csfld bysfDVªdy

ELE 101 vkSj 202

Basic Electrical
ELE 101 & 202
ifjp;%

 ;fn ;gka fctyh vkSj bysDVª‚fuDl ugha gksrs rks vkèkqfud thou dk
vfLrRo ugha gksrkA

 fctyh dk bfrgkl nks gt+kj lky igys ls 'kq: gqvk Fkk] lkFk gh ;wukuh
nk'kZfud FksYl fctyh ds lcls igys Kkr 'kksèkdrkZ FksA

 ysfdu ;g ,yslsaMªks oksYV Fks tks lcls vke Mhlh ikoj lzksr cuk;s]
cSVjh ds ¼bl vkfo"dkj ds fy, ;wfuV oksYV dk uke mlds uke ij j[kk x;k
Fkk½A

 Mk;jsDV djaV ¼Mhlh ds :i esa Hkh tkuk tkrk gS½ ,d vifjorZuh; fn'kk
esa pktZ d.kksa dk çokg gksrk gS ¼;g lcls vfèkd çokgdh; lkexzh ds
ekè;e ls bysDVª‚u çokg ds :i esa ik;k tkrk gS½

 Mhlh dks yxHkx gj ?kj vkSj bysDVª‚fud fMokbl esa ik;k tk ldrk gS]
D;ksafd ;g dbZ miHkksäk midj.kksa ds fy, vfèkd O;kogkfjd gksrh gS
¼fctyh LVs'kuksa ls ,lh dh rqyuk esa½

 cl dqN gh txgsa gSa tgka ij vki lhèks djaV ik ldrs gSa cSVjh] Qksu]
daI;wVj] dkj] Vhoh] dSydqysVj vkSj ;gka rd fd fctyh HkhA
Introduction:
 Modern life could not exist if it were not for electricity and electronics.

 The history of electricity starts more than two thousand years ago, with the Greek philosopher
Thales being the earliest known researcher into electricity.

 But it was Alessandro Volta who created the most common DC power source, the battery (for this
invention the unit Volt was named after him).

 Direct current (also known as DC) is the flow of charged particles in one unchanging direction (most
commonly found as electron flow through conductive materials).

 DC can be found in just about every home and electronic device, as it is more practical (compared to
AC from power stations) for many consumer devices.

 Just a few of the places where you can find direct current are batteries, phones, computers, cars,
TVs, calculators, and even lightning.
vè;k; & 1

fctyh dh cqfu;knh voèkkj.kk,a

¼1½ LFkSfrd fctyh

 bldh [kkst 'krkfCn;ksa igys dh xbZ Fkh fd dqN çdkj dh lkefxz;ka jgL;e;
rjhds ls ,d nwljs ds lkFk f?kjs gksus
ds ckotwn ,d nwljs dks vkdf"kZr
djrh gSaA mnkgj.k ds fy,: dk¡p
ds ,d VqdM+s ds fo#) js'ke ds VqdM+s
dks jxM+us ds ckn] js'ke vkSj dkap
,d lkFk fpidus ds fy, >qdrs gSaA okLro
esa] ogk¡ ij ,d vkd"kZd cy Fkk ftldk çn'kZu fd;k tk ldrk Fkk] rc Hkh tc nks
lkefxz;ksa dks vyx fd;k x;k Fkk%

fQj

 Xykl vkSj js'ke gh bl rjg ls O;ogkj djus ds

fy, tkus okyh ,dek= lkexzh ugha gSaA tc
dksbZ O;fä ykVsdl xqCckjk ds fo#)
dHkh Hkh jxM+ djrk gS] flQZ ;g tkuus ds
fy, fd ;g mu ij fpidus dh dksf'k'k djrk gS] rks bl rjg dh ?kVuk dk vuqHko
gksrk gSA iSjkfQu ekse vkSj Åu dk diM+k lkexzh ds ,d vU; tksM+h dks
ftUgsa 'kh?kz gh ç;ksx djus ds fy, ,d lkFk feyk, tkus ds ckn vkd"kZ.k
ckyksa dks mRiUu gksus ds :i esa tkuk
tkrk gS%

 bl ?kVuk dks vkSj vfèkd fnypLi cuk fn;k

x;k tc ;g irk pyk fd leku lkefxz;ka] vius
Lo;a ds diM+ksa dks jxM+us ds ckn] ges'kk ,d&nwljs dks ihNs gVkrh
gSa%
Chapter – 1

