non-linear
restraints are considered (they are not arbitrarily removed from the model), and the laws of superposition still hold.
An alternative school of thought believes that a "hot sustained" is only valid if (1) the sustained, primary loads are applied,
(2) all springs are showing their Hot Load settings, and (3) any supports that lift off (or otherwise become non-active) have
been removed from the model. An analysis such as this is achievable by setting the "Keep/Discard" status of the Restrained
Weight case (the first hanger design load case) to "Keep", thus permitting the results of that case to be viewable as for any
other load case. The Restrained Weight case automatically removes restraints that become non-active during the designated
operating case, and apply the Hot Load at each of the hanger locations.
CASE #
If nonlinear effects are modeled in the system these combinations may not be so straight forward. Friction, one-direction
restraints and double-acting restraints with gaps are the nonlinear items which present this complication. Wind loading on a
long vertical run of pipe with a guide will serve as an example. Assume there is a one inch gap between the pipe and guide.
Under normal operation, the pipe moves 3/4 inch towards the stop leaving a gap of 1-3/4 inch on either side of the pipe and
a 1/4 inch gap on the other side. If wind loads are analyzed alone, the pipe is allowed to move 1 inch from its center point in
the guide to the guide stop. Since occasional loads are usually analyzed with the system in operation, the pipe may be
limited to a 1/4 inch motion as the gap is closed in one direction, and 1-3/4 inch if the gap is closed in the opposite direction.
With nonlinear effects modeled in the system, the occasional deflections (and stresses) are influenced by the operating
position of the piping.
The following list of CAESAR II load cases takes this point into consideration. Note that the load cases shown below are only
for wind acting in one direction, i.e., +X. Depending on the system, the most critical loads could occur in any direction, i.e.,
+/-X, +/-Z or skewed in an XZ direction.
The intention of the following load case construction is to find the occasional load’s effect on the piping system in the
operating condition. The stress due to the moment change from the operating to the operating plus wind case is added to the
stress from the sustained case.
The isolated wind effect on the piping system in the operating condition in is computed in Case 5. Case 6 adds the stresses
from Case 5 to the sustained stresses from Case 2.
CASE #
Earthquake static load cases are set up exactly as they are for wind occasional loads, i.e. the same load case, nonlinearity,
and directional sensitivity logic. In some cases the client specifies the magnitude of the earthquake loading in g's and the
direction(s). In others, the analysis is left to the sole discretion of the analyst. It is not unusual to see only X or X-Y
components of an earthquake. It is not uncommon to see Y only components, or X, Y, and Z simultaneous components.
Dynamic earthquakes are discussed later in this chapter, in the dynamic analysis and output chapters, and in the screen
reference chapter. The ASCE #7 method for determining earthquake coefficients is described below. Once calculated, the
g-factors should be entered as uniform loads on the piping spreadsheet.
Note: The Uniform Load in G's (on page 3-121) check box must also be enabled in the spreadsheet special execution
parameters.
V = ZIKCSW
Where:
The product CS does not need to exceed the value 0.14. Use this value as a conservative maximum.
Seismic Zone
Coefficient, Z
4 1
3 3/4
2 3/8
1 3/16
0 1/8
From the following table, the importance factor can be found: (However use a value for I = 1.0. The categories in this table
are identical for those used in the wind load calculation.)
Chapter 6 Technical Discussions 6-21
Category Number
I 1
II 1025
III 1.5
IV N/A
The following table shows K varying from 0.67 to 2.0. Use K=2.0 for “Structures other than buildings.”
g = ZIKCS
reduces to:
3 (3/4)(1)(2)(0.14) 0.21
2 (3/8)(1)(2)(0.14) 0.105
1 (3/16)(1)(2)(0.14) 0.0525
0 (1/8)(1)(2)(0.14) 0.035
ASCE #7 - 1990 is the 1990 revision to ANSI A58.1 1982. There are no revisions to this code which affect CAESAR II.
ASCE #7 - 1993 has completely changed the approach for "static" seismic analysis. These changes are not addressed by
this discussion.
6-22 Technical Discussions
Wind Loads
Currently CAESAR II enables users to access the wind load data from ten different wind codes.
AS/NZ 1170:2002 IBC 2006
Brazil NBR 6123 IS 875
BS6399-97 Mexico 1993
China GB 50009 NBC 2005
EN 2005 UBC
Wind loads are generated by multiplying the pipe exposed area, including insulation, and considering the angle to the wind,
by the equivalent wind pressure and the pipe shape factor. There are typically three different ways to get the equivalent
wind pressure:
ASCE #7 (1995)
Pressure vs. elevation table entry
Velocity vs. elevation table entry
The total wind force on the element is calculated from the equation below
F = PeqSA
Where:
Peq is calculated for each end of the element and the average taken. The average applies uniformly over the whole length of
the element. Note, the wind force is applied in the three global directions as a function of the element direction cosines.
If the user enters a velocity vs. elevation table then the velocity is converted to a dynamic pressure using the following
equation:
2
P = 1/2 V
The WIND SHAPE FACTOR is entered on the pipe spreadsheet and, for cylindrical elements, the value from Table 12 is
between 0.5 and 0.7. A value of 0.65 is typical. The wind shape factor as entered is “distributive.” This means that the
shape factor applies for all following elements until zeroed or changed.
Important: Users do not have to enter the shape factor on each pipe spreadsheet. Zero (or turn "Off") the wind shape factor
if the piping system runs inside of a building or similarly protective structure.
Chapter 6 Technical Discussions 6-23
Wind load data is entered on the Wind Loads (on page 3-63) tab of the Static Load Case Builder. Up to four different
wind loads can be entered per analysis. These typically might be setup to model wind loads in the +X, -Y, and -Z directions.
The ASCE #7 ( 1995) Method for computing equivalent pressure requires several computerized table look ups and
interpolation. The user enters the following parameters:
1 Basic wind speed (mph) - The minimum allowed basic wind speed is 85 mph. This does not include averages for
abnormally high wind loading events such as hurricanes or tornadoes.
ASCE #7 refers to fig. 6-1 for basic wind speeds in the continental United States. The following description is a crude
representation of Figure 1:
The following procedure from the appendix is used to calculate the effective wind pressure:
Note: Winds of 20 to 40 mph can cause vortex shedding and excitation in the 30 Hz and higher range that can cause
fatigue failure in smaller line sizes particularly susceptible to fatigue type failures. To analyze vortex shedding, use an
harmonic analysis method.
Elevation
The accurate elevation of each individual piping element may, or may not be important depending on the total height,
diameter and rigidity of the piping system and attachments. By default, CAESAR II starts the first node on the first element at
an elevation of 0.0. If this is not close enough to the true elevation then the user should set the true coordinates of the piping
system through the command EDIT - GLOBAL. This presents a dialog requesting coordinates for the first node of any
disconnected section. The coordinates for up to 100 node points can be specified and saved as part of the input data from the
model.
Chapter 6 Technical Discussions 6-25
(The term two dimensional refers to the uni-directional wave. One dimension is the direction the wave travels, and the other
dimension is vertical through the water column. Two dimensional waves are not found in the marine environment, but are
somewhat easy to define and determine properties for, in a deterministic sense. In actuality, waves undergo spreading, in the
third dimension. This can be easily understood by visualizing a stone dropped in a pond. As the wave spread, the diameter
of the circle increases. In addition to wave spreading, a real sea state includes waves of various periods, heights, and
lengths. In order to address these actual conditions, a deterministic approach cannot be used. Instead, a sea spectrum is
utilized, which may also include a spreading function. As there are various wave theories, there are various sea spectra
definitions. The definition and implementation of sea spectra are usually employed in dynamic analysis. Sea Spectra and
dynamic analysis will not be discussed in this article.)
The linear or Airy wave theory assumes the free surface is symmetric about the mean water level. Furthermore, the water
particle motion is a closed circular orbit, the diameter of which decays with depth. (The term circular should be taken
loosely here, the orbit varies from circular to elliptical based on whether the wave is in shallow or deep water.) Additionally,
for shallow water waves, the wave height to depth ratio (H/D) is limited to 0.78 to avoid breaking. (None of the wave
theories address breaking waves!) The figure below shows a typical wave and associated hydrodynamic parameters.
Stokes 5tH Order Wave Theory however, does not adequately address steeper waves over a complete range of depths.
Dean’s Stream Function wave theory attempts to address this deficiency. This wave theory employs an iterative numerical
technique to solve the stream function equation. The stream function describes not only the geometry of a two dimensional
flow, but also the components of the velocity vector at any point, and the flow rate between any two streamlines.
6-26 Technical Discussions
The most suitable wave theory is dependent on the wave height, the wave period, and the water depth. Based on these
parameters, the applicable wave theory can be determined from the figure below (from API-RP2A, American Petroleum
Institute - Recommended Practice 2A).
H / L = 0.142 tanh( kd )
Where:
The various wave theories incorporated into CAESAR II as well as the various types of current profiles are discussed below.
The wave theories and the current profile are used to compute the water particle velocities and accelerations at the node
points. Once these parameters are available, the force on the element can be computed using Morrison’s equation:
2
F = 1/2 * * Cd * D * U * |U| + /4 * * Cm * D * A
Chapter 6 Technical Discussions 6-27
Where
The particle velocities and accelerations are vector quantities which include the effects of any applied waves or currents. In
addition to the force imposed by Morrison’s equation, piping elements are also subjected to a lift force and a buoyancy
force. The lift force is defined as the force acting normal to the plane formed by the velocity vector and the element’s axis.
The lift force is defined as:
2
Fl = 1/2 * * Cl * D * U
Where
The buoyancy force acts upward, and is equal to the weight of the fluid volume displaced by the element.
Once the force on a particular element is available, it is placed in the system load vector just as any other load is. A standard
solution is performed on the system of equations which describe the piping system. (The piping system can be described by
the standard finite element equation:
Where
The element loads generated by the hydrodynamic effects are placed in their proper locations in {f}, similar to weight,
pressure, and temperature. Once [K] and {f} are finalized, a standard finite element solution is performed on this system of
equations. The resulting displacement vector {x} is then used to compute element forces, and these forces are then used to
compute the element stresses.)
Except for the buoyancy force, all other hydrodynamic forces acting on the element are a function of the particle velocities
and accelerations.
To apply the Airy Wave theory, several descriptive parameters about the wave must be given. These values are then used to
solve for the wave length, which is a characteristic parameter of each unique wave. CAESAR II uses Newton-Raphston
iteration to determine the wave length by solving the dispersion relation, shown below:
2
L = (gT / 2 ) * tanh(2 D / L)
Where
Once the wave length (L) is known, the other wave particulars of interest may be easily determined. The parameters
determined and used by CAESAR II are: the horizontal and vertical particle velocities ( UX and UY ), the horizontal and
vertical particle acceleration ( AX and AY ), and the surface elevation above (or below) the mean water level ( ETA ). The
equations for these parameters can be found in any standard text (such as those listed at the end of this section) which
discusses ocean wave theories, and therefore will not be repeated here.
The solution follows a procedure very similar to that used in the Airy wave, characteristic parameters of the wave are
determined by using Newton-Raphston iteration, followed by the determination of the water particle values of interest.
The Newton-Raphston iteration procedure solves two non-linear equations for the constants beta and lambda. Once these
values are available, the other twenty constants can be computed. After all of the constants are known, CAESAR II can
compute: the horizontal and vertical particle velocities ( UX and UY ), the horizontal and vertical particle acceleration ( AX
and AY ), and the surface elevation above the mean water level (ETA).
The linear current profile assumes that the current velocity through the water column varies linearly from the specified
surface velocity (at the surface) to zero (at the bottom). The piece-wise linear profile employs linear interpolation between
specific “depth/velocity” points specified by the user. The power law profile decays the surface velocity to the 1/7 power.
While waves produce unsteady flow, where the particle velocities and accelerations at a point constantly change, current
produces a steady, non-varying flow.
Ocean Currents
In addition to forces imposed by ocean waves, piping elements may also be subjected to forces imposed by ocean currents.
There are three different ocean current models in CAESAR II; linear piece-wise linear profile, and a power law profile. The
linear current profile assumes that the current velocity though the water column varies linearly from the specified surface
velocity (at the surface to zero (at the bottom). The piece-wise linear profile employs linear interpolation between specific
"depth /velocity" points specified by the user. The power law profile decays the surface velocity to the 1/7 power.
Chapter 6 Technical Discussions 6-29
While waves produce unsteady flow, where the particle velocities and accelerations at a point constantly change, current
produces a steady, non-varying flow.
The inertia coefficient Cm is equal to one plus the added mass coefficient Ca. This added mass value accounts for the mass
of the fluid assumed to be entrained with the piping element.
In actuality, these coefficients are a function of the fluid particle velocity, which varies over the water column. In general
practice, two dimensionless parameters are computed which are used to obtain the Cd, Cm, and Cl values from published
charts. The first dimensionless parameter is the Keulegan-Carpenter Number, K. K is defined as:
K = Um * T / D
Where:
Re = U m * D /
Where:
Once K and Re are available, charts are used to obtain Cd, Cm, and Cl. (See Mechanics of Wave Forces on Offshore
Structures by T. Sarpkaya, Figures 3.21, 3.22, and 3.25 for example charts, which are shown in the figures below.)
6-30 Technical Discussions
Chapter 6 Technical Discussions 6-31
In order to determine these coefficients, the fluid particle velocity (at the location of interest) must be determined. The
appropriate wave theory is solved, and these particle velocities are readily obtained.
Of the wave theories discussed, the modified Airy and Stokes 5th theories include a modification of the depth-decay
function. The standard theories use a depth-decay function equal to cosh(kz) / sinh(kd),
Where:
The modified theories include an additional term in the numerator of this depth-decay function. The modified depth-decay
function is equal to cosh( d) / sinh(kd),
Where:
- is equal to z / (d + ")
The term d represents the effective height of the point at which the particle velocity and acceleration are to be computed.
The use of this term keeps the effective height below the still water level. This means that the velocity and acceleration
computed are convergent for actual heights above the still water level.
As previously stated, the drag, inertia, and lift coefficients are a function of the fluid velocity and the diameter of the
element in question. Note that the fluid particle velocities vary with both depth and position in the wave train (as determined
by the applied wave theory). Therefore, these coefficients are in fact not constants. However, from a practical engineering
point of view, varying these coefficients as a function of location in the Fluid field is usually not implemented. This
practice can be justified when one considers the inaccuracies involved in specifying the instantaneous wave height and
period. According to Sarpkaya, these values are insufficient to accurately predict wave forces, a consideration of the
previous fluid particle history is necessary. In light of these uncertainties, constant values for Cd, Cm, and Cl are
recommended by API and many other references.
The effects of marine growth must also be considered. Marine growth has the following effects on the system loading: the
increased pipe diameters increase the hydrodynamic loading; the increased roughness causes an increase in Cd, and
therefore the hydrodynamic loading; the increase in mass and added mass cause reduced natural frequencies and increase
the dynamic amplification factor; it causes an increase in the structural weight; and possibly causes hydrodynamic
instabilities, such as vortex shedding.
Finally, Morrison’s force equation is based the “small body” assumption. The term “small” refers to the “diameter to wave
length” ratio. If this ratio exceeds 0.2, the inertial force is no longer in phase with the acceleration of the fluid particles and
diffraction effects must be considered. In such cases, the fluid loading as typically implemented by CAESAR II is no longer
applicable.
Additional discussions on hydrodynamic loads and wave theories can be found in the references at the end of this article.
6-32 Technical Discussions
Note: Users can enter four different wave loads here. Use the Editing Load Case buttons to move up or down between the
Wave Load Input Spreadsheets.
The necessary hydrodynamic parameters are discussed in the following paragraphs and a CAESAR II hydrodynamic loading
dialog is shown in the figure below.
Current Data
Profile Type—This entry defines the interpolation method used by CAESAR II to determine the current velocity as a function
of depth. Available options for this entry are: a power law profile, a piece-wise linear profile, and a linear profile.
The power law profile determines the current velocity at depth D according to the equation:
p
Vd = Vs * [di / D]
Where
The piece-wise linear profile performs a linear interpolation of a velocity verse depth table (provided by the user) to obtain
the current velocity at depth di. When this type profile is specified, a table of depths and velocities must be provided. The
table should start at the surface (a depth of zero) and progress in the direction of increasing depth, to the sea bed.
The linear profile also performs a linear interpolation to obtain the current velocity at depth di. However, this method
assumes the current velocity varies linearly from the specified surface velocity to zero at the sea bed.
Current Speed — This entry defines the current speed at the surface. The units for this entry are (length/time) as defined
by the active units file at the time of input. This value should always be a positive entry.
Current Direction Cosines — These entries define the direction of fluid transport due to the current. These fields are
unitless, and follow the standard software global axis convention.
Wave Data
Wave Theory Indicator — This entry specifies which wave theory is to be used to compute the water particle velocities
and accelerations. The wave theories presently available are:
Standard Airy Wave — This is also known as linear wave theory. Discussion of this theory can be found in the previously
mentioned references.
Modified Airy Wave — This is a modification of the standard Airy theory which includes the free surface effects due to
the wave. The modification consists of determining a depth scaling factor equal to the depth divided by the depth plus the
surface elevation. Note that this scale factor varies as a function of the location in the wave train.
Standard Stokes 5th Wave — This is a 5th order wave theory, also discussed in the previously mentioned references.
Modified Stokes 5th Wave — This is a modification of the standard Stokes 5th theory. The modification is the same as
applied to the Airy theory.
Stream Function Wave — This is Dean’s Stream Function theory, also discussed in the previously mentioned references.
Modified Stream Function Wave — This is Dean’s Stream Function theory, modified to directly consider current in the
wave solution.
Stream Function Order — When the Stream Function theory is activated, the solution order must be defined. Typical
values for the stream function order range from 3 to 13, and must be an "odd" value (see API-RP2A figure).
Water Depth — This entry defines the vertical distance (in units of length) from the still water level (the surface) to the sea
bed.
Wave Height — This entry defines the height of the incident wave. The height is the vertical distance (in units of length)
from the wave crest to the wave trough.
Wave Period — This entry defines the time span (in seconds) for two successive wave crests to pass a fixed point.
Wave Kinematic Factor — Because the two dimensional wave theories do not account for spreading, a reduction factor is
often used for the horizontal particle velocity and acceleration. Wave kinematic measurements support values in the range
of 0.85 to 0.95. Refer to the applicable offshore codes before using this item.
Wave Direction Cosines — These entries define the direction of wave travel. These fields are unitless, and follow the
standard software global axis convention.
Wave Phase Angle — This entry defines the position of the wave relative to the starting node of the piping system. The
phase angle is a measure (in degrees) of position in the wave train, where 0 is the wave crest, 180 is the wave trough, and
6-34 Technical Discussions
360 is the following crest. Since the wave propagates over the piping structure, each point in the structure experiences all
possible wave phase angles. One analysis technique specifies the wave phase at the system origin, and then the phase at
each node point in the model is determined. From these exact phase locations, the water particle data is computed from the
wave theory.
Alternatively, a conservative engineering approach is to use the same phase angle (usually zero) for all points in the model.
This technique produces higher loads; however, the extra conservatism is warranted when given the unknowns in specifying
environmental data.
Seawater Data
Free Surface Elevation — This entry defines the height of the free surface, from the global system origin. If the system
origin is at the free surface, this entry should be specified as zero. If the system origin is at the sea bottom, this entry is equal
to the water depth. By default, the first node in a CAESAR II model is at an elevation of zero. This elevation can be changed
using the [Alt-G] key sequence.
Kinematic Viscosity — This entry is used to define the kinematic viscosity of water. This value is used to determine the
Reynolds number, which is subsequently used to determine they hydrodynamic coefficients Cd, Cm, and Cl. Typical values
of kinematic viscosity for sea water are listed in the table below.
Fluid Weight Density - This entry defines the weight density of the fluid. For sea water, this value is approximately
.037037 pounds per cubic inch (.001025 kg/cm3, 1.0256SG).
Hydrodynamic Coefficients — Piping elements which are to be subjected to hydrodynamic loading must have a drag (Cd),
an inertia (Cm), and a lift (Cl) coefficient defined. The specification of these items is optional. A user may specify these
values as constants to be applied to all subsequent exposed elements, regardless of depth or phase position in the wave.
Alternatively, these values may be left blank, which will cause CAESAR II to interpolate their values from the charts
previously discussed.
Marine Growth — This entry defines the amount of marine growth on the piping elements. The value of this entry is used
to increase the diameter of the piping elements. The units for this field are the current diameter units. The diameter used in
the computation of the hydrodynamic forces is equal to the pipe diameter plus twice the marine growth entry.
References
1 Mechanics of Wave Forces On Offshore Structures, Turgut Sarpkaya and Michael Isaacson, Van Nostrand Reinhold
Co., 1982, ISBN 0-442-25402-4.
2 Handbook of Ocean and Underwater Engineering, Myers, Holm, and McAllister, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1969, ISBN
07-044245 -2.
Chapter 6 Technical Discussions 6-35
3 Fifth Order Gravity Wave Theory, Lars Skjelbreia and James Hendrickson, National Engineering Science Co.,
Pasadena, California, 1960.
4 Planning and Design of Fixed Offshore Platforms, McClelland and Reifel, Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., 1986, ISBN 0-
442-25223-4.
5 Intercomparison of Near-Bottom Kinematics by Several Wave Theories and Field and Laboratory Data, R. G. Dean and
M. Perlin, Coastal Engineering, #9 (1986), p399-437.
6 A Finite Amplitude Wave on a Linear Shear Current, R. A. Dalrymple, Journal of Geophysical Research, Vol 79, No
30, 1974.
7 Application of Stream Function Wave Theory to Offshore Design Problems, R. G. Dean, OTC #1613, 1972.
8 Stream Function Representation of Nonlinear Ocean Waves, R. G. Dean, Journal of Geophysical Research, Vol 70, No
18, 1965.
9 American Petroleum Institute - Recommended Practice 2A (API-RP2A), American Petroleum Institute, July 1993.
10 Improved Algorithm for Stream Function Wave Theory, Min-Chih Huang, Journal of Waterway, Port, Coastal, and
Ocean Engineering, January 1989.
11 Stream Function Wave Theory with Profile Constraints, Min-Chih Huang, Journal of Waterway, Port, Coastal, and
Ocean Engineering, January/February 1993.
6-36 Technical Discussions
The first step in the procedure is to determine if the elastic approach is satisfactory. Section AD-160 contains the exact
method and basically states that if all of the following conditions are met, then fatigue analysis need not be done:
1 The expected design number of full-range pressure cycles does not exceed the number of allowed cycles corresponding
to an Sa value of 3Sm (4Sm for non-integral attachments) on the material fatigue curve. The Sm is the allowable stress
intensity for the material at the operating temperature.
2 The expected design range of pressure cycles other than startup or shutdown must be less than 1/3 (1/4 for non-integral
attachments) the design pressure times (Sa/Sm), where Sa is the value obtained on the material fatigue curve for the
specified number of significant pressure fluctuations.
3 The vessel does not experience localized high stress due to heating.
4 The full range of stress intensities due to mechanical loads (including piping reactions) does not exceed Sa from the
fatigue curve for the expected number of load fluctuations.
Once the user has decided that an elastic analysis will be satisfactory, either a simplified or a comprehensive approach may
be taken to the vessel stress evaluation. Both methods will be described in detail below, after a discussion of the Section
VIII Div. 2 Requirements.
There are essentially three criteria that must be satisfied before the stresses in the vessel wall due to nozzle loads can be
considered within the allowables. These three criteria can be summarized as:
Pm < kSmh
Pm + Pl + Pb< 1.5kSmh
Pm + Pl + Pb + Q < 3Smavg
Where Pm, Pl, Pb, and Q are the general primary membrane stress, the local primary membrane stress, the local primary
bending stress, and the total secondary stresses (membrane plus bending), respectively; and K, Smh, and Smavg are the
occasional stress factor, the hot material allowable stress intensity, and the average material stress intensity (Smh + Smc) / 2.
Due to the stress classification defined by Section VIII, Division 2 in the vicinity of nozzles, as given in the Table 4-120.1,
the bending stress terms caused by any external load moments or internal pressure in the vessel wall near a nozzle or other
opening, should be classified as Q, or the secondary stresses, regardless of whether they were caused by sustained or
expansion loads. This causes Pb to disappear, and leads to a much more detailed classification:
Pm—General primary membrane stress (primarily due to internal pressure)
Pl—Local primary membrane stress, which may include
--Membrane stress due to internal pressure
--Local membrane stress due to applied sustained forces and moments
Q—Secondary stresses, which may include
Chapter 6 Technical Discussions 6-37
Pl + Pb + Q + F < Sa
The preceding equation need not be satisfied, provided the elastic limit criteria of AD-160 is met based on the statement
explicitly given in Section 5-100, which is cited below:
“If the specified operation of the vessel meets all of the conditions of AD-160, no analysis for cyclic operation is required
and it may be assumed that the peak stress limit discussed in 4-135 has been satisfied by compliance with the applicable
requirements for materials, design, fabrication, testing and inspection of this division.”
summations and the results are used to determine acceptability of the local stresses in the vessel shell. Notice now
CAESAR II can provide the WRC 107 stress summation module in line with the stress calculation routines
Under the above procedure, the equations used in CAESAR II to qualify the various stress components can be summarized as
follows:
For these reasons, an alternate simplified approach was developed. To eliminate the concern for pressure, both the pressure
term in the loading on the left side of the inequality and the pressure term in the allowable on the right side of the inequality
are cancelled.
The first check is Pm (due to pressure) must be less than or equal to 1.0 Smh. Assuming that the area reinforcement around
the nozzle will satisfy the pressure requirements, let this first check equal the maximum value.
The second check is Pm + Pl + Pb must be less than or equal to 1.5 Smh. Subtracting the stresses due to pressure (assumed
equal to Smh) reduces this check to: Pl + Pb (due to external sustained forces without pressure) < 0.5 Smh.
Unfortunately, the third check on the Pm + Pl + Q terms is at the root of an application controversy. There are primarily three
schools of thought:
Pm+Pl+Q is an operating loading condition, and as such, includes the loads due to pressure and weight.
Pm+Pl+Q is the range of loads, i.e. the expansion loading condition, and as such, excludes the effects of sustained, or
primary loads. Primary sustained loads, such as weight and pressure, should be excluded.
Pm+Pl+Q is the range of loads and should exclude the primary load weight, but should include the varying pressure load
at least in those thermal load cases where the system goes from a startup (ambient temperature and pressure condition to
operating condition).
For the simplification, it is assumed that the Pm component due to pressure should be included in both the left and right side
of the Pm+Pl+Pb+Q < 3Sm inequality, thus assuming that the area reinforcement requirements are exactly satisfied, i.e.
Again, letting Pm = Sm and subtracting this pressure term from the “expansion” allowable (Pm + Pl + Q < 3Sm) provides a
simplified allowable limit.
The expansion (or operating, or both) loads from the CAESAR II restraint report should satisfy the computed stress
requirement:
In summary
Ensure proper nozzle reinforcement for pressure and assume pressure stresses are at their maximum.
Chapter 6 Technical Discussions 6-39
Should any of the checks described fail, then the more comprehensive analysis (described earlier) of the junction should be
performed.
6-40 Technical Discussions
The dynamic response of a linear multi-degree-of-freedom system is described by the following equation:
Where:
Assuming harmonic motion and neglecting damping, the free vibration eigenvalue problem for this system is
2
K$ - M$ =0
Where:
The modal matrix $ may be normalized such that $T M $ = I (where I is the n x n identity matrix) and $T K $ = 2
.
$ = [ $e $r ]
Where:
$e = mode shapes extracted for dynamic analysis (i.e., lowest frequency modes)
$r = residual (non-extracted) mode shapes (corresponding to rigid response, or the “missing mass”
contribution)
The extracted mode shapes are orthogonal to the residual mode shapes, or:
$eT x $r = 0
Chapter 6 Technical Discussions 6-41
The displacement components can be expressed as linear combinations of the mode shapes:
x = $Y = $e Ye + $r Yr = xe + xr
Where:
F = K $ Y = K $e Ye + K $r Yr = Fe + Fr
Where:
Normally, modal superposition analyses completely neglect the rigid response — the displacements X r caused by the load
Fr. This response, of the non-extracted modes, can be obtained from the system displacement under a static loading Fr.
