Dept. of Geology |St.

Xavier’s College

Introduction to Unit 1 | Lecture 1

Geophysical Prospecting MSc II | Autumn 2019

Geology or Physics?

GEOLOGY

PHYSICS MATH
Geophysics aims to understand the subsurface structure
(geology) by measuring and interpreting the physical
properties (parameters and their variation!) within the
Earth.
 Physical parameters
Quantity measured by
Physical parameter computed Geophysical method
instrument
gravitational acceleration
density 𝜌 Gravimetry
( g)
strength and direction of magnetic susceptibility (𝜒)
Magnetometry
magnetic field (F ) remnant magnetisation (J rem)
resistivity (𝛀) electrical conductivity
electric potential Electrical &
electrical polarisation electrical capacitance Electromagnetic
response to EM radiation
density 𝜌
travel time elastic moduli (E, K, 𝝁, 𝝈) Seismic
attenuation (Q)
radioactive decay
radioactive emissions Radiometric
electron density
 Geophysical fields
❖ Potential field (time-invariant) vs Wave (time-varying)
field
❖ Potential fields are assumed to be time independent, at
least during the acquisition time (i.e., not counting 4D
surveys)
❖ Wave fields methods are time variant (i.e., as a function
of time) measurements of the Earth’s response to
generated perturbations.
 Potential fields
Potential energy is associated with forces that act on a
body in a way that the total work done by these forces on
the body depends only on the initial and final positions of
the body in space. (ie, work path independent)

These forces, that are called conservative forces, can be

represented at every point in space by vectors expressed
as gradients of a certain scalar function called potential.

Examples: gravity field, magnetic field, electric field

 Wave fields

The perturbation (or signal) travels into the subsurface, is

reflected/refracted/scattered/backscattered/converted
and therefore can be recorded at the surface (or into a
borehole) as a function of the time (typically the time
‘zero’ is the energising instant) by one or more sensors.

Examples: Seismic (elastic/acoustic) wave,

Electromagnetic waves
 Sources
Active Passive
transmission of artificially generated use of receivers placed in the
signals to receiver placed strategically area of interest to detect spatial variations
throughout the area of interest within the Earth’s natural fields.
in order to measure variations.

Seismic Gravity
Resistivity Magnetics
Induced polarisation Self potential
Well logging Magneto-tellurics
Radiometric
Ambient noise seismic
 Active sources- pros & cons
✓ Better control of noise sources through control of injected signal
- Complex Field equipment Both “Sources” and “Receivers” must be supplied
✓ Active experiments usually provide better depth control over source of anomalous signal
- Field operations and logistics are generally more complex —>time consuming —> more
expensive than passive experiments
✓ Survey design flexibility in customising surveys for particular problems. Many possible
Source-receivers geometries
- Greater survey design costs and potentially leads to increased probability of field mishaps
✓ Large quantities of data can be acquired to interpret subtle details of the earth's subsurface
- The large quantity of data obtained in many active experiments can become overwhelming
to process and interpret
✓ Source type/energy can be tailored on the survey objectives. It can be perfectly repetitive
with precise time and position knowledge
- Sometimes invasive methods: sources are required (explosives, high voltages)
 Passive sources- pros & cons
✓ Surveyor need only record a naturally occurring field ! no source need
- Less control of noise because source of the signal is not controlled.
✓ Field operations are generally very time efficient ! wide areas ! cost-efficiency
- Results in term of “anomalous geological contributions” ! difficult identification of the
source
✓ Only few (standard) field procedures are generally used. Relatively easy survey design
- Only few (standard) field procedures are generally used. This limits the amount of
customisation that can be done for specific problems.
✓ Limited datasets (not always) can be accomplished with modest computational requirements
- The data sets collected are (usually) smaller than those collected in active experiments and
do not allow for as detailed an interpretation.
✓ Not invasive systems: only sensors are required
- No source control ! time drifting, changes, obstacles.
 Survey modes
Airborne Ground/Field Well

Gravimetric Gravimetric Electrical Logs

(resistivity, SP, IP)
Aeromagnetic Magnetic
Porosity Logs
EM surveying Induced polarisation
𝛾-ray, neutron (HI), density
Radiometric Resistivity survey
Acoustic/ Sonic Logs
Natural electric/EM sources
(SP, Telluric, MT)

