TEFL (THEORY)

FINAL ASSIGNMENTS

Lecturer: Dr. Yelia, M.Pd

By :

Name : Ellyna Ade Ervanti

Student Number : A1B215004

English Department
Teacher Training and Education Faculty

Jambi University
2016/2017
 THE PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING AND LEARNING
1. What is Teaching?
Teaching is a process of interacting, stands for pedagogy, training, and nurturing.
The process of engaging students in activities that will be enable them to acquire the
knowledge, skills, as well as worthwhile values and attitudes. In the process of teaching a
teacher is a key factor in any teaching-learning process. Then, a teacher constructs well
designed plan to achieve to objectives of the lesson. Teacher should prepare learning
environment. On the other hand, teacher should select appropriate content or strategies
and learning activities. The last is teacher adjust content or activities strategies or learning
environment to the learners.

2. The Learner
Learner is embodied spirit. They are a union of sentient body and a rational soul.
Moreover, learners are important element of teaching. The natural characteristics of
learners are age, maturity, grade, level, health, abilities, family background, experience,
and motivation.

3. The Content Or Teaching Strategies

 The choice of content or subject matter to be taught to achieve desired objectives
of the lesson.
 The selection of appropriate instructional materials or technology to facilitate
learning.
 The use of appropriate or effective methods and strategies of teaching to arrive at
the desired outcomes.

4. Principles of Learning
 Learning is the experiences which occur inside the learner and it is activated
by the learner. The process of learning is primarily controlled by the learner
not the teacher. People learn what they want to learn. Very little learning takes
place without personal involvement meaning or the part of the learner. It is
wise to engage learners in an activity that is connected to their life
experiences.
 Learning is the discovery of the personal meaning and relevance ideas.
Students more readily internalize and implement concepts and ideas which are
relevant to their needs and problems. It is necessary that the teacher relates
lesson to the needs and problems of the learners.
 Learning (behavioral change) is a consequence of experience.
 Collaborative. Cooperation fosters learning, two heads are better than one, and
interactive process appears to “scratch and kick” people curiosity, potential,
and creativity.
 Learning is an evolutionary.
 Learning is process.
 Learning are highly unique and individual.
 DESCRIBING TEACHERS
Teacher is a person who helps others to acquire knowledge, competences or
values. According to Cambridge International dictionary of English, teaching means to
give (someone) knowledge or to instruct or train (someone). Teaching in education is the
concerted sharing of knowledge and experience, which is the job or profession of a
teacher. There are some characteristics that to be a good teacher:

 They must love her job.

 They should not hide their own personality from the students.

 A good teeacher is an entertainer in a positive sense.

 They must have lots of knowledge, not only their subject.

 A good teacher should to know their students name.

Good teachers care more about their students’ learning that they do about their own
teaching. Teachers can never be quite sure what their students think of them. The way
that teachers talk to students- the manner in which they interact with them- is one of the
crucial teacher skills, but it does not demand technical expertise.

 Speaking softly: The tone and pitch of a teacher's voice can have a lasting impact
on a student, as many of us remember from our school days. A teacher with a
screeching habit is rarely going to help calm down a nervous child.

 Talk Politely: Always maintain a polite tone. If you are polite, your students will
be too.

 Ask their opinion: Students always love being asked their opinion about tasks to
be done. Instead of going into class and saying: "Alright, this is what we will do
today." Try saying: "What do you think we should do today? Choice 1 or choice
2?"

The Role Of Teacher

 Teachers’ role may change from one activity to another, or from one stage of an
activity to another.
 All roles, aim to facilities the students’ progress in some way or other.
 Controller Participant
Organizer Resource
Assessor Tutor
Prompter Observer

The Teacher as Performer

 Different teachers perform differently.

 Each teacher has many different performance styles depending on the situation.
 Besides, we should describe how teachers should play their roles;

ACTIVITY HOW THE TEACHER SHOULD PERFORM

 Team game Energetically, encouragingly, clearly, fairly.
 Role-play Clearly, encouragingly, retiringly, supportively.
 Teacher reading Commandingly, dramatically, interestingly.
aloud
 Whole-class Efficiently, clearly, supportively.
listening

The Teacher as Teaching Aid

o Mime and gesture: the ability of using our body to convey meaning and
atmosphere. They work best when they are exaggerated.
o Language model: reading passage aloud can capture imagination and mood like
nothing else.
o Provider of comprehensible input: language student understand the meaning of,
slightly above their own production level. Modeling and scaffolding, combination
of STT and TTT.
 DESCRIBING LEARNERS
A. Learners Characteristics

Each student has different ability characteristics and motivation on the learning process.
As a teacher, we should know about the differences among each student. The purpose knowing
about the differences of students is to make us as a professional teacher. Motivating students is
always been an issue that is commonly discussed among the teachers. It is very important to keep
in mind that: people of different ages have different needs, competences and cognitive skills. The
characteristics of students are age, motivation, learning style, and language level.