Basic Concepts Of Electricity

1.1 Static Electricity:

 It was discovered centuries ago that certain types of materials would mysteriously attract one another after being
rubbed together. For example: after rubbing a piece of silk against a piece of glass, the silk and glass would tend to
stick together. Indeed, there was an attractive force that could be demonstrated even when the two materials
were separated:

fir

 Glass and silk aren’t the only materials known to behave like this. Anyone who has ever brushed up against a latex
balloon only to find that it tries to stick to them has experienced this same phenomenon. Paraffin wax and wool
cloth are another pair of materials early experimenters recognized as manifesting attractive forces after being
rubbed together:
 This phenomenon became even more interesting when it was discovered that identical materials, after having been
rubbed with their respective cloths, always repelled each other:
 ;g Hkh uksV fd;k x;k Fkk fd tc dkap ds ,d VqdM+s dks js'ke ls jxM+k x;k
Fkk] rc Åu ds lkFk ekse ds ,d
VqdM+s dks jxM+rs gq, ns[kk x;k Fkk]
nks lkexzh ,d nwljs dks vkdf"kZr djrh
Fkh%

 blds vykoka] ;g ik;k x;k fd vkd"kZ.k gksus ;k ?k`.kk mRiUu djus ds ckn
fdlh Hkh lkexzh dks vkd"kZ.k ;k çfrd"kZ.k dks nks vyx Jsf.k;ksa esa
oxÊ—r fd;k tk ldrk gS% Xykl ds fy, vkdf"kZr gqvk vkSj ekse }kjk ihNs
gVk;k x;k] ;k dkap }kjk ihNs gVk;k x;k vkSj ekse dh vksj vkdf"kZr gqvkA
;g ;k rks ,d ;k nwljk Fkk% dksbZ ,slh lkexzh ugha feyh tks fd Xykl vkSj
ekse nksuksa dh vksj vkdf"kZr gks ;k ihNs gV x;h gks] ;k tks fdlh dks
çfrfØ;k u nsus ij çfrfØ;k O;ä dh xbZA

 vfèkd è;ku jxM+us ds fy, bLrseky fd, x,

diM+s ds VqdM+ksa dh vksj
funZsf'kr fd;k x;k FkkA blls ;g irk pyk
Fkk fd nks VqdM+s js'ke ds diM+s ds
lkFk nks VqdM+s fxykl ds jxM+us ds ckn] u dsoy dkap ds VqdM+ksa us
,d nwljs dks ihNs gVk;k] cfYd diM+ksa us Hkh ,slk fd;kA oSlh gh ?kVuk
ekse dks jxM+us ds fy, Åu ds VqdM+ksa ds ç;ksx ds fy, gqbZ%

 vc] ;g lcwr ds fy, okLro esa vthc FkkA vkf[kjdkj] bu oLrqvksa esa ls
dksbZ Hkh jxM+ ds }kjk fn[kkbZ ugha ns jgk Fkk] fQj Hkh os fuf'pr :i ls
vyx rjg ls O;ogkj djrs Fks blls igys fd os jxM+s x, FksA bu lkefxz;ksa dks
vkdf"kZr djus ;k ,d nwljs dks ihNs gVkus ds fy, tks ifjorZu gqvk] og v–';
FkkA

 dqN ç;ksxdrkZvksa us vuqeku yxk;k fd jfcax çfØ;k ds nkSjku v–'; "rjy

inkFkZ" dks ,d oLrq ls nwljh oLrq esa LFkkukarfjr fd;k tk jgk Fkk] vkSj ;s
"rjy inkFkZ" nwjh ij ,d HkkSfrd cy dks çHkkfor djus esa l{ke FksA pkYlZ
MqQs çkjafHkd ç;ksxdrkZvksa esa ls ,d Fks ftUgksaus çn'kZu fd;k Fkk fd
fuf'pr :i ls nks vyx&vyx çdkj ds ifjorZu gksrs Fks tks oLrqvksa ds dqN
tksM+s dks ,d lkFk jxM+rs gq, bdëk djrs FksA
 It was also noted that when a piece of glass rubbed with silk was exposed to a piece of wax rubbed with
wool, the two materials would attract one another:

