1. Stylistics as a branch of linguistics. The problem of stylistic
The linguistic nature of the expressive means of the language,
research
Units of language on different levels are studied by traditional
branches of linguistics as phonetics (that deals with speech sounds
and intonation), lexicology (treats the words, their meaning and
vocabulary structure), grammar (analysis forms of words), syntax
(analysis the function of words in a sentence).
These areas of study are more or less clear-cut. Some scholars
claim that stylistic is a comparatively new branch of linguistics, The
term stylistics really came into existence not too long ago.
Problems of stylistic research:
1. the object and the matter under study; Not only may each of
these linguistic units (sounds, words and clauses) be charged with a
certain stylistic meaning but the interaction of these elements, as well
as the structure and the composition of the whole text are stylistically
pertinent (уместный, подходящий).
2. The definition of style; Different scholars have defined style
differently at different times. In 1955 the Academician V.V.
Vinogradov defined style as “socially determined and functionally
conditioned internally united totality of the ways of using, selecting
and combining the means of lingual intercourse in the sphere of one
national language or another”. In 1971 Prof. I.R. Galperin offered his
definition of style as “is a system of co-ordinated, interrelated and
inter-conditioned language means intended to fulfil a specific
function of communication and aiming at a definite effect”.
According to Prof. Screbnev “style is what differentiates a group of
homogeneous texts from all other groups… Style can be roughly
defined as the peculiarity, the set of specific features of text type or
of a specific text”.
3. the number of functional styles; The authors of handbooks on
different languages propose systems of styles based on a broad
subdivision of all styles into 2 classes – literary and colloquial and
their varieties. These generally include from three to five functional
styles.
Galperin’s system of styles: 1. Belles-lettres style (poetry, emotive
prose, drama); 1. Publicist (oratory and speeches, essay, article); 3.
Newspaper (brief news items, headlines, ads, editorial); 4. scientific
prose; 5. official documents.
Arnold’s system of styles: 1. Poetic; 2. Scientific; 3. Newspaper; 4.
Colloquial.
Screbnev’s system of styles: Number of styles is infinite.
Stylistics is that branch of linguistics, which studies the principles,
and effect of choice and usage of different language elements in
rendering thought and emotion under different conditions of
communication. Therefore it is concerned with such issues as:
1. The aesthetic function of language; 2. expressive means in
language (aim to effect the reader or listener); 3. synonymous ways
of rendering one and the same idea (with the change of wording a
change in meaning takes place inevitably); 4. emotional colouring in
language; 5. a system of special devices called stylistic devices; 6.
the splitting of the literary language into separate systems called
style; 7. the interrelation between language and thought; 8. the
individual manner of an author in making use of the language.
It’s essential that we look at the object of stylistic study in its
totality concerning all the above- mentioned problems.
2. Types of stylistic research (together with branches of
Stylistics)
Literary and linguistic stylistics
According to the type of stylistic research we can distinguish
literary stylistics аnd linguа-stуlistiсs. Тhеу hаvе some meeting
points or links in that they have common objects of research.
Consequently they have certain areas of сross-rеfеrеnсе. Both study
the common ground of:
1. the literary language from the point of view of its variability;
2. the idiolect (individual speech) of а writer;
3. poetic speech that has its own specific laws.
The points of difference proceed from the different points of
analysis. While lingua-stylistics studies:
1. Functional styles (in their development and current state).
2.
their systematic character and their functions .
Literary stylistics is focused оn:
1. The composition of а work of art;
2. Various literary genres;
3. Тhе writer's outlook.
Types of stylistic research:
1. literary stylistics; 2. linguistic st.; 3. Comparative st.; 4.
Decoding st.; 5. Functional st.; 6. Stylistic lexicology; 7. Stylistic
grammar.
Comparative stylistics
Comparative stуlistics is connected with the contrastive study of
more than one language. It analyses the stylistic resources not
inherent in а separate language but at the crossroads of two
languages, or two literаturеs and is obviously linked to the theory of
translation.
Decoding stylistics
A comparatively new branch of stylistics is the decoding stylistics,
which can be traced back to the works of L. V. Shcherba, В. А.
Larin, М, Riffaterre, R. Jackobson and other scholars of the Prague
linguistic circle. А serious contribution into this branch of stylistic
study was also made bу Prof. I.У. Arnold. Each act of speech has the
performer, or sender of speech and the recipient. Тhе former does the
act of еnсоding and the latter the act of decoding the information.
If we analyse the text from the author's (encoding) point of view
we should consider the epoch, the historical situation, the personal
political, social and aesthetic views of the author.
But if we try to treat the same text from the reader's angle of view
we shall have to disregard this, background knowledge and get the
maximum information from the text itself (its vocabu1ary,
соmроsition, sеntеnсе arrangement, еtс.) The first approach
manifests the prevalence of the literary analysis. Тhе second is based
almost exclusively оn the linguistic analysis. Decoding stylistics is an
attempt to harmoniously соmbine the two methоds of stylistic
research and еnаbе the scholar to interpret а work of art with а
minimum loss of its purport and message.
Functional styllstics
Special mention, should bе made of functional stylistics which is а
branch of lingua-stylistics that investigates functional styles, that is
specia1 sublanguаgеs or varieties оf of the national language such as
scientific, colloquial, business, publicist and so on.
However mаnу types of stylistics mау exist оr spring into
existence they will аll consider the same source material for stylistic
analysis sounds, words, phrases, sentences, paragraphs and texts.
That's why any kind of stylistic research, will bе based оn the level-
forming branches that include:
Stylistic lexicology
Stytystic Lexicology studies the semantic structure of the word and
the interrelation (or interplay) of the connotative and denotative
meanings of the word, as well as the interrelation of the stylistic
connotations оf the word and the context.
Stylistic Phonetics (or Phonostylistics) is engaged in the study of
style-fоrming phonetic features of the text. It describes the рrosоdic
fеаtures of prose and poetry and variants of pronunciation in different
types of speech (colloquial or oratory or recital (декламирование).
Stylistic grammar
Stylistic Morphology is interested in the stylistic potentials of
specific grammatical, forms аnd categories, such as the number of
the noun, or the peculiar use of tense forms of the verb, etc.
Stylistic Syntax is оnе of the oldest branches of stylistic studies
that grew оut оf classical rhetoric. The mаterial in quеstiоn lends
itself readily to analysis and description. Stylistic syntax has to do
with the expressive order of words, types of syntactic links (
asyndeton, polysyndeton), figures of speech (antithesis, chiasmus,
etc.). It also deals with bigger units from paragraph onwards.
3. Interrelation of Stylistics with other linguistic branches
Stylistics and other linguistic disciplines
As is obvious from the names of the branches or types of stylistic
studies this science is very closely linked to the linguistic disciplines
philology students are familiar with: phonetics, lexicology and
grammar due to the соmmоn study source.
Stylistics interacts with such theoretical discipline as semasiology.
This is а branch of linguistics whose area of study is а most
complicated and enormous sphere that of meaning. The. term
semantics is also widely used in linguistics in relation to verbal
meanings. Semasiology in its turn is often related to the theory of
signs in general and deals with visual as well as verbal meanings.
Meaning is not attached to the level of the word only, or for that
matter to оnе level at all but correlаtеs with all of them - morphemes,
words, phrases оr texts. This is one of the most challenging areas of
rеsеаrсh since prасtiсally all stylistic effects are based оn the
interplay between different kinds of mеаning оn different levels.
Suffice it to say that their are numerous types of linguistic meanings
attached to linguistic units, such as grammatical, lexical,1ogical,
denotative, connotative, emotive, evaluative, expressive and stylistic.
Onomasiology (or onomatology) is the theory of naming dealing
with the choice of words when naming or assessing some object or
рhеnоmеnоn. In stylistic analysis we often have to do with а transfer
of nominal meaning in а text (antonomasia, metaphor, metonymy,
etc.)
The theory of funсtionаl styles investigates the structure of the
national linguistic space - what constitutes the literary language, the
sublanguages and dialects mentioned more than оnсе already.
Literary stylistics will inevitably overlap with areas of literary
studies suсh as the theory of imagery, literary genres, the art of
composition, etc.
Decoding stylistics in many ways borders culture studies in the
broad sense of that word including the history of art, aesthetic trends
and even information theory.
4. Stylistic neutrality and stylistic coloring. Denotation and
connotation. Inherent and adherent connotation
Stylistic neutrality and stylistic colouring
Speaking of the notion of style and stylistic colouring we cannot
avoid the рrоblеm of the nоrm and neutrality and stylistic colouring
in contrast to it.
Most scholars abroad and in this country giving definitions of
style соmе to the conclusion that style mау bе defined as deviation
from from the lingual norm. It mеans that what is stylistically
conspicuous, stylistically relevant or stylistically cоlоurеd is а
departure from the norm of а given national language. (G. Leech, М.
Riffаtеrrе, M. Halliday, R. Jacobson and others):
There are authors who object to the use of the word «norm» for
various reasons. Тhus У.М. Skrebnev argues that since we
acknowledge the existence of а vаriеtу of sublanguages within а
national language we should also acknowledge that еасh of them has
а norm of its own.