1. Age
Age is a major factor in our decisions about how and what to teach. People of
different ages have different needs, competences, and cognitive skills. There are a
number of commonly held beliefs about age. Some people say that children learn
languages faster than adults do. They talk of children who appear to pick up new
languages effortlessly. Another belief is that adolescents are unmotivated, surly, and
uncooperative and that therefore they make poor language learners. In what follows we
will consider students at different ages as if all the members of each age group are the
same. Even thought each student is an individual with different experiences both in and
outside the classroom.
a. Young Children
Young children, especially those up to the ages of nine or ten, learn differently from
older children, adolescents, and adults in the following ways :
- Respond to meaning without understanding all the individual words.
- They learn indirectly.
- They are enthusiastic and curious about the world around them.
- They need individual attention and approval from the teacher.
- They have a limited attention span and they are keen to talk about their self.
b. Adolescents
It is widely accepted that one of the key issues in adolescence, especially perhaps in
the west, is the search provides the key challenge for this age group. There are a
number of reasons why students and teenage students in particular may be disruptive,
there are other factors too, such as the boredom they feel not to mention problems
they bring into class from outside school. However, we should not become too
preoccupied with the issue of disruptive behavior, for while we will all remember
unsatisfactory classes, we will also look back with pleasure on those groups and
lessons which were successful.
c. Adult Learners
Adult language learners are notable for a number of special characteristics:
- They can think abstractly.
 - Rich with experiences.
- Have expectations about the learning process.
- More disciplined than teenagers.
- They have a clear understanding of why they are learning.

2. Motivation
They are four kinds of motivation:
 Positive motivation: towards a goal.
 Extrinsic motivation: someone wants you to do.
 Intrinsic motivation: you want to do it.
 Negative motivation: motivation away from something.
Sources of Motivation
 The society we live in.
 Significant others.
 The teacher.
 The method
Initiating and Sustaining Motivation
 Goals and goal setting.
 Learning environment.
 Interesting classes.

3. Learners differences
Learning comes in many different forms. Every student has a unique way of
learning and different learning needs. As a teacher we should know about the differences
between students. By knowing this material we will find a specific information and
strategies to use in the classroom to accommodate and instruct learner differences. Here
are the type of learners differences:

a. Learner styles
Ways in which a learner naturally takes in, processes and remembers information
and skills.
 Visual
 Auditory
 Kinesthetic
 Group
 Individual
 Reflective
 Impulsive
There are some strategies to HELP Ss:
 By identifying what they need to learn.
 By knowing how they process language.
 By understanding that part of the process is working with other people.

b. Language level
Students are generally described three levels :
 Beginner
 Intermediate
 Advanced

c. Good learner characteristics

According to Neil Maimann and his colleagues a good learner has :
 A tolerance of ambiguity;
 Positive task orientation;
 High aspirations;
 Goal orientations;
 Perseverance.

d. Learners styles and strategies

 The ‘enthusiast’ : looks at the teacher as a point of reference and is concerned
with the goals of the learning group;
 The ‘oracular’ : also focus on the teacher, but is more oriented towards the
satisfaction of personal goals;
 The ‘participator’ : tends to concentrate on group goals and group solidarity;
 The ‘rebel’: is mainly concentrated with the satisfaction of his or her own
goals.
There are four learner categories:
 Converges
- Solitary students who prefer to avoid groups;
- Independent and confident in their own abilities;
- Analytic students who can impose their own structures of learning;
- Tend to be cool and pragmatic.
 Conformists
- Students who prefer to emphasize learning about language over
learning to use it;
- Tend to be dependent on those in authority;
- Happy to work in non-communicative classroom, doing what they are
told;
- Prefer to see well-organize teacher.
  Concrete learners
- Enjoy social aspects of learning.
- Like to learn from direct experience.
- Interested in language use and language as communication rather in
language as a system.
 Communicative learners
- Language use oriented.
- Much more interested in social interaction with other speakers of the
language.
- Happy to operate without the guidance of a teacher.

e. Individual variations
There are two models which have tried to explain the individual variations and which
can be useful for teacher in order to use them for the benefit of their learners.
 Neuro-Linguistics Programming (NLP)
According to its practitioners, we use a number of “primary representational
system” to experience as VAKOG :
- Visual : we look and see;
- Auditory : we hear and listen;
- Kinesthetic : we feel externally, internally, through movements;
- Olfactory : we smell;
- Gustatory : we taste things.
 MI theory
- Musical
- Visual
- Verbal
- Bodily
- Logical
- Intrapersonal
- Interpersonal.
 THE APPROACHES AND METHODS IN TEACHING

A. Teaching Approach

Teaching approach is a set of principles, beliefs, or ideas about the nature of

learning which is translated into the classroom. According to Edward Anthony’s model
(1965) approach is the level at which assumptions and beliefs about language and
language learning are specified.

There are several approaches of teaching English:

1. Structural Approach
A structure is the particular word order or arrangement of words. Structural
approach lays stress on learning language through structures and grammatical
patterns. The features of the structural approach are:
 Students are taught to master the pattern of sentences.
 Mastery of structures is more important than the acquisition of
vocabulary.
 Speech is mainly stressed but reading and writing are not neglected.
2. Communicative Approach
Main aim of this approach is to achieve communicative competence. Features
of communicative approach are:
 Emphasis on language in use rather than language as structure.
 Learning language through communication.
 Authentic and meaningful communication should be the goal of
classroom activities.
 Significance is given to fluency.
 Lays stress on grammar.
 Different language skills are involved.