Based upon the relationships stated above, Fr can be estimated as follows:
F = K $e Ye + K $r Yr
$eT F = e
2
Ye
T -2
Ye = $ e e F
As seen earlier
$T M $ 2
=I
2
=$ K$
T
Therefore, CAESAR II calculates the residual response (and includes it as the missing mass contribution) according to the
following procedure:
1 The missing mass load is calculated for each individual shock load as
F r = F - $ eT M $ e F
Note: The load vector F represents the product of the force set vector and the rigid DLF for force spectrum loading; the
product of the mass matrix, ZPA, and directional vector for non-ISM seismic loads; and the product of the mass matrix,
ZPA, and displacement matrix (under unit ISM support displacement) for seismic anchor movement loads. Note that the
missing mass load will vary, depending upon the number of modes extracted by the user and the cutoff frequency selected
(or more specifically, the DLF or acceleration corresponding to the cutoff frequency). "Rigid,” for the purposes of
determining the rigid DLF, or the ZPA, may be designated by the user, through a setup parameter, to be either the
DLF/acceleration associated with the frequency of the last extracted mode, or the true spectral DLF/ ZPA—that
corresponding to the largest entered frequency of the input spectrum.
2 The missing mass load is applied to the structure as a static load. The static structural response is then combined
(according to the user-specified combination method) with the dynamically amplified modal responses as if it were a
modal response. Actually this static response is the algebraic sum of the responses of all non-extracted modes—
representing in-phase response, as would be expected from rigid modes.
3 The Missing Mass Data report is compiled for all shock cases, whether missing mass is to be included or not. The
percent of mass active is calculated according to:
% Active Mass = 1 - ( Fr[i] / F [i])
summed over i = 1 to n
The maximum possible percent that is theoretically possible for this value is of course 100%, however numerical
inaccuracies may occasionally cause the value to be slightly higher. If the missing mass correction factor is included, the
percent of mass included in the correction is shown in the report as well.
Chapter 6 Technical Discussions 6-43
Since CAESAR II’s procedure assumes that the missing mass correction represents the contribution of rigid modes, and that
the ZPA is based upon the spectral ordinate value at the frequency of the last extracted mode, it is recommended that the
user extract modes up to, but not far beyond, a recognized “rigid” frequency. Choosing a cutoff frequency to the left of the
spectrum’s resonant peak will provide a non-conservative result, since resonant responses may be missed. Using a cutoff
frequency to the right of the peak, but still in the resonant range, will yield conservative results, since the ZPA/rigid DLF
will be overestimated. Extracting a large number of rigid modes for calculation of the dynamic response may be
conservative, since all available modal combination methods (SRSS, GROUP, ABS, etc.) give conservative results versus
the algebraic combination method which gives a more realistic representation of the net response of the rigid modes. Based
upon the response spectrum shown below, an appropriate cutoff point for the modal extraction would be about 33 Hz.
CAESAR II provides two options for combining the missing mass correction with the modal (dynamic) results—SRSS and
Absolute. The Absolute combination method of course provides the more conservative result, and is based upon the
assumption that the dynamic amplification is going to occur simultaneously with the maximum ground acceleration or force
load. Literature (References 1, 2) states that the modal and the rigid portions of the response to typical dynamic loads are
actually statistically independent, so that an SRSS Combination method is a more accurate representation of reality. For this
reason, CAESAR II’s default missing mass combination method is SRSS.
References
1 A. K. Gupta, Response Spectrum Method in Seismic Analysis and Design of Structures, CRC Press, 1990
2 K. M. Vashi, “Computation of Seismic Response from Higher Frequency Modes,” ASME 80-C2/PVP-50, 1980
3 O. E. Hansteen and K. Bell, “On the Accuracy of Mode Superposition Analysis in Structural Dynamics,” Earthquake
Engineering and Structural Dynamics, Volume 7, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., 1979
6-44 Technical Discussions
Fatigue Basics
Piping and vessels have been known to suffer from sudden failure following years of successful service. Research done
during the 1940s and 1950s (primarily advanced by A. R. C. Markl’s “Piping Flexibility Analysis,” published in 1955)
provided an explanation for this phenomenon, as well as design criteria aimed at avoiding failures of this type. The
explanation was that materials were failing due to fatigue, a process leading to the propagation of cracks, and subsequent
fracture, following repeated cyclic loading.
Steels and other metals are made up of organized patterns of molecules, known as crystal structures. However, these
patterns are not maintained throughout the steel producing an ideal homogeneous material, but are found in microscopic
isolated island-like areas called grains. Inside each grain the pattern of molecules is preserved. From one grain boundary to
the next the molecular pattern is the same, but the orientation differs. As a result, grain boundaries are high energy borders.
Plastic deformation begins within a grain that is both subject to a high stress and oriented such that the stress causes a
slippage between adjacent layers in the same pattern. The incremental slippages (called dislocations) cause local cold-
working. On the first application of the stress, dislocations will move through many of the grains that are in the local area of
high stress. As the stress is repeated, more dislocations will move through their respective grains. Dislocation movement is
impeded by the grain boundaries, so after multiple stress applications, the dislocations tend to accumulate at grain
boundaries, eventually becoming so dense that the grains “lock up,” causing a loss of ductility and thus preventing further
dislocation movement. Subsequent applications of the stress cause the grain to tear, forming cracks. Repeated stress
applications cause the cracks to grow. Unless abated, the cracks propagate with additional stress applications until sufficient
cross sectional strength is lost to cause catastrophic failure of the material.
The fatigue capacity of a material can be estimated through the application of cyclic tensile/compressive displacement loads
with a uniaxial test machine. A plot of the cyclic stress capacity of a material is called a fatigue (or endurance) curve. These
curves are generated through multiple cyclic tests at different stress levels. The number of cycles to failure usually increases
as the applied cyclic stress decreases, often until a threshold stress (known as the endurance limit) is reached below which
no fatigue failure occurs, regardless of the number of applied cycles. An endurance curve for carbon and low alloy steels,
taken from the ASME Section VIII Division 2 Pressure Vessel Code is shown in the following figure.
Chapter 6 Technical Discussions 6-45
directly from the fatigue curve. For harmonic and dynamic load cases, the calculated stress is assumed to be a zero-to-
peak cyclic value (i.e., vibration, earthquake, etc.), so the extracted allowable is divided by 2 prior to use in the
comparison.
5 Determination of the allowable number of cycles: The flip side of calculating the allowable fatigue stress for the
designated number of cycles is the calculation of the allowable number of cycles for the calculated stress level. This is
done by logarithmically interpolating the “Cycles” axis of the fatigue curve based upon the calculated stress value.
Since static stresses are assumed to be peak-to-peak cyclic values, the allowable number of cycles is interpolated
directly from the fatigue curve. Since harmonic and dynamic stresses are assumed to be zero-to-peak cyclic values, the
allowable number of cycles is interpolated using twice the calculated stress value.
6 Reporting the results: CAESAR II provides two reports for viewing the results of load cases of stress type FAT. The first
of these is the standard stress report, which displays the calculated fatigue stress and fatigue allowable at each node.
Stress reports may be generated individually for each load case, and show whether any of the individual load cases in
isolation would fail the system.
However, in those circumstances where there is more than one cyclic load case potentially contributing to fatigue failure,
the Cumulative Usage report is appropriate. In order to generate this report, the user selects all of the FAT load cases which
contribute to the overall system degradation. The Cumulative Usage report lists for each node point the usage ratio (actual
cycles divided by allowable cycles), and then sums these up for total Cumulative Usage. A total greater than 1.0 indicates a
potential fatigue failure.
In order to do a proper fatigue analysis, these should be grouped in sets of load pairs which represent the worst-case
combination of stress ranges between extreme states. These load variations can be laid out in graphical form. The figure
below shows a sketch of the various operating ranges this system experiences. Each horizontal line represents an operating
range. At the each end of each horizontal line, the temperatures and pressures defining the range are noted. At the center of
each horizontal line, the number of cycles for each range is defined.
Using this sketch of the operating ranges, the four fatigue load cases can be determined. The procedure is as follows.
Chapter 6 Technical Discussions 6-47
Case 1: Cover the absolute extreme, from –20°F and 0 psi to 500°F and 1830 psi. This occurs 200 times. As a result of this
case, the cycles for the ranges defined must be reduced by 200. The first range (-20,0 to 70,0) is reduced to zero, and has no
contribution to additional load cases. The second range (70,0 to 500,1800) is reduced to 11,800 cycles. The third and fourth
ranges are similarly reduced to 199,800 cycles.
These same steps can be used to arrive at cases 2 through 4, reducing the number of “considered” cycles at each step. This
procedure is summarized in the table below.
Segment -20, 0 to 70, 0 70, 0 to 500, 1800 500, 1700 to 500, 1800 500, 1800 to 500, 1830
Case
After 3 0 0 12,000 0
After 4 0 0 0 0
This table is then used to set the load cases as cycles between the following load values:
Between -20°F, 0 psig and 500°F, 1830 psig (200 cycles)
Between 70°F, 0 psig and 500°F, 1830 psig (11,800 cycles)
Between 500°F, 1770 psig and 500°F, 1830 psig (188,000 cycles)
Between 500°F, 1770 psig and 500°F, 1800 psig (12,000 cycles)
6-48 Technical Discussions
In this case, for A106B low carbon steel, operating at 500°F, 5-110-1A.FAT is the appropriate selection. This populates the
fatigue curve data:
The static load case builder offers a new stress type, FAT (fatigue). Selecting this stress type does the following:
1 Invites the user to define the number of cycles for the load case (dragging the FAT stress type into the load case or
pressing the Load Cycles button opens the Load Cycles field),
2 Causes the stress range to be calculated as per the fatigue stress method of the governing code (currently this is stress
intensity for all codes except IGE/TD/12).
3 Causes the calculated stress range to be compared to the full value extracted from the fatigue curve, and
4 Indicates that the load case may be included in the Cumulative Usage report.
The last four load cases represent the load set pairs defined earlier.
Chapter 6 Technical Discussions 6-51
Example with Fatigue Load Cases Defined in the Load Case Editor
Once the job has been run, note that the presence of a FAT stress type adds the Cumulative Usage report to the list of
available reports.
6-52 Technical Discussions
However, this is not a true evaluation of the situation, because it is not a case of “either-or.” The piping system is subjected
to all of these load cases throughout its expected design life, not just one of them. Therefore, we must review the
Cumulative Usage report, which shows the total effect of all fatigue load cases (or any combination selected by the user)
on the design life of the system. This report lists for each load case the expected number of cycles, the allowable number of
cycles (based upon the calculated stress), and the Usage Ratio (actual cycles divided by allowable cycles). The Usage Ratios
are then summed for all selected load cases; if this sum exceeds 1.0, the system has exceeded its fatigue capabilities. In this
case, it is apparent that the sum of all of the cyclic loadings at node 115 can be expected to fail this system:
For other dynamic applications (response spectrum and time history), the stress type may be identified as fatigue by
selecting the stress type from the drop list for the Load Case or Static/Dynamic Combination, and by entering the number of
expected cycles in the provided field.
Note that as with the harmonic analyses, the calculated stresses are assumed to be zero-to-peak calculations, so they are
compared to only half of the stress value extracted from the fatigue curve. Likewise, when creating the Cumulative Usage
report, the number of allowable cycles is based upon twice the calculated stress.
Chapter 6 Technical Discussions 6-57
This text file can be created using any available text editor. Any line beginning with an asterisk is treated as a comment
line. It is highly recommended that comment lines be used so that the data can be related back to a specific material curve.
The first actual data line in the file is a stress multiplier. This value is used to adjust the data values from “zero to peak” to
“peak to peak” and/or to convert the stress levels to psi (the entered values will be divided by this number -- i.e., if the stress
values in the file represent a stress amplitude, in psi, rather than a range, this "stress multiplier should be 0.5). Following
this line is the fatigue curve data table. This table consists of eight lines, of two columns. The first column is the Cycle
column, the second column is the Stress column. For each value in the cycle column, the corresponding stress value from
the material fatigue curve should be listed in the stress column.
Fatigue curves intended for use in the IGE/TD/12 code are built slightly different. The first data line contains not one, but
three values: the “stress multiplier” described above, a “modulus of elasticity correction”, and a “modulus of elasticity
multiplier” (the correction factor is divided by this to convert to psi) – upon file read, the “modulus of elasticity correction”
is inserted into the appropriate field on the fatigue curve screen. Furthermore, the IGE/TD/12 fatigue files include five
fatigue curves (sequentially Fatigue Class D, E, F, G, and W), rather than one. Optional comment lines may be used to
separate the tables – these comments aid in the readability of the data file. The format of the IGE/TD/12 fatigue files can
best be determined by reviewing the contents of the file TD12ST.FAT.
In all tables, the number of cycles increases as you work down the table. If there is not enough data to utilize all eight lines,
unused lines should be populated with zeroes.
6-58 Technical Discussions
Where,
Sh = Hoop stress
Sa = Axial stress
Sq = Shear stress
"This should be used for establishing the range of stress, due regard being paid to the direction and sign." For all other
piping codes in CAESAR II, the fatigue stress is computed as the stress intensity, as follows:
Where:
For fiberglass reinforced plastic (FRP) and other composite piping materials, the situation is not the same. Fiberglass
reinforced plastic was developed only as recently as the 1950’s, and did not come into wide spread use until a decade later
(Reference 3). There is not a large base of stress analysis experience, although not from a lack of commitment on the part of
FRP vendors. Most vendors conduct extensive stress testing on their components, including hydrostatic and cyclic pressure,
uniaxial tensile and compressive, bending, and combined loading tests. The problem is due to the traditional difficulty
associated with, and lack of understanding of, stress analysis of heterogeneous materials. First, the behavior and failure
modes of these materials are highly complex and not fully understood, leading to inexact analytical methods, and a general
lack of agreement on the best course of action to follow. This lack of agreement has slowed the simplification and
standardization of the analytical methods into universally recognized codes (BS 7159 Code (Design and Construction of
Glass Reinforced Plastics Piping Systems for Individual Plants or Sites) and UKOOA Specification and
Recommended Practice for the Use of GRP Piping Offshore being notable exceptions). Secondly, the heterogeneous,
orthotropic behavior of FRP and other composite materials has hindered the use of the pipe stress analysis algorithms
developed for homogeneous, isotropic materials associated with crystalline structures. A lack of generally accepted
analytical procedures has contributed to a general reluctance to use FRP piping for critical applications.
Stress analysis of FRP components must be viewed on many levels. These levels, or scales, have been called “Micro-Mini-
Macro” levels, with analysis proceeding along the levels according to the “MMM” principle (Reference 4).
Micro-Level Analysis
Stress analysis on the “Micro” level refers to the detailed evaluation of the individual materials and boundary mechanisms
comprising the composite material. In general, FRP pipe is manufactured from laminates, which are constructed from
elongated fibers of a commercial grade of glass (called E-glass), which are coated with a coupling agent or sizing prior to
being embedded in a thermosetting plastic material, typically epoxy or polyester resin.
This means, on the micro scale, that an analytical model must be created which simulates the interface between these
elements. Since the number and orientation of fibers is unknown at any given location in the FRP sample, the simplest
representation of the micro-model is that of a single fiber, extending the length of the sample, embedded in a square profile
of matrix.
It must be considered that these material parameters may vary for an individual material based upon tensile, compressive, or
shear applications of the imposed stresses, and typical values vary significantly between the fiber and matrix (Reference 5):
Chapter 6 Technical Discussions 6-61
3 3 -3
2.75 x 10 7.0x 10 7.0 x 10
%f = %m = af / Ef = am / Em
af = am Ef / Em
Where:
Due to the large ratio of the modulus of elasticity of the fiber to that of the matrix, it is apparent that nearly all of the axial
normal stress in the fiber-matrix composite is carried by the fiber. Exact values are (Reference 6):
af = L / [ + (1- )Em/Ef]
am = L / [ Em/Ef + (1- )]
Where:
The continuity equations for the glass-matrix composite seem less complex for normal stresses perpendicular to the fibers,
since the weak point of the material seems to be limited by the glass-free cross-section shown in the following figure.
For this reason, it would appear that the strength of the composite would be equal to that of the matrix for stresses in this
direction; in fact, its strength is less than that of the matrix due to stress intensification in the matrix caused by the irregular
stress distribution in the vicinity of the stiffer glass. (Since the elongation over distance D1 must be equal to that over the
longer distance D2, the strain, and thus the stress at location D1 must exceed that at D2 by the ratio D2/D1.) Maximum
intensified transverse normal stresses in the composite are:
'
(1 )1.25 + ( Em E f ) /(1 Vm2 )
!
=
(1 + 0.85 2 )[1 ( (2 ( 3 )1 ( Em E f )(1 Vm2 )]
Where:
Note: Because of the Poisson effect, this stress produces an additional s'’am equal to the following:
am = Vm
Shear stress can be allocated to the individual components again through the use of continuity equations; it would appear
that the stiffer glass would resist the bulk of the shear stresses; however, unless the fibers are infinitely long, all shears must
Chapter 6 Technical Discussions 6-63
eventually pass through the matrix in order to get from fiber to fiber. Shear stress between fiber and matrix can be estimated
as
T(1-p)1.25 +p(G m /G f )
qo =
(1+0.6rp 2 )1-r( 2rp3 l)1-(G m /G f )
Where:
Determination of the stresses in the fiber-matrix interface is more complex. The bonding agent has an inappreciable
thickness, and thus has an indeterminate stiffness for consideration in the continuity equations. Also, the interface behaves
significantly differently in shear, tension, and compression, showing virtually no effects from the latter. The state of the
stress in the interface is best solved by omitting its contribution from the continuity equations, and simply considering that it
carries all stresses which must be transferred from fiber to matrix.
Once the stresses have been apportioned, they must be evaluated against appropriate failure criteria. The behavior of
homogeneous, isotropic materials such as glass and plastic resin, under a state of multiple stress is better understood. A
failure criterion for isotropic material reduces the combined normal and shear stresses (sa, sb, sc, tab, tac, tbc) to a single stress,
an “equivalent stress,” which can be compared to the tensile stress present at failure in a material under uniaxial loading, i.e.
the ultimate tensile stress, Sult.
Different theories, and different equivalent stress functions f(sa, sb, sc, tab, tac, tbc) have been proposed, with possibly the most
widely accepted being the Huber-von Mises-Hencky criterion, which states that failure will occur when the equivalent stress
reaches a critical value – the ultimate strength of the material:
2 2 2 2 2 2
eq = *{1/2 [( a - b) +( a - c) +( b - c) ] + 6()ab + )ac + )bc )} Sult
This theory does not fully cover all failure modes of the fiber, in that it omits reference to direction of stress (i.e., tensile vs.
Compressive). The fibers, being relatively long and thin, predominantly demonstrate buckling as their failure mode when
loaded in compression.
6-64 Technical Discussions
The equivalent stress failure criterion has been corroborated (with slightly non-conservative results) by testing. Little is
known about the failure mode of the adhesive interface, although empirical evidence points to a failure criterion which is
more of a linear relationship between the normal and the square of the shear stresses. Failure testing of a composite material
loaded only in transverse normal and shear stresses are shown in the following figure; the kink in the curve shows the
transition from the matrix to the interface as the failure point.
Mini-Level Analysis
Although feasible in concept, micro level analysis is not feasible in practice. This is due to the uncertainty of the
arrangement of the glass in the composite—the thousands of fibers which may be randomly distributed, semi-randomly
oriented (although primarily in a parallel pattern), and of randomly varying lengths. This condition indicates that a sample
can truly be evaluated only on a statistical basis, thus rendering detailed finite element analysis inappropriate.
For mini-level analysis, a laminate layer is considered to act as a continuous (hence the common reference to this method as
the “continuum” method) material, with material properties and failure modes estimated by integrating them over the
assumed cross-sectional distribution, i.e., averaging. The assumption regarding the distribution of the fibers can have a
Chapter 6 Technical Discussions 6-65
marked effect on the determination of the material parameters; two of the most commonly postulated distributions are the
square and the hexagonal, with the latter generally considered as being a better representation of randomly distributed
fibers.
The stress-strain relationships, for those sections evaluated as continua, can be written as:
%ab = )ab / 2 GL
%bc = )bc / 2 GT
%ac = )ac / 2 GL
Where:
These relationships require that four modules of elasticity (EL, ET, GL, and GT) and two Poisson’s ratios (VL and VT) to be
evaluated for the continuum. Extensive research (References 4 - 10) has been done to estimate these parameters. There is
general consensus that the longitudinal terms can be explicitly calculated; for cases where the fibers are significantly stiffer
than the matrix, they are:
EL = EF + EM(1 - )
GL = GM + / [ 1 / (GF - GM) + (1 - ) / (2GM)]
VL = VF + VM(1 - )
Parameters in the transverse direction cannot be calculated; only their upper and lower bounds can. Correlations with
empirical results have yielded approximations (Reference 5 and 6):
1.25
GT = GM (1 + 0.6* ) / [(1 - ) + (GM/GF)]
VT = VL (EL / ET)
Use of these parameters permits the development of the homogeneous material models which facilitate the calculation of
longitudinal and transverse stresses acting on a laminate layer. The resulting stresses may be allocated to the individual
fibers and matrix using relationships developed during the micro analysis.
6-66 Technical Discussions
Macro-Level Analysis
Where Mini-level analysis provides the means of evaluation of individual laminate layers, Macro-level analysis provides the
means of evaluating components made up of multiple laminate layers. It is based upon the assumption that not only the
composite behaves as a continuum, but that the series of laminate layers acts as a homogeneous material with properties
estimated based on the properties of the layer and the winding angle, and that finally, failure criteria are functions of the
level of equivalent stress.
Laminate properties may be estimated by summing the layer properties (adjusted for winding angle) over all layers. For
example
Where:
Once composite properties are determined, the component stiffness parameters may be determined as though it were made
of homogeneous material – i.e., based on component cross-sectional and composite material properties
Normal and shear stresses can be determined from 1) forces and moments acting on the cross-sections, and 2) the cross-
sectional properties themselves. These relationships can be written as
Where:
Using the relationships developed under macro, mini, and micro analysis, these stresses can be resolved back into local
stresses within the laminate layer, and from there, back into stresses within the fiber and the matrix. From these, the failure
criteria of those microscopic components, and hence, the component as a whole, may be checked.
BS 7159 uses methods and formulas familiar to the world of steel piping stress analysis in order to calculate stresses on the
cross-section, with the assumption that FRP components have material parameters based on continuum evaluation or test.
All coincident loads, such as thermal, weight, pressure, and axial extension due to pressure need be evaluated
simultaneously. Failure is based on the equivalent stress calculation method; since one normal stress (radial stress) is
traditionally considered to be negligible in typical piping configurations, this calculation reduces to the greater of (except
when axial stresses are compressive):
2 2
S eq = Sx + 4t
(when axial stress is greater than hoop)
2 2
S eq = Sh + 4t
(when hoop stress is greater than axial)
A slight difficulty arises when evaluating the calculated stress against an allowable, due to the orthotropic nature of the FRP
piping – normally the laminate is designed in such a way to make the pipe much stronger in the hoop, than in the
longitudinal, direction, providing more than one allowable stress. This is resolved by defining the allowable in terms of a
design strain ed, rather than stress, in effect adjusting the stress allowable in proportion to the strength in each direction –
i.e., the allowable stresses for the two equivalent stresses above would be (ed ELAMX) and (ed ELAMH) respectively. In
lieu of test data, system design strain is selected from Tables 4.3 and 4.4 of the Code, based on expected chemical and
temperature conditions.
6-68 Technical Discussions
Where:
Vfx = Poisson’s ratio giving strain in longitudinal direction caused by stress in circumferential direction
%R = design strain in circumferential direction
ELAMR = modulus of elasticity in circumferential direction
BS 7159 also dictates the means of calculating flexibility and stress intensification (k- and i-) factors for bend and tee
components, for use during the flexibility analysis.
6-70 Technical Discussions
BS 7159 imposes a number of limitations on its use, the most notable being the limitation of a system to a design pressure
of 10 bar, the restriction to the use of designated design laminates, and the limited applicability of the k- and i- factor
calculations to pipe bends (i.e., mean wall thickness around the intrados must be 1.75 times the nominal thickness or less).
Rather than explicitly calculating a combined stress, the specification defines an idealized envelope of combinations of axial
and hoop stresses which cause the equivalent stress to reach failure. This curve represents the plot of:
6-72 Technical Discussions
2 2
( x / x-all) + ( hoop / hoop-all) - [ x hoop / ( x-all hoop-all)] 1.0
Where:
The Specification conservatively limits the user to that part of the curve falling under the line between x-all (also known as
sa(0:1)) and the intersection point on the curve where hoop is twice sx-(a natural condition for a pipe loaded only with
pressure), as shown in the following figure.
An implicit modification to this requirement is the fact that pressure stresses are given a factor of safety (typically equal to
2/3) while other loads are not. This gives an explicit requirement of
Pdes f1 f2 f3 LTHP
Where:
Pdes = allowable design pressure
f1 = factor of safety for 97.5% lower confidence limit, usually 0.85
f2 = system factor of safety, usually 0.67
f3 = ratio of residual allowable, after mechanical loads
b
= 1 - (2 a ) / (r f1 LTHS)
b
a = axial bending stress due to mechanical loads
r = aa(0:1) / a(2:1)
b
a(0:1) = long term axial tensile strength in absence of pressure load
a(2:1) = long term axial tensile strength under only pressure loading
LTHS = long term hydrostatic strength (hoop stress allowable)
LTHP = long term hydrostatic pressure allowable
Note: This has been implemented in the CAESAR II pipe stress analysis software as:
Where:
P = design pressure
D = pipe mean diameter
t = pipe wall thickness
and i-factors for bends are to be taken from the BS 7159 Code, while no such factors are to be used for
tees.
The UKOOA Specification is limited in that shear stresses are ignored in the evaluation process; no consideration is given
to conditions where axial stresses are compressive; and most required calculations are not explicitly detailed.
FRP material parameters corresponding to those of many vendors’ lines are provided with CAESAR II and may be pre-
selected by the user to be the default values whenever FRP piping is used. Other options, as to whether the BS 7159
pressure stiffening requirements should be carried out using design strain or actual strain can be set in CAESAR II’s con-
figuration module as well.
Where:
The shear modulus of the material is required in ordered to develop the stiffness matrix; in CAESAR II, this value, expressed
as a ratio of the axial modulus of elasticity, is brought in from the pre-selected material, or can be changed on a problem-
wise basis using the special execution parameter screen accessed by the Environment “menu” from the piping spreadsheet
(see figure). This screen also shows the coefficient of thermal expansion (extracted from the vendor file or entered by the
user) for the material, as well as the default laminate type, as defined by the BS 7159 Code:
Type 1 – All chopped strand mat (CSM) construction with an internal and an external surface tissue reinforced layer.
Type 2 – Chopped strand mat (CSM) and woven roving (WR) construction with an internal and an external surface
tissue reinforced layer.
Type 3 – Chopped strand mat (CSM) and multi-filament roving construction with an internal and an external surface
tissue reinforced layer.
The latter is used during the calculation of flexibility and stress intensification factors for piping bends.
Bend and tee information may be entered easily through use of auxiliary spreadsheets. Bend radius and laminate type may
be changed on a bend by bend basis, as shown in the corresponding figure. BS 7159 fabricated and moulded tee types are
specified by defining CAESAR II tee types 1 and 3 respectively at intersection points. CAESAR II automatically calculates the
appropriate flexibility and stress intensification factors for these fittings as per code requirements.
Required code data may be entered on the Allowables auxiliary spreadsheet; with the program providing fields for CODE
(both number 27 – BS 7159 and 28 – UKOOA are available). After selection of BS 7159, CAESAR II provides fields for
entry of the following code parameters:
Chapter 6 Technical Discussions 6-77
After selection of UKOOA, CAESAR II provides fields for entry of the following code parameters:
These parameters need only be entered a single time, unless they change at some point in the system.
Performing the analysis is even simpler than the system modeling. CAESAR II evaluates the operating parameters and
automatically builds the appropriate load cases; in this case three are built:
Operating (includes pipe and fluid weight, temperature, equipment displacements, pressure, etc.). This case is used to
determine maximum code stress/strain, operational equipment nozzle and restraint loads, hot displacements, etc.
Cold (same as above, except excluding temperature and equipment movements). This case is used to determine cold
equipment nozzle and restraint loads.
Expansion (cyclic stress range between the cold and hot case). This case may be used to evaluate fatigue criteria as per
paragraph 4.3.4 of the BS 7159 Code.