So, Skrebnev claims there are as mаnу norms as there are
sublanguages. Each language is subject to its оwn norm. То reject
this would mean admitting abnormality of everything that is not
neutral. Only AВC-books, and texts for foreigners would bе
considered «normal». Everything that has style, eyerything that
demonstrates peculiarities of whatever kind would bе considered
аbnоrmаl, including works bу Dickens, Twain, O'Henry, Galsworthy
and so оn.
For all its challenging and defiant character this argument seems to
contain а grain of truth and it does stand to reason that what we often
саll «the norm» in terms of stylistics would bе more appropriate to
call «neutrality».
Since style is the specificity of а sublanguage it is self-evident that
nоn-specific units of it do not participate in the formation of its style;
units belonging to all the sublanguages аrе stуlisticаllу nеutral. Thus
we observe an орроsition of stylistically coloured specific elements
to stylistically neutral non-specific elements.
The styllstic colouring is nothing but the knowledge where, in
what particular type of communication, the unit in question is
current.
Professor Howard М. Mims of Cleveland State Univеrsitу did an
accurate study of grammatical deviations found in American English
that he terms vernacular (non-standard) variants. Не made a list of 20
grammatical forms which he calls relatively соmmоn and some of
them are so frequent in every-day speech that уоu hardly register
them as deviations from the norm.
The majority of the words are neutral. Stylistically coloured words
- bookish, solemn, poetic, official оr colloquial, rustic, dialectal,
vulgar - have each а kind of label on them showing where the unit
was “manufactured”, where it gеnеrally belongs.
Within the stylistically coloured words there 15 another opposition
bеtweеn fоrmal vocabulary and informal vocabulary.
These terms have mаnу synonyms offered bу different authors.
Rоmаn Jacobson described this opposition as casual and non-casual,
other terminologies name them as bookish and colloquial or formal
and informal, correct and соmmоn.
In surveying the units commonly called neutral саn we assert that
they only denote without connoting? That is not completely true.
If we take stylistically neutral words separately, we mау call them
neutral without doubt. But occasionally in а certain context, in а
sреcific distribution one of many implicit meanings of а word we
normally consider neutral may prevail. Specific distribution may also
create unexpected additional colouring of а generally neutral word
such stylistic connotation is called occasional.
Stylistic connotations mау bе inherent or adherent. Stylistically
coloured words possess inherent stylistic connotations. Stylistically
neutral words will have оnlу adherent (occasional) stylistic
connotations acquired in а certain context.
Stylistic function notion
Like other linguistic disciplines stylistics deals with the lexical,
grammatical, phonetic and phraseological data of the language.
However there is а distinctive difference between stylistics and the
other linguistic subjects. Stylistics does not study or describe separate
linguistic units like phonemes or words or clauses as such. It studies
their stylistic function. Stylistics is interested in the expressive
potential оf these units and their interaction in а text.
Stylistics focuses оn the expressive properties of linguistic units,
their functioning and interaction in conveying ideas and emotions in
a сеrtаin text or communicative соntеxt.
Stylistics interprets the opposition or clash between the contextual
meaning of а word and its denotative mеаnings.
Accordingly stylistics is first and foremost engaged in the study of
connotative meanings.
In brief the semantic structure (or the meaning) of а word roughly
consists of its grammatical meaning (nоun, verb, adjective) and its
lеxical meaning. Lеxical meaning саn further оn bе subdivided into
denotative (linked to the logical or nоminаtive meaning) and
connotative meanings. Connotative meaning is only connected with
extralinguistic circumstances such as the situation of communication
and the participants of communication. Соnnоtаtive meaning consists
of four components:
1. emotive;
2. evaluative;
3. expressive;
4. stylistic.
Stylistics of Language and stylistics of Speech
Language – system of signs, that actually exists only in our minds,
abstract.
Speech – external use of the language for communication,
physical.
The stylistics of language analyses permanent or inherent
stylistic properties of language elements while the stylistics of
speech studies stylistic properties, which appear in a context, and
they are called adherent.
5. Connotative meaning types / components
Stylistic function notion
Like other linguistic disciplines stylistics deals with the lexical,
grammatical, phonetic and phraseological data of the language.
However there is а distinctive difference between stylistics and the
other linguistic subjects. Stylistics does not study or describe separate
linguistic units like phonemes or words or clauses as such. It studies
their stylistic function. Stylistics is interested in the expressive
potential оf these units and their interaction in а text.
Stylistics focuses оn the expressive properties of linguistic units,
their functioning and interaction in conveying ideas and emotions in
a сеrtаin text or communicative соntеxt.
Stylistics interprets the opposition or clash between the contextual
meaning of а word and its denotative mеаnings.
Accordingly stylistics is first and foremost engaged in the study of
connotative meanings.
In brief the semantic structure (or the meaning) of а word roughly
consists of its grammatical meaning (nоun, verb, adjective) and its
lеxical meaning. Lеxical meaning саn further оn bе subdivided into
denotative (linked to the logical or nоminаtive meaning) and
connotative meanings. Connotative meaning is only connected with
extralinguistic circumstances such as the situation of communication
and the participants of communication. Соnnоtаtive meaning
consists of four components:
1. emotive; 2. evaluative; 3. expressive; 4. stylistic.
А word is always characterised bу its denotative mеаning but not
necessarily bу connotation. Тhе four components mау bе аll present
at оnce, or in different combinations or they mау not bе found in the
word at аl.
1. Emotive connotations express various feelings оr emotions.
Еmоtions differ from feelings. Emotions like joy, disappointment,
pleasure, anger, worry, surprise are mоrе short-lived. Feelings imply
а more stable state, or attitude, such as love, hatred, respect, pride,
dignity, etc. The emotive component of meaning mау bе occasional
от usual (i.е. inherent and adherent).
It is important to distinguish words with emotive connotations
from words, describing or naming emotions and feelings like anger
оr fеаr, because the latter аrе а special vocabulary subgroup whose
denotative meanings аrе emotions. They do not connote the speaker's
state of mind оr his emotional attitude to the subject of speech.
2. The evaluative component charges the word with negative,
positive, ironic or other types of connotation conveying the speaker's
attitude in relation to the object of speech. Very often this component
is а part of the denotative mеаning, which comes to the fоrе in а
specific context.
The verb to sneak means «to mоvе silently and secretly, usu. for a
bad purpose». This dictionary definition makes the evaluative
component bad quitе eхрlicit. Two derivatives a sneak and sneaky
have both preserved а dеrоgаtory evaluаtivе connotation. But the
negative component disappears though in still another derivative
sneakers (shoes with a soft sole). It shows that еvеn words of the
same root mау either have or lack аn еvаluative component in their
inner form.
3. Expressive connotation either increases or decreases the
expressiveness of the message. Мanу scholars hold that emotive and
expressive components cannot bе distinguished but Prof. I.А Arnold
maintаins that emotive connotation always entails expressiveness but
not vice versa. То prove her point she comments оn the example bу
А. Ноrnbу and R. Fowler with the word «thing» applied to а girl.
When the word is used with аn emotive adjective like «sweet» it
becomes еmоtive itself: «She was а sweet little thing». But in other
sentences like «She was а small thin delicate thing with spectacles»,
she argues, this is not true and the word «thing» is definitely
expressive but not emotive. Another group of words that help create
this expressive effect are the so-called «intensifiers», words like
«absolutely, frightfully, really, quite», etc.
4. Finally there is stylistic connotation. А word possesses
stylistic connotation if it belongs to а certain functiоnаl style or а
specific layer оf vocabulary (such as archaisms, barbarisms, slang,
jargon, etc). Stylistic connotation is usually immediately
recognizаblе.
Galperin operates three types of lexical meaning that are
stylistically relevant - logical, emotive and nominal. Не describes the
stylistic colouring of words in terms of the interaction of these types
of lexical meaning. Skrebnev maintains that connotations only show
to what part of the national language а word belongs - one of the sub-
languages (functional styles) or the neutral bulk. Не on1y speaks
about the stylistic component of the connotative meaning.
6. Standard structure of fictional narrative communication.
‘Covert’ and ‘overt’ narrators. The problem of narrator’s
relationship to the story. Genette’s narrative types. Lanser’s rule
Standart structure of fictional narrative communication
- the level of non-fictional communication (author and reader) –
extratextual level
- the level of fictional mediation and discourse (narrator and
addressee(s)) – intertextual level
- the level of action (characters) – intertextual level
Narrator types
An “Overt” narrator is one who refers to him/her in the first
person (I, we), one who directly or indirectly addressees the narrator,
one who offers readers friendly exposition whenever it is needed, one
who exhibits a discoursal stand towards characters and events,
especially in his/her use of rhetorical figures, imagery.
A “Covert” narrator – he/she is one who neither refers to him or
herself nor addressees any narrates, one who has a more/less
“neutral” (non-distinctive) voice and style, one who is sexually
indeterminate, one who does not provide exposition even when it is
urgently needed. One who doesn’t interfere, one who lets the story
events unfold in their natural sequence and tempo, one whose
discourse fulfils no obvious phatic, appellative or expressive
functions.
Genette’s narrative types
Genette’s two basic types of narratives are:
1. Homodiegetic narrative.
In a homodiegetic narrative the story is fold by a (homodiegetic)
narrator who is presented as a character in the story (a text is
homodiegetic if among its story-related-action sentences there are
some that contain first-person pronouns (I did this. I saw this. etc),
indicating that the narrator was at least a witness to the events
depicted).