There are two roles of teacher in communicative approach. The first is as

classroom facilitator and as participant. The activities that can be involved in
communicative approach are role playing, look and tell, guessing games, and
creating story. But there are also the advantages of this approach, this
approach ignores grammar, trained teacher are not available, ignores
structures, and every student is not able to learn.
3. The Natural Approach
Krashen (1985; Dulay Burt and Krashen, 1982) studied the conditions
underlying all successful language acquisition, mainly based on the way
children learn their first language, proposing the Monitor Theory, at the
source of the classroom method. This model consists of five hypotheses:
1. Acquisition versus learning hypothesis
2. Natural Order hypothesis
3. Monitor Hypothesis
4. Input Hypothesis
5. Affective filter Hypothesis

4. Task-based Language Learning Approach

One of those methods spawned by CLT is the Task-based Language
Learning approach (TBA). Psychologically speaking, TBA arises from the
development of Cognitive theories originated with the notions of declarative
and procedural knowledge (Anderson, 1985) and the study of cognitive
processes such as memory, attention, and recall. It also takes into account the
advances of psycholinguistic research and bilingualism. All these
developments had started to be taken into account in the CLT era.
Linguistically speaking, the view of language as communication from
previous periods evolved towards the inclusion of disciplines such as
Pragmatics and Discourse Analysis, which study the social aspects of
language, and Computational Linguistics, which uses databases to examine
real samples of language. Thus, this period is characterized by the cooperation
between cognitive psychology and psycholinguistics on the one hand, which
have enlightened our comprehension of L2 learning, and discourse analysis
and computational linguistics on the other hand, which have shed a more
realistic view of the language to be taught. However, differently from
previous periods, the TBA has not rejected CLT modes of thought, but
incorporated them into its framework. Thus, the result is an approach focused
on the process rather than the final product, in which a lot of importance is
attached to methodology, to the learner and to the development of the lesson
procedures.

5. Cooperative Learning Approach

The next-to-last instructional approach which is currently shaping the
teaching of modern languages is in fact not new to education. The principles
of cooperative learning were outlined by Quintilian in the first century and
subsequently by Comenius in the seventh (Olsen and Kagan, 1992).
 Rousseau’s ideas in the eighteenth century and Piaget and Vygotsky’s
developmental theories are also sources from which this approach draws.
More recently, it is Dewey and Lewin in the early twentieth century who are
considered important promoters of the idea of cooperation and
interdependence among group members. Deutsch (1949, 1973), student and
follower of Lewin, further elaborates his ideas, thus becoming a referent for
most consequent CL theorists.
Cooperative learning is an approach whereby students work together
in structured groups to reach common goals. It aims to foster cooperation
rather than competition – each person’s success is linked with every other
member’s success – and to develop critical thinking skills. The learners are
thus direct and active participants in the learning process, must work
collaboratively with other group members on tasks assigned, and must learn to
monitor and evaluate their own learning. Teacher roles also change drastically
from traditional lockstep organizations: (s)he speaks less, acts as a facilitator
of learning and is responsible for the creation of a highly structured and well-
organized teaching environment which promotes successful group-based
learning.

a. Teaching Method
A method is the practical realization of an approach. The originators of a
method have arrived at decision about types of activities, roles of teachers and
learners, the kinds of material which will be helpful and some model of syllabus
organization. Methods include various procedures and techniques as part of their
standard fare.
Several methods in language learning:

1. Grammar-translation, Direct method and Audio-lingual

Many of the seeds which have grown into present-day methodology
were sown in debates between more and less formal attitudes to language, and
crucially, the place of the students’ first language in the classroom. Before the
nineteenth century many formal language learners were scholars who studied
rules of grammar and consulted lists of foreign words in dictionaries (though,
of course, countless migrants and traders picked up new languages in other
ways, too).but, in the nineteenth century moves were made to bring foreign-
language learning into school curriculums, and so something more was
needed. This gave rise to the grammar-translation method (or rather series of
methods).

2. Four methods in language learning

a. Community Language Learning

In the classic form of community language learning (CLL)
students sit in a circle. It is up to them to decide what they want to talk
about. A counselor or a ‘knower’ stands outside the circle. The knower
provides or corrects target language statements so that if, for instance, a
student says something in their own language, their knower can then give
them the English equivalent for them to use.

b. The Silent Way

One of the most notable features of the silent way is the behavior
of the teacher who, rather than entering into conversation with the
students, says as little as possible. This is because the founder of the
method, Caleb Cattegno, believed that learning is best facilitated if the
learners discovers and creates language rather than just remembering and
repeating what has been taught. The learner should be in the driving seat,
in other words, not the teacher. In the silent way learners interact with
physical objects too, especially Cuisenaire rods. There is a problem-
solving element involved too, since students have to resolve language
construction problems for themselves.