After analyzing the response of the system under these loads, CAESAR II presents the user with a menu of possible output
reports. Reports may be designated by selecting a combination of load case and results type (displacements, restraint loads,
element forces and moments, and stresses). From the stress report, the user can determine at a glance whether the system
passed or failed the stress criteria.
For UKOOA code, the piping is considered to be within allowables when the operating stress falls within the idealized
stress envelope (indicated by the straight line in the following figure).
Chapter 6 Technical Discussions 6-79
Conclusion
A reliable, powerful, yet easy to use, pipe stress analysis program with world wide acceptance is now available for
evaluation of FRP piping systems as per the requirements of the most sophisticated FRP piping codes. This means that
access to the same analytical methods and tools long enjoyed by engineers using steel pipe is available to any potential user
of FRP piping – ensuring that design.
References
1 Cross, Wilbur, An Authorized History of the ASME Boiler an Pressure Vessel Code, ASME, 1990
2 Olson, J. and Cramer, R., “Pipe Flexibility Analysis Using IBM 705 Computer Program MEC 21, Mare Island Report
277-59,” 1959
3 Fiberglass Pipe Handbook, Composites Institute of the Society of the Plastics Industry, 1989
4 Hashin, Z., “Analysis of Composite Materials – a Survey,” Journal of Applied Mechanics, Sept. 1983
5 Greaves, G., “Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic Pipe Design,” Ciba-Geigy Pipe Systems
6 Puck, A. and Schneider, W., “On Failure Mechanisms and Failure Criteria of Filament-Wound Glass-Fibre/Resin
Composites,” Plastics and Polymers, Feb. 1969
7 Hashin, Z., “The Elastic Moduli of Heterogeneous Materials,” Journal of Applied Mechanics, March 1962
8 Hashin, Z. and Rosen, B. Walter, “The Elastic Moduli of Fibre Reinforced Materials,” Journal of Applied Mechanics,
June 1964
9 Whitney, J. M. and Riley, M. B., “Elastic Properties of Fiber Reinforced Composite Materials,” AIAA Journal, Sept.
1966
6-80 Technical Discussions
10 Walpole, L. J., “Elastic Behavior of Composite Materials: Theoretical Foundations,” Advances in Applied Mechanics,
Volume 21, Academic Press, 1989
11 BS 7159: 1989 – British Standard Code of Practice for Design and Construction of Glass Reinforced Plastics (GRP)
Piping Systems for Individual Plants or Sites
12 UK Offshore Operators Association Specification and Recommended Practice for the Use of GRP Piping Offshore —
1994
Chapter 6 Technical Discussions 6-81
Chapter 2 (see "Configuration and Environment" on page 2-1) of the Technical Reference Manual gives details about the
various parameters that can be used in the CAESAR II setup file. Many of these parameters are discussed from an
“application point-of-view” in the text that follows. Users not familiar with the setup file should see Chapter 2 (see
"Configuration and Environment" on page 2-1) of the Technical Reference Manual.
An SIF of 2.3 is used for threaded joints for all codes. An SIF of 1.2 is used for double welded slip-on flanges for all codes.
An SIF of 1.6 is used for lap joint flanges with B16.9 stub ends for all codes.
The only piping codes that cannot take advantage of the WRC 329 options, or the option to use the ASME NC and ND rules
for reduced intersections, are BS806 and the Swedish Power Method 1. These codes have no provision for using the
effective section modulus, and any extrapolation of the ASME methods into these codes at this time is considered
unwarranted.
The Weld ID on the SIF & TEE Auxiliary field is used in the calculation of the Bonney Forge Sweepolet and Bonney
Forge Insert Weldolet. If the user can be sure that the welds for these fittings will be finished or dressed, then the
specification of the Weld ID will result in lower stress intensification factors.
Bend SIF overrides by the user affect the entire cross section of the bend, and as such cannot be specified for only a single
point on the bend curvature. The user’s defined SIF should be specified for the bend “TO” node. CAESAR II will then apply
this SIF, (in place of the code’s SIF) over the entire bend curvature, i.e. from weldline to weldline.
The default fiberglass-reinforced plastic (FRP) bend and intersection SIF is 2.3. This value is used for all bends and for all
intersections unless otherwise modified by the user. Flexibility factors for FRP bends are 1.0. Users modifying these values
are cautioned that SIFs generated from steel fatigue tests may not be applicable as a basis for SIFs for FRP fittings.
At this time stress intensification factors cannot be less than 1.0. Because original SIF work used girth butt welds as a basis,
some manufacturers are generating SIFs for their fittings that are less than 1.0 implying that the fitting is stronger than a
girth butt weld. CAESAR II does not permit the use of these reduced SIFs at this time.
The REDUCED_INTERSECTION calculations discussed at length in the following text apply whenever d/D < 0.975.
Where (d) is the outside diameter of the branch, and (D) is the outside diameter of the header.
WRC 329 for the codes: B31.3, B31.4, B31.11, and B31.1 (1967) does the following:
1 Include torsional stresses in all stress calculations, (i.e. Sustained and Occasional)
2 Use a torsional SIF of (r/R) io.
3 Compute i(ib) from: 0.6(R/T)**2/3 [1+0.5(r/R)**3](r/rp)
4 For i(ob) use 1.5(R/T)**2/3 (r/R)**1/2 (r/rp), and i(ob)(t/T)>1.5
when (r/R) < 0.9., use 0.9(R/T)**2/3 (r/rp), and i(ob)(t/T)>1.0
when (r/R) = 1.0, and use interpolation when 1.0 > (r/R) > 0.9
5 For ir use 0.8 (R/T)**2/3 (r/R), and ir > 2.1
6-82 Technical Discussions
6 If a radius at the junction is provided greater than the larger of t/2 or T/2, then the calculated SIFs may be divided by
2.0, but with ib>1.5 and ir>1.5.
WRC 329/330 for the codes: B31.1, B31.8, ASME III NC & ND, Navy 505, Z183, Z184, and Swedish Method 2, do the
following:
Bonney Forge Sweepolets tend to be a little more conservative because they are used for fittings in the Nuclear industry.
The Bonney Forge Sweepolet equations can generate SIFs less than one because they are stronger than the girth butt weld
used as the unity basis for the code fitting SIFs. CAESAR II does not permit SIFs of less than 1.0. If a Bonney Forge
Sweepolet SIF is generated that is less than 1.0, 1.0 will be used.
Even though CAESAR II allows the specification of two element intersections, the user cannot specify two SIFs at a single
node and get an increased SIF. For example a socketweld SIF and an intersection SIF cannot be specified at the same point.
For two element joints the largest diameter and the smallest T is used when discrepancies exist between the two adjoining
pipes. When the two element fitting is a socket weld then the largest T is used. These selections are made to generate the
largest SIFs and thus the most conservative stress calculations for under specified fittings.
Note: The mismatch given for girth butt welds is the average mismatch and not the maximum mismatch. Users must
make sure that any maximum mismatch requirements are satisfied themselves.
If a fillet leg is given in conjunction with a socket weld SIF definition, then both socket weld types result in the same SIF.
The B31.3 sustained case SIF factor in the setup file affects all of the following codes: B31.4, B31.8, B31.11, Navy 505,
Z662, and B31.1 (1967). The default for the B31.3_SUS_CASE_SIF_FACTOR=1.0.
The calculation for the corroded effective section modulus is made from (pi)(r2)te where (r) is the average cross sectional
radius of the non-corroded pipe and (te) is the corroded thickness. The thickness (te) is selected based on the noncorroded
thicknesses of the branch and header, i.e. the lesser of Th and iTb. The resulting value has the corrosion subtracted from it
before the effective section modulus calculation is made.
The Maximum Shear Stress is always calculated with the corroded wall thickness, regardless of the setting of the
ALL_STRESS_CASES_CORRODED flag in the setup file.
If different piping codes are used in one job the code reported at the top of the output stress report will be the code that was
last encountered during model input. SIFs, allowables and code equations are all computed in accordance with the code that
is varying with the input.
The following piping codes do not, by default, include torsion in the sustained or occasional stress calculations:
B31.4 Z662
B31.11 GPTC/Z380
Chapter 6 Technical Discussions 6-83
Torsion is not added because these codes instruct the user to add the “longitudinal stresses” due to weight, pressure and
other sustained loadings. Torsional shear stresses are not longitudinal stresses. The user can request that torsion be added
into the sustained and occasional stress equations by putting the parameter: ADD_TORSION_IN_SL_STRESS=YES in the
setup file. The torsion stress is still however not intensified, as it is in the power piping codes. This lack of intensification is
considered an oversight, and is corrected in WRC 329. The user can implement this fix in his running of any of the above
codes by putting the parameter: USE_WRC330 in the setup file.
Note that the radius given in CAESAR II is always the equivalent “closely spaced miter” radius. The radius calculation given
for widely spaced miters in the piping codes is only to be used when the user breaks the widely spaced miter bend down into
individual single cut miters as recommended.
B31.1 and the ASME Section III piping codes provide stress intensification factors for reduced branch ends. None of the
other piping codes provide these SIFs. The REDUCED INTERSECTION=<option> parameter in the setup file allows the
user of other piping codes to access these improved SIFs for reduced fittings. Users taking advantage of this option should
review the notes associated with the B31.1 and the ASME Section III codes that follow to make sure that any other
parameters or input associated with the reduced intersection calculations are set as necessary.
When the user requests pressure stiffening for those codes that do not normally provide it, the pressure stiffening is applied
for all bends and for both miter types.
The defaults for the occasional load factor from the setup file used in the evaluation of the allowable stress, is given in the
text that follows for each of the piping codes.
B31.1: The occasional load factor is 1.15.
B31.3: The occasional load factor is 1.33.
B31.4: This is 0.8Sy as defined in the most recent edition of B31.4. OCC does not affect a B31.4 analysis in CAESAR II.
B31.5: The occasional load factor is 1.33.
B31.8: An occasional case is not specifically defined. If the user enters an OCC load case the allowable will default to
1.0 times the sustained allowable stress, i.e. OCC=1.0
B31.11: This is 0.88Sy as defined in the most recent edition of B31.11 OCC does not affect a B31.11 analysis in
CAESAR II.
ASME Section III NC and ND: The default value of OCC is 1.2 so, the occasional stress allowable is 1.8 (1.2 X 1.5) Sh
but not greater than 1.5 Sy. If OCC is set to 1.5 or 2.0, the allowable is set to the minimum of 2.25 Sh/1.8 Sy (Level C)
or 3.0 Sh/2.0Sy (Level D). Note in the latter two cases, Sm should be entered for Sh.
Navy 505: Occasional cases are not addressed but will default to the method used in B31.1, and an OCC value of 1.15
will be used as the default.
Z662: Occasional cases not defined, but if entered by the user the allowable for the case will default to 1.0 times the
sustained allowable.
BS806: The occasional load case is not defined. If entered the allowable stress for the OCC load case will be K Sh, (the
occasional load factor times the sustained allowable). The default for “k” is 1.0.
Swedish Method 1: OCC is not used. The load cases are not differentiated. The same allowable Sigma(ber)/1.5 is used
for all load cases.
Swedish Method 2: An OCC default of 1.2 as recommended in the Swedish Piping Code is used.
B31.1(1967): OCC default is 1.15.
Stoomwezen: OCC default is 1.2.
RCC-M C&D: OCC default is 1.2.
CODETI: OCC default is 1.15.
NORWEGIAN: OCC default is 1.2.
FBDR: OCC default is 1.15
BS 7159: The occasional load case is not defined.
6-84 Technical Discussions
Intersections are not “FULL” intersections in CAESAR II whenever the branch outside diameter is less than 0.975 times the
header outside diameter.
When there are multiple piping codes in the same piping job, and a piping code change occurs at an intersection, if the
intersection is completely defined with three pipes framing into the intersection then the piping code used to generate the
SIF equations will be that one associated with the first header pipe framing into the intersection. If the intersection is only
partially defined, then the piping code will be selected from the first pipe framing into the intersection point.
The material, thermal expansion, and modulus of elasticity data are for the B31 piping codes. Users may enter their own
material and thermal expansion properties if desired.
There is a small difference between USE_WRC330 and REDUCED_INTERSECTION =WRC330. The first applies for all
full and reduced intersections that are not welding tees or reinforced tees. The latter applies only for reduced fittings that are
not welding tees or reinforced fabricated tees. A fitting is reduced when d/D is less than 0.975.
The Bonney Forge SIF Data came from the technical flyer: “Bonney Forge Stress Intensification Factors” Bulletin 789/SI-1,
Copyright 1976.
The ASME piping codes primarily combine moments for thermal expansion stresses. When there is any tendency for large
axial forces to exist in the pipe these code equations are not adequate. An example of this is for a buried, or partially buried
pipe. Here the axial stresses can be very high. B31.4 directs the user to compute a longitudinal stress for completely
restrained pipe. CAESAR II allows the user to specify just how much of the pipe is buried. This longitudinal stress is then
added to the stress calculations for thermal and will contribute to a failure prediction that might have otherwise been
ignored. Similar effects can be achieved in CAESAR II by using the axial soil restraint and telling the setup file to include
F/A components in the stress calculations. Users should be aware that for any type of problem, if large axial loads are
developed because of the design, the piping code may not be adequately considering it.
Code-Specific Notes
B31.1
Pressure stiffening is implemented by default. Users may deactivate pressure stiffening for B31.1 runs by entering the
parameter USE_PRESSURE_STIFFENING=NO in the setup file.
Modifications resulting from flanged ends are permitted in the code providing the bend is not a widely spaced miter.
B31.1 does not by default add F/A into the stress calculation. F/A and the pressure stresses are added to the bending stress
(whether the tensile or compressive component of bending), to produce the largest longitudinal stress component. This is
true for all codes insofar as the addition of axial and pressure terms are concerned. The user can cause CAESAR II to include
the axial force terms into the code stress by inserting the parameter ADD_F/ A_IN_STRESS=YES to the setup file. The
F/A forces discussed here are structural forces developed in the piping independent of pressure PD/4t forces.
Chapter 6 Technical Discussions 6-85
In 1980 B31.1 added a reduced branch stress intensification factor equation to Appendix D. This equation came directly
from ASME Section III. B31.1 continued however to use the effective section modulus calculation for the branch. The
ASME Section III rules clearly stated that the branch section modulus, NOT the effective section modulus should be used
with the new SIF. B31.1’s using of the effective section modulus produced unnecessarily high calculated stresses. This error
was corrected in the 1989 version of B31.1. Prior to Version 3.0 CAESAR II users had two options:
Use the pre-1980 version of the B31.1 SIF rules.
Use the very conservative, post-1980 B31.1 SIF rules.
In version 3.0 (and later) these options also exist, except that the section modulus problem is corrected. For users that wish
to run version 3.0 (and later) just like they ran version 2.2, i.e. without the section modulus correction, they can do so by
putting the parameter: B31.1_REDUCED_Z_FIX=NO in the setup file.
The reduced intersection branch SIFs were not intended for reinforced or welding tees. Conservative results are produced,
but the original researchers did not intend for the SIFs to be used for these fittings. The CAESAR II user can disable the
reduced branch fitting calculations for reinforced or welded tees by putting the parameter
NO_REDUCED_SIF_FOR_RFT_AND_WLT in the setup file. This will produce less conservative results, but can, in some
cases be justified.
B31.1 102.3.2 (c) tells the user to divide the allowable stresses coming from the stress tables in Appendix A by the
applicable weld joint factors listed in Para. 102.4.3.
Where:
Inplane and outplane stress intensification factors for intersections are kept the same in the B31.1 stress calculation.
The B31.1 criteria “B” length for closely spaced miters is not checked by CAESAR II.
For reducers B31.1 states that the Flexibility Factor is 1.0. The code also states that SIF is: 2.0 max or 0.5 + .01*alpha*
SQRT(D2/t2)
Where D1 and t1 are the diameter and thickness of the large end and D2 and t2 are the diameter and thickness of the small
end.
Where:
Alpha = atan[ 0.5 * (D1-D2) / (0.60 * length of the sloped portion of the reducer) ]
Tip: Alpha is the slope of the reducer transition in degrees. If left blank, the value will be set from an
6-86 Technical Discussions
estimated slope equal to the arc tangent times 1/2 the change in diameters times sixty percent of the
entered reducer length.
Note: Alpha cannot exceed 60° and the larger of D1/t1 and D2/t2 can not exceed 100.
B31.3
Modifications resulting from flanged ends are permitted in the code providing the bend is not a widely spaced miter.
Inplane and outplane stress intensification factors for intersections are kept separate and unique.
Since the B31.3 piping code gives the equation for the expansion stress explicitly, and since that equation does not include
the longitudinal stress due to axial loads in the pipe, CAESAR II does not include the F/A component of the stress in the
expansion stress equation. (The code also says that the user may wish to add in the F/A component where it may be
significant.) Users can change this by placing the parameter: ADD_F/ A_IN_STRESS=YES to the setup file. The F/A
longitudinal stress component are by default added to the code stress component for all other stress categories.
The SIF for a girth butt weld is taken as 1.0, as this was Markl’s original basis for SIFs.
No differentiation is made between socket welds with and without “undercut.” Codes that do differentiate use 1.3 for socket
welds with no undercut, and 2.1 for all others. An SIF of 1.3 is used for all B31.3 socket welds (unless a fillet weld leg
length is specified).
Where:
For B31.3 the flag ALL_STRESS_CASES_CORRODED=NO flag in the setup file returns the corroded stress calculations
to the way they were performed in the 2.2 version of CAESAR II. The corrosion is removed from the sustained and
occasional stress calculations.
See Chapter 2 of the Technical Reference Manual for the setup file parameter B31.3_SUS_CASE_SIF_FACTOR=<nnn>.
This value can have a considerable impact on the sustained case stress calculations.
For reducers B31.3 states that the Flexibility Factor is 1.0. The code also states that SIF is 1.0.
Chapter 6 Technical Discussions 6-87
B31.4
Pressure stiffening is automatically included as directed per the code. Users may turn pressure stiffening off by including
the parameter USE_PRESSURE_STIFFENING=NO in the setup file.
Modifications resulting from flanged ends are permitted in the code providing the bend is not a widely spaced miter.
The SIF for a girth butt weld is taken as 1.0, as this was Markl’s original basis for SIFs.
Inplane and outplane stress intensification factors for intersections are kept separate and unique.
Where:
B31.4 does not use EFF, (found in the Allowable Stress Auxiliary field). The minimum yield stress is all that is required to
compute flexibility stress allowables.
B31.4 has no provision for using an effective section modulus calculation at intersections.
B31.4 does not include a provision for the liberal allowable. This particular option is not used for B31.4 stress allowable
calculations. The occasional load factor (used in the other piping codes for determining the allowable stress for occasional
load sets) is not used in B31.4, as the allowable stress is expressly given as 0.8 times the minimum yield stress.
CAESAR II assumes that 419.6.4(b) establishes a requirement for the allowable operating stress at 90% of Sy; when the net
axial stress is compressive (i.e., when longitudinal pressure stresses can be ignored in underground pipes). The last sentence
in the paragraph establishes that: “Beam bending stresses shall be included in the longitudinal stress for those portions of the
restrained line which are supported above ground.” CAESAR II users have two options for including this axial stress in their
analyses:
1 Include axial friction restraints and include the ADD_F/A parameter into the setup file. Set the “fac” value to 0.001 to
indicate that the line is buried, so longitudinal pressure stresses are not present, so the hoop stress component must be
considered.
2 Use the “fac” value to have CAESAR II compute the “axially-restrained” stress and include it during stress calculations.
If a nonzero “fac” value is entered, the pressure plus axial loads in the pipe are multiplied by (1-Fac). This gives a more
realistic estimation of the axial stress in the pipe when the user has included both of the effects above.
Users should note that paragraph 419.6.4(b) requires 1) the reduction of the axial expansion stress by the product of
Poisson’s ratio and the pressure hoop stress, and 2) the addiction of the hoop stress to the axial stress. The latter represents
the calculation of stress intensity when the axial stress is compressive, implying that there is no longitudinal pressure stress
in buried pipe (the pressure loads are transmitted directly to the soil). CAESAR II handles this case in the Operating Load
Case, where the hoop stress is added in and the allowable stress is set to 0.9 Sy whenever the axial stress is compressive. If
“fac” is set to 0.001, the piping element is considered to be buried, so the longitudinal pressure stress is replaced by the
product of Poisson’s ratio and the hoop stress, in keeping with the spirit of paragraph 419.6.4(b). “fac” is automatically set
to 0.001 when B31.4 pipe is sent through CAESAR II's buried pipe modeler. The stress due to axial force will also be
included for these elements.
6-88 Technical Discussions
The “fac” variable should probably not be set to 1.0 with B31.4 and thermal expansion cases where the user is going from
one thermal state to another state, i.e. where the case is of the form: DS1-DS2, and both DS1 and DS2 contain temperatures.
In this case the thermal expansion used in the restrained pipe calculation comes from the last thermal specified in the load
case definition. In the example above the thermal expansion associated with the DS2 load case.
The base hoop stress on OD flag in the setup file is used by B31.4 when the hoop stress is calculated for the restrained pipe
longitudinal stress calculation. The default is to base the hoop stress calculation on the average diameter, and the equation
PD/2t. In the mechanical stress calculations the hoop stress is based on the inside diameter. (This is the hoop stress that is
printed in the 132 column CAESAR II stress report.)
For reducers B31.4 states that the Flexibility Factor is 1.0. The code also states that SIF is 1.0.
B31.4 Chapter IX
Chapter IX presents the offshore requirements of the B31.4 code.
All Stress Intensification Factors, Flexibility Factors, and section moduli are calculated exactly as in the standard B31.4
Code. Stress calculations are made using the uncorroded wall thickness.
Operating, Sustained, or Occasional load cases are treated identically (there is no provision for a code check for an
Expansion load case, so no Expansion cases are generated under this code). For these load cases, three stress calculations
are done, each with a different allowable. The stress calculation causing the highest percent of allowable is reported in the
stress report, along with its specific allowable. These stress checks are:
Hoop Stress: Sh F1 Sy
Longitudinal Stress: |SL| 0.8 Sy
Equivalent Stress: Se 0.9 Sy
Where:
Sh = (Pi – Pe) D / 2t
Pi = internal pressure
Pe = external pressure
D = outer diameter
t = wall thickness
F1 = hoop stress design factor (0.60 or 0.72, see Table A402.3.5(a) of the B31.4 Code)
Sy = specified minimum yield strength
SL = Sa + Sb or Sa - Sb, whichever results in greater stress value
Sa = axial stress (positive tensile, negative compressive)
Sb = bending stress
2 2 1/2
Se = 2[((SL - Sh)/2) + St ]
St = torsional stress
B31.5
For reducers B31.5 states that the Flexibility Factor is 1.0. The code also states the SIF is 1.0.
Chapter 6 Technical Discussions 6-89
B31.8
The B31.8 stress requirements have been implemented in CAESAR II in the following manner:
Where:
SL = SP + SX + SB
SP = 0.3SHoop (for restrained pipe); 0.5SHoop (for unrestrained pipe)
SX = R/A
SB = MB/Z (for straight pipe/bends with SIF = 1.0); MR/Z (for other components)
2 2
SC = Max (|SHoop – SL|, sqrt[SL – SLSHoop + SHoop ])
2 2 2
MR = sqrt[(0.75iiMi) + (0.75ioMo) + Mt ]
SE = ME/Z
2 2 2
ME = sqrt[(0.75iiMi) + (0.75ioMo) + Mt ]
S = Specified Minimum Yield Stress
T = Temperature Derating Factor
SH = 0.33SUT
SC = 0.33SU
SU = Specified Minimum Ultimate Tensile Stress
B31.8 (2003 and later) distinguishes between restrained and unrestrained piping for the purposes of stress computations.
When implementing the B31.8 piping code, it is necessary for the user to define which sections of the piping system are
restrained, as per Code Section 833.1. In general, restrained piping is piping in which the soil or supports prevent axial
displacement of flexure at bends. Conversely, unrestrained piping is piping that is free to displace axially or flex at bends.
Additional details are provided in Section 833.1, and users are urged to consult the Code directly. Processing a B31.8
model through CAESAR II's Buried Pipe Processor will designate the buried sections as restrained.
6-90 Technical Discussions
For restrained pipe, B31.8 specifies that the Operating case stresses should include the thermal axial stress component ST (a
constant stress due to linear thermal expansion) but exclude thermal bending stresses from the SB component. Since
CAESAR II cannot after-the-fact segregate internal thermal forces and moments from those of other loads, the thermal axial
stresses will actually be calculated and included as part of SX (as opposed to added as a constant), and thermal bending
stresses will actually be conservatively included in SB.
Bending stress SB is defined differently for straight pipe or “large-radius” bends than it is for other components. CAESAR II
resolves the ambiguity of exactly what constitutes a “large-radius” bend by considering any bend having an SIF of 1.0 as
being a “large-radius” bend.
The OCC occasional load default for B31.8 is 1.111, and is only applied to the allowable for SC (combined stress),
calculated only in straight pipes (i.e., the allowable in this case is ST as opposed to 0.9ST). There is no provision for
increasing (or decreasing) this allowable.
In the case of Occasional Stresses in straight pipes, there are potentially two stresses (SL and SC) to be compared against two
different allowables. CAESAR II prints only one – whichever of the two provides the greater ratio of calculated stress vs.
allowable stress. Users can determine which stress is printed by examining the magnitude of the allowable printed.
Pressure stiffening is automatically included as directed per the code. Users may turn pressure stiffening off by including
the parameter USE_PRESSURE_STIFFENING=NO in the setup file.
Modifications to the Flexibility Factor and Stress Intensification Factor of bends resulting from flanged ends are permitted
by the code.
No differentiation is made between socket welds with and without “undercut”. An SIF of 2.1 is used for all B31.8 socket
welds, unless a fillet weld leg length is specified.
Use of reducers is subject to the following limitations: 1) alpha (the reducer cone angle) is limited to 60°, and 2) the larger
of D1/SQRT(t1) and D2/SQRT(t2) cannot exceed 100 (where D1/t1 and D2/t2 are the diameters and thicknesses of the
large and small ends, respectively).
All Stress Intensification Factors, Flexibility Factors, and section moduli are calculated exactly as in the standard B31.8
Code. Stress calculations are made using the non-corroded wall thickness for the hoop and longitudinal stresses, and using
the corroded thickness for the combined stress.
Operating, Sustained, or Occasional load cases are treated identically (there is no provision for a code check for an
Expansion load case, so no Expansion cases are generated under this code). For these load cases, three stress calculations
are done, with different allowables. The stress calculation causing the highest percent of allowable is reported in the stress
report, along with its specific allowable. These stress checks are:
Hoop Stress: Sh F1 S T
Longitudinal Stress: |SL| 0.8 S
Equivalent Stress: Se 0.9 S
Where:
Sh = (Pi – Pe) D / 2t
Pi = internal pressure
Pe = external pressure
D = outer diameter
Chapter 6 Technical Discussions 6-91
t = wall thickness
F1 = hoop stress design factor (0.50 or 0.72, see Table A842.22 of the B31.8 Code)
S = specified minimum yield strength
T = temperature derating factor (see Table 841.116A of the B31.8 Code)
Note: The product of S and T (i.e., the yield stress at operating temperature) is required in the SH field of the CAESAR II
input
B31.11
Pressure stiffening is automatically included as directed per the code. Users may turn pressure stiffening off by including
the parameter USE_PRESSURE_STIFFENING=NO in the setup file.
Modifications resulting from flanged ends are permitted in the code providing the bend is not a widely spaced miter.
The SIF for a girth butt weld is taken as 1.0, as this was Markl’s original basis for SIFs.
Inplane and outplane stress intensification factors for intersections are kept separate and unique.
Where:
B31.11 does not use EFF, (found in the Allowable Stress Auxiliary field). The minimum yield stress is all that is required
to compute flexibility stress allowables.
B31.11 has no provision for using an effective section modulus calculation at intersections.
B31.11 does not include a provision for the liberal allowable. This particular option is not used for B31.11 stress allowable
calculations. The occasional load factor (used in the other piping codes for determining the allowable stress for occasional
load sets) is not used in B31.11, as the allowable stress is expressly given as 0.88 times the minimum yield stress.
CAESAR II assumes that 1119.6.4(b) establishes a requirement for the allowable operating stress at 90% of Sy; when the net
axial stress is compressive (i.e., when longitudinal pressure stresses can be ignored in underground pipes). The last sentence
in the paragraph establishes that: “Beam bending stresses shall be included in the longitudinal stress for those portions of the
restrained line which are supported above ground.” CAESAR II users have two options for including this axial stress in their
analyses:
1 Include axial friction restraints and include the ADD_F/A parameter into the setup file. Set the “fac” value to 0.001 to
indicate that the line is buried, so longitudinal pressure stresses are not present, so the hoop stress component must be
considered.