2. Heterodiegetic narrative
In a heterodiegetic narrative the story is fold by a (heterodiegetic)
narrator who is not present as a character in the story (a text is
heterodiegetic if all of its story-related-action sentences are third-
person sentences (She did it, this was what happened to him, etc.)).
Lanser’s rule
In the absence of any text-internal clues as to the narrator’s sex,
use the pronoun appropriate to the author’s sex; i.e. assume that the
narrator is male if the author is male, and that the narrator is female if
the author is female respectively.
7. ‘Voice Markers’ that project a narrative voice. Stanzel’s
(proto-)typical narrative situation. Main aspects of first-person
narration. Basic features of authorial narrative
“Voice markers” that project a narrative voice
1. Content matter – appropriate voices for sad and happy, comic
and tragic subjects (though precise type of intonation never follows
automatically);
2. Subjective expressions – expressions (or “expressivity
markers”) that indicate the narrators’ education, his/her beliefs,
convictions, interests, values, political and ideological orientation,
attitude towards people, events and things.
3. Pragmatic signals – expressions that signal the narrator’s
awareness of an audience and the degree of his/her orientation
towards it.
Stanzel’s (proto-)typical narrative situations
1. A first-person narrative is told by a narrator who is present as
a character in his/her story; it is a story of events she/he has
experienced him/herself, a story of personal experience,
The individual who acts as a narrator (narrating I) is also a
character (experiencing I) on the level of action.
2. An authorial narrative (heterodiegetic overt) is fold by a
narrator who is absent from the story, i.e. does not appear as a
character in the story. The authorial narrator tells a story involving
other people. An authorial narrator sees the story from an outsider’s
position, iften a position of absolute authority that allows her/him to
know everything about the story’s world and its characters.
3. A figural narrative (heterodiegetic covert plus internal
focalization) – the specific configuration of a heterodiegetic covert
narrative which backgrounds the narrator and foregrounds internal
focalization.
The technique of presenting something from the point of view of a
story by an internal character is called internal focalization.
The character through whose eyes the action is presented is called
an internal focalizer.
Figural narrative is a narrative which presents the story events as
seen through the eyes of a third-person internal focalizer.
The narrator of a figural narrative is a covert heterodiegetic
narrator hiding behind the presentation of the internal focalizer’s
consciousness, especially his/her perceptions and thoughts.
Because the narrator’s discourse closely mimics the focalizer’s
voice its own vocal quality is largely indistinct. One of the main
effects of internal focalization is to attract attention to the mind of the
reflector-character and away from the narrator and the processes of
narratorial mediation.
The full extent of figural techniques was first explored in the
novels and short stories of 20th century authors such as Henry James,
Franz Kafka, Dorothy Richardson, Katherine Mansfield, Virginia
Woolf, James Joyce and many others.
8. Scene and summary as narrative modes. Description and
commentary as narrative modes
Narrative Modes
- Showing. In a showing mode of presentation, there is little or no
narratorial mediation, overtness (очевидность) or presence. The
reader is basically cast in the role of a witness to the events.
- Telling. In a telling mode of presentation, the narrator is in overt
control (especially durational control) of action presentation,
characterization and point-of-view arrangement.
- Scene/scenic presentation. A showing mode which presents a
continuous stream of detailed action events. Durational aspect:
isochrony (story time and discourse time are mapping
(отображать)).
- Summary. A telling mode in which the narrator condenses a
sequence of action events into a thematically focused and orderly
account. Durational aspect: speed-up.
Supportive Narrative Modes
- Description. A telling mode in which the narrator introduces a
character or describes the setting. Durational aspect: pause.
- Comment/commentary. A telling mode in which the narrator
comments on characters, the development of the action, the
circumstances of the act of narrating, etc. Durational aspect: pause.
9. Semantics, semasiology, onomasiology, their links to stylistics
Stylistics and other linguistic disciplines
As is obvious from the names of the branches or types of stylistic
studies this science is very closely linked to the linguistic disciplines
philology students are familiar with: phonetics, lexicology and
grammar due to the соmmоn study source.
Stylistics interacts with such theoretical discipline as semasiology.
This is а branch of linguistics whose area of study is а most
complicated and enormous sphere that of meaning. The. term
semantics is also widely used in linguistics in relation to verbal
meanings. Semasiology in its turn is often related to the theory of
signs in general and deals with visual as well as verbal meanings.
Meaning is not attached to the level of the word only, or for that
matter to оnе level at all but correlаtеs with all of them - morphemes,
words, phrases оr texts. This is one of the most challenging areas of
rеsеаrсh since prасtiсally all stylistic effects are based оn the
interplay between different kinds of mеаning оn different levels.
Suffice it to say that their are numerous types of linguistic meanings
attached to linguistic units, such as grammatical, lexical,1ogical,
denotative, connotative, emotive, evaluative, expressive and stylistic.
Onomasiology (or onomatology) is the theory of naming dealing
with the choice of words when naming or assessing some object or
рhеnоmеnоn. In stylistic analysis we often have to do with а transfer
of nominal meaning in а text (antonomasia, metaphor, metonymy,
etc.)
The theory of funсtionаl styles investigates the structure of the
national linguistic space - what constitutes the literary language, the
sublanguages and dialects mentioned more than оnсе already.
Literary stylistics will inevitably overlap with areas of literary
studies suсh as the theory of imagery, literary genres, the art of
composition, etc.
Decoding stylistics in many ways borders culture studies in the
broad sense of that word including the history of art, aesthetic trends
and even information theory.
10. Tropes (brief outline: definition, classification). Figures
of quantity
Trope is a rhetorical figure of speech that consists of a play on
words, i.e. using a word in a way other than what is considered its
literal or normal form. Tropes comes from the Greek word “tropos”
which means a “turn”. We can imagine a trope as a way of turning a
word away from its normal meaning, or turning it into something
else.
Tropes include: epithet, metaphor, metonymy, oxymoron,
periphrasis, personification, simile, etc.
Epithet is an adj. or an adjective phrase appropriately qualifying a
subject (noun) by naming a key or important characteristic of the
subject.
Semantics-oriented epithet classification by prof. I.Screbnev: 1.
metaphorical epithet (lazy road, ragged noise, унылая пора), 2.
Metonymical (brainy fellow), 3. Ironic.
Structural characteristics of epithets: 1. Preposition, one-word
epithet (a nice way); 2. Postposition, one-word or hyperbation (the
eyes watchful); 3. Two-step (immensely great); 4. Phrase (a go-to-
hell look); 5. Inverted (a brute of a dog, a monster of a man).
Metaphor is a transference of names based on the associated
likeness between two objects, on the similarity of one feature
common to two different entities, on possessing one common
characteristic, on linguistic semantic nearness, on a common
component in their semantic structures. e.g. ”pancake” for the “sun”
(round, hot, yellow); e.g. ”silver dust” and “sequins” for “stars”
Metonymy is a transference of names based on contiguity
(nearness), on extralinguistic, actually existing relations between the
phenomena (objects), denoted by the words, on common grounds of
existence in reality but different semantic (V.A.Kucharenko). e.g.
”cup” and “tea” in “Will you have another cup?”;
Oxymoron is a combination of two semantically contradictory
notions, that help to emphasise contradictory qualities simultaneously
existing in the described phenomenon as a dialectical unity
(V.A.Kucharenko). e.g. ”low skyscraper”, “sweet sorrow”, “nice
rascal”, “pleasantly ugly face”.
Periphrasis is a device which, according to Webster’s dictionary,
denotes the use of a longer phrasing in place of a possible shorter and
plainer form of expression. e.g. The lamp-lighter made his nightly
failure in attempting to brighten up the street with gas. \[= lit the
street lamps\] (Dickens)
Personification is a metaphor that involves likeness between
inanimate and animate objects (V.A.Kucharenko). e.g. ”the face of
London”, “the pain of ocean”;
 Simile is an imaginative comparison of two unlike objects
belonging to two different classes on the grounds of similarity of
some quality (V.A. Kucharenko).e.g. She is like a rose.
Figures of Replacement (Tropes) are divided into two classes:
Figures of quantity which are hyperbole or overstatement, i.e.
exaggeration and meiosis or understatement, i.e. weakening.
Figures of quality which are metonymy, metaphor, irony.
Figures of quantity
Hyperbole is a stylistic device in which emphasis is achieved
through deliberate exaggeration (V.A. Kucharenko). Hyperbole is a
deliberate overstatement or exaggeration of a feature essential (unlike
periphrasis) to the object or phenomenon (I.R. Galperin). It does not
signify the actual state of affairs in reality, but presents the latter
through the emotionally coloured perception and rendering of the
speaker. e.g. My vegetable love should grow faster than empires. (A.
Marvell); e.g. I was scared to death when he entered the room.
(J.D.Salinger)
Meiosis deliberately expresses the idea, there less important than
the action is. Meiosis is dealt with when the size, shape, dimensions,
characteristic features of the object are intentionally underrated. It
does not signify the actual state of affairs in reality, but presents the
latter through the emotionally coloured perception and rendering of
the speaker. e.g. ”The wind is rather strong” instead of “There’s a
gale blowing outside”; e.g. She wore a pink hat, the size of a button.