 Furthermore, it was found that any material demonstrating properties of attraction or repulsion after
being rubbed could be classed into one of two distinct categories: attracted to glass and repelled by wax,
or repelled by glass and attracted to wax. It was either one or the other: there were no materials found
that would be attracted to or repelled by both glass and wax, or that reacted to one without reacting to
the other.
 More attention was directed toward the pieces of
cloth used to do the rubbing. It was discovered that
after rubbing two pieces of glass with two pieces of silk
cloth, not only did the glass pieces repel each other, but
so did the cloths. The same phenomenon held for the
pieces of wool used to rub the wax:

 Now, this was really strange to witness. After all, none of these objects were visibly altered by the
rubbing, yet they definitely behaved differently than before they were rubbed. Whatever change took
place to make these materials attract or repel one another was invisible.

 Some experimenters speculated that invisible “fluids” were being transferred from one object to
another during the process of rubbing, and that these “fluids” were able to effect a physical force over
a distance. Charles Dufay was one of the early experimenters who demonstrated that there were
definitely two different types of changes wrought by rubbing certain pairs of objects together.
 rF; ;g gS fd bu lkefxz;ksa esa çdV gq, ,d ls vfèkd çdkj ds ifjorZu bl rF; ls
Li"V Fkk fd nks rjg ds cyksa dk mRiknu fd;k x;k Fkk% vkd"kZ.k vkSj
çfrd"kZ.kA dkYifud æo varj.k çHkkj ds :i esa tkuk tkrk gSA

 ,d vxz.kh 'kksèkdrkZ] csatkfeu ÝSadfyu] bl fu"d"kZ ij vk;k fd f?klus okys

oLrqvksa ds chp ,d gh æo dk vknku&çnku gqvk Fkk] vkSj ;g fd nksuksa
vyx&vyx “pktZst” ;k rks ml ,d rjy inkFkZ dh ,d vfèkdrk ;k deh dh rqyuk
esa dqN T;knk ugha FksA

 ekse vkSj Åu ds lkFk ç;ksx djus ds ckn] ÝSadfyu us lq>ko fn;k fd eksVs
Åu us fpduh ekse ls bl v–'; æo dks gVk fn;k] ftlls Åu ij rjy inkFkZ dk vfèkd
vkSj ekse ij æo dh deh gks xbZA

 Åu vkSj ekse ds chp rjy lkexzh ftlds ifj.kke Lo:i vlekurk ,d vkd"kZ.k cy ds
dkj.k gksrk gS] D;ksafd æo us nks lkefxz;ksa ds chp vius igys larqyu dks
okil djus dh dksf'k'k dh FkhA

 ,d leku "æo" ds vfLrRo dks [kkfjt djrs gq, tks jxM+ ds ekè;e ls çkIr ;k [kks
x;k Fkk] tks ns[k&Hkky dh oLrq ds O;ogkj ds fy, lcls csgrj Fkk% ;s lHkh
lkefxz;ka jxM+rs le; nks Hkkxksa esa <ads gq, Fks] vkSj lcls egRoiw.kZ
ckr ;g Fkh fd nksuksa lfØ; lkexzh ges'kk ,d nwljs dks jxM+rs gq, fojksèkh
Jsf.k;ksa esa fxjrs gSa] tks fd ,d nwljs ds vius vpy vkd"kZ.k dks lkfcr djrs
gSA nwljs 'kCnksa esa] dHkh ,d ,slk le; ugha Fkk] tgka nks lkefxz;ksa us
,d nwljs ds f[kykQ jxM+ fd;k gks] nksuksa gh ;k rks ldkjkRed ;k udkjkRed
cu x,A

 ÝSadfyu dh ekse ds dqN fgLlksa ij jxM+us dh vVdyksa ds ckn] pDdjnkj

ekse ls tqM+s gq, vkjksi dk çdkj "udkjkRed" ¼D;ksafd ;g rjy inkFkZ dh
deh Fkh½ ds :i esa tkuk tkrk Fkk] tcfd ekse ds lkFk tqM+s vkjksi ds çdkj
Åu "ldkjkRed" ds :i esa tkuk tkrk gS ¼D;ksafd ;g æo dk vfèkd gksuk
pkfg, Fkk½

