THEORIES OF PERSONALITY

What exactly is personality? Where does it come from? Does it change as we grow older? These are the
sorts of questions that have long held the fascination of psychologists and which have inspired a
number of different theories of personality.

Defining Personality
While personality is something that we talk about all the time ("He has such a great personality!"
or"Her personality is perfect for this job!"), you might be surprised to learn that psychologists do not
necessarily agree on a single definition of what exactly constitutes personality.

Personality is broadly described as the characteristic patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that
make a person unique. In plain English, it is what makes you you.
Researchers have found while some external factors can influence how certain traits are expressed,
personality originates within the individual. While a few aspects of personality may change as we grow
older, personality also tends to remain fairly consistent throughout life.

Because personality plays such an important role in human behavior, an entire branch of psychology is
devoted to the study of this fascinating topic. Personality psychologists are interested in the unique
characteristics of individuals, as well as similarities among groups of people.

10 Fascinating Facts About Personality

Characteristics of Personality
In order to understand the psychology of personality, it is important to learn some of the key
characteristics of how personality works.

• Personality is organized and consistent. We tend to express certain aspects of our personality
in different situations and our responses are generally stable.
• Although personality is generally stable, it can be influenced by the environment. For
example, while your personality might lead you to be shy in social situations, an emergency
might lead you to take on a more outspoken and take-charge approach.
• Personality causes behaviors to happen. You react to the people and objects in your
environment based on your personality. From your personal preferences to your choice of a
career, every aspect of your life is affected by your personality.
How Personality Impacts Physical and Mental Health

Research Models
Now that you know a bit more about the basics of personality, it's time to take a closer look at how
scientists actually study human personality. There are different techniques that are used in the study of
personality. Each technique has its own strengths and weaknesses.
• Experimental methods are those in which the researcher controls and manipulates the
 variables of interests and takes measures of the results. This is the most scientific form of
research, but experimental research can be difficult when studying aspects of personality such
as motivations, emotions, and drives. These ideas are internal, abstract, and can be difficult to
measure. The experimental method allows researchers to look at cause-and-effect relationships
between different variables of interest.
• Case studies and self-report methods involve the in-depth analysis of an individual as well as
information provided by the individual. Case studies rely heavily on the interpretations of the
observer, while self-report methods depend on the memory of the individual of interest. Because
of this, these methods tend to be highly subjective and it is difficult to generalize the findings to
a larger population.
• Clinical research relies upon information gathered from clinical patients over the course of
treatment. Many personality theories are based on this type of research, but because the research
subjects are unique and exhibit abnormal behavior, this research tends to be highly subjective
and difficult to generalize.

Important Terminology

Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning is a behavioral training technique which begins with a naturally occurring
stimulus eliciting an automatic response. Then, a previously neutral stimulus is paired with the
naturally occurring stimulus.

Eventually, the previously neutral stimulus comes to evoke the response without the presence of the
naturally occurring stimulus. The two elements are then known as the conditioned stimulus and
the conditioned response.

Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning is a behavior training technique in which reinforcements or punishments are used
to influence behavior. An association is made between a behavior and a consequence for that behavior.

Unconscious
In Freud’s psychoanalytic theory of personality, the unconscious mind is a reservoir of feelings,
thoughts, urges, and memories that are outside of our conscious awareness. Most of the contents of the
unconscious are unacceptable or unpleasant, such as feelings of pain, anxiety, or conflict.

According to Freud, the unconscious mind continues to influence our behavior and experiences, even
though we are unaware of these underlying influences.

Id
According to Freud’s psychoanalytic theory of personality, the id is the personality component made up
of unconscious psychic energy that works to satisfy basic urges, needs, and desires. The id operates
based on the pleasure principle, which demands immediate gratification of needs.
Ego
According to Freud, the ego is the largely unconscious part of the personality that mediates the
demands of the id, the superego, and reality. The ego prevents us from acting on our basic urges
(created by the id) but also works to achieve a balance with our moral and idealistic standards (created
by the superego).

Superego
The superego is the component of personality composed of our internalized ideals that we have
acquired from our parents and from society. The superego works to suppress the urges of the id and
tries to make the ego behave morally, rather than realistically.

Major Theories
Personality psychology is the focus of some of the best-known psychology theories by a number of
famous thinkers including Sigmund Freud and Erik Erikson. Some of these theories attempt to tackle a
specific area of personality while others attempt to explain personality much more broadly.

Biological Theories
Biological approaches suggest that genetics are responsible for personality. In the classic nature versus
nurture debate, the biological theories of personality side with nature.

Research on heritability suggests that there is a link between genetics and personality traits. Twin
studies are often used to investigate which traits might be linked to genetics versus those that might be
linked to environmental variables. For example, researchers might look at differences and similarities
in the personalities of twins reared together versus those who are raised apart.

One of the best known biological theorists was Hans Eysenck, who linked aspects of personality to
biological processes.

Eysenck argued that personality is influenced by the stress hormone cortisol. According to his
theory, introverts have high cortical arousal and avoid stimulation, while extroverts had low cortical
arousal and crave stimulation.