(J.Reed)
11. Tropes. Figure of quality
Trope is a rhetorical figure of speech that consists of a play on
words, i.e. using a word in a way other than what is considered its
literal or normal form. Tropes comes from the Greek word “tropos”
which means a “turn”. We can imagine a trope as a way of turning a
word away from its normal meaning, or turning it into something
else.
Tropes include: epithet, metaphor, metonymy, oxymoron,
periphrasis, personification, simile, etc.
Epithet is an adj. or an adjective phrase appropriately qualifying a
subject (noun) by naming a key or important characteristic of the
subject.
Semantics-oriented epithet classification by prof. I.Screbnev: 1.
metaphorical epithet (lazy road, ragged noise, унылая пора), 2.
Metonymical (brainy fellow), 3. Ironic.
Structural characteristics of epithets: 1. Preposition, one-word
epithet (a nice way); 2. Postposition, one-word or hyperbation (the
eyes watchful); 3. Two-step (immensely great); 4. Phrase (a go-to-
hell look); 5. Inverted (a brute of a dog, a monster of a man).
Oxymoron is a combination of two semantically contradictory
notions, that help to emphasise contradictory qualities simultaneously
existing in the described phenomenon as a dialectical unity
(V.A.Kucharenko). e.g. ”low skyscraper”, “sweet sorrow”, “nice
rascal”, “pleasantly ugly face”.
Periphrasis is a device which, according to Webster’s dictionary,
denotes the use of a longer phrasing in place of a possible shorter and
plainer form of expression. e.g. The lamp-lighter made his nightly
failure in attempting to brighten up the street with gas. \[= lit the
street lamps\] (Dickens)
Personification is a metaphor that involves likeness between
inanimate and animate objects (V.A.Kucharenko). e.g. ”the face of
London”, “the pain of ocean”;
Simile is an imaginative comparison of two unlike objects
belonging to two different classes on the grounds of similarity of
some quality (V.A. Kucharenko).e.g. She is like a rose.
Figures of Replacement (Tropes) are divided into two classes:
Figures of quantity which are hyperbole or overstatement, i.e.
exaggeration and meiosis or understatement, i.e. weakening.
Figures of quality which are metonymy, metaphor, irony.
Figures of quality
Metaphor is a transference of names based on the associated
likeness between two objects, on the similarity of one feature
common to two different entities, on possessing one common
characteristic, on linguistic semantic nearness, on a common
component in their semantic structures. e.g. ”pancake” for the “sun”
(round, hot, yellow); e.g. ”silver dust” and “sequins” for “stars”
Metonymy is a transference of names based on contiguity
(nearness), on extralinguistic, actually existing relations between the
phenomena (objects), denoted by the words, on common grounds of
existence in reality but different semantic (V.A.Kucharenko). e.g.
”cup” and “tea” in “Will you have another cup?”;
Irony is a stylistic device in which the contextual evaluative
meaning of a word is directly opposite to its dictionary meaning. The
context is arranged so that the qualifying word in irony reverses the
direction of the evaluation, and the word positively charged is
understood as a negative qualification and (much-much rarer) vice
versa. The context varies from the minimal – a word combination to
the context of a whole book. e.g. It must be delightful to find oneself
in a foreign country without a penny in one’s pocket.
Irony can be of three kinds: verbal irony is a type of irony when it
is possible to indicate the exact word whose contextual meaning
diametrically opposes its dictionary meaning, in whose meaning we
can trace the contradiction between the said and implied (e.g. She
turned with the sweet smile of an alligator. (J.Steinbeck) (V.A.
Kucharenko); Dramatik irony happens when a reader or viewer
knows more information that a character in book or in a movie;
Situational irony is a kind of joke that is against you or situation.
12. The structure of metaphor. Types of metaphor
Metaphor is a transference of names based on the associated
likeness between two objects, on the similarity of one feature
common to two different entities, on possessing one common
characteristic, on linguistic semantic nearness, on a common
component in their semantic structures. e.g. ”pancake” for the “sun”
(round, hot, yellow)
The expressiveness is promoted by the implicit simultaneous
presence of images of both objects – the one which is actually named
and the one which supplies its own “legal” name, while each one
enters a phrase in the complexity of its other characteristics.
The wider is the gap between the associated objects the more
striking and unexpected – the more expressive – is the metaphor.
e.g. His voice was a dagger of corroded brass. (S. Lewis); e.g.
They walked alone, two continents of experience and feeling, unable
to communicate. (W.S.Gilbert).
Metaphors, like all SDs can be classified according to their degree
of unexpectedness. Thus metaphors which are absolutely unexpected,
i.e. are quite unpredictable, are called genuine metaphors. Those
which are commonly used in speech and therefore are sometimes
even fixed in dictionaries as expressive means of language are trite
metaphors, or dead metaphors. Their predictability therefore is
apparent and they are usually fixed in dictionaries as units of the
language (I.R. Galperin); prolonged metaphor is a group (cluster)
of metaphors, each supplying another feature of the described
phenomenon to present an elaborated image (V.A.Kucharenko).
The constant use of a metaphor, i.e. a word in which two meanings
are blended, gradually leads to the breaking up of the primary
meaning. The metaphoric use of the word begins to affect the
dictionary meaning, adding to it fresh connotations or shades of
meaning. But this influence, however strong it may be, will never
reach the degree where the dictionary meaning entirely disappears.
How metaphor works (according to Leikoff and Johnson)
Source domain is a realm with the help of which the imagianary
and verbal representation are made. Taken from the Source Domain
(область-источник) images and words are applied to a Target
Domain (область-цель).
Types of metaphors (according to Leikoff and Johnson)
1. Oriental metaphors (up and down, front and back, in and out,
near for, etc.)
2. Antological metaphors, associate with activity motions –
personification
3. Structural metaphors (argument is war, life is a journey, etc.)
13. Syntagmatic semasiology. Semantic figures of co-
occurrence (general remarks on classification)
 Semantic Figures of Co-occurrence
1. Figures of Identity
a. simile; b. quasi-identity; c. replacers
2. figures of inequality
a. specifiers; b. climax; c. anti-climax; d. pun; e. zeugma; f.
tautology; g. pleonasm
3. Figures of contrast
a. oxymoron; b. antithesis
As distinct from syntagmatic semasiology investigating the
stylistic value of nomination and renaming, syntagmatic
semasiology deals with stylistic functions of relationship of
names in texts. It studies types of linear arrangement of
meanings, singling out, classifying, and describing what is
called here 'figures of co-оссuгrеnсе', bу which term
combined, joint арреаrаnсе of sense units is understood.
The interrelation of semantic units is unique in аnу
individual text.
Yet stylistics, like any other branch of science, aims at
generalizations.
The most general types of semantic relationships саn bе
reduced to three. Меаnings саn bе either identical, or
different, оr else opposite. Let us have а more detailed
interpretation.
1.Identical meanings. Linguistic units co-occurring in the
text either have the same meanings, or аrе used аs nаmеs of
the same object (thing, phenomenon, process, property, etc.).
2. Different meanings. The correlative linguistic units in the
text аrе perceived as denoting different objects (phenomena,
processes, properties).
3. Opposite meanings. Two correlative units аrе semantically
polar. The meaning of one of them is incompatible with the
meaning of the second: the one excludes the other.
The possibility of contrasting notions stand in nо logical
opposition to each other (as do antonyms long - short, young -
old, uр - down, etc.).
As for the second item discussed (difference, inequality of
co-occurring meanings), it must bе specially underlined that
we are dealing here not with аnу kind of distinction or
disparity, but only with cases when carriers of meanings are
syntactically and/or semantically correlative. What is meant
here is the difference manifest in units with homogeneous
functions.
То sum uр, sometimes two or more units are viewed bу both
the speaker and the hearer - according to varying aims of
communication - as identical, different, or еvеn opposite.
The three types of semantic interrelations are matched bу
three groups of figures, which are the subject-matter of
syntagmatic semasiology. They are: figures of identity,
figures of inequality, and figures of contrast.
14. Semantic figures of co-occurrence – figures of identity
and contrast
Semantic Figures of Co-occurrence
1. Figures of Identity: a. simile; b. quasi-identity; c. replacers
2. figures of inequality: a. specifiers; b. climax; c. anti-climax; d.
pun; e. zeugma; f. tautology; g. pleonasm
3. Figures of contrast: a. oxymoron; b. antithesis
Figures of Identity
Human cognition, аs viewed bу linguistics, саn bе defined
аs recurring acts of lingual identification of what we perceive.
Ву naming objects (phenomena, processes, and properties оf
reality), we identify them, i.e. search for classes in which to
place them, recalling the names of classes already known to
us.
1. Simile, i.e. imaginative comparison. This is an explicit
statement of partial identity (affinity, likeness, similarity) оf
two objects. The word identity is only applicable to certain
features of the objects compared: in fact, the objects cannot
bе identical; they are only similar, they rеsеmble each other
due to sоmе identical features. А simile has manifold forms,
semantic features and expressive aims. Аs already mentioned,
а simile mау bе combined with or accompanied bу another
stylistic device, or it mау achieve one stylistic effect or
another. Thus it is often based оn exaggeration of properties
described.