 og FkksM+k tkurk Fkk fd muds funkZs"k vuqeku Hkfo"; esa fctyh ds

Nk=ksa ds fy, cgqr Hkze dh fLFkfr iSnk djsxhA

 1780 ds n'kd esa Ýkalhlh HkkSfrd foKkuh pkYlZ dwyac }kjk bysfDVªdy
pktZ dk lVhd eki fd;k x;k Fkk] tks ,d bysfDVªd pktZ v‚CtsDV~l ds chp
mRiUu cy dks ekius okys Vksjlksuy cSysal uked fMokbl dk mi;ksx dj jgk
FkkA
 dwyac ds dke ds ifj.kkeLo:i muds lEeku esa ukfer fo|qr çHkkj dh bdkbZ
dk fodkl gqvk] dwyacA vxj nks "fcUnq" v‚CtsDV~l ¼dkYifud oLrq,a ftudh
dksbZ ç'kaluh; lrg {ks= ugha gS½ tks 1 dwyEc ds eki ds fy, lkeku :i ls
pktZ fd;s x, Fks] vkSj 1 ehVj ¼yxHkx 1 ;kMZ½ dks vyx j[kk x;k Fkk] rks
os yxHkx 9 fcfy;u U;wVu ¼yxHkx 2 vjc ikmaM½ dk cy mRiUu djsxk ]
blesa 'kkfey pktZ ds çdkj ds vkèkkj ij ;k rks vkdf"kZr djsxk ;k ihNs gVk,xk
 The fact that there was more than one type of change manifested in these materials was
evident by the fact that there were two types of forces produced: attraction and repulsion.
The hypothetical fluid transfer became known as a charge.
 One pioneering researcher, Benjamin Franklin, came to the conclusion that there was only one
fluid exchanged between rubbed objects, and that the two different “charges” were nothing
more than either an excess or a deficiency of that one fluid.
 After experimenting with wax and wool, Franklin suggested that the coarse wool removed
some of this invisible fluid from the smooth wax, causing an excess of fluid on the wool and a
deficiency of fluid on the wax.
 The resulting disparity in fluid content between the wool and wax would then cause an
attractive force, as the fluid tried to regain its former balance between the two materials.
 Postulating the existence of a single “fluid” that was either gained or lost through rubbing
accounted best for the observed behavior: that all these materials fell neatly into one of two
categories when rubbed, and most importantly, that the two active materials rubbed against
each other always fell into opposing categories as evidenced by their invariable attraction to
one another. In other words, there was never a time where two materials rubbed against each
other both became either positive or negative.
 Following Franklin’s speculation of the wool rubbing something off of the wax, the type of
charge that was associated with rubbed wax became known as “negative” (because it was
supposed to have a deficiency of fluid) while the type of charge associated with the rubbing
wool became known as “positive” (because it was supposed to have an excess of fluid).
 Little did he know that his innocent conjecture would cause much confusion for students of
electricity in the future!
 Precise measurements of electrical charge were carried out by the French physicist Charles
Coulomb in the 1780’s using a device called a torsional balance measuring the force generated
between two electrically charged objects.
 The results of Coulomb’s work led to the development of a unit of electrical charge named in
his honor, the coulomb. If two “point” objects (hypothetical objects having no appreciable
surface area) were equally charged to a measure of 1 coulomb, and placed 1 meter
(approximately 1 yard) apart, they would generate a force of about 9 billion newtons
(approximately 2 billion pounds), either attracting or repelling depending on the types of
charges involved.
 fo|qr pktZ dh bdkbZ ¼fcanq çHkkjksa ds chp mRiUu cy ds lanHkZ esa½
ds :i esa ,d dwyEc lapkyu dh ifjHkk"kk ,d vfrfjä ;k yxHkx
6]250]000]000]000]000]000]000 bysDVª‚uksa dh deh ds cjkcj ik;k x;k
FkkA ;k] mYVs 'kCnksa esa dgk x;k gS] ,d bysDVª‚u ds ikl djhc 0-
00000000000000000016 dwyEc dk Hkkj gksrk gSA