c. Suggestopaedia
Developed by Georgi Lozanov, suggestopaedia sees the physical
surroundings and atmosphere of the classroom as a vital importance. By
ensuring that the students, comfortable, confident and relaxed, the
affective filtered is lowered, thus enhancing learning.
A feature of suggestopaedia is referred to as ‘infantilisation’; that
is the teacher and students exist in a parent-child relationship where, to
remove barriers to learning, students are given different names from their
outside real ones. Traumatic themes are avoided, and the sympathy with
which the teacher treats the students is vitally important.
d. Total physical response (TPR)
The originator of TPR, James Asher, worked from the premise that
adult second language learning could have similar developmental patterns
to that of child language acquisition. If children learn much of their
language from speech directed at them in the form of commands to
perform actions, then adults will learn best in that way too. Accordingly,
TPR asks students to respond physically to the language they hear.
Language processing is thus matched with physical action.
STUDENTS CENTRED APPROACH AND TEACHER CENTRED APPROACH

Teacher-Center Approach to Learning

Teachers are the main authority figure in this model. Students are viewed as
“empty vessels” whose primary role is to passively receive information (via lectures and
direct instruction) with an end goal of testing and assessment. It is the primary role of
teachers to pass knowledge and information onto their students. In this model, teaching
and assessment are viewed as two separate entities. Student learning is measured through
objectively scored tests and assessments.

Student-Centered Approach to Learning

While teachers are an authority figure in this model, teachers and students play an
equally active role in the learning process. The teacher’s primary role is to coach and
facilitate student learning and overall comprehension of material. Student learning is
measured through both formal and informal forms of assessment, including group
projects, student portfolios, and class participation. Teaching and assessment are
connected; student learning is continuously measured during teacher instruction.

To better understand these approaches, it is important to discuss what is generally

understood as the three main teaching styles in educational pedagogy: direct instruction,
inquiry-based learning and cooperative learning. Through these three teaching methods,
teachers can gain a better understanding of how to govern their classroom, implement
instruction and connect with their students. Within each of these three main teaching
styles are teaching roles or “models.” Theorist A.F. Grasha explains the five main
teaching models in her publication Teaching with Style (1996): Expert, Formal
Authority, Personal Model, Facilitator and Delegator. To gain a better understanding of
the fundamentals of each teaching style, it’s best to view them through the lens of direct
instruction, inquiry-based learning, and cooperative teaching.

Direct Instruction

Direct instruction is the general term that refers to the traditional teaching strategy
that relies on explicit teaching through lectures and teacher-led demonstrations. Direct
instruction is the primary teaching strategy under the teacher-centered approach, in that
teachers and professors are the sole supplier of knowledge and information. Direct
instruction is effective in teaching basic and fundamental skills across all content areas.

Inquiry-based Learning

Inquiry-based learning is a teaching method that focuses on student investigation

and hands-on learning. In this method, the teacher’s primary role is that of a facilitator,
providing guidance and support for students through the learning process. Inquiry-based
learning falls under the student-centered approach, in that students play an active and
participatory role in their own learning process.

Cooperative Learning

Cooperative Learning refers to a method of teaching and classroom management

that emphasizes group work and a strong sense of community. This model fosters
students’ academic and social growth and includes teaching techniques such as “Think-
Pair-Share” and reciprocal teaching. Cooperative learning falls under the student-centered
approach because learners are placed in responsibility of their learning and development.
This method focuses on the belief that students learn best when working with and
learning from their peers.

In order to identify your personal teaching style, it is important to acknowledge

your personal values toward education and how your students learn. Understanding your
teaching style early on will prove effective for both you and your students, creating and
maintaining a balance between your teaching preferences and your students learning
preferences.
 Differences between teacher central approach and student central approach

Similarities between teacher central approach and student central approach

 The objective is to teach the child to understand the concept

 The teacher corrects the child when he or she is incorrect.

 The teacher is present to overlook the child’s work, and help guide the child in the
right direction.
 TEACHING PRODUCTIVE SKILL
There are four basic skills in any language; receptive skills- reading and
listening, and productive skills- speaking and writing. In many ways writing is the most
neglected skill in the TEFL world " teaching English as a foreign language", as many
teachers don't like to see the classroom hours devoted to what is often 'quiet time'.
Writing, therefore, is often relegated to homework, which in turn is frequently not done
so the skill is never developed. It is true that most students prefer to focus on their
speaking skills but this doesn't mean that writing should be ignored. In many ways
writing is the more difficult skill, requiring a greater degree of accuracy. When speaking,
any misunderstanding can be cleared up' on the spot', whereas this is not possible in
writing. Speaking, on the other hand, requires a greater degree of fluency as the speaker
will rarely have time to think and plan an answer.

1. Speaking Activities in the Classroom

Controlled activities - accuracy based activities. Language is controlled by the

teacher.

• Drilling: choral and individual listening to and repetition of the teacher's

modal of pronunciation.

Guided activities – accuracy based but a little more creative and productive. The
output is still controlled by the teacher but the exact language isn't.

• Model dialogues

• Guided role-play

Creative communication – fluency based activities. The scenario is usually

created by the teacher but the content of the language isn't.

• Free role-plays

• Discussions

• Debates

• Simulations

• Communication games
 Many students can seem reluctant to speak in the classroom. This can be for a
variety of reasons, including:

• Lack of confidence

• Fear of making mistakes

• Peer intimidation

• Lack of interest in the topic

• Previous learning experience

• Cultural reasons.

The teacher must try to overcome these hurdles and encourage student
interaction. The aim should be to create a comfortable atmosphere, where students are not
afraid to speak or make mistakes, and enjoy communicating with the teacher and their
fellow students.