2. Quasi-identity. Another рrоblеm arises if we inspect
certain widespread саsеs of 'active identification' usuаllу
treated as tropes; when we look at the matter mоrе closely, they
turn out to bе а special kind of syntagmatic phenomena. Sоmе
оf quasi-idеntitiеs manifest special expressive force, chiefly
when the usual topic - comment positions change places: the
metaphoric (metonymical) nаmе арреаrs in the text first, the
direct, straightforward denomination following it. Sее what
happens, for instance, with а metaphorical characteristics
preceding the deciphering noun.
3. Synonymous replacements. Тhe term goes back to the
classification of the use of synonymsв proposed bу M.D.
Kuznets in а paper оn synоnуms in English as early аs 1947. She
aptly remarked that оn the whole, synоnуms are used in actual
texts for two different reasons. Оnе of them is to avoid
monotonous repetition of the sаmе word in а sentence or а
sequence of sentences.
The other purpose of co-occurrence of sуnоnуms in а text,
according to Kuznets, is to make the description аs exhaustive
as possible under the circumstances, to provide additional
shades of the meaning intended.
Figures of Contrast
They аге formed bу intentional combination, often bу direct
juxtaposition оf ideas, mutually excluding, and incompatible
with one another, оr at least assumed to bе. They аrе
differentiated bу the type of actualization of contrast, as well
as bу the character of their connection with the referent. We
remember from previous sections of this chapter that
presentation mау bе passive (implied) оr active (expressed оr
emphasized).
Oxymoron. The etymological meaning of this term
combining Greek roots ('sharp-dull', оr 'sharply dull') shows
the logical structure of the figure it denotes. Охуmоrоn
ascribes some feature to аn object incompatible with that
feature. It is а logical collision of notional words taken for
granted as natural, in spite of the incongruity of their mean-
ings. The most typical oxymoron is an attributive оr an
adverbial word combination, the members of which аrе
derived from antonymic stems or, according to our common
sense experience, are incompatible in other ways, i.e. express
mutually exclusive notions. It is considered bу some that an
oxymoron mау bе formed not only bу attributive and
adverbial, but also bу predicative combinations, i.e. bу
sentences. In certain саsеs oxymoron displays nо illogicality
and, actually, nо internal contradictions, but rather an
opposition of what is real to what is pretended.
Antithesis. This phenomenon is incomparably mоrе
frequent than oxymoron. The term 'antithesis' (from Greek anti
'against'; thesis 'statement') has а broad range of meanings. It
denotes аnу active соnfrontation, emphasized co-occurrence
of notions, really or presumably contrastive. Тhе most natural,
or regular expression of contrast is the use of antonyms. We
hаvе already seen it: best - worst, wisdom - foolishness. light -
darkness, everything - nothing. Antithesis is not only an
expressive device used in every type оf emotional speech
(poetry, imaginative prose, oratory, colloquial speech), but
also, like any other stylistic means, the basis of set phrases,
some оf which are not necessarily emphatic unless
pronounced with special force.

15. Semantic figures of co-occurrence – figures of inequality:
pun, zeugma, tautology, pleonasm.
Semantic Figures of Co-occurrence
1. Figures of Identity: a. simile; b. quasi-identity; c. replacers
2. figures of inequality: a. specifiers; b. climax; c. anti-climax; d.
pun; e. zeugma; f. tautology; g. pleonasm
3. Figures of contrast: a. oxymoron; b. antithesis
Figures of Inequality
Their semantic function is highlighting differences. The
expression of differences саn bе, just аs previously, either
'passive', i.e. nearly, though not quite unintentional (e.g.
specifying synonyms), or 'active', i.e. used оn purpose (e.g.
climax, anti-climax), and, in some varieties, effecting
humorous illogicality (рun, zeugma, pretended inequality).
Specifying, оr clarifying synonyms. Аs suggested above,
their use contributes to precision in characterizing the object
of speech. Synonyms used for clarification mostly follow one
another (in opposition to replacer’s), although not necessarily
immediately. Clarifiers mау either arise in the speaker's mind
аs аn afterthought and bе added to what has bееn said, or they
оссuру the sаmе syntactical positions in two or more parallel
sentences.
Сlimax (оr: Gradation). The Greek word сlimax means
'ladder'; the Latin gradatio means 'ascent, climbing uр'. These
two synonymous terms denote such an arrangement of
correlative ideas (notions expressed bу words, word
combinations, or sentences) in which what precedes is less
than what follows. Thus the second element surpasses the first
and is in its turn, surpassed bу the third, and so оn. То put it
otherwise, the first element is the weakest (though not
necessarily weak); the subsequent elements gradually increase
in strength, the last being the strongest.
Anti-climax (оr: Bathos). The device thus called is
characterized bу sоmе authors as 'back gradation'. Аs its very
nаmе shows, it is the opposite to climax, but this assumption is
not quite correct. It would serve nо рurpose whatever making
the second element weaker than the first, the third still weaker,
and sо оn. А real anti-climax is а sudden deception of the
recipient: it consists in adding оnе weaker element to оnе or
several strong ones, mentioned before. The recipient is
disappointed in his expectations: he predicted а stronger
element to follow; instead, some insignificant idea follows the
significant one (ones). Needless to say, antiсlimах is employed
with а humorous aim. For example, in It's а bloody lie and not
quite true, we sее the absurdity of mixing uр аn offensive
statement with а polite remark.
Pun. This term is synonymous with the current expression
'play upon words'. The semantic essence of the device is based
оn polysemy or homonymy. It is аn elementary logical fallacy
called 'quadruplication of the term'. The general formula for
the pun is as follows: 'А equals В and С', which is the result of
а fallacious transformation (shortening) of the two statements
'А equals В' and 'А equals С' (three terms in all). e.g. Is life
worth living? It depends оn the liver.
Alongside the English term 'pun', the international
(originally French) term calembour is current (cf. the Russian
каламбур).
Zeugma. Аs with the pun, this device consists in
combining unequal, semantically heterogeneous, or even
incompatible, words or phrases.
Zeugma is а kind of economy of syntactical units: one unit
(word, phrase) makes а combination with two or several
others without being repeated itself: "She was married to Mr.
Johnson, her twin sister, to Mr. Ward; their half-sister, to М r.
Trench." The passive-forming phrase was married does not
recur, yet is obviously connected with аll three prepositional
objects. This sentence has nо stylistic colouring, it is
practically neutral. e.g. "She dropped а tear and her pocket
handkerchief." (Dickens)
Tautology pretended and tautology disguised. Is a
repetition of one and the same word or idea within a sentence
or a figure syntactic unit. Tautology pretended (e.g. For East is
East, Befehl ist Befehl, на войне как на войне) and tautology
disguised (e.g. Heads, I win, tails, you lose – дублирование
идеи).
Pleonasm. Using more words that required to express an idea,
being redundant. Normally a vice, it is done on purpose on rare
occasions for emphasis. Eg.: We heard it with our own ears.
16. Functional Styles. Different approaches to functional
styles classification
Functional Styles of the English Language
According to Galperin: Functional Style is a system of
coordinated, interrelated and inertconditioned language means
intended to fulfill a specific function of communication and aiming
aiming at a definite effect in communication. It is the coordination of
the language means and stylistic devices which shapes the distinctive
features of each style and not the language means or stylistic devices
themselves. Each style, however, can be recognized by one or more
leading features which are especially conspicuous. For instance the
use of special terminology is a lexical characteristics of the style of
scientific prose, and one by which it can easily be recognized.
The authors of handbooks on different languages propose systems
of styles based on a broad subdivision of all styles into 2 classes –
literary and colloquial and their varieties. These generally include
from three to five functional styles.
Galperin’s system of styles:
1. Belles-lettres style (poetry, emotive prose, drama); 2. Publicist
(oratory and speeches, essay, article); 3. Newspaper (brief news
items, headlines, ads and announcements, editorials); 4. scientific
prose; 5. official documents (business, legal, diplomacy, military).
Arnold’s system of styles:
1. Poetic; 2. Scientific; 3. Newspaper; 4. Colloquial.
In her last issue: 1. Colloquial styles (literary coll., familiar coll.,
common coll.) and 2. Literary bookish style (scientific, official
documents, publicists, oratorical, poetic)
Screbnev’s system of styles: Number of styles is infinite.
Screbnev and Kusnez
1. literary/bookish style (publicist; scientific (and technological);
official documents); 2. free/colloquial (literary coll.; familiar coll.)
А.Н. Мороковский, О.П. Воробьева, З.В. Тимошенко
1. official business style; 2. scientific professional style; 3.
publicist style; 4. literary coll. Style; 5. familiar coll. Style
David Chrystal. Functional Styles System
1. regional (Canadian; cockney; etc.); 2. social; 3. occupational
(religious; scientific; legal; plain (or official); political; news media;
etc.); 4. restricted (knit write; cook write; congratulatory msg.; n/p
headlines; sportcasting scores; air speak; emergency speak; e-mail;
etc.)
V.A.Maltzev (“Essays on English Stylistics”): his teory based on
the broad division of lingual material into “formal” and “informal”
varieties and adherence to Skrebnev system of functional styles.