6-92 Technical Discussions
2 Use the “fac” value to have CAESAR II compute the “axially-restrained” stress and include it during stress calculations.
If a nonzero “fac” value is entered, the pressure plus axial loads in the pipe are multiplied by (1-Fac). This gives a more
realistic estimation of the axial stress in the pipe when the user has included both of the effects above.
Users should note that paragraph 1119.6.4(b) requires 1) the reduction of the axial expansion stress by the product of
Poisson’s ratio and the pressure hoop stress, and 2) the addition of the hoop stress to the axial stress. The latter represents
the calculation of stress intensity when the axial stress is compressive, implying that there is no longitudinal pressure stress
in buried pipe (the pressure loads are transmitted directly to the soil). CAESAR II handles this case in the Operating Load
Case, where the hoop stress is added in and the allowable stress is set to 0.9 Sy whenever the axial stress is compressive. If
“fac” is set to 0.001, the piping element is considered to be buried, so the longitudinal pressure stress is replaced by the
product of Poisson’s ratio and the hoop stress, in keeping with the spirit of paragraph 1119.6.4(b). “fac” is automatically set
to 0.001 when B31.11 pipe is sent through CAESAR II's buried pipe modeler. The stress due to axial force will also be
included for these elements.
The “fac” variable should probably not be set to 1.0 with B31.11 and thermal expansion cases where the user is going from
one thermal state to another state, i.e. where the case is of the form: DS1-DS2, and both DS1 and DS2 contain temperatures.
In this case the thermal expansion used in the restrained pipe calculation comes from the last thermal specified in the load
case definition. In the example above the thermal expansion associated with the DS2 load case.
The base hoop stress on OD flag in the setup file is used by B31.11 when the hoop stress is calculated for the restrained pipe
longitudinal stress calculation. The default is to base the hoop stress calculation on the average diameter, and the equation
PD/2t. In the mechanical stress calculations the hoop stress is based on the inside diameter. (This is the hoop stress that is
printed in the 132 column CAESAR II stress report.)
For reducers B31.11 states that the Flexibility Factor is 1.0. The code also states that the SIF is 1.0.
Modifications resulting from flanged ends are permitted in the code providing the bend is not a widely spaced miter.
The minimum SIF for reinforced and unreinforced fabricated tees is 2.1.
B1 and B2 are calculated according to ASME NC and ND. Equations used are shown in the Help screens for B1 and B2.
If in the odd situation where the user is using the ASME III piping code, and is running dynamics, and is calling one of the
dynamic case expansions, and has the liberal allowable flag turned on, the liberal allowable request will be ignored, and the
difference between Sh and Sl will not be added to the expansion allowable. This is more of a programming decision than an
interpretation of the piping code or a recommendation for doing dynamic analysis.
Inplane and outplane stress intensification factors are the same for the ASME Section III piping codes.
When using USE_WRC329 with ASME NC or ND, for all intersections that are not welding tees or reinforced fabricated
tees, the approximate section modulus is used for the stress calculations, i.e. pi*r2*t. This includes all reduced intersections
and all d/D ratios.
Users that DO NOT wish to use the branch stress intensification factors found in Appendix D of the Code for welding and
reinforced reducing tees, should put the flag: NO_REDUCED_SIF_FOR_RFT_AND_WLT in the setup file.
Where:
For two pipe intersections, i.e. butt welds, socket welds, etc. B1 and B2 factors are 1.0. If the ratio of the average branch to
average run radius is less than 0.5 then the reduced intersection rules are applied to the B1 and B2 calculations regardless of
the intersection type. If the reduced intersection rules do not apply then the rules for butt welded fittings are used, i.e.
Users can always modify the B1 and B2 values for any node in the SIF&TEE Auxiliary field. B1 and B2 values modified
on an auxiliary field only apply for that element, regardless of whether the node is an intersection or not. When r/R < 0.5 the
following equations are used for B1 and B2:
WRC329 does result in smaller branch SIFs than ASME NC and ND, and the same run SIFs. The branch SIFs are smaller
by a factor of 2. This is when d/D<0.5 and WRC 329 corrects the Mob inconsistency when d/D is between 0.5 and 1. Thus
in the lower ranges of d/D ratios WRC 329 is less conservative than the present codes and in the higher ranges WRC 329 is
more conservative than the present codes.
The Pvar value in the allowable stress spreadsheet is for the DIFFERENCE between the operating pressure and Pmax to be
used in eq 11. This is because of the way the occasional stresses are formed in CAESAR II, i.e. the direct addition of two
stress components. So we are computing the sustained stress (including pressure) and adding it to the occasional stress,
including the stress difference between the operating pressure and the peak pressure that is to be used in the ASME
occasional stress equation 11.
The equations 10 or 11 are satisfied by using as the allowable for the iMc/Z stress as the maximum of either f(1.25Sc +
0.25Sh) or f(1.25Sc + 0.25Sh) + (Sh-Sl) where Sl is the sustained stress as defined by equation 11 as PDo/4tn+0.75iMa/Z.
The CAESAR II approach taken for ASME NC and ND for moment summations at intersections to satisfy equations 8 and 9
is the same as for equations 10 and 11, i.e. the SRSS of the moments at each end of the pipe framing into the intersection is
found. The cumulative moment summation rules for a single intersection as per NB 3683.1 are not adhered to. In addition
the effective section modulus rules of NC and ND are used for all intersection stress calculations, i.e. for equations 8 and 9.
(The NB subsection is used to get the values for B1 and B2 only, and to compute the local flexibility if requested) Because
of this approach in CAESAR II, there is no allowable calculated for intersection points and sustained or occasional loads.
The sustained case SIF factor is not used in the ASME class 2 or 3 calculations.
For reducers NC states that the Flexibility Factor is 1.0. The code also states that SIF is:
Where D1 and t1 are the diameter and thickness of the large end and D2 and t2 are the diameter and thickness of the small
end. Alpha is the reducer cone angle in degrees.
Where:
Alpha = atan[ 0.5 * (D1-D2) / (0.60 * length of the sloped portion of reducer) ]
Tip: Alpha is the slope of the reducer transition in degrees. If left blank, the value will be set from an
estimated slope equal to the arc tangent times 1/2 the change in diameters times sixty percent of the
entered reducer length.
Note: Alpha cannot exceed 60 º. The larger of D1/t1 and D2/t2 cannot exceed 100.
For reducers ND states that the Flexibility Factor is 1.0. The code also states that SIF is: 2.0 max or 0.5 + .01*alpha*
SQRT(D2/t2)
Where D1 and t1 are the diameter and thickness of the large end and D2 and t2 are the diameter and thickness of the small
end.
Where:
Alpha = atan[ 0.5 * (D1-D2) / (0.60 * length of the sloped portion of the reducer) ]
Tip: Alpha is the slope of the reducer transition in degrees. If left blank, the value will be set from an
estimated slope equal to the arc tangent times 1/2 the change in diameters times sixty percent of the
entered reducer length.
Note: There is an error in the code, the code states note 12 however, they meant note 14. Alpha cannot exceed 60 º. The
larger of D1/t1 and D2/t2 cannot exceed 100.
CANADIAN Z662
Pressure stiffening is not defined by default in the Code. Users may include pressure stiffening on bends by including the
parameter USE_PRESSURE_STIFFENING=YES in the setup file.
Modifications resulting from flanged ends are permitted in the code providing the bend is not a widely spaced miter.
There is no limit in Z662 for the beneficial effect of the pad on an intersection. Most codes limit the pad thickness to 1.5
times the header thickness. For Z662 CAESAR II will not limit the pad thickness.
The SIF for a girth butt weld is taken as 1.0, as this was Markl’s original basis for SIFs.
Inplane and outplane stress intensification factors for intersections are the same.
No differentiation is made between socket welds with and without “undercut.” Codes that do differentiate use 1.3 for socket
welds with no undercut, and 2.1 for all others. An SIF of 1.3 is used for all Z662 socket welds (unless a fillet weld leg
length is specified). This code has no provision for using an effective section modulus calculation at intersections.
Chapter 6 Technical Discussions 6-95
Where:
CAESAR II assumes that Section 4.6.2 of the Z662 code establishes a requirement for the allowable operating stress of 0.9 x
S x T whenever the net axial stress is compressive in the absence of bending stress, and an allowable operating stress of S x
T when the net axial stress is compressive in the presence of bending stress.
Users should note that Section 4.6.2 requires 1) the reduction of the axial expansion stress by the product of Poisson’s Ratio
and the pressure hoop stress, and 2) the addition of the hoop stress to the axial stress. The latter represents the calculation of
stress intensity when the axial stress is compressive, implying that there is no longitudinal pressure stress in buried pipe (the
longitudinal pressure thrust loads are transmitted directly to the soil).
CAESAR II handles these requirements, in the OPERATING load case, in the following manner:
1 If FAC is set to 1.0, the implication is that the piping system is fully restrained (in the axial direction) as described in
Section 4.6.2.1, and the operating stress is calculated as:
Sh + E a (T2 - T1) - v Sh < 0.9 S x T
2 If FAC is set to 0.001, the implication is that the piping system is buried, but the soil supports are modeled (rather than
just assumed to be fully rigid). This setting removes the longitudinal pressure stress from the equation (as described
above), takes bending stresses into consideration, as required by Section 4.6.2.2.1. In this case, the operating stress is
calculated as:
Sh +Fax/A + Sb - v Sh < S x T
3 If FAC is set to 0.0, the implication is that the piping system is either not restrained, or is a “freely spanning” or “above
ground” portion of a restrained line, as described in Section 4.6.2.2.1. In this case, the longitudinal pressure stress is
restored, so this formula only comes into effect if the net axial stress (including pressure) is compressive, in which case
the operating stress is calculated as:
Sh +Slp + Fax/A + Sb < S x T
4 For those elements for which the net axial stress is longitudinal, no operating code stress check is done.
5 Users should note that CAESAR II does not check for buckling, as required by Section 4.6.2.2.2.
For reducers Z662 states that the Flexibility Factor is 1.0 and the SIF is 1.0.
6-96 Technical Discussions
NAVY 505
Pressure stiffening is not defined by default in the Code. Users may include pressure stiffening on bends in the analysis by
including the parameter USE_PRESSURE_STIFFENING=YES in the setup file.
Modifications resulting from flanged ends are permitted in the code providing the bend is not a widely spaced miter.
The SIF for a girth butt weld is taken as 1.0, as this was Markl’s original basis for SIFs.
Navy 505 has no provision for using an effective section modulus calculation at intersections.
Inplane and outplane stress intensification factors for intersections are the same.
Navy 505 has no provision for a “liberal allowable,” i.e. adding the difference between Sh and Sl to the allowed expansion
stress range. This flag in the control parameter spreadsheet has no affect on 505 runs.
Navy 505 does use Eff in computing the cold and the hot allowable. The use of this parameter is subject to some speculation
however.
Navy 505 has no specific allowable for occasional loads. An occasional load factor, similar to B31.1’s will be used, and the
occasional allowable calculated from kSh.
Where:
The B31.3_SUS_CASE_SIF_FACTOR can be used for 505 to multiply the stress intensification factors for sustained and
occasional loads to be more in line with the current B31.1 practice.
Chapter 6 Technical Discussions 6-97
BS806
For BS806 the maximum hot stress case is considered to be the operating load case. Operating load case allowables are only
given as per BS806 when the creep rupture strength governs the stress range allowable. See BS806 sect 4.11.2.
BS806 SIFs printed are fti and fto for bends, and Bi and Bo for intersections.
Pressure stiffening is not defined by default in the Code. Users may include pressure stiffening on bends by including the
parameter USE_PRESSURE_STIFFENING=YES in the setup file.
Modifications due to flanged ends are permitted in the code for all bend types. This includes closely and widely spaced
mitered bends.
There is no limit in BS806 to the beneficial effect of the pad on an intersection. Most codes limit the pad thickness to 1.5
times the header thickness. For BS806, CAESAR II will not limit the pad thickness.
The SIF for a girth butt weld is taken as 1.0, as this was Markl’s original basis for SIFs.
Important When there is more than one thermal case to evaluate, the following note should be read carefully
concerning CAESAR II's application of BS806.
Note: Re: BS806 4.11.3.1 paragraph 2, for sectionalized systems: At this time CAESAR II only makes the moment
summation on a load case by load case basis, and does not take the largest moments for an axis for any combination of load
cases. The CAESAR II method was set up to allow the user to make, and combine the effects of each of the load transients
that the piping system undergoes. This is, for the most part the method used in the B31/ASME piping codes. The BS806
method will be conservative in that it uses what is basically a shakedown approach and computes a single worst case
moment difference. The CAESAR II approach still satisfies the shakedown theory, but computes the moment range for each
different load traversed. The BS806 method of combining the maximum moment range will be more conservative. The
BS806 approach also eliminates the need to know where on the pipe the stress is the highest. In reference to the moment
tables in Appendix F, CAESAR II users can get the moment difference between any two load cases, but not the maximum
moment difference for any of the three moment axes as requested by the sectionalized piping rules. In satisfying 4.11.3.1(a)
CAESAR II uses the moment difference between the cold and the hot case to compute the stress.
Only a single modulus of elasticity can be entered for a single element for each job. Different elements can have different
moduli of elasticity, but that modulus cannot be varied between load cases in the same run, i.e. cold and hot moduli of
elasticity cannot be used in the same run at this time.
For BS806 in 4.11.5.2 the value of “n” is always taken as 1.0., i.e. all branches are of the non-interacting type. See 4.11.4.2
for the definition of “n” for interacting branches (n is defined in the fourth paragraph of 4.11.4.2).
6-98 Technical Discussions
The CAESAR II equation modeling of the BS806 SIF curves for bends is shown in the following plots.
Where:
The pressure calculation at the intersections is made as required in BS806 4.8.5.1 Eq. (17). The pressure stress as per 17 is
computed and then combined with the bending and torsional moments at each of the intersection ends 1, 2 and 3
respectively. The “m” factor is computed as required with a value of n=1, i.e. for non-interacting intersections.
Modifications due to flanged ends are permitted in the code for all bends providing the bend is not a widely spaced miter.
Swedish Method 1 cannot take advantage of the WRC329 recommendations. WRC 329, if requested is ignored.
Swedish Method 1 has no provision for using an effective section modulus calculation at intersections.
Inplane and outplane stress intensification factors for intersections are kept the same.
Swedish Code item 9 is dealt with as a US tapered transition. Also items 10 and 11 in the Swedish table 9:2 correspond to
items 8 and 9 in the CAESAR II nomenclature.
Where:
Where:
If the weld is ground flush inside and out then the SIF of a girth butt weld can be taken to be 1.0. A weld ID = 1, informs
CAESAR II that the weld is finished and ground flush, and will result in a girth butt weld SIF of 1.0.
Swedish methods 1 and 2 Beta in the code is entered in the Pvar field on the Allowable Stress Auxiliary screen. Pvar is
entered in percent, i.e. 10.0 for ten percent. The default if no value is entered is 10 percent.
Limits on the reasonable Betas that users may enter for the Swedish piping code is 0.1 to 25%. Anything entered less than
0.1 will be taken to be 10% and anything entered greater than 25% will be taken to be 25%. If no value is entered then beta
will default to 10%. Note that 10% is entered in the Pmax field as 10.0. This applies equally for Swedish Method 1 and
Method 2.
The USE_PDo/4t line for the setup file causes the Swedish method 1 code compliance to use the thin walled equations as
given in the codes for stress calculations.
Users of Swedish Method 1 should note that implied in the CAESAR II allowable calculation is the assumption that the
SIGMA(tn) multiplier is 1.5 for piping that is not prestressed. Users of prestressed pipe (i.e. cold sprung) should change
“Fac” on the Allowable Stress Auxiliary field to be 1.35 as directed in the Swedish code.
Note: The corroded section modulus is used for all stress calculations as per the definition of Di in the Swedish code.
The Swedish piping codes allow the pad thickness on an intersection to reduce stresses up to pad thickness of 2.5 times the
header wall thickness. This is greater than most code’s value of 1.5 times the header wall thickness.
For reducers the Swedish piping codes states that the Flexibility Factor is 1.0. The code also states that SIF is:
Where D1 and t1 are the diameter and thickness of the large end and D2 and t2 are the diameter and thickness of the small
end.
Where:
Alpha = atan[ 0.5 * (D1-D2) / (0.60 * length of sloped portion of the reducer) ]
Tip: Alpha is the slope of the reducer transition in degrees. If left blank, the value will be set from an
estimated slope equal to the arc tangent times 1/2 the change in diameters times sixty percent of the
entered reducer length.
Chapter 6 Technical Discussions 6-101
B31.1 (1967)
The 1967 B31.1 piping code uses ii=io for full sized intersections for both the header and the branch, and for reduced
intersections uses ii=0.75io + 0.25 for both the header and the branch.
Pressure stiffening is not defined by default. Users may activate pressure stiffening for B31.1 (1967) runs by entering the
parameter USE_PRESSURE_STIFFENING=YES in the setup file.
Modifications resulting from flanged ends are permitted in the code for all bends providing the bend is not a widely spaced
miter.
The SIF for a girth butt weld is taken as 1.0, as this was Markl’s original basis for SIFs.
No differentiation is made between socket welds with and without “undercut.” Codes that do differentiate use 1.3 for socket
welds with no undercut, and 2.1 for all others. An SIF of 1.3 is used for all socket welds (unless a fillet weld leg length is
specified).
Where:
Stoomwezen
SC = the yield stress at room temperature, referred to as Re in the code.
SH1 = the yield stress at design temperature, referred to as Re (um) in the code.
SH2 = not used
SH3 = not used
FN = the average creep stress to produce one percent set, referred to as Rrg in the code. F2
is the average creep tensile stress to produce rupture, referred to as Rmg in the code. F3 is
the minimum creep tensile stress to produce rupture, referred to as Rmmin in the code.
EFF = the cyclic reduction factor, referred to as Cf in the code.
SY = the tensile strength at room temperature, referred to as Rm in the code.
FAC = a constant whose value is either 0.44 or 0.5. Refer to Stoomwezen Section 5.2 for
details.
PVAR = the Cm coefficient in the code whose value is usually 1.0.
Modifications resulting from flanged ends are permitted in the code providing the bend is not a widely spaced miter.
In-plane and out-of-plane stress intensification factors are the same for these piping codes.
Users who do not wish to use the stress intensification factor for branch connections found in Figure C3680.1 of the code
for welding and reinforced reduced tees, should set NO_REDUCED_SIF_FOR_RFT_ AND_WLT=YES in the
configuration file.
Where:
The Pvar value in the allowable stress spreadsheet is for the DIFFERENCE between the design pressure and Pmax to be
used in equation 10.
Equations 7 or 8 are satisfied by using as the allowable for the i Mc/Z stress the maximum of either F (1.25Sc + 0.25Sh) or F
(1.25Sc + 0.25Sh) + (Sh - Ssl) where Ssl is the sustained stress as defined by equation 6. For reducers RCC-M states that the
Flexibility Factor is 1.0. The code also states that SIF is:
Where D1 and t1 are the diameter and thickness of the large end and D2 and t2 are the diameter and thickness of the small
end. Alpha is the reducer cone angle in degrees.
Where:
Note: Alpha cannot exceed 60° and the larger of D1/t1 and D2/t2 cannot exceed 100.
Chapter 6 Technical Discussions 6-103
CODETI
Modifications resulting from flanged ends are permitted in the code for all bends, including widely spaced miters.
Inplane and outplane stress intensification factors of intersections are kept separate and unique.
Since CODETI gives the equation for the expansion stress explicitly, and since that equation does not include the
longitudinal stress due to axial loads in the pipe, CAESAR II does not include the F/A component of the stress in the
expansion stress equation. Users can change this by setting ADD_F/A_IN_STRESS=YES to the configuration file. The F/A
longitudinal stress component are by default added to the code stress component for all other stress categories.
Where:
Pressure stiffening of bends is automatically included as directed by the code. Users may deactivate it by setting the
parameter USE_PRESSURE_STIFFENING=NO in the configuration file.
Flexibility coefficients and stress intensification factors are phased in for bends with an included angle between 15° and 45°.
Their value is 1.0 for smaller than 15° bends.
The stress intensification factor of fabricated tees having an angle of incidence other than 90° are increased by dividing
them by (sin a)3/2.
Recommended occasional load factors are 1.15, 1.2, and 1.3, as per Code Table C3.3.
CODETI requires that when “the design temperature is such that the creep characteristics are determinant, and if a section of
the piping presents locally weaker characteristics,” the sum of the primary and secondary stresses must not exceed the value
FF (from Section C1.4.3). This requirement has not been implemented in CAESAR II and has been left to the user to verify.
For reducers CODETI states that the Flexibility Factor is 1.0 and the SIF is 1.0.
The Norwegian Code does not by default add F/A into the stress calculation. The user can cause CAESAR II to include the
axial force term into the code stress by setting ADD_F/A_IN_STRESS=YES in the configuration file.
The code uses a circumferential weld strength factor (Z) when calculating longitudinal pressure stress. This value is entered
as EFF.
6-104 Technical Discussions
The cyclic reduction factor should be calculated as F = (7000/Ne)0.2 (where Ne is the number of anticipated cycles), and
may be as high as 2.34, but shall not be greater than 1.0 when Rm governs the expansion stress allowable.
In-plane and out-of-plane stress intensification factors for bends and intersections are kept the same in the stress calculation.
Where:
Sr = Minimum of 1.25F1 + 0.25F2; Fr x Rs - F2; or Fr (1.25 R1 + 0.25 R2) (The latter for higher
temperatures; above 425°C for austenitic stainless steel, or above 370°C for other materials)
F2 = Hot allowable stress (entered in Sh)
OCC = Occasional load factor from the configuration file (defaults to 1.2)
SSUS = Sustained stress
F1 = Allowable stress at ambient (entered in Sc)
Fr = Cyclic reduction factor
Rs = Permissible extent of stress for 7000 cycles (from Code Table 10.2)
R1 = Smaller of F1 and 0.267 RM
R2 = Smaller of F2 and 0.367 RM
Rm = Ultimate tensile strength at room temperature
Stress intensification factors for fitting types 6 (branch with raised edge radius), 7 (branch on locally thickened pipe), 13
(conical reducer with knuckles), and 14 (reducer without knuckles) have not been implemented in CAESAR II and are the
responsibility of the user to enter manually.
The Norwegian code offers an alternative stress analysis method in Appendix D. CAESAR II does not implement that
method.
For reducers the Norwegian code states that the Flexibility Factor is 1.0. The code also states that SIF is: 2.0 max or 0.5 +
.01*alpha* SQRT(D2/t2)
Where D1 and t1 are the diameter and thickness of the large end and D2 and t2 are the diameter and thickness of the small
end.
FDBR
FDBR is similar to B31.1 in most aspects. However, the following differences should be noted.
For reinforced tees, FDBR limits the pad thickness to a maximum equal to the header thickness. If a pad thickness greater
than the header thickness is entered, the program overrides it with the header thickness.
The SIF values for butt welds differ from B31.1. FDBR uses either 1.0 or 1.8, depending on the thickness.
FDBR requires the use of the Hot Modulus of Elasticity in the flexibility analysis. Additionally, the computation of the
Expansion Case Allowable Stress incorporates the ratio of Ehot to Ecold. The user can override the program computed ratio
by manually entering it in the FAC field.
Chapter 6 Technical Discussions 6-105
For reducers FDBR states that the Flexibility Factor is 1.0. The code also states that SIF is:
Where D1 and t1 are the diameter and thickness of the large end and D2 and t2 are the diameter and thickness of the small
end. Alpha is the reducer cone angle in degrees.
Where:
Note: Alpha cannot exceed 60° and the larger of D1/t1 and D2/t2 cannot exceed 100.
BS 7159
BS 7159 for Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic (FRP) Pipe requires that a single load case (OPE) be evaluated. For that case, the
following combined stress requirements must be met:
If Sx is tensile:
Sx =
( ) + [sqrt((i xi Mi ) 2 +(i xo M o )2 )]
P Dm
( 4t ) Z
2 2 (OPE)
x + 4Ss < Sh
and
(OPE)
( 2 + 4 s2 ) < Sh * EH E A
or, if Sx is compressive:
and
(OPE)
Circumferential Stress
S =
( )
MP D m
( 2t ) for straight pipes
2 2
=
( )+[
MP D m ((i i Mi ) +(i o M o ) ) ]
( 2t ) Z
for bends
6-106 Technical Discussions
=
( )+[
MP D m
2 2
((i xi Mi ) +(i xo M o ) ) ]
( 2t ) Z
for tees
Dm and t are always for the Run Pipe
BS 7159 allowables are based on material design strain ed . Therefore allowable stresses differ in the axial and hoop
directions by the ratio of the axial and hoop moduli of elasticity:
The ratio Eh/Ex is entered in the allowable stress Eff field; if omitted, it defaults to 1.0 (isotropic material).
Pressure stiffening of bends is done assuming the bends are fully pressurized up to the design strain of the components (as
per the code requirements). This can be deactivated by setting USE_PRESSURE_STIFFENING = NO in the configuration
file.
BS 7159 does not by default add F/A into the stress calculation (unless this puts an element into compression as described
above). The user can cause CAESAR II to include the axial force term into the code stress by setting ADD_F/A_IN_STRESS
= YES in the configuration file.
The fatigue factor Kn is used inversely relative to the cyclic reduction factor in most codes, so its value should be greater
than or equal to 1.0 (allowable stress is divided by this number). Kn is calculated as:
Where:
BS 7159 requires that the temperature of the pipe material be considered as being typically only 80% - 85% of the
difference between the fluid and the ambient temperatures. This reduction factor K is entered in the allowable stress FAC
field; if omitted, it defaults to 1.0.
The stress intensity and flexibility factors of bends vary based on laminate type:
All chopped strand mat (CSM) construction with internal and external surface tissue reinforced layer
Chopped strand mat (CSM) and woven roving (WR) construction with internal and external surface tissue reinforced
layer
Chopped strand mat (CSM) and multi-filament roving construction with internal and external surface tissue reinforced
layer
The laminate type may be entered in the Bend Type field, or a type default may be set in the Special Execution Parameter
screen.
UKOOA
The UKOOA (United Kingdom Offshore Operators Association) Specification and Recommended Practice for the Use of
GRP Piping Offshore is similar in many respects to the BS 7159 Code, except that it simplifies the calculational
requirements in exchange for imposing more conservatism on the piping operating conditions. Rather than explicitly
calculating a combined stress, the specification defines an idealized envelope of combinations of axial and hoop stresses
which cause the equivalent stress to reach failure. This curve represents the plot of:
Chapter 6 Technical Discussions 6-107
2 2
( x/ -all) + hoop / hoop-all) -[ x hoop /( x-all hoop-all)] 1.0
Where:
The Specification conservatively limits the user to that part of the curve falling under the line between sx-all (also known as
sa(0:1)) and the intersection point on the curve where shoop is twice sx-(a natural condition for a pipe loaded only with
pressure). An implicit modification to this requirement is the fact that pressure stresses are given a factor of safety (typically
equal to 2/3) while other stresses are not. This gives an explicit requirement of:
Pdes f1 f2 f3 LTHP
Where:
a(2:1) = long term axial tensile strength in under only pressure loading
LTHS = long term hydrostatic strength (hoop stress allowable)
LTHP = long term hydrostatic pressure allowable
Note: This has been implemented in the CAESAR II pipe stress analysis software as:
Where:
P = design pressure
Dm = pipe mean diameter
t = pipe wall thickness
On the Allowable auxiliary screen, the product of f1 and LTHS is entered in the SH1, SH2, SH3 fields; r is entered in the
F1, F2, F3 fields; f2 is entered in the EFF field; and the temperature reduction factor K (described for BS 7159 above) is
entered in the FAC field – if omitted, it defaults to 1.0. K- and i-factors for bends and tees, and bending and pressure
stresses are calculated as described for the BS 7159 Code.
IGE/TD/12
CAESAR II performs calculations as per the IGE/TD/12 Edition 2 code requirements. The complexity of these requirements
far exceeds what can be described here. It is recommended that the user acquire a copy of this code from the International
Institution of Gas Engineers & Managers or request COADE’s supplementary IGE/TD/12 documentation.
Note: The current implementation of IGE/TD/12 has not been granted approval for use on Transco projects.