2. Writing Skills

Writing a text has quite a number of differences which separates it from

speaking. Not only are there differences in grammar, vocabulary, but also in spelling,
layout and punctuation.

Despite these differences, many of these factors are as those for speaking, need
to be considered and incorporated.

Spelling

Incorrect spelling can not only create misunderstandings but also can often be
perceived, by the reader, to reflect a lack of education. Spelling in English is very
difficult by the fact that many words that are pronounced the same are written differently
and some words are written the same but pronounced differently.

A single sound in English can be written in many different ways, because it is

not a phonetic language. As teachers, we need to drag the students' attention to the
different ways of pronouncing the same letters and have them do exercises to discover the
rules. Spelling differences between English and American English plus the new kind of
'slang' emerging through the internet and e-mail- don't exactly help either. One of the best
ways to help students with spelling is through extensive reading.
 Layout and punctuation

Once again, this can present the students with major problems if the rules of their
first language are significantly different from those of English. In reality (despite the
many rules) punctuation is a matter of personal style, but totally incorrect usage can lead
to rather awkward and difficult looking pieces of writing.

To help students learn different layouts of writing, they need to be exposed to,
and be given the chance to practice with many different styles. After completing a piece
of written work, they get to check it over for grammar, vocabulary usage as well as
punctuation and spelling. As with speaking activities, students will often require planning
time for written work.

Creative writing

Many of the same principles need to be applied to writing activities as speaking

activities. If they have no desire or need to write the result is likely to be somewhat less
than spectacular. Creative writing should be encouraged, as it engages the students and
the finished work usually provides them with the sense of pride. Typical creative writing
tasks may include poetry, story writing and plays.

Although most writing in the 'real world' is an individual act, there is nothing to
stop the teachers assigning students to work in pairs or groups, particularly for creative
writing where the input of ideas from different sources may be helpful if not necessary.
 TEACHING RECEPTIVE SKILL

There are four basic skills in any language: receptive skill (reading and listening)
and productive skill (speaking and writing). All are equally important and wherever
possible we should try to incorporate all of them into our lesson if we want to have
balanced approach.

LISTENING

Definition

Like reading, listening is a receptive skill, as it involves responding to language

rather than producing it. Listening involves making sense of the meaningful sounds of
language. Learners do this by using context and their knowledge of language and the
world. We can observe that listening involves doing many things: dealing with the
characteristics of spoken language; using the context and our knowledge of the world;
understanding different text types; understanding different speeds of speech and accents;
using different listening sub-skills.

Teaching procedure

In the classroom, learners can listen to many sources of spoken language (the
teacher, other learners, visitors, videos (DVD, Internet,etc.). When we listen to the radio,
a recording or a podcast we can't see speakers' body language or the context he/she is
speaking in. And we can't ask the speaker to repeat or to explain. These factors make
listening to recordings more difficult than listening to live speakers. I usually develop
learner's listening skills by focusing regularly on particular aspects of listening like
problem sounds,features of connected speech, subskills.

Listening Lessons Scheme

Warm up •An optional section to help focus students on the topic and prepare them.

Main Activity •Students listen to the recording and fulfil a variety of realistic and
authentic tasks

Follow up •An opportunity for students to personalise the topic and develop the scope of
the lesson

It can be demotivating for students to listen to a recording in class which they

simply can't understand. Many feel frustrated when they don't understand what they hear.
These Listening lessons aims to help student succeed. The activities are designed to
present students with a challenge they can win. Learners may listen several times to the
recording, often listening for different information each time. I help my students by
encouraging them to pool their knowledge about the topic before they listen. This helps
to focus their mind and prepares them for the recording. A list of key words and language
patterns are provided, so I pre-teach these items students need not be confused by
unfamiliar words. Language is presented in familiar and authentic contexts. By relating
these contexts to their own real-world experience, learners can see the value of the
listening activity and become more motivated. Listening is an active process and students
need to think and interpret what they hear as they listen. The activities in this syllabus
encourage students to react to what they hear as naturally as possible. Learners are
encouraged to think around the recording, too, by listening between the lines for
emotions and opinions, or picking up on aural clues in the background. Listening sessions
highlight the main listening strategies employed in each activity. However, it is of course
natural for learners to employ a combination of several different skills in the course of a
single listening. Therefore, those skills highlighted simply refer to the main skills focused
on by each activity type like:

1. Listening for specific information: learners identify certain key information at word
level.

2. Listening for details: students listen for phrases and longer strings of information at
sentence level.

3. Listening for the main idea: they listen to the complete recording in order to
understand core ideas

4. Listening for opinions: they listen to understand the views expressed by a particular
speaker

5. Inferring meaning: they 'listen between lines' to understand what the speaker is really
saying

6. Recognizing context: learners listen around the recording to identify where it takes
place, who the people are, etc.

7. Predicting: students anticipate what they will hear before the recording is played

8. Identifying emotion: they listen to identify the mood of a particular speaker.

READING

Definition

Like listening, reading is a receptive skill and this fact involves responding to
text, rather than producing it, reading involves making sense of text. To do this we need
to understand the language of the text at word level, sentence level and whole-text level.
Learners also need to connect the message of the text to their knowledge of the world.