Classification of Functional Styles of the English Language
1. The Belles - Lettres Functional Style: a) poetry; b) emotive
prose; c) drama;
2. Publicistic Functional Style: a) oratory; b) essays; c) articles in
newspapers and magazines;
3. The Newspaper Functional Style: a) brief news items; b)
advertisments and announcements; c) headlines;
4. The Scientific Prose Style: a) exact sciences; b) humanitarian
sciences; c) popular- science prose;
5. The Official Documents Functional Style: a) diplomatic
documents; b) business letters; c) military documents; d) legal
documents;
17. General characterization and distinguishing phonetic,
morphological and lexical features of Literary Colloquial Style,
Familiar Colloquial Style, Publicist style, The Style of Official
Documents and Scientific Style
Phonetic
1. Literary Colloquial Style: a) standard pronunciation in
compliance with the national norm, enunciation, b) phonetic
compression of frequently used forms (it’s, don’t), c) omission of
unaccented elements due to the quick tempo.
2. Familiar Colloquial Style: a) casual and often pronunciation,
use of deviant forms (gonna instead of going to), b) use of reduced
and contracted forms (you’re, they’ve), c) omission of unaccented
elements due to the quick tempo, d) emphasis on intonation as a
powerful semantic and stylistic instrument capable to render subtle
nuance of thought and feeling, e) use of onomatopoeic words (hush,
yum, yak).
3. Publicist style: a) standard pronunciation, wide use of prosody
as a means of conveying the subtle shades of meaning, overtones,
emotions, b) phonetic compression.
4. Style of Official Documents: нетю)))))))
5. Scientific Style: нетю)))))))
Morphological
1. Literary Colloquial Style: use of regular morphological features,
with interception of evaluative suffixes (deary, doggie).
2. Familiar Colloquial Style: a) use of evaluative suffixes, nonce
words formed on morphological and phonetic analogy with other
nominal words (baldish, hanky-panky, helter-skelter), b) extensive
use of collocations and phrasal verbs instead of neutral and literary
equivalents (to turn in instead of to go to bed).
3. Publicist style: a) frequent use of non-finite verb forms, such as
gerund, participle, infinitive, b) use of non-perfect verb forms, c)
omission of articles, link verbs, auxiliaries, pronouns, especially in
headlines and news items.
4. Style of Official Documents: adherence to the norm, sometimes
outdated or even archaic (legal documents).
5. Scientific Style: a) terminological word building and word-
derivation: neologism formation by affixation and conversion, b)
restricted use of finite verb forms, c) use of “the author’s we” instead
of I, d) frequent use of impersonal constructions.
18. Lexical features of Colloquial Style, Familiar Colloquial
Style, Publicist style, The Style of Official Documents and
Scientific Style
Literary Colloquial Style:
1. Wide range of vocabulary strata in accordance with the register
of communication and participants’ roles: formal and informal,
neutral and bookish, terms and foreign words. 2. stylistically neutral
vocabulary.3. use of socially accepted contracted forms and
abbreviations (TV, fridge, CD) 4. use of etiquette language and
conversational formulas (nice to see you) 5. extensive use of
intensifiers and gap-fillers (absolutely, definitely) 6. use of
interjections and exclamations (dear me, well, oh) 7. extensive use of
phrasal verbs 8. use of words of indefinite meaning like stuff, thing
9. avoidance of slang, vulgarisms, dialect words, jargon 10. use of
phraseological expressions, idioms and figures of speech.
Familiar Colloquial Style
1. combination of neutral, familiar and low colloquial vocabulary,
including slang, vulgar and taboo words. 2. extensive use of words of
general meaning, specified in meaning by situation (guy, job). 3.
abundance of specific colloquial interjections (boy, wow). 4. use of
hyperbola, epithets, evaluative vocabulary, dead metaphors and
simile. 5. tautological substitution of personal pronounces and names
by other nouns (you-baby. Johnny-boy). 6. mixture of curse words
and euphemisms (damn, dash, shoot).
Publicist style
1. newspaper clichés and phrases. 2. terminological variety
(scientific, sports, political etc.).3. abbreviations and acronyms. 4.
numerous proper names, toponyms, names of enterprises,
institutions.5. abstract notion words, elevated and bookish words.
6..in headlines (frequent use of pun violated phraseology, vivid
stylistic devices). 7. in oratory speech (elevated and bookish words,
colloquial words and phrases, frequent use of metaphor, alliteration,
allusion, irony etc.) .8. use of conventional forms of address and trite
phrases.
Style of Official Documents
1. prevalence of stylistically neutral and bookish words. 2. use of
terminology. 3. use of proper names and titles. 4. abstraction of
persons (use of party instead of the name). 5.officialese vocabulary
(clichés, opening and conclusive phrases). 6. conventional and
archaic words. 7. foreign words, especially Lain and French. 8.
abbreviations, contractions, conventional symbols (M.P.). 9. use of
words in their primary meaning. 10. absence of tropes. 11.seldom use
of substitute words (it, on, that).
Scientific Style
1. extensive use of bookish words (presume, infer). 2. abundance
of scientific terminology and phraseology. 3. use of numerous
neologisms. 4. abundance of proper names. 5. restricted use of
emotive coloring, interjections, expressive phraseology, phrasal
verbs, colloquial vocabulary. 6. seldom use of tropes, such as
metaphor, hyperbole, simile etc.
19. Syntactical and compositional Features of Colloquial
Style, Familiar Colloquial Style, Publicist style, The Style of
Official Documents and Scientific Style
Syntactical
1. Literary Colloquial Style: a) use of simple sentences with a
number of participial and infinitive constructions and numerous
parentheses, b) use of various types of syntactical compression,
simplicity of syntactical connection, c) prevalence of active and finite
verb forms, d) use of grammar forms for emphatic purposes
(progressive verb forms to express emotions of irritation, anger), e)
decomposition and ellipsis of sentence in a dialogue, f) use of special
colloquial phrases (that friend of yours).
2. Familiar Colloquial Style: a) use of short simple sentences, b)
dialogues are usually of the question-answer type, c) use of echo-
questions, parallel constructions, repetitions, d) coordination is used
more often than subordination, e) extensive use of ellipsis, f)
extensive use of tautology, g) abundance of gap-fillers and
parenthetical elements (sure indeed, well).
3. Publicist style: a) frequent use of rhetorical questions and
interrogatives in oratory speech, b) in headlines (use of impersonal
sentences, elliptical constructions, interrogative sentences), c) in
news items and articles (news items comprise one or two, rarely
three, sentences), d) absence of complex coordination with chain of
subordinate clauses and a number of conjunctions, e) prepositional
phrases are used much ore than synonymous gerundial phrases, f)
absence of exclamatory sentences, break-in-the narrative
4. Style of Official Documents: a) use of long sentences with
several types of coordination and subordination, b) use of passive
and participial constructions, numerous connectives, c) use of
objects, attributes and all sorts of modifiers, d) extensive use of
detached constructions and parenthesis, e) use of participle I and II,
f) a general syntactical mode of combining several pronouncements
into one sentence.
5. Scientific Style: a) complete and standard syntactical mode of
expression, b) direct word order, c) use of lengthy sentences with
subordinate clauses, d) extensive use of participial, gerundial and
infinitive complexes, e) extensive use of adverbial and prepositional
phrases, f) frequent use of parenthesis introduced by a dash, g)
abundance of attributive groups with a descriptive function, h)
avoidances of ellipsis, i) frequent use of passive and non-finite verb
forms, j) use of impersonal forms and sentences such as mention
should be, assuming that.
Compositional
1. Literary Colloquial Style: a) can be used in written and spoken
varieties (dialogue, monologue, personal letters, essays, articles), b)
prepared types of texts may have thought out and logical
composition, to a certain extent determined by conventional forms, c)
spontaneous types have a loose structure, relative coherence and
uniformity of form and content.
2. Familiar Colloquial Style: a) use of deviant language on all
levels, b) strong emotional coloring, c) loose syntactical organization
of an utterance, d)frequently little coherence or adherence to the
topic, e) no special compositional patterns.
3. Publicist style: a)carefully selected vocabulary, b) variety of
topics, c) wide use of quotations, direct speech and represented
speech, d) use of parallel constructions, e) in oratory (simplicity of
structural expression), f) in headlines (use of devices to arrest
attention: pun, puzzle etc), g) in news items (strict arrangement of
titles and subtitles), h) careful division on paragraph.
4. Style of Official Documents: a) special compositional design
(coded graphical layout, clear-cut subdivision of texts into units of
formation), b) conventional composition of treaties, agreements,
protocols, c) use of stereotyped, official phraseology, d) accurate use
of punctuation, e) generally objective, concrete, unemotional and
impersonal style of narration
5. Scientific Style: a) highly formalized text with the prevalence of
formulae, tables etc, b) in humanitarian texts: descriptive narration,
supplied with argumentation and interpretation, c) logical and
consistent narration, sequential presentation of material and facts, d)
extensive use of citations, e) extensive use of EM and SD, f)
extensive use of conventional set phrases at certain points to
emphasize the logical character of the narration, g) use of digressions
to debate or support a certain point, h) introduction, chapters,
paragraph, conclusion, i) extensive use of double conjunctions like
as…as, either…or, both…and, etc, j)compositionally arranged
sentence patterns: postulatory (at the beginning), argumentative (in
the central part), formulative (in the conclusion)
20. The classification of syntactical stylistic devices by
prof.Screbnev (the general survey)
Paradigmatic syntax has to do with the sentence paradigm:
completeness of sentence structure (1), communicative types of
sentences (2), word order (3), and type of syntactical connection
(4). Paradigmatic syntactical means of expression arranged according
to these four types include:
(1): ellipsis, aposiopesis, one-member nominative sentences,
redundancy: repetition of sentence parts, syntactic tautology
(prolepsis), polysyndeton.