 ,d bysDVª‚u bysfDVªd pktZ dk lcls NksVk Kkr okgd gksus ds ukrs]

bysDVª‚u ds fy, ;g vafre vkjksi çHkkjh çkFkfed çHkkj ds :i esa ifjHkkf"kr
fd;k x;k gSA

 blls ckn esa irk pyk fd ;g "æo" okLro esa bysDVª‚u uked inkFkksZa ds
cgqr NksVs fcV~l ls cuk Fkk] blfy, ,Ecj ds fy, çkphu xzhd 'kCn ds lEeku
esa uke fn;k x;k% ,d vU; lkexzh tks fd diM+s ls Hkjs gq, xq.kksa dk
çn'kZu djrs gSaA

 ç;ksx ds ckn ls irk pyk gS fd lHkh oLrqvksa ijek.kqvksa ds :i esa tkus

okys cgqr NksVs "fcfYMax&Cy‚d" ls cus gksrs gSa] vkSj ;g fd ;s ijek.kq
NksVs ?kVdksa ls cus gksrs gSa ftUgsa d.k dgk tkrk gSA

 lcls T;knk ijek.kqvksa ds rhu ewyHkwr d.kksa dks çksV‚u] U;wVª‚u vkSj
bysDVª‚u dgrs gSaA tc rd ijek.kqvksa ds cgqer esa çksV‚u] U;wVª‚u]
vkSj bysDVª‚uksa dk la;kstu
gksrk gS] lHkh ijek.kqvksa
esa U;wVª‚u ugha gksrs( ,d
mnkgj.k gkbMªkstu
¼gkbMªkstu &1 ½ dk çksfV;e
vkblksVksi ¼ 1 ,p 1 ½ gS tks
gkbMªkstu dk gYdk vkSj lcls
vke :i gS ftlesa dsoy ,d
çksV‚u vkSj ,d bysDVª‚u gksrk gSA ijek.kq ns[kus esa cgqr NksVs gksrs
gS] ysfdu vxj ge ,d dks ns[k ldrs gSa] rks ;s dqN ,slk fn[kkbZ ns ldrk gS%
 Hkys gh ;|fi lkexzh ds ,d VqdM+s esa çR;sd ijek.kq ,d bdkbZ ds :i esa ,d
lkFk idM+us ds fy, >qdrs gSa] ;gk¡ ij okLro esa bysDVª‚uksa vkSj
çksV‚uksa ds DyLVj vkSj cgqr T;knk [kkyh txgksa ds chp esa U;qVªku
jgrs gSA

 ;g ØwM e‚My rRo dkcZu dk gksrk gS] ftlesa Ng çksV‚u] Ng U;wVª‚u vkSj
Ng bysDVª‚u gksrs gSaA fdlh Hkh ijek.kq esa] çksV‚u vkSj U;wVª‚u cgqr
dldj ,d lkFk caèks gksrs gSa] tks ,d egRoiw.kZ xq.koÙkk gSA
 The operational definition of a coulomb as the unit of electrical charge (in terms of force
generated between point charges) was found to be equal to an excess or deficiency of about
6,250,000,000,000,000,000 electrons. Or, stated in reverse terms, one electron has a charge
of about 0.00000000000000000016 coulombs.
 Being that one electron is the smallest known carrier of electric charge, this last figure of
charge for the electron is defined as the elementary charge.
 It was discovered much later that this “fluid” was actually composed of extremely small bits of
matter called electrons, so named in honor of the ancient Greek word for amber: another
material exhibiting charged properties when rubbed with cloth.
 Experimentation has since revealed that all objects are composed of extremely small
“building-blocks” known as atoms, and that these atoms are in turn composed of smaller
components known as particles.
 The three fundamental particles comprising most atoms are
called protons, neutrons and electrons. Whilst the majority of atoms have a combination of
protons, neutrons, and electrons, not all atoms have neutrons; an example is the protium
isotope (1H1) of hydrogen (Hydrogen-1) which is the lightest and most common form of
hydrogen which only has one proton and one electron. Atoms are far too small to be seen, but
if we could look at one, it might appear something like this:

 Even though each atom in a piece of material tends to hold together as a unit, there’s actually
a lot of empty space between the electrons and the cluster of protons and neutrons residing in
the middle.
 This crude model is that of the element carbon, with six protons, six neutrons, and six
electrons. In any atom, the protons and neutrons are very tightly bound together, which is an
important quality.
 ijek.kq ds dsaæ esa çksV‚u vkSj U;wVª‚u ds dldj <dus okys dks U;qDyh;l
dgk tkrk gS] vkSj ,d ijek.kq ds U;qDyh;l esa çksV‚u dh la[;k bldh
ewyHkwr igpku fuèkkZfjr djrh gS% ,d ijek.kq ds U;qDyh;l esa çksV‚u dh
la[;k cnyrs gSa] vkSj vki ml ijek.kq ds çdkj dks cnyrs gSa tks ;g gSA

 okLro esa] ;fn vki usr`Ro ds ,d ijek.kq ds U;qDyh;l ls rhu çksV‚u fudky
ldrs gSa] rks vki lksus dh ,d ijek.kq ds mRiknu ds iqjkus jlk;u cukus
okyksa dk liuk gkfly dj pqds gksaxsA U;qDyh;l esa çksV‚uksa dh rax
caèku jklk;fud rRo fLFkj igpku ds fy, ftEesnkj gksrs gS] vkSj jlk;u cukus
okyksa dh muds lius dks çkIr djus dh foQyrk gksrh gSA

 U;wVª‚u jklk;fud pfj= vkSj çksV‚u ls ,d ijek.kq dh igpku ij cgqr de

çHkko'kkyh gksrs gS] gkykafd os ukfHkd ls tksM+us ;k fudyus ds fy,
mrus gh dfBu gSa] ftrus dh etcwrh ls idMs gksrs gSaA ;fn U;wVª‚u dks
tksM+k ;k çkIr fd;k tkrk gS] rks ijek.kq vHkh Hkh mlh jklk;fud igpku dks
cuk, j[ksxk] ysfdu bldk æO;eku FkksM+k cny tk,xk vkSj ;g v.kq ijek.kq
xq.k tSls fd jsfM;ksèkfeZrk dks çkIr dj ldrk gSA

 gkykafd] bysDVª‚uksa esa çksV‚u ;k U;wVª‚u dks fdlh ijek.kq esa ?kweus
ds fy, dkQh vfèkd vktknh gS okLro esa] os ukfHkd esa d.kksa dks gVkus
ds fy, tks dqN Hkh ysrs gSa] muds cgqr gh de ÅtkZ }kjk muds lacafèkr
LFkkuksa ¼;gka rd fd iwjh rjg ls v.kqvksa dks NksM+dj½ ls ckgj fd;k tk
ldrk gSA

 ;fn ,slk gksrk gS] rks ijek.kq vHkh Hkh viuh jklk;fud igpku cuk;s j[krk gS]
ysfdu blesa ,d egRoiw.kZ vlarqyu gksrk gSA bysDVª‚u vkSj çksV‚u vf}rh;
gksrs gSa bl rF; esa fd os ,d nwjh ij ,d nwljs ds fy, vkdf"kZr gksrs gSaA

 nwjh ij ;g vkd"kZ.k gS] ftles jxM+s gq, v‚CtsDV~l ds chp dk vkd"kZ.k

gksrk gS] tgka bysDVª‚uksa dks muds ewy ijek.kqvksa ls nwj LFkkukarfjr
fd;k tkrk gS rkfd os nwljs v‚CtsDV ds ijek.kqvksa ds pkjksa vksj jg ldsaA

 bysDVª‚u nwljs bysDVª‚uksa dks dqN nqjh ij gVkus ds fy, >qds gksrs gS]
tSlk fd çksV‚u vU; çksV‚u ds lkFk djrs gSaA ,dek= dkj.k çksV‚u ,d ijek.kq
ds ukfHkd esa ,d lkFk ckaèkrk gS D;ksafd ,d etcwr cy dks etcwr ijek.kq
'kfä dgk tkrk gS ftldk dsoy cgqr de nwjh ds Hkhrj gh çHkko gksrk gSA

 D;ksfd bl O;fäxr d.kksa ds chp vkd"kZ.k @ çfrd"kZ.k O;ogkj ds fy,]

bysDVªkuksa vkSj çksV‚uksa dks foijhr fctyh O;; dk gksuk dgk tkrk gSA
 vFkkZR] çR;sd bysDVª‚u dk udkjkRed pktZ gksrk gS] vkSj çR;sd çksV‚u
,d ldkjkRed pktZ gksrk gSA ijek.kq ds Hkhrj leku la[;k esa] os ,d&nwljs
dh mifLFkfr dk fojksèk djrs gSa rkfd ijek.kq ds Hkhrj 'kq) çHkkj 'kwU;
gksA ,slk blfy, gS fd ,d dkcZu ijek.kq dh rLohj esa Ng bysDVª‚u gksrs
gSa: ukfHkd esa Ng çksV‚uksa ds bysfDVªd pktZ dks larqfyr djus ds fy,A