Seismic

Radiometric
 Airborne surveys
❖ Airborne geophysical methods are used in reconnaissance work, due to the high speed of
operation.
❖ They are fast and are relatively inexpensive per unit area.
❖ Several survey methods can be employed at once.
❖ They can provide a more objective coverage than ground surveys in inaccessible terrains.
❖ Airborne survey patterns are reasonably uniform and complete because they do not have
the access and traverse problems of ground survey in swamps, dense brush and rugged
topography.
❖ An airborne survey could provide more reliability in some areas where local influences
that could hamper instrument accuracy are avoided.
❖ They are a rapid and effective method of estimating the depth and shape of the crystalline
basement and hence approximate thickness of the overlying sedimentary material.
 Ground surveys
❖ ground methods are used for more detailed investigations.
❖ The field surveying is usually carried in profiles, possibly
perpendicular to the strike of the causative body.
❖ The distance (interval) between the measuring points (e.g.
stations) depends on the purpose of the surveying (e.g.
regional or detailed studies which require vertical and
lateral resolution)
❖ Better control over survey geometries for optimum
coverage.
 Well logging
❖ This involves probing the earth with instruments which
provide continuous readings as they are lowered into
boreholes.
❖ The rock properties which are covered by well logging
techniques are electrical resistivity, self potential, gamma
ray generation density, magnetic susceptibility and
acoustic velocity.
❖ Well logging is one of the most widely used of all
geophysical techniques in the hydrocarbon industry.
 Basic concepts in geophysics
❖ Sensitivity: Two different materials can be discerned only if the
applied geophysical method is sensitive to the physical
parameter that is different for the two materials.
❖ Resolution: Maximum achievable degree of detail; the
minimum separation distance required between two distinct
targets.
❖ Anomaly: The local variation in a measured parameter, relative
to some normal background value. Such a variation is
attributable to a localised subsurface zone of distinctive
physical properties and possible geological importance.
❖ Signals and Noise: A signal denotes any event on the
geophysical record from which we wish to obtain
valuable information. Everything else is called noise.
❖ S/N (SNR): The ratio of the signal energy of the
specified geophysical record to the total noise energy in
the same record. High S/N = high quality data.
❖ The Inverse problem: deducing the source parameters
(model, m) from the observed anomaly (data, dobs),
where the forward solution is given by dobs=G(m) , and
the inverse solution for m= G-1 dobs
Application - Hydrocarbon exploration
Petroleum, when accumulated, forms only a small fraction of the total fluids present in
a formation, and none of its properties sufficiently differ from those of the salt water.
Using variations in rock properties densities, magnetic properties, electrical
conductivities, and the seismic velocities, can assist in the location of subsurface
structures (called traps) that are favourable for the accumulation of petroleum.
Gravity surveys are used to identify subsurface structures from lateral changes in
density. This is employed as a preliminary reconnaissance to delineate areas of
maximum interest before conducting detailed seismic surveys.

Refection seismic surveying involve closely spaced source-receiver geometries in across

prospective targets, to identify the most promising formations, bed laminations, etc.
Exploration boreholes are normally sited on seismic profile lines so that the borehole
logs can correlated directly with the local seismic section.
 Application - Mineral exploration
Geophysical methods are extensively used in the search for economically
valuable mineral deposits, including non-metallic deposits such as sand,
gravel and limestone and metallic deposits such as massive and disseminated
sulphides and iron ores.
These deposits differ significantly from their host rocks in their physical
properties and consequently give rise to geophysical anomalies of various
types.
The initial aim of a geophysical survey for ore deposits is to locate mineralised
areas of potential interest. The geophysical methods applicable to the search
for such ores those responding to very dense material (gravity), high
magnetically susceptible (magnetic), and conductive materials (electrical and
electromagnetic).
 Application - Hydrogeology
Seismic refraction method is widely used in hydrogeological
investigations. They provide direct information on the level of
the water table since an increase in water content causes a
significant increase of seismic velocity.

Resistivity surveys are routinely employed in ground water

exploration to locate zones of high conductivity corresponding to
saturated strata.
Resistivity surveys may also provide indications of ground water
quality (resistivity varies with salinity and mineralisation).
 Application - Civil engineering
❖ Geophysical methods are frequently used in an initial site investigation to
determine subsurface ground conditions prior to excavation and construction work.
❖ Both seismic refraction and vertical electrical soundings are routinely employed in
the determination of overburden thickness for foundation purposes.
❖ Magnetic surveys are occasionally used to delineate zones of faulting in bedrock,
and may be employed in the location of buried , metallic, man made structures such
as pipelines or old mine working.
❖ Micro-gravimetric method may be used to detect subsurface cavities, buried
valleys, faults within bedrock, underground workings and various archaeological
features.
❖ Resistivity method is used to detect the presence of the subsurface voids which
constitutes highly resistive zones.