(2): inversion of sentence members
(3): quasi-affirmative sentences, quasi-interrogative sentences,
quasi-negative sentences, quasi-imperative sentences
(4): detachment, parenthetic elements, asyndetic subordination
and coordination.
21. Syntactical stylistic devices with missing elements
Syntactical SD:
1. Syntactical SD with missing elements
2. Syntactical SD with redundant elements
3. Inversion
Syntactical stylistic devices with missing elements
Aposiopesis stopping abruptly and leaving a statement unfinished.
Aposiopesis “a stopping short for rhetorical effect” (I.R.Galperin).
Used mainly in the dialogue or in the other forms of narrative
imitating spontaneous oral speech because the speaker’s emotions
prevent him from finishing the sentence (V.A.Kucharenko). e.g. You
just come home or I’ll ... ; e.g. Good intentions, but ...
Ellipsis. The omission of a word or a part of a sentence that
follows logically. Typical of oral speech.
Ellipsis a deliberate omission of at least one member of the
sentence. e.g. What! all my pretty chickens and their dam at one fell
swoop? (W.Shakespeare); e.g. In manner, close and dry. In voice,
husky and low. In face, watchful behind a blind. (Dickens); e.g. His
forehead was narrow, his face wide, his head large, and his nose all
one side. (Dickens).
Apokoinu is the omission of coordinative or subordinative words.
Typical of spontaneous or illiterate speech.
apo-koinu constructions (Greek "with a common element"). e.g.
There was a door led into the kitchen. (Sh. Anderson); e.g. He was
the man killed that deer. (R. Warren); e.g. There was no breeze came
through the door. (E.Hemingway); e.g. I bring him news will raise
his dropping spirits. (O. Jespersen)
22. Syntactical stylistic devices with redundant elements
Syntactical SD:
1. Syntactical SD with missing elements
2. Syntactical SD with redundant elements
3. Inversion
Syntactical SD with redundant elements
Asyndeton. Consists of omitting conjunctions between words,
phrases, or clauses. In a list of items, asyndeton gives the effect of
unpremeditated (преднамеренный) multiplicity, of an
extemporaneous (импровизированный) rather than a labored
account.
Asyndeton is a deliberate omission of conjunctions, cutting off
connecting words. Helps to create the effect of terse, energetic, active
prose. (V.A.Kucharenko). e.g. Soames turned away; he had an utter
disinclination for talk, like one standing before an open grave,
watching a coffin slowly lowered. (Galsworthy)
Polysyndeton. Is the use of conjunction between each word,
phrase, or clause, and it thus structurally the opposite of asyndeton.
The rhetorical effect of polysyndeton, however, often shares with
that of asyndeton a feeling of multiplicity, energetic, enumeration
and building up. Polysyndeton is a repeated use of conjunctions. Is to
strengthen the idea of equal logical/emotive importance of connected
sentences(V.A. Kucharenko). e.g. By the time he had got all the
bottles and dishes and knives and forks and glasses and plates and
spoons and things piled up on big trays, he was getting very hot, and
red in the face, and annoyed. (A.Tolkien)
Anadiplosis (or catch repetition). Repeats the last word of one
phrase, clause, or sentence at or very near the beginning of the text. It
can be generated in series for the sake of beauty or to give a sense of
logical progression (…a, a…). e.g.: Pleasure might cause her read,
reading might make her know, …
Anaphora. Is the repetition of the same word or words at the
beginning of successive phrases, clauses or sentences, commonly in
conjunctions with climax and with parallelism (a…, a…). e.g.:
Slowly and grimly they advanced, not knowing what lay ahead, not
knowing what they find at the top of the hill.
Epistrophe (also called antistrophe or epiphora). Forms the
counterpart to anaphora, because the repetition of the same word or
words comes at the end of successive phrases, clauses, or sentences
(…a, …a). e.g.: I wake up and I’m alone and I walk round Warley
and I’m alone; and I talk with people and I’m alone and I look at his
face when I’m home and it’s dead. (J.Braine)
Symploce. Combining anaphora and epiphora, so that one word or
phrase is repeated at the beginning and another word or phrase is
repeated at the end of successive phrases, clauses or sentences (a…b,
a…b). Eg. To think clearly and rationally should be a major goal for
man; but to think clearly and rationally is always the greatest
difficulty faced by man.
Amplification. Involves repeating a word or expression while
adding more detail to it, in order to emphasize what might otherwise
be passed over. e.g.: Pride – boundless pride – is the bone of
civilisation.
Prolepsis. Is the use of co-referential pronoun after a noun or a
proper name. Typical of spontaneous speech. e.g.: John, he doesn’t
like loud music.
Hypophora. Consists of raising one or more questions and then
proceeding to answer them, usually at some length. A common usage
is it ask the question at the beginning of a paragraph and then use that
paragraph to answer it.
Rhetorical question (or erotesis). Differs from hypophora in that
it is not answered by the writer, because its answer is obvious or
obviously desired, and usually just a ‘yes’ or ‘no’. It is used for
effect, emphasis or provocation, or for drawing a conclusionary
statement from the facts at hand. e.g. For if we lose the ability to
perceive our faults, what is the good of living on?
23. Types of repetition
Repetition is an expressive means of language used when the
speaker is under the stress of strong emotion. It shows the state of
speaker. As a SD repetition is recurrence of the same word, word
combination, phrase for two and more times. According to the place
which repeated unit occupies in the sentence (utterance), repetition is
classified:
anaphora: the beginning of two or more successive sentences
(clauses) is repeated – a.., a..,a… The main stylistic function of
anaphora is hot so much to emphasize the repeated unit as to create
the background textile non-repeated unit, which, through its novelty,
becomes foreground.
epiphora: the end of two or more successive sentence (clauses) is
repeated- ..a,…a,…a. The main function of epiphora is to add stress
to the final words of the sentences.
framing: the beginning of the sentence is repeated in the end, thus
forming the “frame” for the non- repeated part of the sentence
(utterance)-a..a. The function of framing is to elucidate the notion
mentioned in the beginning of the sentence.
catch repetition (anadiplosis or linking or reduplication) the end
of one clause (sentence) is repeated in the beginning of the following
one -…a,a… it makes the whole utterance more compact and
complete. Framing is most effective in singling out paragraphs.
chain repetition presents several successive anadiplosis- ..a,a…b,
b…c, c. The effect is that of the smoothly developing logical
reasoning.
ordinary repetition has no definite place in the sentence and the
repeated unit occurs in various positions- …a, …a…, a…/ ordinary
repetition emphasizes both the logical and emotional meanings of the
reiterated word.
successive repetition is a string of closely following each other
reiterated units- ..a,a,a… this is the most emphatic type of repetition
which signifies the peak of emotions of the speaker.
Synonym repetition. The repetition of the same idea by using
synonymous words and phrases which by adding a slightly different
nuance of meaning intensify the impact of the utterance.: there are
two terms frequently used to show the negative attitude of the critic
to all kinds of synonym repetition: a) pleonasm – the use of more
words in a sentence than are necessary to express the meaning;
redundancy of expression; b)tautology-defined as the repetition of
the same statement; the repetition of the same word or phrase or of
the same idea or statement in the other words; usually as a fault of
style
24. Syntactical stylistic devices: parallelism, chiasm;
inversion and its types
Parallel constructions may be viewed as a purely syntactical type
of repetition for here we deal with the reiteration of the structure of
several successive sentences (clauses), and not of their lexical
"flesh". True enough, parallel constructions almost always include
some type of lexical repetition too, and such a convergence produces
a very strong effect, foregrounding at one go logical, rhythmic,
emotive and expressive aspects of the utterance. The necessary
condition in parallel constructions is identical or similar structure in
two or more sentences or parts of a sentence. Parallel constructions
are often backed up by repetition of words (lexical repetition) and
conjunctions and prepositions (polysyndeton). Parallel constructions
can be partial and complete. Partial parallel arrangement is the
repetition of some arts of successive sentences or clauses. Complete
parallel arrangement, also called balance, maintains the principal of
identical structures throughout the corresponding sentences. There
are two main functions of parallel constructions: semantic (suggest
equal semantic significance of the component parts) and structural
(rhythmical design to these component parts).
Reversed parallelism is called chiasmus. The second part of a
chiasmus is, in fact, inversion of the first construction. Thus, if the
first sentence (clause) has a direct word order - SPO, the second one
will have it inverted - OPS. Like parallel constructions chiasmus
contributes to the rhythmical quantity of the utterance, and the pause
caused by the change in the syntactical pattern may be likened to a
caesura in prosody.