Since DNV does not provide any guidance on Stress Intensification Factors, Flexibility Factors, or section moduli; these are
calculated as per the B31.1 Power Code (this decision was based upon an informal poll of experts and users of DNV). All
stress calculations are made using the corroded wall thickness.
Operating, Sustained, or Occasional load cases are treated identically (there is no provision for a code check for an
Expansion load case, so no Expansion cases are generated under this code). For these load cases, three stress calculations
are done, with different allowables. The stress calculation causing the highest percent of allowable is reported in the stress
report, along with its specific allowable. These stress checks are:
Where:
Sh = (Pi – Pe) (D – t) / 2t
Pi = internal pressure
Pe = external pressure
D = outer diameter
t = wall thickness
ns = hoop stress yielding usage factor (see Tables C1 and C2 of the DNV Code)
SMYS = specified minimum yield strength, at operating temperature
nu = hoop stress bursting usage factor (see Tables C1 and C2 of the DNV Code)
SMTS = specified minimum tensile strength, at operating temperature
SL = maximum longitudinal stress
n = equivalent stress usage factor (see Table C4 of the DNV Code)
2 2 2 1/2
Se = [Sh + SL - ShSL + 3t ]
t = torsional stress
EN-13480
EN-13480 uses the hot modulus of elasticity in the flexibility calculations (Sect 12.1.7.2). The expansion allowable stress
is subsequently modified by the ratio of Eh/Ec.
EN-13480 provides two methods of determining the flexibility stresses. The CAESAR II default implementation is to use
Sections 12.3.2 through 12.3.6, which perform an SRSS of the bending moments with a single SIF. As an alternative, the
flexibility stresses can be determined by distinguishing between in and out of plane bending, using distinct SIFs, as
discussed in Section 12.3.1. The option to implement this alternative can be found on the "SIF & Stress" tab of the
configuration module.
GPTC/Z380
GPTC/Z380 is basically the B31.8 piping code, prior to the 2004 edition of B31.8. The recommendations of this code only
apply to steel piping, above ground, up through 450°F. The differences between GPTC/Z380 and B31.8 display below:
The longitudinal joint factors vary slightly between B31.8 Table 841.115a and GPTC/Z380 Table 192.113.
The design factor in B31.8 Table 841.114b is more detailed than GPTC/Z380 Table 192.11.
The allowable for the combined stress calculation in GPTC/Z380 Section 192.159-1.5e includes a "0.75" factor, while
B31.8 Section 833.4 does not.
GPTC/Z380 uses a single SIF for both in and out of plane loads, while B31.8 distinguishes between in and out of plane
SIFs.
ISO-14692
ISO-14692 addresses the analysis of Fiber Reinforced Piping (FRP). Qualification is based on the comparison of actual
stresses (hoop and axial) to a failure envelope – there is no single allowable stress value. For the proper implementation of
this code several FRP specific quantities MUST BE defined, as shown in the figure below.
For details on the input fields in the figure above, please consult the Online Help.
6-110 Technical Discussions
HPGSL
Inplane and outplane stress intensification factors for intersections are kept separate and unique.
Since the HPGSL piping code gives the equation for the expansion stress explicitly, and since that equation does not include
the longitudinal stress due to axial loads in the pipe, CAESAR II does not include the F/A component of the stress in the
expansion stress equation. The F/A longitudinal stress component are by default added to the code stress component for all
other stress categories.
The SIF for a girth butt weld is taken as 1.0, as this was Markl’s original basis for SIFs.
No differentiation is made between socket welds with and without “undercut.” Codes that do differentiate use 1.3 for socket
welds with no undercut, and 2.1 for all others. An SIF of 1.3 is used for all HPGSL socket welds (unless a fillet weld leg
length is specified).
Where:
For HPGSL if a corrosion allowance is specified, the corrosion is removed from the sustained and occasional stress
calculations.
For reducers HPGSL states that the Flexibility Factor is 1.0. The code also states that SIF is 1.0.
JPI
Inplane and outplane stress intensification factors for intersections are kept separate and unique.
Since JPI gives the equation for the expansion stress explicitly, and since that equation does not include the longitudinal
stress due to axial loads in the pipe, CAESAR II does not include the F/A component of the stress in the expansion stress
equation. The F/A longitudinal stress component are by default added to the code stress component for all other stress
categories.
The SIF for a girth butt weld is taken as 1.0, as this was Markl’s original basis for SIFs.
No differentiation is made between socket welds with and without “undercut.” Codes that do differentiate use 1.3 for socket
welds with no undercut, and 2.1 for all others. An SIF of 1.3 is used for all HPGSL socket welds (unless a fillet weld leg
length is specified).
Chapter 6 Technical Discussions 6-111
Where:
For JPI if a corrosion allowance is specified, the corrosion is removed from the sustained and occasional stress calculations.
For reducers JPI states that the Flexibility Factor is 1.0. The code also states that SIF is 1.0.
6-112 Technical Discussions
Local Coordinates
Many analytical models in engineering are based upon being able to define a real physical object mathematically. This is
accomplished by mapping the dimensions of the physical object into a similar mathematical space. Mathematical space is
usually assumed to be either two-dimensional or three-dimensional. For piping analysis, the three dimensional space is
necessary, since almost all piping systems are three dimensional in nature.
Two typical three-dimensional mathematical systems are shown below in Figure 1. Both of these systems are “Cartesian
Coordinate Systems”. Each axis in these systems is perpendicular to all other axes.
A standard rule must be applied in order to define the direction of positive rotation about these axes. This standard rule
(known as the “right hand rule”) is: “Put the thumb of your right hand along the axis, in the positive direction of the axis.
The direction your fingers curl is positive rotation about that axis.” This is best illustrated in Figure 2.
X cross Y = Z EQ 1
Y cross Z = X EQ 2
Z cross X = Y EQ 3
Physically, using your right hand, what do the above equations mean? This question is best answered by Figure 3.
Straight-line movement along any axis can be therefore described as positive or negative, depending on the direction of
motion. This straight-line movement accounts for three of the six degrees of freedom associated with a given node point in
a model. (Analysis of a model requires the discretization of the model into a set of nodes and elements. Depending on the
analysis and the element used, the associated nodes have certain degrees of freedom. For pipe stress analysis, using 3D
Beam Elements, each node in the model has six degrees of freedom.) The other three degrees of freedom are the rotations
about each of the axes. In accordance with the “right hand rule”, positive rotation about each axis is defined as shown in
Figures 1 and 2.
When modeling a system mathematically, there are two coordinate systems to deal with, a global (or model) coordinate
system and a local (or elemental) coordinate system. The global or model coordinate system is fixed, and can be considered
a constant characteristic of the analysis at hand. The local coordinate system is defined on an elemental basis. Each
element defines its own local coordinate system. The orientation of these local systems varies with the orientation of the
elements.
Note: An important concept here (which will be reiterated later) is the fact that local coordinate systems are defined by,
and therefore associated with, elements. Local coordinate systems are not defined for, or associated with, nodes.
Chapter 6 Technical Discussions 6-115
In CAESAR II, the user can choose between the two global coordinate systems shown in Figure 1. By default, the CAESAR II
global coordinate system puts the global “Y” axis vertical, as shown in the left half of Figure 1, and in Figure 4. There are
two ways to change the CAESAR II global coordinate system so that the global “Z” axis is vertical.
The first method is to modify the configuration file in the current data directory. This can be accomplished from the Main
Menu, by selecting TOOLS\CONFIGURE SETUP. Once the configuration dialog appears, select the Geometry tab, as shown in
Figure 5. On this tab, check the Z Axis Up check box, as shown in the figure below.
6-116 Technical Discussions
The second method to obtain a global coordinate system with the “Z” axis vertical is to switch coordinate systems from
within the input for the specific job at hand. This can be accomplished from the Special Execution Parameters dialog of
the piping input processor. This dialog is shown below in Figure 6.
Chapter 6 Technical Discussions 6-117
Defining a Model
Using the CAESAR II default coordinate system (Y axis vertical), and assuming the system shown below in Figure 7, the
corresponding element definitions are given in Figure 8.
Continuing the model, from node 50, along the same 45 degree slope can be rather tedious, since most often only the
overall element length is know, not its components in the global directions. In CAESAR II this can be best accomplished
by activating the Direction Cosine dialog box, shown below in Figure 9. The Direction Cosine dialog can be activated
by clicking the Browse button next to the DY field. Using this dialog box, the element length can be entered, and
CAESAR II will determine the appropriate components in the global directions, based on the current direction cosines
(which default to those of the preceding element).
Once a model has been defined, there are a number of operations that can be performed on the entire system, or on any
section of the system. These operations include:
Translating the model: translation can be accomplished by specifying the global coordinates of the starting node of the
model. If the model consists of disconnected segments, CAESAR II requests the coordinates of the starting node of each
segment.
6-120 Technical Discussions
Rotating the model: rotation can be accomplished by using the [LIST] processor or by clicking the button. The
[LIST] processor presents the model in a spreadsheet, or grid, format, as shown in Figure 8. Options in this processor
allow the model (or any sub-section of the model) to be rotated about any of the three global axes, a specified amount.
For example, if the model shown in Figures 7 and 8 is rotated a (negative) -90 degrees about the global “Y” axis, the
result is as shown in Figure 10.
Restraint loads and displacements are checked in the global coordinate system. This is necessary because restraint loads
and displacements are nodal quantities. Element loads and stresses are most often evaluated in their local coordinate
system. A good example illustrating the use of a local (element) coordinate system is the free body diagram, of forces and
moments. The forces and moments in this free body diagram remain the same, regardless of the position of the element in
the global coordinate system. Note however, that each element has its own local coordinate system. Furthermore, the local
coordinate system of one element may be different from the local coordinate system of a different element.
While the global coordinate system is typically referred to using the capital letters ‘X”, “Y”, and “Z”, local coordinate
systems use a variety of nomenclature. In almost all cases, local coordinate systems use lower case letters. Typical local
coordinate system axes are: “xyz”, “abc”, and “uvw”. CAESAR II uses “xyz” to denote the local element coordinate system.
The local coordinate system for an element is related to the global coordinate system through a rule. There may be a
number of such rules, depending on the type of element. In CAESAR II, the following rules are used to define the local
coordinate systems of the piping elements in a model.
Chapter 6 Technical Discussions 6-121
1 Lay your right hand on the pipe, with the wrist at the “FROM node”, and the fingers pointing to the “To Node”.
2 Align or rotate your hand so that the global “Y” axis points perpendicularly out from the palm. The thumb is now
aligned with the local “y” axis for this element.
The local “z” axis can be found by the vector cross product of the local “x” and local “y” axes.
An exception to this rule is the case of a vertical element. In this case, the local “x” axis is still aligned in the “From - To”
direction. However, you can’t “cross” a vertical element into global “Y”, so the local “y” axis was arbitrarily assigned to
align with the global “X” axis.
The straight elements of the model in Figure 7 are reproduced below in Figure 11, along with their local coordinate systems.
Notice that each of these straight elements has its own local coordinate system, and that in this model, they are all aligned
differently.
As an additional example, the local element coordinate systems for the rotated system of Figure 10 are shown below in
Figure 12.
6-122 Technical Discussions
header elements have opposite local “x” axes, CAESAR II chooses the first one that it finds.) The local “z” axis can then be
determined using the right-hand rule.
Note that the local “z” axis coincides with the “out-of-plane” axis of the tee, for each element. Examples of local
coordinates for elements framing into tees are depicted below in Figure 14.
Checking that operating displacements make sense and are within any operational limits (to avoid ponding etc.).
Displacements being “nodal quantities”, are reviewed in the global coordinate system. There is no local coordinate
system associated with nodes. For the model defined in Figures 7 and 8, the operating displacements are shown in
Figure 15 below.
Checking that the restraint loads for the “structural load cases” are reasonable. This includes ensuring that the
restraints can be designed to carry the computed load. Restraints being “nodal quantities” are reviewed in the global
coordinate system. There is no local coordinate system associated with restraints. For the model defined in Figures
7 and 8, the operating / sustained restraint summary is shown in Figure 16 below.
Checking the “Code cases” for codes stress compliance. Typically the “code stress” is compared to the “allowable
stress” for each node on each element. Occasionally, when there is an overstress condition, a review of axial, bending,
and torsion stresses are necessary. These stresses (axial, bending, and torsion) are “local coordinate system terms”, and
therefore relate to the element’s local coordinate system. For the model defined in Figures 7 and 8, a portion of the
sustained stress report is shown in Figure 17 below.
When the equipment coordinate system aligns with the global coordinate system of the piping model, the nozzle loads from
the restraint report (node 50 in Figure 14) can be used in the nozzle evaluation. However, when the equipment nozzle is
skewed (as it is in the case of node 50 in Figure 14), the application of the loads is more difficult. In this case, it is best to
use the loads from the element’s force/moment report, in local coordinates. The only thing to remember here is to flip the
signs on all of the forces and moments, since the element force/moment report shows the loads on the pipe element, not on
the nozzle. For the element FROM node 40 to node 50, the local element force/moment report is shown in Figure 18
below.
Chapter 6 Technical Discussions 6-127
Notice that the loads shown in Figure 19 are in the CAESAR II global coordinate system. This can be easily verified by
comparing these values to those in the restraint summary (for the Operating load case) as shown previously in Figure 16.
6-128 Technical Discussions
Notice in Figure 20, that each report segment indicates which values are related to the global coordinate system and which
are related to the local API coordinate system.
DX = 3 ft. 6.426 in
DY = -3 ft. 6.426 in
DZ = 0.0
The global restraint forces at node 50, in global coordinates, for the operating case are:
FX = 323. MX = -953.
FY = 4. MY = -9.
FZ = -271. MZ = -548.
Using this data as input to GlbtoLocal, the utility yields the forces on the restraint in the element’s local coordinate system.
This is shown in Figure 21 below.
What are local coordinates? Local coordinates represent the mapping for a single element. Local coordinate systems are
used to define positive and negative directions and loads on elements. Local coordinate systems are aligned with the
elements, and therefore vary throughout the model.
What coordinates are used to plot and view the model? The model's global coordinate system is used to generate plots of
the model. This is necessary since each element has its own local coordinate system, and these local systems can vary from
element to element. Local coordinate systems are an element property, not a system property.
How do you obtain restraint loads in local coordinates? In general, you don't - this doesn't make any sense. Restraint
loads are a nodal property. Nodes don't have local coordinate systems, elements do. While an argument can be made that the
local coordinate system of the connecting element should be used, this is only valid if one single element frames into the
restraint. As soon as multiple elements frame into the restraint, there are multiple local coordinate systems to deal with. The
lone exception is when a single element frames into a nozzle. In this instance, the restraint loads in this single element's
coordinate system can be obtained from the element's local force/moment report, with a change in sign.
How do you obtain nodal displacements in local coordinates? In general, you don't - this doesn't make any sense.
Displacements are a nodal property. Nodes don't have local coordinate systems, elements do. Refer to the preceding
discussion on restraint loads for additional details.
What do you do with local coordinates? In most instances nothing. The only time local coordinates are useful in CAESAR
II is when dealing with a skewed nozzle. The CAESAR II software interface makes the use of local coordinates unnecessary
except in this one instance.
CH AP TER 7
In This Chapter
Accounting............................................................................................... 7-2
Batch Stream Processing ......................................................................... 7-7
CAESAR II Fatal Error Processing ......................................................... 7-9
Units File Operations............................................................................... 7-10
Convert Input to New Units..................................................................... 7-13
Material Database .................................................................................... 7-14
7-2 Miscellaneous Processors
Accounting
The CAESAR II accounting system has the following characteristics:
Its use is optional. Users not wishing to keep accounting records of their runs never need to know that an accounting
capability exists.
Users conveniently control all pricing factors. The total price of any job is computed from:
IF (C4 > 0.0) THEN
cost = C1*cputime + (C2*nodes + C3*elements) * C4 * numcases + C5
ELSE
cost = C1*cputime + (C2*nodes + C3*elements) + C5
ENDIF
Users enter C1, C2, C3, C4, and C5 one time, and changes them only when needed.
Any of the constants may be zero but at least one must be greater than zero.
Accounting reports are generated on a per run basis and are summarized on a per account basis.
Reports may be generated for any user requested combination of account numbers.
Account numbers are user-defined and may be up to 25 alphanumeric characters.
Account and program access can be controlled through the accounting system via optional password protection.
Account numbers can be identified for each job using either of two methods:
Account number must be selected from a displayed table of allowed account numbers, or will default to the last valid
account number input. The account number table is set up and maintained by the account manager.
Account number must be some non-blank string. There is no default, and the user’s entry must match one of the allowed
account numbers input previously by the account manager. Access to the available account number list is password
protected. Users not having valid account numbers will not be permitted to run.
Generated reports contain:
Account number
Jobname
Time and Date of Run
Number of Nodes, Elements, and Load Cases
Calculated Job Cost
Accounting summary reports include subtotals on a per account number basis, the number of jobs run under the
account, and the time period the account has been active.
The accounting system is delivered in an uninitialized state. To use the accounting system, users must change this state to
active. (It may later be deactivated if the user does not want to use the account record-keeping feature.) To activate the
accounting system from the CAESAR II Main Menu, select TOOLS - ACCOUNTING. The Accounting dialog displays.
Chapter 7 Miscellaneous Processors 7-3
Select the applicable accounting method (either type 1 or type 2) and then click the Activate Accounting button. The user
will receive a that it is indeed activating the accounting as requested. Next set the Pricing Factors by selecting the next tab
in the window to show the sheet as displayed below.
7-4 Miscellaneous Processors
Users should enter any costs as appropriate; blanks are allowed. Each rate is multiplied by the respective job quantity, and
the sum of these products is equivalent to the job cost. Job costs are calculated on an integer dollar basis, and will never be
less than one dollar. Any of the 5 rate constants can be zero, but not all; and none of the constants may be negative.
Account numbers are entered under the Account Numbers tab as shown below. These are the numbers that will be used to
prompt users for an account number during program execution. Be sure to click the Save button before exiting!
Once the accounting system is initialized and the pricing factors are set, users can return to the CAESAR II Main Menu and
initiate jobs with account tracking. The prompt for the account number will appear during analysis, immediately after the
user starts a CAESAR II execution. If type 2 accounting is implemented then users must match the appropriate account
number exactly, whereas all account numbers will be displayed in a list box if type 1 accounting has been activated.
Chapter 7 Miscellaneous Processors 7-5
For type 2 accounting users are expected to enter a valid account number, or click OK for the default (last used) account
number. For type 1 accounting users select the appropriate account number from the list and click OK to continue.
OPEN(1,FILE=’ACCTG.DAT’,STATUS=’OLD’,FORM=’BINARY’, ACCESS=’DIRECT’,RECL=55)
MMINUTE INTEGER*2 Minutes of the hour when the job was run
MSECOND INTEGER*2 Seconds of the minute when the job was run
The first record contains only a single integer value (ILAST) giving the last valid record number in the accounting file. The
number of job entries is equal to (ILAST-1). This first record may be read:
READ(1,REC=1) ILAST
Chapter 7 Miscellaneous Processors 7-7
The Define Jobs to Run button enables users to define the names and job types to be executed in the stream. The job names
are the usual CAESAR II job names that the user has prepared for analysis. The job name specification screen is shown in the
following figure.
7-8 Miscellaneous Processors
Once the job names (up to forty) have been specified, click the OK button. The Batch Stream window returns. Clicking the
Analyze Specified Jobs button will start the analysis of all previously defined jobs.
The user does not have to analyze the jobs immediately. The job names and analysis types are stored in a data file,
BATCH.STM, which can be invoked at any time by the user. When the user is ready, the Batch Stream Processor can be
started and the “analyze” option invoked. The user can then leave the computer, and return to review the output at a later
time.
The Batch Stream Processor creates a “log” file of its progress so that users have an idea of how long the process took, or
can diagnose any failures in the batch process. This log file is named “BATCH.LOG” and can be found in the directory with
the jobs. This file is a standard ASCII text file which can be edited or printed.
Chapter 7 Miscellaneous Processors 7-9
Whenever a fatal error condition arises, CAESAR II will abort the current process. However, CAESAR II attempts to provide
the user with an explanation of what went wrong to cause the process to be aborted. This is accomplished in several stages
as outlined in the following discussion.
First, each error trap/condition is assigned a unique number. When an abort condition occurs, this error number and a short
description of the error are displayed in a window. An example of such a message is given in the next figure.
When the OK button is clicked the error text window is closed and the user has the option of referencing further error
information. (This may be desirable when one error definition references another.) The OK button from the additional error
information window returns program control to the main CAESAR II Main Menu. This additional error information may be
called upon at any time from the CAESAR II Main Menu by selecting the DIAGNOSTICS-ERROR REVIEW menu option.
7-10 Miscellaneous Processors
The user may create a custom units file or review an existing unit's file by choosing TOOLS /MAKE UNITS FILE from the
CAESAR II Main Menu. An explanation of each input field and button under this option follows.
Units Maintenance
Clicking the Create a New Units File button creates a new units file and activates the next two items described below.
When all items are completed choose the View/Edit File button to proceed. A window will appear in which the entries for
the user's units and the conversion factor can be edited. If the user-defined units for a given item exist in the list then there is
no need to choose a conversion factor, as it will be updated automatically. If a new set of units is desired (miles in the length
category for instance) then the user may type in (or select from the drop down list) the new unit name (mi.) and the new
conversion factor (.00001578 in this example).
7-12 Miscellaneous Processors
View/Edit File
Click this button to proceed once all activated lists on the Create New Units dialog have been completed.
Chapter 7 Miscellaneous Processors 7-13
The user may convert an existing input file to a new set of units by choosing TOOLS / CONVERT INPUT TO NEW UNITS from the
CAESAR II Main Menu. A window will be created that contains the following three input fields:
Caution: Clicking the Browse button here and picking an existing ._a file the converted file will overwrite the existing ._a
file chosen from the list.
7-14 Miscellaneous Processors
Material Database
CAESAR II provides a material database (accessed with TOOL/MATERIAL DATABASE from the MAIN MENU listing physical properties
and code-dependent allowable stresses of more than 300 materials. These materials can be edited and additional materials
can be added to the database by the user.
Note: It is incumbent upon the user to check material allowables and other physical property data for the particular code
being used. While COADE attempts to keep the material database up-to-date the codes are subject to change frequently and
the accuracy of the database is not guaranteed. Below is an explanation of the input fields for the Material Database.
Material - Add
This option enables users to add a new material spreadsheet to the database. This command saves any data currently shown
on the spreadsheet and clears the spreadsheet for a new entry. At least a material number and code must be given for the
data to be saved.
NOTE: When adding a new material to the database, two entries should be made. The first entry should be associated with
"All Codes", and includes all data except for the allowable stresses. After "saving" this entry, the Piping Code can be
changed and the allowable stresses defined. It is the "All Codes" entry that is listed in the "drop list" for material selection
in the Piping Input processor.
Material - Delete
This operation deletes the entire material spreadsheet from the database. The user may choose the spreadsheet to delete from
the list, which contains only user-defined database spreadsheets. The user cannot delete the material database spreadsheets
supplied with CAESAR II.
Chapter 7 Miscellaneous Processors 7-15
Material - Edit
This option enables users to edit an existing material spreadsheet in the database. A window will appear from which the user
must either enter the name of the material or pick the material from the list. The piping code ID on the right side
corresponds to the piping code ID on the piping input spreadsheet when allowables are chosen.
Name
Enter the material name as listed in the applicable code.
Eff, Cf, z
This factor is necessary for various piping codes as defined below:
BS 7159 - This field is the ratio of the design stress sd, in the circumferential (hoop) direction to the design stress in the
longitudinal direction. Since design stress is defined in Sec. 4.3 of the code as:
dÆ = -d * ElamÆ, sd x = -d * Elamx
and design strain should be the same for both directions, this entry will also be the ratio of the moduli of elasticity
Density
Enter the density of the material.
FAC
A factor necessary for various piping codes as defined below:
Stoomwezen—This value should be either 0.44 or 0.5 and is used in computing the equilibrium stresses as discussed in
Section 5.2 of the code. The value of 0.5 can be used for steel if the design and fabrication are such that stress peaks are
avoided.
Norwegian— Material ultimate tensile strength at room temperature “Rm”. If not entered, this factor is not considered to
control the expansion stress allowable.
Poisson's Ratio
Thus input is for Metals only. Enter the value to be used for Poisson’s Ratio for this material.
Temperature
In this field enter the temperatures corresponding to the database values you will add to the right. In the database supplied
with CAESAR II all temperatures are in 100°F increments. Note that some of the codes list physical property values in 50°F
increments, therefore small discrepancies may occur between CAESAR II and a given code because of the interpolation of
data.
Chapter 7 Miscellaneous Processors 7-17
Exp. Coeff.
Enter the expansion coefficient at the corresponding temperature. This coefficient must be multiplied by 106 F prior to being
input here. (ex. An expansion coefficient of 1.2 x 10-5 in/in/F would be input as 12).
Allowable Stress
Input the code allowable stress corresponding to the temperature to the left.
Elastic Modulus
This is the Modulus of Elasticity corresponding to the temperature to the left.
Yield Stress
This is the Yield Stress corresponding to the temperature to the left.
Stoomwezen—Rrg average creep stress to produce 1% permanent set after 100,000 hours at temperature (vm).
Norwegian—(UNITS: lb./sq.in.) The Material ultimate tensile strength at room temperature is "Rm". If not entered, this
factor is not considered to control the expansion stress allowable.
CH AP TER 8
Chapter 8 Interfaces
This chapter lists the programs with which CAESAR II interfaces and explains how the interfaces work.
In This Chapter
Overview of CAESAR II Interfaces ........................................................ 8-2
CAD Interfaces ........................................................................................ 8-4
Generic Neutral Files ............................................................................... 8-57
Computational Interfaces......................................................................... 8-76
Data Export to ODBC Compliant Databases........................................... 8-81
8-2 Interfaces
These interfaces are the means through which CAESAR II data is accepted from other sources, or data generated in CAESAR II
is provided to other packages. For the most part, this data transfer is from a drawing or analysis package to CAESAR II. The
CAESAR II Neutral File transfers both to and from CAESAR II, and the AUTOCAD interface only transfers CAD data from
CAESAR II.
Note CADWorx Plant provides a seamless, bi-directional interface between AutoCAD and CAESAR II, but does not have to
go through a translation procedure.
1 Most of the interfaces are CAD interfaces. The exceptions are: LIQT, PIPENET, the C2DAT Matrix, and the CAESAR II
Neutral File.
2 The CAD interfaces are intended to transfer the piping geometry into CAESAR II. The resulting CAESAR II input must be
thoroughly checked, with loads, restraints, and other specifics added.
Chapter 8 Interfaces 8-3
3 The interface labeled “CAESAR II Neutral File” is the only interface (aside from CADWorx Plant) that is capable of
transferring 100% of the data which comprises the _A (input) file.
4 PRO-ISO, CADPIPE, and AutoPlant are not stand-alone CAD packages. Instead, these are intelligent symbols libraries
for use with AutoCAD. The interface out to AutoCAD does not utilize any of these three packages; it just creates a
DXF file.
5 LIQT is a transient analysis package for liquids in piping networks, and can calculate pressure imbalances as a function
of time. This LIQT output is converted by the CAESAR II interface to create force response spectra for CAESAR II
dynamic input.
6 PIPENET is a transient analysis package for liquids in piping networks, and can calculate pressure imbalances as a
function of time. This PIPENET output is converted by the CAESAR II interface to create a CAESAR II dynamic input file
for a force response spectrum analysis.
7 The interfaces typically prompt the user for a file name, transfer the data, and then prompt for another file name. This
circular procedure is continued until a blank file name is encountered or the user presses the Cancel button.
8 Users and third party developers beginning an interface to CAESAR II are urged to follow the requirements of the
CAESAR II Neutral File interface, since this will enable all of the spreadsheet data to be transferred.
9 CADWorx Plant is COADE's piping design and drafting program for the AutoCAD environment. Data may be completely
and seamlessly transferred between CAESAR II and CADWorx Plant, without creating any neutral files or going through
any intermediate steps.
8-4 Interfaces
CAD Interfaces
CADWorx Plant Link
CADWorx is an AutoCAD based design/drafting program (developed by COADE) with a bi-directional data transfer link to
CAESAR II. CADWorx allows models to be created in ortho, iso, 2D, or 3D modes. Models constructed in CADWorx can be
sent into CAESAR II, and models built in CAESAR II can be sent into CADWorx. Modifications made in either program are
retained for future transfers.