 ;fn bysDVª‚uksa dks NksM+ fn;k tkrk gS ;k vfrfjä bysDVª‚u igqap tkrs
gSa] rks ijek.kq dk 'kq) fo|qr çHkkj vlarqfyr gks tk,xk] ftlls ijek.kq "pktZ"
iwjh rjg ls fudy tk,axs] ftlls ;g vkl&ikl pktZ d.kksa vkSj vU; pktZ
ijek.kqvksa ds lkFk laidZ LFkkfir djsaxsA
 The tightly-bound clump of protons and neutrons in the center of the atom is called
the nucleus, and the number of protons in an atom’s nucleus determines its elemental identity:
change the number of protons in an atom’s nucleus, and you change the type of atom that it
is.
 In fact, if you could remove three protons from the nucleus of an atom of lead, you will have
achieved the old alchemists’ dream of producing an atom of gold! The tight binding of protons
in the nucleus is responsible for the stable identity of chemical elements, and the failure of
alchemists to achieve their dream.
 Neutrons are much less influential on the chemical character and identity of an atom than
protons, although they are just as hard to add to or remove from the nucleus, being so tightly
bound. If neutrons are added or gained, the atom will still retain the same chemical identity,
but its mass will change slightly and it may acquire strange nuclear properties such as
radioactivity.
 However, electrons have significantly more freedom to move around in an atom than either
protons or neutrons. In fact, they can be knocked out of their respective positions (even
leaving the atom entirely!) by far less energy than what it takes to dislodge particles in the
nucleus.
 If this happens, the atom still retains its chemical identity, but an important imbalance occurs.
Electrons and protons are unique in the fact that they are attracted to one another over a
distance.
 It is this attraction over distance which causes the attraction between rubbed objects, where
electrons are moved away from their original atoms to reside around atoms of another object.
 Electrons tend to repel other electrons over a distance, as do protons with other protons. The
only reason protons bind together in the nucleus of an atom is because of a much stronger
force called the strong nuclear force which has effect only under very short distances.
 Because of this attraction/repulsion behavior between individual particles, electrons and
protons are said to have opposite electric charges.
 That is, each electron has a negative charge, and each proton a positive charge. In equal
numbers within an atom, they counteract each other’s presence so that the net charge within
the atom is zero. This is why the picture of a carbon atom had six electrons: to balance out the
electric charge of the six protons in the nucleus.

 If electrons leave or extra electrons arrive, the atom’s net electric charge will be imbalanced,
leaving the atom “charged” as a whole, causing it to interact with charged particles and other
charged atoms nearby.
 U;qVª‚u dks u rks bysDVª‚uksa] çksV‚uksa ;k vU; U;wVª‚uksa }kjk
vkdf"kZr fd;k tkrk gS ;|fi u gh nwljs U;wVª‚Ul djrs gSa] vkSj urhtru bUgsa
fcYdqy Hkh pktZ ugha ekuk tkrk gSA

 vkus okys ;k tkus okys bysDVª‚uksa dh çfØ;k Bhd mlh çdkj gksrh gS] tc
dqN lkefxz;ksa dks ,d lkFk feyk;k tkrk gS% ,d lkexzh ds ijek.kqvksa ls
bysDVª‚uksa dks vius ijek.kqvksa dks NksM+us vkSj vU; lkexzh ds
ijek.kqvksa dks LFkkukarfjr djus ds fy, jxM+ }kjk etcwj fd;k tkrk gSA

 nwljs 'kCnksa esa] bysDVª‚uksa esa "æo" csatkfeu ÝSadfyu }kjk çysf[kr
gksrk gSA

 oLrqvksa ds chp bl "æo" ¼bysDVª‚uksa½ ds vlarqyu ds ifj.kke dks fLFkj

fctyh dgk tkrk gSA bls "fLFkj" dgk tkrk gS D;ksafd foLFkkfir bysDVª‚uksa
dks ,d bUlqysV lkexzh ls nwljs rd LFkkukarfjr gksus ds ckn fLFkj jguk
iM+rk gSA