Behavioral Theories
Behavioral theorists include B. F. Skinner and John B. Watson. Behavioral theories suggest that
personality is a result of interaction between the individual and the environment. Behavioral theorists
study observable and measurable behaviors, rejecting theories that take internal thoughts, moods, and
feelings play a part as these cannot be measured.

According to behavioral theorists, conditioning (predictable behavioral responses) occurs through

interactions with our environment which ultimately shape our personalities.
Psychodynamic Theories
Psychodynamic theories of personality are heavily influenced by the work of Sigmund Freud and
emphasize the influence of the unconscious mind and childhood experiences on personality.
Psychodynamic theories include Sigmund Freud's psychosexual stage theory and Erik Erikson's stages
of psychosocial development.

Freud believed the three components of personality were the id, ego, and superego. The id is
responsible for needs and urges, while the superego regulates ideals and morals. The ego, in turns,
moderates the demands of the id, superego, and reality.
Freud suggested that children progress through a series of stages in which the id's energy is focused on
different erogenous zones.

Erikson also believed that personality progressed through a series of stages, with certain conflicts
arising at each stage. Success in any stage depends on successfully overcoming these conflicts.

Humanist Theories
Humanist theories emphasize the importance of free will and individual experience in the development
of personality. Humanist theorists include Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.

Humanist theorists promote the concept of self-actualization, which is the innate need for personal
growth and the ways that personal growth motivates behavior.

Trait Theories
The trait theory approach is one of the most prominent areas within personality psychology. According
to these theories, personality is made up of a number of broad traits. A trait is a relatively stable
characteristic that causes an individual to behave in certain ways. It is essentially the psychological
"blueprint" that informs behavioral patterns.

Some of the best-known trait theories include Eysenck's three-dimension theory and the five-factor
theory of personality.

Eysenck utilized personality questionnaires to collect data from participants and then employed a
statistical technique known as factor analysis to analyze the results. Eysenck concluded that there were
three major dimensions of personality: extroversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism.

Eysenck believed that these dimensions then combine in different ways to form an individual's unique
personality. Later, Eysenck added the third dimension known as psychoticism, which related to things
such as aggression, empathy, and sociability.
Later researchers suggested that there are five broad dimensions that make up a person's personalities,
often referred to as the Big 5 theory of personality.

The Big 5 theory suggests that all personalities can be characterized by five major personality
dimensions: openness, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism, collectively
referred to by the acronym OCEAN.

Famous Figures in Psychology

Some of the most famous figures in the history of psychology left a lasting mark on the field of
personality. In order to better understand the different theories of personality, it can be helpful to learn
more about the lives, theories, and contributions to the psychology of these eminent psychologists.

Sigmund Freud
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) was the founder of psychoanalytic theory. His theories emphasized the
importance of the unconscious mind, childhood experiences, dreams, and symbolism. His theory
of psychosexual development suggested that children progress through a series of stages during which
libidinal energy is focused on different regions of the body.

His ideas are what as known as grand theories because they seek to explain virtually every aspect of
human behavior. Some of Freud's ideas are considered outdated by modern psychologists, but he had a
major influence on the course of psychology and some concepts, such as the usefulness of talk therapy
and the importance of the unconscious, are enduring.

Erik Erikson
Erik Erikson (1902-1994) was an ego psychologist trained by Anna Freud. His theory of psychosocial
stages describes how personality develops throughout the lifespan. Like Freud, some aspects of
Erikson's theory are considered outdated by contemporary researchers, but his eight-stage theory of
development remains popular and influential.

B. F. Skinner
B. F. Skinner (1904-1990) was a behaviorist best known for his research on operant conditioning and
the discovery of schedules of reinforcement. Schedules of reinforcement influence how quickly a
behavior is acquired and the strength of a response.

The schedules described by Skinner are fixed-ratio schedules, fixed-variable schedules, variable-ratio
schedules, and variable-interval schedules.
Sandra Bem
Sandra Bem (1944-2014) had an important influence in psychology and on our understanding of sex
roles, gender, and sexuality. She developed her gender schema theory to explain how society and
culture transmit ideas about sex and gender. Gender schemas, Bem suggested, were formed by things
such as parenting, school, mass media, and other cultural influences.

Abraham Maslow
Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) was a humanist psychologist who developed the well-known hierarchy
of needs. The hierarchy includes physiological needs, safety and security needs, love and affection
needs, self-esteem needs, and self-actualizing needs.

Carl Rogers
Carl Rogers (1902-1987) was a humanist psychologist who believed that all people have an actualizing
tendency - a drive to fulfill the individual potential that motivates behavior. Rogers called healthy
individuals fully-functioning, describing these individuals as those who are open to experience, live in
the moment, trust their own judgment, feel free and are creative.

A Word From Verywell

Personality makes us who we are, so it is no wonder why it has been the source of such fascination in
both science and in daily life. The various theories of personality that have been proposed by different
psychologists have helped us gain a deeper and richer understanding of what makes each person
unique.

By learning more about these theories, you can better understand how researchers have come to know
the psychology of personality as well as consider questions that future research might explore.