The main difficulty remains on using students' knowledge of the world to see the
connection between two sentences (coherence), the grammatical links between the
sentences (cohesion) also helps us to see the connection between them. When we read we
do not necessarily read everything in a text. What we read depends on why and how we
are reading. For example, we may read a travel website to find a single piece of
information about prices. But we may read a novel in great detail because we like the
story and the characters and want to know as much as we can about them. Our reasons for
reading influence how we read, which reading sub-skill we use:

• Reading for specific information or scanning: reading a text just to find a specific piece
or pieces of information

• Reading for gist or skimming: reading quickly through a text to get a general idea of
what is about

• Reading for detail: getting the meaning out of every word. • Extensive reading: it
involves reading long pieces of text. This part is fully explained in the Readers' part.

Teaching procedure

If learners know how to read in their own language, they can transfer their reading
skills to reading English. Sometimes, they find this difficult so givinglearners lots of
opportunities for extensive reading, in or out of class, helps them to develop their fluency
in reading.

The texts chosen are devoted to interest learners in order to motivatre them
through current topic or news that they can easily know about wiyh realia. In this level of
English, learners read articles, brochures, etc. that are what a first language speaker
would read, in other words: authentic material

Reading Lessons Scheme

The lesson is divided into three stages:

Warm up •Introduction of the topic of the lesson.

Main Activity •Revision/introduction of essential vocabulary items

•Students read the text(s) and carry out related tasks

Follow up •Students make own personalised response to the text(s)

•Students research further reading material about the topic

The teacher has two roles in the reading classroom. Particularly at the beginning
of the lesson, the teacher is the center of the action : initiating discussion, handing out
materials, giving instructions, checking feedback. But while the reading is actually going
on, the teacher's role is that of monitor, supporter and advisor. It is the students
themselves who must do the reading.

.
 LESSON PLANNING
There are several definition of lesson planning:

1. A writing method delivery, and the specific goals and time-lines associated to the
delivery of lesson content.
2. Lesson plan is a teaching tool, that helps the teachers in deciding what to teach, why to
teach, when to teach and how to teach in classroom while teaching.
3. A lesson plan is a written guide and direction on learning objectives, equipment,
instructional media material requirements, and conduct of the training.

The purposes of the lesson plan are to effective teachers plan for productive use of
their instructional time. Teachers at every level prepare plans that help them organize and
delivery their daily lesson. Beside that, teachers need to make wise decisions about the
strategies and methods they will employ. This provides the direction to go to achieve the
selected objectives. Writing daily lesson plans is a large part of being organized. The last
is it provides a guide for managing the learning environment.

There are several things that have to consider when writing a lesson plan:

a. Know your students

 Ability and interest level.
 Backgrounds.
 Attention spans.
 Ability to work together in groups.
 Prior knowledge and learning experiences.

b. Know the content

 Subject matter that you will be teaching.
 Medium of instructions.
 National or state curriculum standard.

c. Know the instructional materials

Technology, software, audio/visual, low cost and no cost materials.

Equipment, library resource, local guess speakers, etc.
Three Types of Lesson Plan

1. Detailed lesson plan

It provides mastery of what to teach, and give the teacher the confidence when
teaching. In this plan, both teacher’s and students’ activities are presented.

2. Semi-detailed lesson plan

A semi-detailed lesson plan is less intricate than the detailed lesson plan. It is
having a general game plan of what you want to cover for that subject on that particular
day.

There are five part of detailed and semi-detailed lesson plans :

 Objectives
The first thing a teacher does is create an objective, a statement of purpose for the
whole lesson. An objective statement itself should answer what students will be
able to do by the end of the lesson. The objective drives the whole lesson, it is the
reason the lesson exist. Care is taken when creating the objective for each day’s
lesson, as it will determine the activities the students engage in.
 Subject matter
Subject matter or specific topic includes sources of information. The subject
matter includes the topic, references, and materials.
 Procedures
The procedure is the body of your lesson plan, the ways in which you will share
information with students and the methods you will use to help them assume a
measure of mastery of the material. In detailed lesson plan, the expected routines,
lesson proper, activities are presented. Questions and answers are written. While,
in semi-detailed lesson plan has only contains procedures or steps to be used in
the lesson proper.
 Evaluation
It can take the form of formative test consisting of 10-item multiple choice
questions after the day’s lesson to determine the mastery of learning.
 Assignment
It includes questions, exercises, and/or a set of practice specified by the teacher.
In order to succeed in discussing the assignment for the following day, a teacher
give focused/specific questions for students to answer.

3. Understanding by design (UbD)

It is a framework for improving student achievement through standards-driven
curriculum development, instructional design, assessment and professional development.
The emphasis of UbD is on “backward design”, the practice of looking at the outcomes in
order to design curriculum units, performance assessments, and classroom instruction.
 EVALUATION

Evaluation is a process of making judgements to be used as a basis for

planning. It consist of establishing goals, collecting evidence concerning growth towards
goals, making judgements about the evidence and revising procedures and goals in the
light of judgements. It is for improving the product, the process and even the goals in
themselves. According to Ralph Tyler evaluation is the process of determining of what
extend the educational objectives are being realized.