In addition, CADWorx allows CAESAR II output data to be imported and placed on the drawing. This provides the ability to
generate stress and restraint isometrics.
Since the interface operates seamlessly, no action need be taken on the CAESAR II side—CADWorx Plant simply uses
CAESAR II _A (input) and _P (output) files—so the CADWorx Plant option on this menu serves only as a reminder. For
more information on importing and exporting CAESAR II files to and from CADWorx Plant, refer to that product's User
Manual.
When the file conversion is complete, the program will prompt for another job name. This cycle will be repeated until the
Cancel button is clicked. Next, the user should copy all of the just created DXF files into the AutoCAD subdirectory.
Start AutoCAD as normal, begin a new drawing, and enter a drawing name. The BEGIN NEW DRAWING option must be selected.
At the first prompt, issue the DXFIN command. This will cause AutoCAD to prompt for the file tp read. When reading the
specified file, AutoCAD will rescale and display the model. To access the COADE supplied LISP routines, which scale node
numbers, a LISP file must be loaded. The command to accomplish this is (load "NODSIZ").
Information about pipes and node points can be obtained by using the LIST command. The ATTDISP command can be used
to turn on/off the attribute display, which at this point consists of only node numbers. the size of the node numbers can be
changed by using the LISP routine NODSIZ. To resize the node numbers, simply enter NODSIZ, and answer the prompts.
To resize the node numbers, simply enter NODSIZ and answer the prompts.
In order for this interface program to function properly, all of the intermediate data files, generated by the CAESAR II
Error Checker, must be present. This is the only problem that has ever terminated this interface program.
CADPIPE Interface
The interface between CAESAR II and CADPIPE is a one-way transfer of the geometry data from CADPIPE to CAESAR II.
The geometry data consists of the pipe lengths, diameters, thicknesses, connectivities, and node numbers. All nodal specific
quantities (restraints, loads, displacements, etc.) must be added to the CAESAR II input file in the usual manner by the user.
The CADPIPE interface is set up so that several models can be transferred in a single session. The first prompt is for the
name of the CADPIPE connectivity (.UDE ) neutral file. Once the user specifies this file name, the transfer process occurs
and the interface program prompts for another neutral file name. This is an endless cycle until the user terminates with the
Cancel button.
Chapter 8 Interfaces 8-5
The neutral file read by the interface program must be generated by the CADPIPE program. Details of this step can be
found in the CADPIPE documentation. The CADPIPE neutral file must be transferred into the CAESAR II directory so that it
is available to the interface program.
The interface program reads the CADPIPE neutral file and generates the CAESAR II input file and a log file of the transfer
process. Users should check the data in both the CAESAR II input file and the log file for consistency and any assumptions
made by the interface. The following paragraphs describe the layout of the data extracted from the CADPIPE neutral file
and how it is arranged for storage in this interface program. The data storage is maintained in two arrays, the first contains
geometry data for each pipe element, the second array contains additional loading and specification data.
In the first array, an entry is required for each piece of pipe in the system. A “pipe” in this sense is an entity between two
nodes, which could be a pipe, or a rigid element. There are 12 values per entry, where all values must be specified.
Field 1 - ELMT
This is the pipe element number, which may correspond to an entry in the second array. This is also the pipe/element
number in the model. These values should be sequential from 1.
Field 2 - N1
This is the “FROM” node number, i.e. the starting node for the element. These values must be greater than zero and less
than 32000.
Field 3 - N2
This is the “TO” node number, i.e. the ending node for the element. These values must be greater than zero and less than
32000.
Field 4 - DX
This is the “delta X” dimension for the element. This is the distance between N1 and N2 in the “X” direction.
Field 5 - DY
This is the “delta Y” dimension for the element. This is the distance between N1 and N2 in the “Y” direction. In CAESAR II,
“Y” is vertical.
Field 6 - DZ
This is the “delta Z” dimension for the element. This is the distance between N1 and N2 in the “Z” direction.
Field 7 - DIAM
Field 8 - THK
Field 9 - ANCH
This is a restraint (support) indicator flag. If ANCH is 1, then there is a restraint on N1. If ANCH is 2, then there is a
restraint on N2. The type of restraint can be obtained from the second array.
Field 10 - BND
8-6 Interfaces
This field indicates the presence of a bend at the N2 end of the element. If BND is 1, there is a bend at N2. If BND is 0, this
is a straight pipe.
Field 11 - BRAD
This field is used to specify the bend radius if the bend is not a long radius bend. The value here should be the desired bend
radius.
Field 12 - RIGD
This field is a flag used to indicate that the current element is a rigid element. The weight of the element can be obtained
from the second array.
Records in the second array are only necessary when additional data is required. This means there will always be a record in
first array for pipe element #1 (this could be the only entry in the array). Any additional entries will contain some type of
change to data normally duplicated forward by CAESAR II.
Field 1 - ELMT
This is the pipe element number, which corresponds to an entry in the first array. This is also a pipe/element number in the
model. These numbers are sequential from 1.
Field 2 - TEMP1
This is the operating temperature for load case 1, found by scanning the CADPIPE data for the maximum temperature.
Field 3 - PRESS1
This is the operating pressure for load case 1, found by scanning the CADPIPE data for the maximum pressure.
Field 4 - RGDWGT
This value is the weight of rigid elements. This entry is only required if the “RIGID” flag was set in the first array.
Field 5 - TEEFLG
1 - reinforced
2 - unreinforced
3 - welding tee
4 - sweepolet
5 - weldolet
Field 6 - RESTYP
This value is the restraint (support) type indicator. Type values are:
0 - anchor
Chapter 8 Interfaces 8-7
1 - double acting X
2 - double acting Y
3 - double acting Z
4 - double acting RX
5 - double acting RY
6 - double acting RZ
Field 7 - RINFO1
Field 8 - RINFO2
Field 9 - RINFO3
Field 10 - MATID
The CAESAR II material ID value. Note that if the coefficient of expansion is to be changed, it should be entered in the
Temperature field above (Field 2).
Field 11 - EMOD
Field 12 - POIS
Field 13 - GAMMA
Field 14 - INSTHK
Field 15 - INSWGT
Field 16 - FLDWGT
Field 17 - TEENOD
8-8 Interfaces
BEGIN_ENTITY
ENTITY_NUMBER 1
ATTRIBUTES 1CAESAR AAA1 C-2OBB—1dLATL
INSERTION 1.80000000e+002 3.36000000e+002 1.20000000e+003
END 1.80000000e+002 3.36000000e+002 1.20000000e+003
END 1.80000000e+002 3.35999961e+002 1.20350000e+003
END_ENTITY
BEGIN_ENTITY
ENTITY_NUMBER 2
ATTRIBUTES 1CAESAR AAA1 C-2OPP—ATLATL 134.50
INSERTION 1.80000000e+002 3.35999997e+002 1.27075000e+003
END 1.80000000e+002 3.35999961e+002 1.20350000e+003
END 1.80000000e+002 3.36000033e+002 1.33800000e+003
END_ENTITY
BEGIN_ENTITY
ENTITY_NUMBER 3
ATTRIBUTES 1CAESAR AAA1 C-3O1B—ATLATL
INSERTION 1.80000000e+002 3.36000000e+002 1.34700000e+003
END 1.89000000e+002 3.36000000e+002 1.34700000e+003
END 1.80000000e+002 3.36000033e+002 1.33800000e+003
END_ENTITY
BEGIN_ENTITY
ENTITY_NUMBER 4
ATTRIBUTES 1CAESAR AAA1 C-0OPP—ATLATL 105.38
INSERTION 2.41687500e+002 3.35999959e+002 1.34700000e+003
END 1.89000000e+002 3.36000000e+002 1.34700000e+003
END 2.94375000e+002 3.35999917e+002 1.34700000e+003
END_ENTITY
Chapter 8 Interfaces 8-9
BEGIN_ENTITY
ENTITY_NUMBER 5
ATTRIBUTES 1CAESAR AAA1 C-0O2H—ATLATLATL
INSERTION 3.00000000e+002 3.36000000e+002 1.34700000e+003
END 3.05625000e+002 3.36000083e+002 1.34700000e+003
END 2.94375000e+002 3.35999917e+002 1.34700000e+003
END 3.00000083e+002 3.30375000e+002 1.34700000e+003
END_ENTITY
BEGIN_ENTITY
ENTITY_NUMBER 6
ATTRIBUTES 1CAESAR AAA1 C-0O1B—ATLATL
INSERTION 4.02000000e+002 3.36000000e+002 1.34700000e+003
END 3.93000000e+002 3.35999934e+002 1.34700000e+003
END 4.01999934e+002 3.45000000e+002 1.34700000e+003
END_ENTITY
BEGIN_ENTITY
ENTITY_NUMBER 7
ATTRIBUTES 1CAESAR AAA1 C-0OPP—ATLATL 90.00
INSERTION 4.02000017e+002 3.90000000e+002 1.34700000e+003
END 4.01999934e+002 3.45000000e+002 1.34700000e+003
END 4.02000099e+002 4.35000000e+002 1.34700000e+003
END_ENTITY
BEGIN_ENTITY
ENTITY_NUMBER 8
ATTRIBUTES 1CAESAR AAA1 C-3O1B—ATLATL
INSERTION 4.02000000e+002 4.44000000e+002 1.34700000e+003
END 4.02000099e+002 4.35000000e+002 1.34700000e+003
END 4.02000033e+002 4.44000000e+002 1.33800000e+003
END_ENTITY
BEGIN_ENTITY
ENTITY_NUMBER 9
ATTRIBUTES 1CAESAR AAA1 C-2OBB—1dLATL
INSERTION 4.02000000e+002 4.44000000e+002 1.20000000e+003
END 4.02000000e+002 4.44000000e+002 1.20000000e+003
END 4.02000000e+002 4.43999961e+002 1.20350000e+003
END_ENTITY
BEGIN_ENTITY
8-10 Interfaces
ENTITY_NUMBER 10
ATTRIBUTES 1CAESAR AAA1 C-2OPP—ATLATL 134.50
INSERTION 4.02000017e+002 4.43999981e+002 1.27075000e+003
END 4.02000000e+002 4.43999961e+002 1.20350000e+003
END 4.02000033e+002 4.44000000e+002 1.33800000e+003
END_ENTITY
BEGIN_ENTITY
ENTITY_NUMBER 11
ATTRIBUTES 1CAESAR AAA1 C-0O1B—ATLATL
INSERTION 3.00000000e+002 2.16000000e+002 1.34700000e+003
END 2.99999967e+002 2.25000000e+002 1.34700000e+003
END 3.09000000e+002 2.16000033e+002 1.34700000e+003
END_ENTITY
BEGIN_ENTITY
ENTITY_NUMBER 12
ATTRIBUTES 1CAESAR AAA1 C-0OPP—ATLATL 105.38
INSERTION 3.00000025e+002 2.77687500e+002 1.34700000e+003
END 2.99999967e+002 2.25000000e+002 1.34700000e+003
END 3.00000083e+002 3.30375000e+002 1.34700000e+003
END_ENTITY
BEGIN_ENTITY
ENTITY_NUMBER 13
ATTRIBUTES 1CAESAR AAA1 C-0OPP—ATLZTL 69.00
INSERTION 3.43500000e+002 2.16000017e+002 1.34700000e+003
END 3.09000000e+002 2.16000033e+002 1.34700000e+003
END 3.78000000e+002 2.16000000e+002 1.34700000e+003
END_ENTITY
BEGIN_ENTITY
ENTITY_NUMBER 14
ATTRIBUTES 1CAESAR AAA1 C-0OPP—ATLATL 87.38
INSERTION 3.49312500e+002 3.36000008e+002 1.34700000e+003
END 3.05625000e+002 3.36000083e+002 1.34700000e+003
END 3.93000000e+002 3.35999934e+002 1.34700000e+003
END_ENTITY
BEGIN_RUN
LINE_NUMBER CAESAR AAA1
BEGIN_COORD 1.80000000e+002 3.00000000e+002 1.20000000e+003
END_COORD 3.00000000e+002 3.36000000e+002 1.34700000e+003
Chapter 8 Interfaces 8-11
BEGIN_SEGMENT
BEGIN_COORD 1.80000000e+002 3.00000000e+002 1.20000000e+003
END_COORD 1.80000000e+002 3.36000000e+002 1.20000000e+003
ENTITY 1
END_SEGMENT
BEGIN_SEGMENT
BEGIN_COORD 1.80000000e+002 3.36000000e+002 1.20000000e+003
END_COORD 1.80000000e+002 3.36000000e+002 1.34700000e+003
ENTITY 1
ENTITY 2
ENTITY 3
END_SEGMENT
BEGIN_SEGMENT
BEGIN_COORD 1.80000000e+002 3.36000000e+002 1.34700000e+003
END_COORD 3.00000000e+002 3.36000000e+002 1.34700000e+003
ENTITY 3
ENTITY 4
ENTITY 5
END_SEGMENT
END_RUN
BEGIN_RUN
LINE_NUMBER CAESAR AAA1
BEGIN_COORD 3.00000000e+002 3.36000000e+002 1.34700000e+003
END_COORD 3.78000000e+002 2.16000000e+002 1.34700000e+003
BEGIN_SEGMENT
BEGIN_COORD 3.00000000e+002 3.36000000e+002 1.34700000e+003
END_COORD 3.00000000e+002 2.16000000e+002 1.34700000e+003
ENTITY 5
ENTITY 12
ENTITY 11
END_SEGMENT
BEGIN_SEGMENT
BEGIN_COORD 3.00000000e+002 2.16000000e+002 1.34700000e+003
END_COORD 3.78000000e+002 2.16000000e+002 1.34700000e+003
ENTITY 11
ENTITY 13
END_SEGMENT
8-12 Interfaces
END_RUN
BEGIN_RUN
LINE_NUMBER CAESAR AAA1
BEGIN_COORD 3.00000000e+002 3.36000000e+002 1.34700000e+003
END_COORD 4.44000000e+002 4.44000000e+002 1.20000000e+003
BEGIN_SEGMENT
BEGIN_COORD 3.00000000e+002 3.36000000e+002 1.34700000e+003
END_COORD 4.02000000e+002 3.36000000e+002 1.34700000e+003
ENTITY 5
ENTITY 14
ENTITY 6
END_SEGMENT
BEGIN_SEGMENT
BEGIN_COORD 4.02000000e+002 3.36000000e+002 1.34700000e+003
END_COORD 4.02000000e+002 4.44000000e+002 1.34700000e+003
ENTITY 6
ENTITY 7
ENTITY 8
END_SEGMENT
BEGIN_SEGMENT
BEGIN_COORD 4.02000000e+002 4.44000000e+002 1.34700000e+003
END_COORD 4.02000000e+002 4.44000000e+002 1.20000000e+003
ENTITY 8
ENTITY 10
ENTITY 9
END_SEGMENT
BEGIN_SEGMENT
BEGIN_COORD 4.02000000e+002 4.44000000e+002 1.20000000e+003
END_COORD 4.44000000e+002 4.44000000e+002 1.20000000e+003
ENTITY 9
END_SEGMENT
END_RUN
As the interface runs, status messages are displayed on the user’s terminal for informative purposes. Once the transfer is
complete, the user should review the .LOG file generated to insure that there are no unexplained errors or warnings. The
.LOG file generated for the above .UDE file is listed as follows.
Chapter 8 Interfaces 8-13
General Notes
This file contains the status of the data conversion from the CADPIPE ISO system to the CAESAR II stress analysis package.
1 Entity information
2 Segment connectivity information
3 Final interpreted CAESAR II data.
Anomalies with final CAESAR II model geometry should be traced through this file, possibly back to the CADPIPE
connectivity file. Notes and warning messages are shown below as necessary.
Since all required CAESAR II data is not available in the CADPIPE environment, CAESAR II must make certain modeling
assumptions. Users are cautioned to verify the following assumptions:
1 Thicknesses of .05 are program generated because no match could be found in the standard CAESAR II
diameter/thickness tables. This value must be corrected once in CAESAR II.
2 Rigid elements are assumed to have a weight of 1.0. This value should be corrected once in CAESAR II.
3 Temperatures, pressures, and other loading items are not available for transfer by the interface.
4 Restraint information is not available for transfer by the interface.
5 Material #1 (low carbon steel) is assumed by the interface program.
Introduction: A one page summary listing general notes about the interface and defines the error code.
Section 1: Lists the entity information as read from the CADPIPE connectivity file. Note that each entity has been
grouped into one of four possible element types, node numbers have been assigned, and the coordinate system has been
rotated to conform to the standard pipe stress coordinate system (Y vertical).
Section 2: Details the interpretation and model building process.
Section 3: Lists the final transformed data which the interface program wrote as the CAESAR II input file.
A sample .LOG file follows.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CAESAR AAA1
CAESAR II type is 1.
CAESAR II type is 2.
Resetting element 4 “TO” node from 80. to 100. and adjusting deltas.
CAESAR II type is 3.
STARTING new segment with old Entity # 11, “FROM” node is 220.
CAESAR II type is 2.
CAESAR II type is 3.
CAESAR II type is 2.
CAESAR II type is 2.
CAESAR II type is 1.
8-18 Interfaces
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
If the resulting CAESAR II geometry is inconsistent with the CADPIPE drawing, look for the problem in the .LOG file. First,
identify the problem area and locate the relevant elements in Section 3 of the .LOG file. Next, find the appropriate segment
in Section 2 of the .LOG file and ensure it contains the same entities as shown in the CADPIPE connectivity file. Finally,
verify the information in Section 1 of the .LOG file matches the interpreted data in Section 3.
Anomalies with the resulting CAESAR II geometry can usually be attributed to one of the following causes:
Occasionally an unexpected geometry condition will be handed to the CAESAR II interface program. The solution to this
problem is to update the interface program for the current condition. The user should forward the .UDE file to COADE
for analysis and subsequent interface modification.
An unknown item code was encountered. This indicates that the CADPIPE program has been revised and new item
codes added, which the interface program is unaware of. As before, the interface program will have to be modified to
handle this condition. The user should contact COADE and inform the CAESAR II Technical Support staff of this error
message.
The reassembly of a geometry containing OLETS should be checked carefully. OLET entities in the CADPIPE
connectivity file do not contain a reference to the piping element they intersect. The interface attempts to determine the
associated pipe via coordinate computation and 3D intersection calculations. There is the potential for this procedure to
pass over the intersection point. In this case, the branch containing the OLET will plot at the origin of the CAESAR II
model. This condition can be fixed in the CAESAR II input by breaking the intersected pipe and assigning the OLET
node number to the break point.
8-20 Interfaces
Some CADPIPE connectivity files which have been submitted to COADE for analysis contained errors. These errors
consisted of either pipe doubling back on itself, or piping elements indicated as bends where there was no change in
direction. Both of these errors will be detected by the CAESAR II error checker. However, most users quit before that
stage and conclude that the interface is wrong. Both of these errors should be detected in CADPIPE before the
connectivity file is generated.
ComputerVision Interface
The interface between CAESAR II and ComputerVision is a one way transfer of the geometry data from ComputerVision to
CAESAR II. The geometry data consists of the pipe lengths, diameters, thicknesses, connectivities, and node numbers. All
nodal specific quantities (restraints, loads, displacements, etc.) must be added to the CAESAR II input file in the usual
manner by the user.
The ComputerVision interface is set up so that several models can be transferred in a single session. The first prompt by the
interface is for the name of the ComputerVision neutral file. Once the user specifies this file name, the transfer process
occurs and the interface program prompts for another neutral file name. This is an endless cycle until the user terminates the
session by pressing the Cancel button.
The neutral file read by the interface must be generated by the ComputerVision “EXTRACT PIPE” module. Details of this
step can be found in the ComputerVision documentation. The ComputerVision neutral file must be transferred into the
CAESAR II directory so that it is available to the interface program.
The interface program reads the ComputerVision neutral file and generates the CAESAR II input file and a log file of the
transfer process. Users should check the data in both the CAESAR II input file and the log file for consistency and any
assumptions made by the interface.
The interface then prompts the user for the location in the neutral file of the tangent intersection points (TIPTs) of the
elbows. Normally, the TIPTs of the bends will be in the section of the neutral file labeled component data. If this is the case,
answer [Y] to the prompt, otherwise answer [N].
Note: The interface will not translate the geometry properly if the TIPTs for some bends are in the component data, while
the TIPTs for other bends are in the grid data.
After these prompts have been answered, the interface translates the ComputerVision neutral file and displays the name of
the generated CAESAR II input file. The interface then prompts for the name of another neutral file for conversion and the
cycle is repeated.
General Data. Defines the line name and the units' system used to generate the neutral file. The current CAESAR II units file
should match this units specification, or utilize the “arbitrary conversion factor” discussed above.
Anchor Data. Defines the coordinates of points described as anchors to the system.
Grid Data. Defines the coordinates of the other nodal points in the system.
Member Data. Describes the element connectivity of the system and references special conditions to the Component Data.
Chapter 8 Interfaces 8-21
The other sections of the neutral file are not utilized by the interface program. One assumption made by the interface is that
each of the sections is separated in the file by a blank line. This is important, depending on how the neutral file was
transferred to the CAESAR II directory on the PC. Some communication setups compress out blank lines, which will cause
the interface to abort with an error message.
Intergraph Interface
This interface transfers a piping system geometry from an Intergraph neutral file into a standard CAESAR II binary input file.
The geometry data consists of the pipe lengths, diameters, thicknesses, connectivities, and node numbers. All nodal specific
quantities (loads, displacements, etc.) must be added to the CAESAR II input file in the usual manner by the user.
There are three basic steps necessary to generate a CAESAR II input file from an Intergraph neutral file:
1 Run the Intergraph PDS Interface module to create an Intergraph neutral file. This ASCII file should then be transferred
to the CAESAR subdirectory.
2 As many Intergraph neutral files as necessary may be created and transferred. The interface will continue to prompt the
user for neutral file names, until the session is terminated by the user by clicking the Cancel button.
3 Ensure the proper units file is active in the directory in which the neutral file is located. This is necessary for the proper
conversion of the data.
Start CAESAR II as usual and enter the TOOLS - EXTERNAL INTERFACES- INTERGRAPH and answer the prompts.
File Name
This is the full path name to the neutral file, which must include the file suffix. On startup, this field is filled with the current
data path. You can manually add a file name to the end of this string, or use the Browse button to search for a neutral file.
Chapter 8 Interfaces 8-23
Browse
This button invokes a standard file selection dialog box from which you can search for the desired neutral file. The top of
this dialog contains controls for switching directories or drives, while the bottom of this dialog contains a control to switch
between the neutral file suffix types (.N or .NEU).
Remove HA Elements
This check box determines whether or not HA elements are removed by this interface. Normally HA (hanger-support
direction) elements should be removed. The support is placed on the pipe where the HA element joints it. Disabling this box
leaves HA elements in the stress model.
Model Rotation
This group of radio buttons is used to specify the rotation of the model about the Y axis. The default is zero which leaves
the model alone. The +90 button rotates the model a positive 90 degrees, while the -90 button rotates the model a negative
90 degrees. (Note, the Y axis is vertical in CAESAR II.)
Weight Units
This set of radio buttons enables the software to properly interpret the 'weight' values contained in the neutral file. This is
necessary since the neutral file does not indicate the units for the weight values. The value selected here should match the
corresponding value in the active CAESAR II units file.
Insulation Units
This set of radio buttons enables the software to properly interpret the 'insulation thickness' values contained in the neutral
file. This is necessary since the neutral file does not indicate the units for insulation thickness values. The value selected
here should match the corresponding value in the active CAESAR II units file.
Any major problems encountered by the interface cause the program to abort and no CAESAR II input is generated. Users
experiencing problems of this nature should forward their neutral files to COADE for analysis and subsequent program
modification.
Chapter 8 Interfaces 8-25
If desired, a material mapping file may be defined to relate the material designations in the Intergraph neutral file to the
standard CAESAR II materials. This file must be named "PDS_MAT.MAP" and it must be located beneath the CAESAR II
program directory, in the \SYSTEM subdirectory. This mapping file contains two fields of data per line. Field 1 contains the
PDS material name as it will appear in the neutral file, and is 16 characters wide. Field 2 contains the CAESAR II material
number corresponding to the PDS material name. These values should contain a decimal point, and lie in columns 17 thru
21.
Example Transfer
Listed as follows is an example neutral file from the PDS system.
The .LOG file produced by the CAESAR II translator is shown below, followed by a plot of the job from the CAESAR II input
module.
(End nodes replaced with center point, and TEE/CROSS element removed. Modifications also performed on 3 & 4 way
valves.)
Chapter 8 Interfaces 8-37
(Far Weld Line Nodal coordinates changed to Tangent Intersection Point coordinates)
LOCATIONS 1-11
LOCATIONS 1, 12-20
Chapter 8 Interfaces 8-45
PRO-ISO Interface
The interface between CAESAR II and PRO-ISO is a one way transfer of the geometry data from PRO-ISO to CAESAR II.
The geometry data consists of the pipe lengths, diameters, thicknesses, connectivities, and node numbers. All nodal specific
quantities (restraints, loads, displacements, etc.) must be added to the CAESAR II input file in the usual manner by the user.
Select the PRO-ISO option from the TOOLS/EXTERNAL INTERFACES menu and enter the name of the PRO-ISO neutral file. Once
the user specifies the name of the file (without an extension), the transfer process occurs and the interface program prompts
for another neutral file name. This is an endless cycle until the user presses the Cancel button. The neutral files generated
by the interface will have the suffixes .PI1 and .PI2.
The neutral files read by the interface program must be generated by the PRO-ISO program. Details of this step can be
found in the PRO-ISO documentation. The PRO-ISO neutral files must be transferred into the CAESAR II directory so that
they are available to the interface program.
The interface program reads the PRO-ISO neutral files and generates the CAESAR II input file and a log file of the transfer
process. Users should check the data in both the CAESAR II input file and the log file for consistency and any assumptions
made by the interface. The data transferred (and the data structure) is described below.
In the first file, a record is required for each piece of pipe in the system. A “pipe” in this sense is an entity between two
nodes, which could be a pipe, or a rigid element. There are 12 values per entry, where all values must be specified.
Field 1 - ELMT
This is the pipe element number, which may correspond to an entry in the second file. This is also the pipe/element number
in the model. These values should be sequential from 1.
8-50 Interfaces
Field 2 - N1
This is the “FROM” node number, i.e. the starting node for the element. These values must be greater than zero and less
than 32000.
Field 3 - N2
This is the “TO” node number, i.e. the ending node for the element. These values must be greater than zero and less than
32000.
Field 4 - DX
This is the “delta X” dimension for the element. This is the distance between N1 and N2 in the “X” direction.
Field 5 - DY
This is the “delta Y” dimension for the element. This is the distance between N1 and N2 in the “Y” direction. In CAESAR II,
“Y” is vertical.
Field 6 - DZ
This is the “delta Z” dimension for the element. This is the distance between N1 and N2 in the “Z” direction.
Field 7 - DIAM
Field 8 - THK
Field 9 - ANCH
This is a restraint (support) indicator flag. If ANCH is 1, then there is a restraint on N1. If ANCH is 2, then there is a
restraint on N2. The type of restraint can be obtained from the second file.
Field 10 - BND
This field indicates the presence of a bend at the N2 end of the element. If BND is 1, there is a bend at N2. If BND is 0, this
is a straight pipe.
Field 11 - BRAD
This field is used to specify the bend radius if the bend is not a long radius bend. The value here should be the desired bend
radius.
Field 12 - RIGD
This field is a flag used to indicate that the current element is a rigid element. The weight of the element can be obtained
from the second file.
Records in the second file are only necessary when additional data is required. This means there will always be a record in
the second file for pipe element #1 (this could be the only entry in the file). Any additional entries will contain some type of
change to data normally duplicated forward by CAESAR II.
Chapter 8 Interfaces 8-51
Field 1 - ELMT
This is the pipe element number, which corresponds to an entry in the first file. This is also a pipe/element number in the
model. These numbers are sequential from 1.
Field 2 - TEMP1
This is the operating temperature for load case 1, found by scanning the PRO-ISO data for the maximum temperature.
Field 3 - PRESS1
This is the operating pressure for load case 1, found by scanning the PRO-ISO data for the maximum pressure.
Field 4 - RGDWGT
This value is the weight of rigid elements. This entry is only required if the “RIGID” flag was set in the first file.