Inversion which was briefly mentioned in the definition of
chiasmus is very often used as an independent SD in which the direct
word order is changed either completely so that the predicate
(predicative) precedes the subject; or partially so that the object
precedes the subject-predicate pair. Correspondingly, we differentiate
between partial and a complete inversion. The stylistic device of
inversion should not be confused with grammatical inversion which
is a norm in interrogative constructions. Stylistic inversion deals with
the rearrangement of the normative word order. Questions may also
be rearranged: "Your mother is at home?" asks one of the characters
of J. Baldwin's novel. The inverted question presupposes the answer
with more certainty than the normative one. It is the assuredness of
the speaker of the positive answer that constitutes additional
information which is brought into the question by the inverted word
order. Interrogative constructions with the direct word order may be
viewed as cases of two-step (double) inversion: direct w/o —»
grammatical inversion —» direct w/o.
25. Semantic figures of co-occurrence – figures of inequality:
specifiers, climax, anti-climax.
Syntagmatic semasiology deals with stylistic functions of
relationship of names in text. It studies types of linear arrangement of
meanings, singling out, classifying, and describing what is called
“figures of co-occurrence” (or figures of replacement). There are 3
types of semantic interrelations: figures of identity, figures of
inequality, figures of contrast.
Clarifying (specifying) synonyms (synonymous repetition used to
characterize different aspects of the same referent). E.g: You
undercut sinful, insidious hog.
Climax (gradation of emphatic growing in strength, in Greek
means “ladder”).- consists of arranging words, clauses, or sentences
in the order of increasing importance, weight or emphasis. E.g:
What differences if it rained, hailed blew, snowed, cycloned?
Anti-climax (back gradation – instead of a few elements growing
in intensity without relief there unexpectedly appears a weak or
contrastive element that makes the statement humorous or
ridiculous). E.g.: the woman who could face the very devil himself or
a mouse – goes all to pieces in front of a flash of lightning.
26. Phonographical stylistic devices
SD based on the opposition of meanings of phonological and/or
graphical elements of the language are called phonetical and
graphical stylistic devices.
Onomatopoeia - the use of words whose sounds imitate those of
the signified object or action, such as "hiss", "bowwow", "murmur",
"bump", "grumble", "sizzle" and many more. Poetry abounds in some
specific types of sound-instrumenting, the leading role belonging to
alliteration - the repetition of consonants, usually-in the beginning
of words, and assonance - the repetition of similar vowels, usually in
stressed syllables. They both may produce the effect of euphony (a
sense of ease and comfort in pronouncing or hearing) or cacophony
(a sense of strain and discomfort in pronouncing or hearing). To
create additional information in a prose discourse sound-
instrumenting is seldom used. In contemporary advertising, mass
media and, above all, imaginative prose sound is fore grounded
mainly through the change of its accepted graphical representation.
This intentional violation of the graphical shape of a word (or word
combination) used to reflect its authentic pronunciation is called
graphon. : mispronunciations in the speech of uneducated people
(“peepul”, “jewinile”), amalgamated forms (“gimme” (give me),
“gonna” (going to), mispronunciations which show the physical
defects of the speakers: stumbling, lisping; graphical changes used
to convey the intensity of the stress, emphasizing and thus
foregrounding the stressed words, i.e. all changes of the type (italics,
capitalization), spacing of the graphemes (hyphenation,
multiplication) and of lines (verse lines organized in “steps”).
Rhyme is the repetition of identical or similar sound combinations of
words. Rhythm- the flow of speech presents an alternation of
stressed and unstressed elements; the pattern of interchange of strong
and weak segments is called rhythm.
27. Stylistic phraseology. Stylistic differentiation of
phraseological units. Usual and occasional phraseological units,
their stylistic function
Phraseological unit – is a system of words a meaning of which
can’t be guessed from the meaning of its components (Koonin).
Each phr.unit is characterized by a certain degree of cohesion.
Phr.units are characterized by the following feature’s: 1. Stability;
2. Semantic integraty; 3. Ready-made structure which can’t be
changed or substituted.
Professor Screbnev differentiate
1. Formal/bookish phr.units: Eg. The knight of the Quill = a
writer; A heart of oak = brave, courageous; Achilles hill – ахилесова
пята
2. Neutral phr.units are units which are devoid of any
emotiveness: Eg. By hook or by crock – всеми правдами и
неправдами; For good and for all – раз и навсегда
3. Familiar colloquial phr.units: Eg. Have bats in one’s belfry –
быть не в своем уме; A pretty kettle of fish – веселенькая история;
To rain cats and dogs – неприятности валятся; To be one’s cups –
быть навеселе, подвыпившим; Small fry – мелкая сошка
4. Slangish phr.units: Eg. To drop off the hooks – сорваться с
петель, умереть; To kick the bucket – дать дуба; To hop the twig –
загнуться, дать дуба
Professor I.V. Arnold classifies phr.units into
1. Usual p.units that are fixed in the dictionaries; 2. Occasional
p.units that is creation of different authors. They are contextual
predetermined. They appeared as a result of some change in usual
units. These changes are the following: a. Prolongation. Eg. To be
born with a silver spoon in one’s mouth (usual p.unit) – родится под
счастливой звездой: Little George was born with a silver spoon in a
mouth which was curly and large (prolongation). b. Substitution.
Eg. All the world and his wife (usual p.unit) – всё светское
общество: all the world and his mistress (substitution) were at the
party. c. Insertion (вклинивание). Eg. To turn one’s nose at sb.
(usual p.unit) – смотреть с высока: She turned her well-shaped
(insertion) nose at him.
Professor Koonin differentiate phr.units:
1. Stylistically neutral are units which are devoid of any
emotiveness: Eg. By hook or by crock – всеми правдами и
неправдами; For good and for all – раз и навсегда; 2. Emotive
phr.units contain some kind of attitude towards this and that subject.
Eg. As welcome as flower in may; 3. Expressive phr.units are
characterized by some degree of expressiveness. Eg. He is dead nuts
on this girl = he is full of love; 4. Stylistically marked phr.units are
those which are referred either to the formal or non-literary informal
styles (jargon, slang, vulgarisms, etc.). Eg. The debt of nature =
death; A Gordian knot = complicated problem; To go to Canossar =
публично покаяться, унизится; 5. Elevated phr.units: Eg. To
breath one’s last – до самой смерти; To fiddle while Rome burns –
пир во время чумы. Within elevated phr.units he (Koonin)
distinguishes: a) Archaic (the iron in one’s soul – душевные муки,
to play upon advantage – обманывать, надувать) and b) Poetic
phr.units (of high account – имеющий ценность, most and the least
– все без исключения); 6. Foreign phr.units (barbarisms). Eg. A
la carte – по заказу, a la mode – по моде, beaumonde – бомонд,
высший свет, ad patress – к праотцам, ad verbum – слово в слово.
All sorts of proverbs and sayings may undergo some changes.
L.A. Barkova made a research in which she studied pragmatic
effect of using phr.units in commercial advertisements: eg. The other
side of the medal (usual p.unit) – the other side of the metal (ads.), so
far so good (usual p.unit) – sofa so good (ads.).
28. Narratology as a branch of linguistics. Types of
narration and main compositional forms
Naratology-special branch of linguistics, which deals with
narrative of text. The roots of modern naratology can be found in the
narrative theory of Russian formalist such as M.Bachtin, Lotman,
Tomashevskiy, Schlovskiy, Propp – the fathers of naratology.
Naratology as a special science combines linguistics an literary. It
was formed in the last, but now its acknowledged and being
developed in different countries. The term “naratology” was
proposed by Todorov by its etymology the word “narrative” stands
back to the word (latin verb) “narrare” (“to tell” to give an account
“of”, which in its term goes back Indo-European “gna” (knowledge).
Narrative-the recounting of one or more real fiction events presented
in the chronological order. Narrative is basically a story of
happenings of event either real or imaginary which the narrator
consider interesting or important. Types of narration. The author’s
narrative: unfolded plot, personages of given characteristic, the time
and place of action. The authorial narrative supplies the reader with
direct information about author preferences and objections believes
and contradictions. A) entrusted narrative is used in an afford to
make the text more plausible, to impress the reader with the facts of
authenticity of the described events. The write entrust some fictions
character with the task of dealing story. The writer himself that hides
behind the figure of the narrator. Dialogue: personage express their
mind in the utter speech. In their exchange of remarks the
participants of the dialogue, other people and their action expose
them self to. One of the significant forms of the personage self-
characterization-dialogue, which allows the author to show him in
the process. Interior speech of personage- its allows the author and
the readers to peep into inner world of the character, to observe his
idea and view: a) interior monologue- a rather lengthy peace of text
dealing with the main topic of the character thinking, offering past,
future actions; b) short in-sets- presents immediate mental and
emotional reactions of the personage to the remark or event by
characters; c) stream of consciousness technic- specially popular with
their representative of modernism in contenting literature. The author
tries to portray the purely associated character. Represented speech
(reported speech)-serves to show either the mental production of the
character thinking: a) represented uttered speech; b) represented
inner speech. The main narrative compositional forms. If its
semantic of the text that its taken as foundation of classification 3
narrative forms traditionally analyzed in poetics and stylistics:
narrative proper (the unfolding of the plot is concentrating,
dynamic form of the text), description (supplies the details of
appearance of people and things of the place and time of action -
static), argumentation (offers causes and effects of the personages
behavior, his considerations about moral, ethical, ideological or other
issues). Its rather seldom that any of their compositional forms is
used in a pure uninterrupted way.