Evaluation, Measurment, Assessment, and Testing

Test: an instrument or systematic procedure for measuring a sample of behavior.

Measurement: the process of obtaining numerical description of the degree to which an

individual possesses a particular characteristic.

Evaluation: from the stand point of classroom evaluation, it is the systematic process of
collecting, analyzing and interpreting information to determine the extent to which pupils
are achieving instructional objectives.

The Purpose Of Evaluation

 to predict the educational practices

 to certify students’ to discover the extend of competence
 degree, proficiency in a particular educational practice
 to appropriate the status of and changes in students’ behavior
 to make provision for guiding the growth of the individual student
 to diagnose the individual students educational weakness and strength

Three Types of Evaluation

1. Formative Evaluation
It refers to evaluation taking place during the program or learning activity. It is
conducted while the event to be evaluated is occurring and focuses on identifying the
progress towards purposes, objectives, or outcomes to improve the activities, course,
curriculum, program, or teaching and student.
2. Summative Evaluation
This type of evaluation is given at the end of the course or of unit instructions to
find out which student, to what extent has mastered the intended learning outcomes.
Though the result of summative evaluation are primarily used for assigning the grades
or certifying learners’ mastery of instructional objectives, they can also be used to
give feedback on the appropriateness of objectives and the effectiveness of
instruction.

3. Diagnostic evaluation
This type of evaluation is concerned with finding out the reasons for student’s
persistent or recurring learning difficulties that cannot be resolved by the standard
corrective measure or formative evaluation. The aim of diagnostic evaluation is to
find out the causes of learning problems and plan to take remedial actions.
 SYLLABUSES

The syllabus is defined as the documents that consist of topics or portion covered
in a particular subject. It is determined by the examination board and created by the
professor or teacher. A syllabus is considered as a guide to the in charge as well as to the
student.

Types of Syllabus

1. The Situational Syllabus

In this approach, the use of dialogues is very common as these form the basis of
communication within a specific situation. However, the use of dialogues in the
situational syllabus is quite different from the use of dialogues in a structural syllabus
such as the Audio lingual Method. In the Audio lingual Method, specific structured
dialogues are drilled and memorized and used to conceptualize key structures (Richards
& Rodgers, 1994:53), while the situational dialogue approach is "aimed at meaningful
conversational interchange in specific contexts" (Norris as quoted by Yalden, 1987:35).
This means that the dialogues used in the situational syllabus, don't have language
structures as their main focus, but rather their communicative effectiveness within a
given situation. Yalden (198 7:3 6) describes examples of situational syllabi in which
students are initially presented with a "problem situation" or "illustrative situation". This
"problem situation" is then followed by drills and inventions and then by "practice
situations". It is thus evident that the different situations created in Situational Syllabi
determine the language structures to be learnt. The above-mentioned statement is,
however, also a drawback in situational language syllabi. While they represent a step
toward greater emphasis on the semantic component of syllabus design there is still
something missing in their organization, in that the situation in which we find ourselves
does not in and of itself necessarily determine all of what we want or need to say
(Yalden,l987:38). While the aim of the Situational Syllabus is communicative
competence, the nature of its contents will not necessarily lead to total communicative
competence.

2. Structural or formal syllabus

One which the content of language teaching is a collection of the forms and
structures of the language being taught
Example of structures : nouns, verbs, adjectives, statements, questions, complex
sentences, subordinate clauses, past tense, etc.
 Traditional syllabus that focuses on language form.
 Structural steps
- Structural complexity, difficulty, regularity, utility, and frequency.
 “the learner is expected to master each structural step and add it to his/her grammar
collection” (Mohseni, 2008).
 This is done through “highly controlled, tightly structured, and sequenced pattern
practice drills” (Mohseni, 2008).
3. Task-based syllabus
The intent of task-based learning is to use learners’ real-life needs and activities
as learning experience, providing motivation through relevancy
Example : applying for a job, talking with a social worker, preparing a paper for
another course, etc
 Tasks and activities are used to promote language learning.
 Application and practice of language.
 “tasks are best defined as activities with a purpose other than language learning so as
to develop second language ability (Mohseni, 2008).
“The most important point is that tasks must be relevant to the real world
language needs of the learner. It should be a meaningful tasks so as to enhance learning”
(Mohensi, 2008).
4. Content-based syllabus
To teach some content or information using the language that the students are
also learning. The subject matter is primary, and language learning occurs
accidentally to the content learning.
 Teach content using the TL.
 Subject matter s of primary importance, but language learning occurs along with
content.
 Students of language and content.
 Some linguistic adjustments may need to be made to make content understandable.
5. Notional/functional syllabus
One in which the content of the language teaching is a collection of the functions
that are performed when language is used. Example of functions : informing, agreeing,
apologizing, requesting, promising, size, age, color, comparison, time, etc.
 Emphasis on purpose of communication and meaning of language.
 Needs analysis is needed in order to create the syllabus.