Field 5 - TEEFLG
1 - reinforced
2 - unreinforced
3 - welding tee
4 - sweepolet
5 - weldolet
Field 6 - RESTYP
This value is the restraint (support) type indicator. Type values are:
0 - anchor
1 - double acting X
2 - double acting Y
3 - double acting Z
4 - double acting RX
5 - double acting RY
6 - double acting RZ
8-52 Interfaces
Field 7 - RINFO1
Field 8 - RINFO2
Field 9 - RINFO3
Field 10 - MATID
The CAESAR II material ID value. Note that if the coefficient of expansion is to be changed, it should be entered in the
Temperature field above (Field 2).
Field 11 - EMOD
Field 12 - POIS
Field 13 - GAMMA
Field 14 - INSTHK
Field 15 - INSWGT
Field 16 - FLDWGT
Field 17 - TEENOD
As the interface runs, status messages are displayed on the user’s terminal for informative purposes. Once the transfer is
complete, the user should review the .LOG file generated to insure that there are no unexplained errors or warnings. The
.LOG file generated for the above neutral files is listed next.
15 Elements
2 Bends
1 Rigids
5 Restraints
PCF Interface
The PCF file format is a standard drawing exchange format developed by Alias Ltd. The PCF file is a flat text file,
containing detailed information about the piping system components, as extracted from a CAD system. The CAESAR II PCF
interface can read in a PCF file, and generate a CAESAR II input file from the acquired information.
Details on the format of the PCF file, and its capabilities can be obtained from Alias. To invoke the PCF Interface select
TOOLS/PCF from the CAESAR II Main Menu. A dialog box like the one below will appear. Explanations of each field are
provided following the figure.
8-56 Interfaces
File Name
This is the full path name to the neutral file, which must include the file suffix. On startup, this field is filled with the current
data path. You can manually add a file name to the end of this string, or use the Browse button to search for a neutral file.
Browse
Invokes a standard file selection dialog box from which you can search for the desired neutral file. The top of this dialog
contains controls for switching directories or drives, while the bottom of this dialog contains a control to switch between the
neutral file suffix types (.N or .NEU).
Condense Tees
This option instructs the software NOT to treat tees as 3 elements, condensing them down to a point. In either case, the SIF
is applied at the tee node. Using 3 elements allows pipe properties of the tee to differ from the attached piping.
Condense Elbows
This option instructs the software NOT to treat elbows as 2 elements, one element for each direction the elbow travels in.
Model Rotation
This group of radio buttons is used to specify the rotation of the model about the Y axis. The default is zero which leaves
the model alone. The +90 button rotates the model a positive 90 degrees, while the -90 button rotates the model a negative
90 degrees. (Note, the Y axis is vertical in CAESAR II.)
Chapter 8 Interfaces 8-57
Users implementing this interface should be warned that the content and format described in this section is subject to
change, as a function of the enhancements made to the CAESAR II program. Every effort will be made to keep such “drastic”
changes to a minimum.
Several third-party CAD programs, such as AVEVA’s PDMS and Jacobus’ Plant Space also support this neutral file. If
desired, instead of invoking this interface from the "Tools\External Interface" menu, this processor can be run in "batch
mode", from either a batch file or the command line. This batch command takes the form:
f:\ProgramDirectory\iecho f:\DataDirectory\NeutralFile.cii
The CAESAR II neutral file, henceforth referred to as the .CII file, is divided into sections which organize the piping data in
logical groupings. Each major section is discussed below. Details of each item are discussed to the right of the page. Section
divisions are denoted in the neutral file by the ‘#$’ character sequence found in columns 1 & 2. The token following the
‘#$’ character sequence is a section identifier, used by the program for data sequencing purposes, and to aid the user in
reading the neutral file.
For each item listed on the following pages, the necessary FORTRAN format for the input/output is provided. The
following variables are used in dimensioning arrays:
N1—Base memory allocation quantity, used to set array sizes. For example, if N1=2,000, your neutral file can handle
up to 2,000 elements.
N2—1/2 N1
N3—1/3 N1
N4—1/4 N1
N5—1/5 N1
N6—N1/13.33
Version and Job Title Information
#$ VERSION. This is the section division header. The #$ and space are required, as well as the word VERSION, all in
capital letters.
Use FORTRAN format (2X, 4G13.6) to write the values of the following variables on the first line of the neutral file:
GVERSION is the version of the neutral file interface being used. This corresponds to the major version number of
CAESAR II, i.e. 4 for 4.x.
RVERSION is the specific CAESAR II version generating this file, i.e. 4.50.
SPARE are unused (at this time) locations on the record.
The next 60 lines of 75 characters each are reserved for the CAESAR II title-page text. Use FORTRAN format (2X, A75).
The last line of the job title array, if found to be blank, is set by this transfer program. The text that is set here indicates that
the file was created by this interface.
8-58 Interfaces
Control Information
#$ CONTROL. This is the section division header. The #$ and space are required, as well as the word CONTROL, in
capital letters.
Use FORTRAN format (2X, 4I13) to write the values of the following variables on the next line of the neutral file:
NUMELT is the number of piping elements (spreadsheets) in the input file.
NUMNOZ is the number of nozzles in the input file.
NOHGRS is the number of spring hangers in the input file.
NONAM is the number of Node Name data blocks in the input file.
NORED is the number of reducers in the input file.
NUMFLG is the number of flanges in the input file.
Next, write 11-members of the array (IAUXAU) that contains the number of auxiliary data types used in the input file,
followed by the vertical axis indicator. Use FORTRAN format (2X, 6I13).
This section of the file contains integer and real data for each element in the input file. The data are organized as such:
These real and integer values are stored in arrays, described as follows:
A 50-member array (REL) contains the real basic-element data. The REL array is dimensioned (N1,50).
Use FORTRAN format (2X, 6G13.6) to write the values of the following 45 items on the appropriate eight lines of the
neutral file.
Chapter 8 Interfaces 8-59
If the delta coordinates are not specified, they default to zero. If the To/From fields are not specified, it is considered an
error.
An 18-member array (IEL) contains the pointers to the auxiliary data arrays. The IEL array is dimensioned (N1,18).
NOTE, at this time, only 14 of the members of this array are utilized!
Use FORTRAN format (2X, 6I13) to write the values of the following 14 items on the next three lines of the neutral file.
1 Pointer to Bend Auxiliary field. This indicates where in the bend auxiliary array the bend data for the current element
can be found.
2 Pointer to Rigid Element Auxiliary field.
3 Pointer to Expansion Joint Auxiliary field.
4 Pointer to Restraint Auxiliary field.
5 Pointer to Displacement Auxiliary field.
6 Pointer to Force/Moment Auxiliary field.
7 Pointer to Uniform Load Auxiliary field.
8 Pointer to Wind Load Auxiliary field.
9 Pointer to Element Offset Auxiliary field.
10 Pointer to Allowable Stress Auxiliary field.
11 Pointer to Intersection Auxiliary field.
12 Pointer to Node Name Auxiliary field.
13 Pointer to Reducer Auxiliary field.
14 Pointer to Flange Auxiliary field.
A pointer value of zero should be used where there is no auxiliary data of a particular type associated with the current
element.
This section of the file contains the auxiliary data corresponding to the elements. This data is arranged in the same order as
the IAUXAU array described previously. For example, if IAUXAU(1) contains a 3, then there are 3 bends in the model, and
their data is found next in the neutral file. Also assume that IAUXAU(2) contains a 5, then there are 5 rigid elements in the
model and their data follows the bend data.
Chapter 8 Interfaces 8-61
Each set of auxiliary data is separated by a sub-section header. If a particular value in IAUXAU is zero, then only the
subsection header is written to the neutral file.
The data storage for these arrays is allocated at run time, based on the available free system memory. These arrays are
allocated proportionally, as a percentage of the n-umber of elements allowed. Four proportions are used: 1/2, 1/3, 1/4, and
1/5. These proportions correspond to the variables: N2, N3, N4, and N5. Maintaining these proportions ensures that the
neutral file reader can accept the file.
#$ NODENAME. This is the subsection header that defines the start of Node Name data. (In order to maintain downward
compatibility, this section is optional.) The data for each element set of node names in the input file is listed here.
A two-member array (NAM) defines each set of node names. The NAM array is dimensioned (N6, 2). Use FORTRAN
format (2X, A10, 16X, A10) to read first the character name of the FROM node and then that of the TO node.
#$ BEND. This is the subsection header that defines the start of the bend data. The data for each bend in the input file is
listed here.
An 11-member array (BND) defines each bend. The BND array is dimensioned (N3,11).
Use FORTRAN format (2X, 6G13.6) to write the values of the following 11 items on the next two lines of the neutral file.
1 bend radius
2 type: 1 - single flange 2 - double flange 0 or blank - welded
3 angle to node position #1
4 node number at position #1
5 angle to node position #2
6 node number at position #2
7 angle to node position #3
8 node number at position #3
9 number of miter cuts
10 fitting thickness of bend if different from the pipe
11 Seam Weld (1=Yes, 0=No)
12 Bend flexibility (K) factor
#$ RIGID. This is the subsection header that defines the start of the rigid data. The data for each rigid in the input file is
listed here.
A single-element array (RIG) for each rigid. The RIG array is dimensioned (N3,1). The single element of the array
represents the rigid weight.
#$ EXPJT. This is the subsection header that defines the start of the expansion joint data. The data for each expansion joint
in the input file is listed here. The EXP array is dimensioned (N5,5).
Use FORTRAN format (2X, 6G13.6) to write the values of the following five items on the next line of the neutral file.
8-62 Interfaces
1 axial stiffness
2 transverse stiffness
3 bending stiffness
4 torsional stiffness
5 effective inside bellows diameter
#$ RESTRANT. This is the subsection header that defines the start of the restraint data.
The data for each restraint auxiliary data block in the input file is listed here. The RES array is dimensioned (N2,36).
Use FORTRAN format (2X, 6G13.6) to write the values of the following nine items on the next two lines of the neutral file.
These nine items are repeated four times for the four possible restraints defined in the auxiliary data block.
This will require two lines in the neutral file for each restraint specification, which means eight lines total for each restraint
auxiliary.
Note: Items 3-9 may change based on the value of the restraint type. For more information refer to the help text for more
information.
The restraint type is an integer value whose valid range is from 1 to 62.
#$ DISPLMNT. This is the subsection header that defines the start of the displacement data.
The data for each displacement auxiliary data block in the input file is listed here.
Chapter 8 Interfaces 8-63
Use FORTRAN format (2X, 6G13.6) to write the values of the following 55 items on the next lines of the neutral file. The
DIS array is dimensioned (N3,110).
This will require ten lines in the neutral file for each displacement specification, which means 20 lines total for each
displacement auxiliary.
These 55 items are repeated 2 times for the two possible displacements defined on the auxiliary.
Note: Unspecified displacement values (i.e., free-displacement degrees of freedom) are designated through the use of a
value of 9999.99.
#$ FORCMNT. This is the subsection header that defines the start of the force/moment data. The data for each
force/moment auxiliary data block in the input file is listed here.
Use FORTRAN format (2X, 6G13.6) to write the values of the following 55 items on the next ten lines of the neutral file.
The FOR array is dimensioned (N3,38).
This will require ten lines in the neutral file for each force/moment specification, which means 20 lines total for each
force/moment auxiliary data block.
8-64 Interfaces
#$ UNIFORM. This is the subsection header that defines the start of the uniform load data. The data for each uniform load
in the input file is listed here.
Use FORTRAN format (2X, 6G13.6) to write the values of the following 9 items on the next two lines of the neutral file.
The UNI array is dimensioned (N5,9).
This will require two lines in the neutral file for each uniform load auxiliary data block.
Use FORTRAN format (2X, 6G13.6) to write the set of values on the next line of the neutral file. This will require a single
line in the neutral file for each wind auxiliary.
1 entry type (0.0 for Wind, 1.0 for Wave, 2.0 for Off)
2 wind shape factor or wave drag coefficient
3 wave added mass coefficient
4 wave lift coefficient
5 wave marine growth
#$ OFFSETS. This is the subsection header that defines the start of the element offset data. The data for each offset pipe in
the input file is listed here.
Use FORTRAN format (2X, 6G13.6) to write the values of the following six items on the next line of the neutral file. The
OFF array is dimensioned (N5,6).
This will require a single line in the neutral file for each offset auxiliary.
Chapter 8 Interfaces 8-65
#$ ALLOWBLS. This is the subsection header that defines the start of the allowable stress data. The data for each
allowable spec in the input file is listed here.
Use FORTRAN format (2X, 6G13.6) to write the values of the following 108 items on the next eighteen lines of the neutral
file. The ALL array is dimensioned (N5,108).
This will require eighteen lines in the neutral file for each allowable auxiliary.
Some of these items (notably 8-24) may have various meanings based on the active piping code.
#$ SIF&TEES. This is the subsection header that defines the start of the SIF/TEE data. The data for each SIF/TEE spec in
the input file is listed here.
Use FORTRAN format (2X, 6G13.6) to write the values of the following 30 items, for each of the two tees that can be
specified on the dialog. The SIF array is dimensioned (N4,60).
This will require five lines in the neutral file for each SIF/TEE specified, which means ten lines total for each auxiliary.
Chapter 8 Interfaces 8-67
#$ REDUCERS. This is the subsection header that defines the start of the REDUCER data. The data for each REDUCER
spec in the input file is listed here.
Use FORTRAN format (2X, 6G13.6) to write the values of the following 5 items on the next line of the neutral file. The
RED array is dimensioned (N6,5).
This will require one line in the neutral file for each REDUCER specified.
#$ FLANGES. This is the subsection header that defines the start of the FLANGE data. The data for each FLANGE spec in
the input file is listed here. There are 72 data values used to describe a flange, as shown here:
These values are arranged in the neutral file on 12 lines, as follows, using a format of (2X, 6G13.6) unless otherwise
specified:
All 12 lines must be written to the neutral file for each flange. Unused fields/values can be represented by 0.00.
The data in this group consists of the material id (RRMAT) for each element in the input file, the nozzle data (VFLEX), the
hanger data, and the execution options.
Material ID. The first array in this section (RRMAT) contains the material id number for each element in the input file. Use
FORTRAN format (2X, 6G13.6).
The RRMAT array is dimensioned (N1). The material ids range from 1 to 699 ( See the User’s Guide for details).
The number of lines required to write the RRMAT array in the neutral file is determined by the following FORTRAN
routine:
NLINES = NUMELT / 6
IF(MOD(NUMELT,6).NE.0)THEN
NLINES = NLINES + 1
ENDIF
Nozzles. The next set of data describes the flexible (WRC-297, PD-5500, API 650) nozzles in the input file.
Use FORTRAN format (2X, 6G13.6). The nozzle (VFLEX) contains 16 values for each nozzle in the input.
This will require four lines in the neutral WRC-297, PD-5500, and/or API 650 spreadsheet. The VFLEX array is
dimensioned (N6, 16).
Hangers. The next set of data describes the spring hangers in the input file. Some of the hanger data listed below represents
uninitialized data. In the instances where this uninitialized data represent infinite values (such as maximum travel limit and
available space) it is reported here as 9999.99.
Chapter 8 Interfaces 8-71
The next line contains values for the following parameters in FORTRAN format (2X, I13, 5G13.6):
IDFTABLE is the default hanger table.
DEFVAR is the default for allowed load variation.
DEFRIG is the default for rigid support displacement criteria.
DEFMXTRAVEL is the default for maximum allowed travel.
DEFSHTSPR is the default for allowing short range springs (0=no 1=yes).
DEFMUL is the default multi load case design option.
The next line contains values for the following parameters in FORTRAN format (2X, 5I13):
IDFOPER is the default # of hanger design operating cases (always 1)
IACTCLD is the default cold load calculation switch (0=no, 1=yes).
IHGRLDS is the number of hanger operating loads (0 -3).
IACTUAL is the load case defining actual cold loads.
IMULTIOPTS is the multiple load case design option (1-7).
An array of hanger node numbers (IHGRNODE) is read/written for each hanger in the input file and is dimensioned (N5).
There will be seven lines in the neutral file for this data, if all N5 hangers are specified. Use FORTRAN format (2X, 6I13).
A 10-element array (HGRDAT) is read/written for each hanger in the input file. The HGRDAT array is dimensioned
(10,N5). Each hanger in the model will require two lines in the neutral file. Use FORTRAN format (2X, 6G13.6).
1 hanger stiffness
2 allowable load variation
3 rigid support displacement criteria
4 allowed space for hanger
5 cold load #1 (theoretical)
6 hot load #1 (initialize to 0.0)
7 user defined operating load f/ variable springs (init to 0.0)
8 maximum allowed travel limit
9 multiple load case design option
10 hanger constant effort support load
A four-element array (IHGRFREE) is read/written for each hanger in the input file. The IHGRFREE array is dimensioned (
4,N5). Each hanger in the file will require one line in the neutral file.
An array (IHGRNUM) lists the number of hangers at this location, for each hanger in the input file. There will be one entry
here for every hanger in the file. The IHGRNUM array is dimensioned (N5). There will be seven lines in the neutral file for
this data, if all N5 hangers are specified. Use FORTRAN format (2X, 6I13).
8-72 Interfaces
An array (IHGRTABLE) listing the hanger table numbers for each hanger in the input file. There will be one entry here for
every hanger in the file. The IHGRTABLE is dimensioned (N5). There will be seven lines in the neutral file for this data, if
all N5 hangers are specified. Use FORTRAN format (2X, 6I13).
An array of flags (IHGRSHORT) indicates if short range springs can be used at each hanger location. The IHGRSHORT
array is dimensioned (N5). There will be seven lines in the neutral file for this data. Use FORTRAN format (2X, 6I13).
0 = can’t use short range springs
1 = can use short range springs
An array of connecting node numbers (IHGRCN) is available for each hanger. The IHGRCN array is dimensioned (N5).
There will be seven lines in the neutral file for this data, if all N5 hangers are specified. Use FORTRAN format (2X, 6I13).
Execution Options. The next section of data defines the execution options used by the program. Use FORTRAN format
(2X, 4I13, G13.6, I13). This will require three lines in the neutral file. These values are
Print forces on rigids and expansion joints 0=no, 1=yes
Print alphas & pipe props. during error checking 0=no, 1=yes
Activate Bourdon Pressure Effects 0, 1, or 2
Activate Branch Error and Coordinate Prompts 0=no, 1=yes
Thermal Bowing Delta Temperature degrees
Use Liberal Stress Allowable 0=no, 1=yes
For the following data, use FORTRAN format: (2X, I13, 2G13.6, 3I13):
Uniform Load Input in g’’s 0=no, 1=yes
Stress Stiffening due to Pressure 0, 1, 2
Ambient Temperature (If not 70.00 deg F ) degrees
FRP Expansion * 1,000,000 len/len/deg
Optimizer 0-Both, 1-CuthillMcKee, 2-Collins
Next Node Selection 0-Decreasing, 1-Increasing
For the following data, use FORTRAN format (2X, 4I13, G13.6, I13):
Final Ordering 0-Reversed, 1-Not Reversed
Collins Ordering 0-Band, 1-No. of Coefficients
Degree Determination 0-Connections, 1-Band
User Control 0-None, 1-Allow User Re-Looping
FRP Shear ratio
Laminate type
Units Conversion Data
#$ UNITS. This is the section division header. The #$ and space are required, as well as the word UNITS. The data in this
section defines both the conversion constants as well as the conversion labels. The conversion constants are all REAL*4
values in FORTRAN format (2X, 6G13.6). This will require four lines in the neutral file. The following are character
definitions for the labels:
CNVLEN is the length conversion.
CNVFOR is the force conversion.
CNVMAS is the mass conversion.
CNVMIN is the moment (input) conversion.
CNVMOU is the moment (output) conversion.
Chapter 8 Interfaces 8-73
CCVNOM - “on” or “off” and tells PREPIP whether or not nominal diameters are allowed (CHARACTER* 3).
The data in this section of the neutral file is optional; it may not exist. The existence of this data depends on the user’s
preference and the particular job. This section of the neutral file is used to specify the X, Y, Z global coordinates of the
starting node point of each discontinuous piping segment. This data, if it exists, is defined below.
The NXYZ value defines how many sets of coordinates follow. Use FORTRAN format (2X, I13).
INODE, XCORD, YCORD, ZCORD This line of four values is repeated NXYZ times.
Use FORTRAN format (2X, I13, 3F13.4) to define a node number and its X, Y, Z global coordinates.
The generic CAESAR II data matrix input routine creates a CAESAR II file from a simple neutral file. It expects to read a file
that contains a single line of data for each pipe in the model. Each line of data contains twelve parameters as follows:
Where:
ELMT is the element number, sequential from 1.
N1 is the “from” node number.
N2 is the “to” node number.
DX is the delta dimension in the global “X” direction.
DY is the delta dimension in the global “Y” direction (the “Y” axis is vertical in CAESAR II).
DZ is the delta dimension in the global “Z” direction.
DIAM is the actual pipe diameter.
THK is the actual pipe wall thickness.
ANCH is a restraint flag, 1 if the “from” node is restrained, 0 otherwise. Currently ignored.
BEND is a bend indicator, 1 if the element has a bend at the “to” node, 0 otherwise.
BRAD is the bend radius if not a long radius bend.
Chapter 8 Interfaces 8-75
All values in the matrix should be “real,” floating point numbers. The format for each line of data should be (12E13.6). This
generic interface does prompt for an arbitrary conversion constant for the delta dimensions and the diameter /thickness
values to overcome any differences between the assumed units of the neutral file and the CAESAR II defaults.
Users developing an interface from scratch are urged to use the Complete Neutral File interface discussed in the next
section. The Data Matrix Interface discussed above transfers the piping geometry only, which requires the analyst to input
additional data to complete the stress model.
8-76 Interfaces
Computational Interfaces
LIQT Interface
The CAESAR II / LIQT Transfer program is used to generate CAESAR II dynamic input data files containing response spectra
for input files which contain the dynamic pipe forces. These time history loads are determined by the Stoner Associates, Inc.
(SAI) LIQT package, from pressure transient loading. The CAESAR II / LIQT Transfer program reads the output file generated
by LIQT, extracts the information needed, and generates the response spectra. Then, the generated response spectrum files
can be used for the dynamic analysis in CAESAR II.
The resulting force spectrum files (DLF curves) are written to the CAESAR II data directory during the computation phase of
the program. The names of generated force spectrum files have the following format:
L*.DLF where "*" is the user CAESAR II node number in the piping model which corresponds to the equivalent LIQT pipe
name.
When all computations have completed, the user will be returned to the CAESAR II Main Menu.
SAI’s LIQT package performs the analysis and simulation of the unsteady flow situations for a particular liquid piping
system, and generates the piping load time histories for the pressure transient of this particular liquid piping system.
In the dynamic analysis module of CAESAR II, a response spectrum can be generated from the user input of time history
pulse. However, there are typically too many data points from a time history analysis for a user to manually input the data
into CAESAR II. The CAESAR II LIQT Transfer is used to bridge the gap between SAI’s LIQT package and the CAESAR II
dynamic analysis module.
After the time history loads have been generated by SAI’s LIQT package, the CAESAR II LIQT Interface extracts the dynamic
pipe forces from the LIQT generated file, and computes the response spectrum. Afterward, the response spectrum can be
used as the DLF curve for the dynamic analysis in CAESAR II.
The response spectrum is a plot giving the maximum response of all possible linear one degree of freedom systems due to a
given input, which in the present case is a force. The abscissa of the spectrum is the frequency axis, and the ordinate is the
maximum response, i.e. the dynamic load factor (DLF). The DLF is the ratio of the dynamic deflection at any time to the
deflection which would have resulted from the static application of the load. In cases where the applied load is not constant,
the maximum load which occurs at any time during the period of interest is taken.
Chapter 8 Interfaces 8-77
The dynamic load factor is non dimensional and independent of the magnitude of load. The following examples illustrate
the characteristics of the DLF curve in terms of the magnitude and the duration of the load.
Example 1
Find the DLF response spectrum of the trapezoidal pulse loads shown in the following figure.
Example 2
Find the response spectrum of the following trapezoidal pulse loads.
PIPENET Interface
The CAESAR II / PIPENET Transfer program is used to generate CAESAR II dynamic input data files containing response
spectra for input files which contain the dynamic pipe forces. These time history loads are determined by the Sunrise
System's Pipenet package, from pressure transient loading. The CAESAR II / PIPENET Transfer program reads the output file
generated by PIPENET, extracts the information needed, and generates the response spectra. Then, the generated response
spectrum files can be used for the dynamic analysis in CAESAR II.
8-80 Interfaces
The resulting force spectrum files (DLF curves) are written to the CAESAR II data directory during the computation phase of
the program. The names of generated force spectrum files have the following format:
P*.DLF where "*" is the user's CAESAR II node number in the piping model which corresponds to the equivalent PIPENET
pipe name.
Further, the PIPENET Interface creates a complete CAESAR II Dynamic Input file including spectrum definition, force sets,
load cases, and combination load cases. The resulting input file is ready to be run "as is" or can be further modified by the
user.
When all computations have completed, users are returned to the CAESAR II Main Menu.
PIPENET performs the analysis and simulation of the unsteady flow situations for a particular liquid piping system, and
generates the piping load time histories for the pressure transient of this particular liquid piping system.
In the dynamic analysis module of CAESAR II, a response spectrum can be generated from the user input of time history
pulse. However, there are typically too many data points from a time history analysis for a user to manually input the data
into CAESAR II. The CAESAR II PIPENET Transfer is used to bridge the gap between PIPENET and the CAESAR II dynamic
analysis module.
After the time history loads have been generated by PIPENET, the CAESAR II PIPENET Interface extracts the dynamic pipe
forces from the PIPENET generated file, and computes the response spectrum. Afterward, the response spectrum can be
used as the DLF curve for the dynamic analysis in CAESAR II.
The response spectrum is a plot giving the maximum response of all possible linear one degree of freedom systems due to a
given input, which in the present case is a force. The abscissa of the spectrum is the frequency axis, and the ordinate is the
maximum response, i.e. the dynamic load factor (DLF). The DLF is the ratio of the dynamic deflection at any time to the
deflection which would have resulted from the static application of the load. In cases where the applied load is not constant,
the maximum load which occurs at any time during the period of interest is taken.
The dynamic load factor is non dimensional and independent of the magnitude of load.
Chapter 8 Interfaces 8-81
DSN Setup
In order to use the CAESAR II data export facility, you need to set up two Data Source Names (DSNs) on the system. DSNs
contain information regarding where the database resides on the computer and how to communicate with it, i.e. what driver
to use. CAESAR II has capabilities to export data to either an Access database or an Excel spreadsheet. Therefore, you will
need two DSNs set up to allow use of this feature. The names of these two DSNs are FIXED by COADE Inc.
The CAESAR II installation program is designed to set up these DSNs automatically. However, in the event that the DSNs
are not set up, use the procedure listed below.
Important: Follow steps 4 through 8 for Microsoft Access DSN Setup ONLY! Skip to step 9 for Microsoft Excel
DSN Setup.
4 Select the Microsoft Access Driver (*.mdb) and click the Finish button. A window similar to the one below will
display and you will be prompted to select your database.
After completing the previous step, you will be returned to the ODBC Microsoft Access Setup window similar to the
following figure.
Note: This above process needs to be performed only once per machine.
Note: CAESAR II will copy the template database to the directory specified and name the database as specified.
The Append re-runs to existing data check box is optional. If left unchecked, re-runs of the same job will overwrite any
existing data for the same job in the database/spreadsheet. If checked, re-runs will add or append data from the new runs to
the database/spreadsheet.
Note: As in previous versions of CAESAR II, the configuration file applies to all CAESAR II jobs present in that directory.
Similarly, the external database/spreadsheet specified in one configuration file applies to all jobs present in that directory.
This wizard, besides being compatible with ODBC (Microsoft Access and Excel) can also export data in XML format.
(Note that the Excel interface produces a semicolon delimited text file, which can be imported into Excel very quickly.)
The interface is accessed via the Tools/Eternal Interfaces/Data Export Wizard menu command from the CAESAR II Main
Menu. The Data Export Wizard dialog displays; the exported data set can be developed by responding to the questions
and clicking the Next button.
Chapter 8 Interfaces 8-85
The Input and Output Files dialog requests the name of the CAESAR II piping file (the._A file) for which the data is to be
exported: the user must browse for it.
Activating the Export Output Data Also check box provides the ability to include any output results (if available) to the
exported data set as well. Activating the Use System Units check box converts the data to the set of units currently selected
in the CAESAR II Configure /Setup. Selection of the Data Export Output file designates where the data will go, as well as in
what form the data will be: selection of files with extensions of .MDB, .TXT, or .XML produce data in the form of
Microsoft Access™, Microsoft Excel™ semi-colon delimited text, or XML, respectively.) Note, a great deal of on-line help
is provided for this wizard, accessible via the Help button.
The CAESAR II Input Export Options dialog allows the user to select the input data items that are to be exported.
8-86 Interfaces
If the user has clicked the Export Output Data check box, the CAESAR II Output Export Options dialog allows the user
to select the type of results to be exported, and the load cases for which these results are to be exported.
Clicking finish completes the operation. The resultant data file may now be queried or otherwise manipulated through the
use of Microsoft Access, Microsoft Excel, or XML parsing software. Note that a number of built in reports, queries, and
other helpful items (see the figure above) have been provided in the default Access file format, or the user can develop
custom reports and queries.
CH AP TER 9
In This Chapter
CAESAR II File Guide ............................................................................ 9-2
Required for Execution............................................................................ 9-3
Required Error Data................................................................................. 9-5
Required Data Set .................................................................................... 9-6
Required Printer/ Listing ......................................................................... 9-9
Dynamics ................................................................................................. 9-11
Auxiliary.................................................................................................. 9-12
Structural Data ......................................................................................... 9-13
External Interfaces ................................................................................... 9-14
Examples ................................................................................................. 9-15
CAESAR II Operational (Job) Data Files................................................ 9-16
9-2 File Sets
If you have adequate space on your hard drive, the new program data files will overwrite the existing data files from the
previous version. Some exceptions, such as the material database file, change from year to year, and may have to be deleted
manually to maximize disk space.
After a successful installation, the following directory structure will exist on the hard disk, assuming the installation
directory was named "caesar."
It should be noted that as a disk reaches its capacity, disk access can be slowed considerably. For this reason it is a good
idea to perform some periodic “house cleaning” on the directory(s) where CAESAR II files are stored. This would involve
deleting scratch files and old job files. The CAESAR II File-Clean Up Files command option can help in this process.
Chapter 9 File Sets 9-3
ANAHLP02.EXE Help file for dynamic input and load case editor
ENGLISH.FIL
INOFLEX.HGR
MM.FIL
OUTPUT.HED
PTP-LRG.DAT
PTP-LRG.JHD
PTP-SML.DAT
PTP-SML.JHD
SI.FIL
TITLE.HED
MAT_FRP.INP
SIF&TD12.INP
Dynamics
Dynamics Description
DYN.EXE Dynamic setup/Harmonic Solution
Auxiliary
NETUSER.BAT
Structural Data
External Interfaces
Examples
Examples Description
45-75 DLF file for HAMMER job
In the list below, an asterisk (*) by the file name indicates it should be saved in order to archive the input data. A double
asterisk (**) indicates the file should be saved to archive output data.
INPUT, Static
._A * Contains the User’s spreadsheet input data.
INPUT, Dynamic
._7 * Contains the User’s dynamic input data.
INPUT, Structural
.STR * Contains the User’s structural input data.
INPUT, Soil
.SOI * Contains the User’s soil property data.
Scratch
._B Nodal boundary condition file, created by the piping error checker and used by the analysis modules.
._C Element properties file, created by the piping error checker and used by the analysis modules.
._N Nodal coordinate file, created by the piping error checker and used by the analysis modules.
._R Job control information, created by the piping error checker and used by the analysis modules.
._E Element connectivity file, created by the piping error checker and used by the analysis modules.
Listing
.MSG Secondary output file with intermediate computation data
Output
._M ** Intermediate output file, contains data generated by the piping error checker and load case setup modules
Note: All of these files may not be present for a given job. The presence of a file is dependent on what analysis has been
run.
CH AP TER 1 0
In This Chapter
CAESAR II Initial Capabilities (12/84)................................................... 10-2
CAESAR II Version 1.1S Features (2/86) ............................................... 10-3
CAESAR II Version 2.0A Features (10/86) ............................................ 10-4
CAESAR II Version 2.1C Features (6/87) .............................................. 10-5
CAESAR II Version 2.2B Features (9/88) .............................................. 10-6
CAESAR II Version 3.0 Features (4/90) ................................................. 10-7
CAESAR II Version 3.1 Features (11/90) ............................................... 10-8
CAESAR II Version 3.15 Features (9/91) ............................................... 10-9
CAESAR II Version 3.16 Features (12/91) ............................................. 10-10
CAESAR II Version 3.17 Features (3/92) ............................................... 10-11
CAESAR II Version 3.18 Features (9/92) ............................................... 10-12
CAESAR II Version 3.19 Features (3/93) ............................................... 10-13
CAESAR II Version 3.20 Features (10/93) ............................................. 10-14
CAESAR II Version 3.21 Changes and Enhancements (7/94) ................ 10-15
CAESAR II Version 3.22 Changes & Enhancements (4/95)................... 10-17
CAESAR II Version 3.23 Changes (3/96)............................................... 10-18
CAESAR II Version 3.24 Changes & Enhancements (3/97)................... 10-19
CAESAR II Version 4.00 Changes and Enhancements (1/98) ................ 10-21
CAESAR II Version 4.10 Changes and Enhancements (1/99) ................ 10-22
CAESAR II Version 4.20 Changes and Enhancements (2/00) ................ 10-23
CAESAR II Version 4.30 Changes and Enhancements (3/01) ................ 10-24
CAESAR II Version 4.40 Changes and Enhancements (5/02) ................ 10-25
CAESAR II Version 4.50 Changes and Enhancements (11/03) .............. 10-26
CAESAR II Version 5.00 Changes and Enhancements (11/05) .............. 10-27
CAESAR II Version 5.10 Changes and Enhancements ( 9/07) ............... 10-28
10-2 Update History
Miscellaneous Modifications
Screen data presentation changes
Direct control jumping between executables
Increased number of allowed program designed hangers
Additional spring hanger design options
Database Updates include additional spring hanger tables
Soil Modeler for Buried Pipe
Chapter 10 Update History 10-9
Miscellaneous
A pen plotting program (PENPLT) plots up to 2500 element models (LARGE Includes) on the screen or on an HPGL
compatible hardware device.
The static output processor has been updated to support VGA graphics and to provide screen dumps to HP Laser Jet
Series II compatible printers.
Updated SYSCHK program now checks that SHARE is loaded when necessary. Missing coprocessor is also
immediately reported.
Updated PLTS now allows users to save labels, scaling information, and file names during plotting sessions.
Updated ROT (rotating equipment program) provides additional code interpretations for the HEI bulletin.
The BIGPRT (large job printing program) has been expanded to handle even larger jobs and to provide a “local”
element report.
As of Version 3.15, CAESAR II will utilize ESL devices to authorize access to the program. The ESLs are more stable
than the previously used keydisk and provide additional client information to the program. Additional information on
the ESLs can be found in the update pages for the User Manual.
Note: The first access of Version 3.15 will cause the ESL activation code to prompt for the keydisks (both unlimited and
limited). Both keydisks must be available to properly activate the ESL.
A printer setup program (PRSET) is provided to adjust the number of lines per logical page for dot matrix printers.
Users with page lengths longer than 11 inches will find this program very useful.
10-10 Update History
Interfaces Added
A new neutral file interface is provided which allows a two way transfer of data between the CAESAR II input file and
an ASCII text file.
An interface is provided between Stoner’s LIQT program and the dynamic modules of CAESAR II. This interface
enables dynamic pipe forces from a time domain analysis to be used in the generation of a force spectrum.
Miscellaneous Changes
The static stress summary report has been modified so that the maximum code stress percent is reported, not the
maximum code stress.
A “miscellaneous” option has been added to the configuration program. This option allows various options, including
the specification of the ANSI, JIS, or DIN piping specifications.
Other options available from the Miscellaneous menu are:
Intro/Exit Screens (On/Off) - This option can be used to disable the display of the initial entry screen and the final exit
screen.
Yes/No Prompts (On/Off) - This option can be used to disable the yes/no/are_you_sure prompts.
Output Reports by Load Case (Yes/No) - By default, CAESAR II produces static output reports by load case. This option
can be used to generate the same reports by subject.
Displacement Report Node Sort (Yes/No) - This option can be used to disable the nodal sorting of the static
displacement report.
The file handler has been modified to enable directory and disk drive selection and logging. The initial display of the
file names can also be controlled by the user. This allows the user to set the sort order as well as the single/multi-
column display presentation.
A file verification routine has been added to check the installation of CAESAR II. This will aid in detecting program
corruption due to hard disk defects and viruses.
A new report has been added to the static output menu. This will enable users to obtain a “local force/moment” report
for the elements in the system.
A 32 bit version of the dynamic summation module is provided for large dynamic analysis. Note, this module requires
at least a 386 processor.
The animation module has been modified to provide hard copy output of the mode shapes.
Chapter 10 Update History 10-13
The modules converted to 32 bit operation for Version 3.21 are summarized below:
Static Stress Computation Module (1)
Piping, Buried & Structural Steel Input Modules (3)
Piping Error Checker (1)
Load Case & Dynamic Input Module (1)
All CAD interfaces (8)
Neutral File interfaces (2)
The software now supports an ESL from a new vendor. This provides CAESAR II with full networking abilities. The program
first checks for a local ESL (from either vendor), then for a network ESL.
Toward the support for network operations, the data files which are not job specific are now assumed to be located in a
SYSTEM subdirectory underneath the CAESAR II installation directory. These data files include: the input listing formatting
files (*.INP), the accounting data files, the printer formatting file, the file handler template file, and the various header files.
The common factor among all of these files is that they are specific to a company installation, not a particular data directory.
Up until Version 3.21, these data files were manipulated by the program (or sometimes directly by the user) in the
installation directory. However, many network installations “write protect” their installation directories, making
modifications to these files impossible. We have therefore placed these files in a SYSTEM subdirectory to which users
should be given complete access.
Note: CAESAR II Version 3.21 will be capable of running on a local machine (with either vendor’s local ESL) or on a
network (with the network ESL). The changes made to the software enable the same version to be run under these various
configurations.
Added additional spring hanger manufacturer has been added, Carpenter & Paterson, UK.
The UBC (Uniform Building Code) earthquake spectra have been added.
The B31.5 piping code has been added.
The piping code addenda have been reviewed and any necessary changes made to the software. The addenda include
revisions for: ASCE #7, B31.1, B31.8, ASME NC, and ASME ND.
The SIF scratch-pad from the Miscellaneous processor (Option C of the Main Menu) has been incorporated into the
piping preprocessor. This processor includes all of the supported piping codes (not just B31.1 and B31.3 as before) and
all of the fittings. Additionally, any changes made to the scratch-pad data can optionally be transferred directly to the
main CAESAR II data spreadsheets.
Additional changes to the input piping preprocessor include the following:
problem size is now dependent on the amount of free extended memory - the old limit of 400 elements is now upwards of
8,000 elements
graphics menus automatically turned off for hard copies
optional node number display for supports, anchors, hangers, and nozzles
function key map shown on main spreadsheet
auxiliary input spreadsheets support help
10-16 Update History
The accounting system has been completely rewritten. This provides a more streamlined interface. Additionally,
accounting statistics are now recorded from the stress computation modules (previous versions only recorded the actual
matrix decomposition times).
The API-617 and NEMA-SM23 reports have been overhauled so that the code compliance when using non-English
units systems is consistent.
The new Flange Rigidity factor from ASME Section VIII has been added.
A new loader (C2.EXE) has replaced the original one (C2.COM). This new loader performs initial startup checks, with
diagnostic reporting if necessary, and enables error processing from the Main Menu.
The configuration program has been modified to track changes. Users attempting to [Esc] out after making changes are
warned that the changes will not be saved.
A graphics viewer has been added to the file manager. This enables rapid model plotting directly from the file manager
of the Main Menu.
Additional directives are available to disable the generation of the Table of Contents page, and disable the display of
the spreadsheet function key mapping.
Chapter 10 Update History 10-17
The user may now set default values for FRP (material 20) parameters via the configuration/setup. These default
parameters may be read automatically from manufacturers data files by toggling through the list of available files, and
then pressing [ALT-U] (for Update) on the selected vendor file. Vendor files are recognized by their .FRP extensions;
since these are text files, users may create them easily themselves, or vendors may distribute them to their customers.
The UKOOA (United Kingdom Offshore Operators Association) piping code for FRP piping has been added.
The Z183 and Z184 piping codes have been replaced with the Z662 code, which has been expanded to consider
calculation of stresses in “restrained” piping.
The ASCE #7 wind code has been updated to the 1995 edition.
The API-610 code in the equipment module has been updated to the 8th edition.
ASME Section VIII Division 2 stress indices and WRC-107 SIF (kn, kb) values have been incorporated into the WRC-
107 module.
The “Relief Load Synthesis” dynamics module now supports metric (or custom) units.
A number of configuration file default values have been revised in order to improve calculational results or program
performance:
Changed From To
BEND_LENGTH_ATTACHMENT= 5.0 1.0
BEND_AXIAL_SHAPE = NO YES
FRICT_NORM_FORCE_VAR = 25 15
FRICT_ANGLE_VAR = 30 15
Fatal error processing • 7-9 CAESAR II Version 4.20 Changes and Enhancements
File guide • 9-2 (2/00) • 10-23
Initial capabilities (12/84) • 10-2 CAESAR II Version 4.30 Changes and Enhancements
Log file • 8-21 (3/01) • 10-24
Neutral file interface • 8-57 CAESAR II Version 4.30 Changes and Enhancements
Operational (job) data files • 9-16 (4/02) • 10-24
Version 1.1s features (2/86) • 10-3 CAESAR II Version 4.40 Changes and Enhancements
Version 2.0a features (10/86) • 10-4 (5/02) • 10-25
Version 2.1c features (6/87) • 10-5 CAESAR II Version 4.50 Changes and Enhancements
Version 2.2b features (9/88) • 10-6 (11/03) • 10-26
Version 3.0 features (4/90) • 10-7 CAESAR II Version 5.00 Changes and Enhancements
Version 3.15 features (9/91) • 10-9 (11/05) • 10-27
Version 3.16 features (12/91) • 10-10 CAESAR II Version 5.10 Changes and Enhancements (
Version 3.19 features (3/93) • 10-13 9/07) • 10-28
Version 3.20 features (10/93) • 10-14 Caesar.cfg • 2-1
Version 3.21 changes & enhancements (7/94) • 10- Calculate actual cold loads • 3-115
15 Calculate Actual Cold Loads • 3-115
Version 3.22 changes & enhancements (4/95) • 10- Calculation of Fatigue Stresses • 6-58
17 Can available space • 3-47
Version 3.23 changes (3/96) • 10-18 CANADIAN Z662 • 6-94
Version 3.24 changes & enhancements (3/97) • 10- CFE Sismo Example Problem • 3-68
19 CFE Sismo Static Seismic Wizard • 3-67
Version 4.00 changes and enhancements (1/98) • Change password • 2-30
10-21 Change Password • 2-30
Version 4.10 changes and enhancements (1/99) • Checking the CADPIPE/CAESAR II Data Transfer • 8-
10-22 19
CAESAR II Fatal Error Processing • 7-9 Checking the ComputerVision/CAESAR II Data
CAESAR II File Guide • 9-2 Transfer • 8-21
CAESAR II Initial Capabilities (12/84) • 10-2 Checking the PRO-ISO/CAESAR II Data Transfer • 8-
CAESAR II interfaces • 8-2 55
CAESAR II Local Coordinate Definitions • 6-121 Chopped strand mat • 2-12, 3-14
CAESAR II Log File • 8-21 Circumferential
CAESAR II Neutral File Interface • 8-57 (hoop) direction • 3-75
CAESAR II Operational (Job) Data Files • 9-16 Weld • 3-25
CAESAR II Version 1.1S Features (2/86) • 10-3 Weld joint efficiency • 3-73
CAESAR II Version 2.0A Features (10/86) • 10-4 Class 1
CAESAR II Version 2.1C Features (6/87) • 10-5 Flexibility calculations • 2-25
CAESAR II Version 2.2B Features (9/88) • 10-6 Intersection flexibilities • 6-12
CAESAR II Version 3.0 Features (4/90) • 10-7 Class 1 Branch Flexibilities • 2-25, 6-12
CAESAR II Version 3.1 Features (11/90) • 10-8 Class 1 Branch Flexibility • 2-25
CAESAR II Version 3.15 Features (9/91) • 10-9 Class 1 branch flexibilityClass 1 branch flexibility • 2-
CAESAR II Version 3.16 Features (12/91) • 10-10 25, 6-12
CAESAR II Version 3.17 Features (3/92) • 10-11 Closely spaced mode criteria • 5-54
CAESAR II Version 3.18 Features (9/92) • 10-12 Closely Spaced Mode Criteria/Time History Time Step
CAESAR II Version 3.19 Features (3/93) • 10-13 (ms) • 5-54
CAESAR II Version 3.20 Features (10/93) • 10-14 CNode • 3-40, 3-44, 3-133, 5-38
CAESAR II Version 3.21 Changes and Enhancements Coade technical support • 1-4
(7/94) • 10-15 COADE Technical Support • 1-4
CAESAR II Version 3.22 Changes & Enhancements Code
(4/95) • 10-17 Compliance • 3-71, 6-16
CAESAR II Version 3.23 Changes (3/96) • 10-18 Code Compliance Considerations • 6-81
CAESAR II Version 3.24 Changes & Enhancements Code Options (B31.1 & B31.8) • 3-28
(3/97) • 10-19 Code-calculated • 3-29
CAESAR II Version 4.00 Changes and Enhancements Code-calculated stress • 3-29
(1/98) • 10-21 Code-calculated values • 3-29
CAESAR II Version 4.10 Changes and Enhancements Codes • 3-71
(1/99) • 10-22 Code-Specific Notes • 6-84
Index 5
Expansion Joint Modeler Notes • 3-109 Flange leakage and stress calculations • 10-9
Expansion Joint Styles • 3-111 Flange Leakage and Stress Calculations • 10-9
Expansion joints • 2-9, 3-20, 3-119, 6-7 Flanged ends • 3-94
Database • 2-9 Flanges • 3-17
Model • 3-106, 3-109 Flexibility
Modeler • 3-106, 3-109 Analysis • 3-84
Styles • 3-111 Factor • 2-13, 3-10, 3-14
Expansion Joints • 2-9, 2-17, 3-20, 3-109, 6-7 Matrix • 6-16
Exponential format • 3-3 Orientation • 3-54
Extended Fluid
Operating conditions • 3-8, 3-9 Bulk modulus Fluid
Range • 3-45 Bulk modulus • 5-75
External interface • 8-2 Density • 3-11, 5-75
External Interfaces • 9-14 Hammer • 5-5
Extracted • 2-6 Loads • 6-26
F Fluid Bulk Modulus • 5-75
Fluid Density • 3-11, 5-75
Fac • 3-84, 7-16 Fn • 3-77
FAC • 7-16 Force • 5-9, 5-18, 5-31, 5-48
Factor • 5-19, 5-26 Orthogonalization after convergence • 5-65
Fatigue Sets • 5-48
Curve data • 3-87 Spectrum • 5-5
Cycle • 3-77 Spectrum analysis Force
Evaluations • 3-87 Spectrum analysis • 5-44
Factor • 3-77
Spectrum name • 5-17
Fatigue Analysis of Piping Systems • 6-45
Force Consistent Bend Materials • 8-23
Fatigue Analysis Using CAESAR II • 6-44
Force Orthogonalization After Convergence (Y/N) • 5-
Fatigue Basics • 6-44
66
Fatigue Capabilities in Dynamic Analysis • 6-55
Force orthogonalization after convergence (y/n) Force
Fatigue Class • 3-38
Orthogonalization after convergence • 5-66
FDBR • 6-104
Force response spectrum definitions • 5-17
Fiberglass reinforced plastic • 3-10, 3-14, 3-119
Force Response Spectrum Definitions • 5-17
Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic (FRP) • 3-10
Force set # • 5-20, 5-31
File Name • 8-22, 8-56
Force Set # • 5-20, 5-31
File Sets • 1-2, 9-1
Force Spectrum Name • 5-17
Files
Forces • 3-61, 3-110
-Clean up • 9-2
Forces and moments • 3-61
Files-accounting • 7-6
Forces and Moments • 3-61
Fillet • 3-25
Forces at elbows • 5-5
FILLET • 3-26
Free
Fillet weld • 3-87
Anchor/restraint at node • 3-50
Filter Out Elements Whose Diameter is Less Than • 8-
Code • 3-51
23
End connections • 4-32
Final CAESAR II data • 8-18
Free Anchor/Restraint at Node • 3-50
Find Distance • 3-97
Free Code • 3-51
Find Element • 3-98
Free End Connections - FREE • 4-2, 4-32
Finite length expansion joints • 3-20
French petrochemical code • 6-17
Finite Length Expansion Joints • 3-20
Frequency
First Mode Period (CFE) • 3-68
Array spaces Frequency
Fitting
Flexibility factor • 2-13 Array spaces • 5-66
Outside radius • 3-25 Cutoff • 5-51
Thickness • 3-15 Cutoff Frequency
Fitting Outside Radius • 3-100 Cutoff • 5-53
Fitting Thickness • 3-15, 3-104 Frequency Array Spaces • 5-66
Flange Class & Material Grade • 3-18 Frequency Cutoff (HZ) • 5-53
Flange database • 3-94 Frequently Asked Questions • 6-130
Index 9
LAST • 4-21, 4-24, 4-26, 4-30, 4-33, 4-44, 4-47 Stress • 2-28
Lateral force • 6-20 Longitudinal weld joint efficiency • 3-73
Legend Text • 2-17 Loop closure tolerance • 2-15, 3-119
Length of manifold piping • 5-75 Loop Closure Tolerance • 2-15
Length of Manifold Piping • 5-75 Loop Optimization Wizard • 3-134, 3-137
Length of relief exit piping • 5-75 Loop Type • 3-136
Length of Relief Exit Piping • 5-75 Lumped Masses • 5-35
Length of the vent stack • 5-71
Length of the Vent Stack • 5-71 M
Liberal Expansion Stress Allowable • 2-26 Macro-Level Analysis • 6-66
Liberal Stress Allowable • 3-120 Major Direction • 3-136
Lift coefficient • 6-34 Major Direction Available Space • 3-136
Lift Coefficient, Cl • 3-64 Make units file • 7-10
Lift force • 6-26 Make Units File • 7-10
LIM • 3-41 Manifold pipe end flow conditions • 5-76
Line Manifold piping • 5-75
Pressure Line Marine growth • 6-29
Pressure • 5-70 Marine Growth • 3-64
Temperature Line Marine Growth Density • 3-64
Temperature • 5-70 Marker Settings • 2-18
Mass • 5-35
Line Pressure • 5-70
Flowrate • 5-73, 5-76
Line Temperature • 5-70
Matrix • 5-41
Liners • 3-113
Matching Pipe Outside Diameter • 3-105
LIQT interface • 8-76
Material
LIQT Interface • 8-76
- Add • 7-14
LIQT nodes • 8-76
- Delete • 7-14
Liquid vent system • 5-74
- Edit • 7-15
List • 4-48
Coefficient of thermal expansion • 4-14
LIST • 4-2, 4-48
Database • 9-2
List option • 3-130
Database Material
List utility • 3-128
List/ Edit Facility • 3-130 Database • 7-14
List/edit facility • 3-130 Density • 4-14
Listing • 9-16 Files • 2-12
Load ID number • 4-13
Duration • 5-60 Identification Material
Forcing frequency • 5-55 Identification • 4-13
Profiles • 5-48 Name • 3-10
Range • 3-45 Properties • 3-10
Load case • 5-26 Material - Add • 7-14
Load Case • 5-26 Material - Delete • 7-14
Load Case (for Design) • 3-134 Material - Edit • 7-15
Load Case Template • 2-9 Material Database • 7-14
Load Cycles • 5-8 Material Fatigue Curves • 3-87
Load Duration (Time History or DSRSS Method) Material Identification - MATID • 4-2, 4-13
(Sec.) • 5-55 Material Name • 3-10
Load duration (time history or dsrss method)Load Material Properties • 3-10, 4-5
Duration • 5-55 Materials • 3-10, 3-113
Load vector Matid • 4-13
Applied • 5-41 Matid • 4-24
Loads • 4-42 Matid • 4-26
Local Coordinates • 6-112 MATID • 4-13, 4-24, 4-26, 4-28
Local flexibilities • 6-12 Max. no. of Eigenvalues calculated • 5-51
Local stresses • 6-36 Max. No. of Eigenvalues Calculated (0-Not used) • 5-
Log file • 8-22 51
Longitudinal Max. Stress • 3-135
Index 13
New Job Liberal Expansion Stress Allowable • 2-26, 3- Nozzle wall thickness • 3-55, 3-57
120 Nozzle Wall Thickness • 3-55, 3-57
New Password • 2-30 Nozzles • 2-17, 3-52
New units file name • 7-12 Nuclear Regulatory Guide 1.92 • 5-58
New Units File Name • 7-12 Number • 7-15
Nfill • 4-19 Number formats • 3-3
NFILL • 4-2, 4-19 Number of points in the table • 5-17
Ngen • 4-20 Number of Points in the Table • 5-17
NGEN • 4-2, 4-20
No rft/wlt in reduced fitting sifs • 2-26 O
No RFT/WLT in Reduced Fitting SIFs • 2-26 Occasional
No. hangers at location • 3-48 Load factor • 2-26
No. Hangers at Location • 3-48 Load factor Occasional
No. of Hanger - Design Operating Load Cases • 3-114 Load factor • 2-26
No. of hanger-design operating load cases • 3-114
No. of Iterations Per Shift (0 - Pgm computed) • 5-65, Occasional Load Factor • 2-26
5-66 Ocean currents • 6-28
No. of iterations per shift (0-pgm computed) • 5-65 Ocean Currents • 6-28
No. to Converge Before Shift Allowed (0 - Not Used) • Ocean Wave Particulars • 6-25
5-65 ODBC • 8-81, 8-84
No. to converge before shift allowed (0-not used) • 5- ODBC Compliant Database Name • 2-9
65 Off • 3-64
Nodal coordinate data • 8-74 Off-diagonal coefficients • 2-4
Nodal Coordinate Data • 8-74 Offsetting • 6-5
Nodal displacements • 6-15 On Element • 3-135
Node • 2-15, 3-14, 3-40, 3-44, 4-18, 5-31, 5-37 On-diagonal coefficient • 2-4
Number • 3-2, 3-14, 3-29, 3-40 Operating
NODE • 4-2, 4-18 Analysis • 6-16
Node Increment • 3-98 Case • 6-9
Node number • 3-2 Case vertical displacement • 6-9
Node Number • 3-25, 3-32 Load field • 3-49
Node Number Increment • 8-23, 8-56 Loads • 3-45, 3-49
Node Text • 2-17 Pressure • 3-88
NODEINC • 4-21 Temperature • 3-84
Nodes • 3-133 Thermal cases • 3-49
Nodes in space • 4-18 Operating Case • 6-9
Nominal pipe OD • 3-5 Operating Load • 3-49
Nominal pipe schedules • 3-5 Optimal cutoff • 5-53
Non-conservative cutoff • 5-53 Optimal Frame Rate • 2-18
Nonlinear Optimization Type • 3-134
Code compliance Nonlinear Ordinate • 5-16
Ordinate Interpolation • 5-14
Code compliance • 6-16 Ordinate Type • 5-14
Piping code compliance • 6-16 Orient • 4-30
Restraint • 6-16 ORIENT • 4-2, 4-30
Nonlinear Code Compliance • 6-16 Orienting a Piping model to Z-axis Vertical • 3-123
Nonlinear restraints • 6-17 Orienting a Piping Model to Z-Axis Vertical • 3-123
Norwegian (TBK 5-6) • 6-103 Orienting a Structural Model to Z-Axis Vertical • 3-127
Notes on Occasional Load Cases • 6-18 Orienting a Structural Model to Z-Axis Vertical. • 3-
Nozzle 127
Auxiliary data field • 3-39, 3-53, 3-56 Orienting an Equipment Model to Z-Axis Vertical • 3-
Flexibilities • 3-39 127
Nozzle diameter • 3-55 Orienting an Equipment Model to Z-Axis
Nozzle Diameter • 3-55, 3-56, 3-59 VerticalOrienting an Equipment Model to Z-
Nozzle flexibility - WRC 297 • 3-53 Axis Vertical • 3-127
Nozzle Flexibility - WRC 297 • 3-53 Orifice flow conditions • 5-76
Nozzle node number • 3-54
Nozzle Node Number • 3-54, 3-56, 3-58
Index 15