Syllabuses’ function

Syllabus serves important functions, including:

o First, the syllabus provides evidence of pedagogy and teaching effectiveness (Albers
2003). Syllabi may demonstrate that course objectives and materials are in sync and
showcase an instructor’s ability to transmit knowledge, create learning conditions,
practice culturally responsive pedagogy, and engage in excellent advisement (Boyer
1997; O’Meara and Rice 2005). Because syllabi serve as a permanent record of
teaching competencies, rigor, and accomplishment, instructors regularly submit
syllabi with applications for employment and tenure and promotion.
o Second, a well-crafted syllabus may be used to promote student learning. In contrast
to the “onesided” communiqué of an instructor’s expectations, a learner-centered
approach concentrates on how the tools and information provided will help students
pursue and achieve ambitious goals (Habanek 2005; O’Brien et al. 2008; Parkes and
Harris 2002).
o Third, the tone influences student sentiment, student-teacher interaction, and class
climate (Collins 1997; Davidson and Ambrose 1994; O’Brien et al. 2008). Matejka
and Kurke (1994:2) argue, “A technically detailed, unimaginative, ‘cold’ syllabus is
usually a precursor to a boring class.” Students who read less friendly syllabi (i.e.,
confrontational, condescending, mistrustful) may believe that “their professor does
not expect them to be successful, which can create a self-fulfilling prophesy”
(Slattery and Carlson 2005:160). Warm syllabi characterized by friendliness,
enthusiasm, and the anticipation of success tend to be associated with positive results
(Habenek 2005; Slattery and Carlson 2005).
o Fourth, the syllabus may be understood as an agreement between instructors and
students. Unambiguous expectations and consistently applied policies may promote
understanding and fair treatment, thereby reducing complaints and allegations (Smith
and Razzouk 1993). The contractual approach may improve communication, save
time, and protect instructors from charges of unfairness (Davidson and Ambrose
1994; Habanek 2005; Matejka and Kurke 1994; Slattery and Carlson 2005).
 COURSEBOOK

The term course book or textbook has several meaning, according to Oxford
dictionary, a textbook means “a book giving instruction in a branch of learning”.1 It
means that a textbook is a kind of book used in some studies at school. Meanwhile,
in related to English language teaching, textbook are used in different ways in
language program. For example, a reading textbook contains the main material of
reading skill; some reading passages and several questions related to it is included
for measuring student’s achievement in this skill. In this case, the other language
skills textbook have the same composition materials with the previous one, it helps
students to maximize their understanding to the subject

There are functions of course-book:

 To provides lesson plan and syllabus for teaching learning process

 To give teacher a guiding in the teaching process

 To help teacher in explaining the materials

 To make students become easier in understanding the materials given.

There are several kinds of course-book

 Traditional Course-book
Although it is used traditional here, traditional course book are still published today.
So, the label is used to describe a type of course book, rather than the date it is
published.
The traditional course book tries to get students to learn the language as a system.
Once they have learned the system, it is hoped that they are then equipped to use
the language for their own purposes in any way they think fit. Traditional course
book have all most of these characteristics:
1) They tend to emphasis the forms, or patterns of language (the grammar) more
than communicative functions of language the jobs we do using it, for example,
asking for information, making requests, apologizing, asking the way, etc.
 2) They tend to focus on reading and writing activities, rather than listening and
speaking activities.
3) They often make use of great deal of first language.
4) They emphasis the importance of accuracy.
5) They tend to focus rather narrowly a syllabus and examinations.
6) They are often attractive to some teachers, because they seem easy to use, and
are highly examination oriented.

 Communicative Course-book
Communicative course books try to solve this problem by creating opportunities for
the students to use the language in the classroom, as a sort of “halfway house”
before using it in real life.
Communicative course book vary quite a lot, but very broadly they have the
following characteristics:
1) They emphasize the communicative functions of language – the jobs people using
the language – not just the forms.
2) They try to reflect the students’ needs and interests.
3) They emphasize skills in using the language, not just the forms of the language,
and they are therefore activity-based.
4) They usually have a good balance among the four language skills, but many
emphasize listening and speaking more than traditional course book does. They
tend to be very specific in their definition of aims.
5) Both content and method reflect the authentic language of everyday life.
6) They encourage work in groups and pairs, and therefore make heavier on
teacher’s organizational abilities.
7) They emphasize fluency, not just accuracy.

According to Jeremy Harmer, there are main areas to consider to select course-
book:

 Teachable

 Communicative

 Aims

 Layout design

 Methodology

 Skills
 Topic

 Teacher’s guide

 Students’ interest

 Tried and tested

 REFERENCES

Aguilera, L.C., Licenciada, & Filogia. (2012). Receptive Language Skills Listening and
Reading. Publication Didacticas, (153-156)

Alshumaimeri, Y. Types of Language Syllabuses

Broadbridge, J. (2003) Syllabus Design and Methodology – A Coursebook Evaluation.

Module 3 Syllabus and Materials

Jack, R. (2002). Curriculum Development in Language Teaching. Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press. (254-277)

Harmer, J. The practice of English language teaching. Third Edition Completely

Revised and Updated. 56(43).(310-322)

https://www.slideshare.net/mobile/nadett93/describing-learners

http://dreenglish.blogspot.co.id/2015/

https://www.slideshare.net/mobile/kennethjohnpedronan5/principles-of-teaching-1-
32788491

https://www.slideshare.net/mobile/upycon/types-of-evaluation-15926729

https://www.hamline.edu/education/certificates/tefl/student-teaching-evaluation/

http://www.slideserve.com/stuart/teaching-productive-skills