 ekse vkSj Åu ds ekeys esa] ;g vkxs ds ç;ksx ls fuèkkZfjr fd;k x;k Fkk fd
Åu esa bysDVª‚u okLro esa ekse esa ijek.kqvksa dks LFkkukarfjr dj fn,
tkrs gSa] tks fd ÝSadfyu ds vuqeku ds foijhr gSA ÝSadfyu ds lEeku esa
ekse ds pktZ dk in "udkjkRed" gksus vkSj Åu ds pktZ "ldkjkRed" gksus
rFkk bysDVª‚uksa dks "udkjkRed" pkftZax çHkko dgk tkrk gSA

 bl çdkj] ,d oLrq ftl ij ijek.kqvksa dks bysDVª‚uksa dk vfèkdrk çkIr gqvk gS]
dks udkjkRed pktZ dgk tkrk gS] tcfd ,d oLrq ftl ij ijek.kqvksa dh deh gksrh
gS] mls ldkjkRed pktZ dgk tkrk gS] tSlk fd bu inksa esa vO;ofLFkr :i ls
fn[kkbZ nsrk gSA tc rd fctyh "æo" dh okLrfod ç—fr dh [kkst dh xbZ] rc rd
ÝSadfyu ds fctyh ds çHkkj dk uke cgqr vklkuh ls ifjofrZr fd;k x;k Fkk] vkSj
blfy, vkt Hkh bls ;kn fd;k tkrk gSA

 ekbdy QSjkMs us lkfcr dj fn;k ¼1832½ fd LFkSfrd fctyh ,d cSVjh ;k tujsVj

}kjk fufeZr Fkh LFkSfrd fctyh] vfèkdka'k Hkkx ds fy,] miæo gS LFkSfrd
fctyh dh otg ls çToyu dks jksdus ds fy, CySd ikmMj vkSj èkwezjfgr ikmMj
dks xzsQkbV ls tksM+k x;k gSA ;g laosnu'khy vèkZpkyd lfdZV dks
uqdlku igqapkrk gSA

 tcfd mPp oksYVst vkSj LFkSfrd fctyh dh de orZeku fo'ks"krk }kjk lapkfyr
eksVlZ rS;kj djuk laHko gS] ;g vkfFkZd ugha gSA LFkSfrd fctyh ds dqN
O;kogkfjd vuqç;ksxksa esa ,DljksxzkfQd fçafVax] bysDVªksLVSfVd ,;j
fQYVj vkSj mPp oksYVst oSu Ms xzSQ tujsVj 'kkfey gSaA
 Neutrons are neither attracted to or repelled by electrons, protons, or even other neutrons,
and are consequently categorized as having no charge at all.
 The process of electrons arriving or leaving is exactly what happens when certain
combinations of materials are rubbed together: electrons from the atoms of one material are
forced by the rubbing to leave their respective atoms and transfer over to the atoms of the
other material.
 In other words, electrons comprise the “fluid” hypothesized by Benjamin Franklin.
 The result of an imbalance of this “fluid” (electrons) between objects is called static electricity.
It is called “static” because the displaced electrons tend to remain stationary after being
moved from one insulating material to another.
 In the case of wax and wool, it was determined through further experimentation that
electrons in the wool actually transferred to the atoms in the wax, which is exactly opposite of
Franklin’s conjecture! In honor of Franklin’s designation of the wax’s charge being “negative”
and the wool’s charge being “positive,” electrons are said to have a “negative” charging
influence.
 Thus, an object whose atoms have received a surplus of electrons is said to
be negatively charged, while an object whose atoms are lacking electrons is said to
be positively charged, as confusing as these designations may seem. By the time the true
nature of electric “fluid” was discovered, Franklin’s nomenclature of electric charge was too
well established to be easily changed, and so it remains to this day.
 Michael Faraday proved (1832) that static electricity was the same as that produced by a
battery or a generator. Static electricity is, for the most part, a nuisance. Black powder and
smokeless powder have graphite added to prevent ignition due to static electricity. It causes
damage to sensitive semiconductor circuitry.
 While it is possible to produce motors powered by high voltage and low current characteristic
of static electricity, this is not economic. The few practical applications of static electricity
include xerographic printing, the electrostatic air filter, and the high voltage Van de Graaff
generator.
1-2 daMDVj] balqysVj] vkSj bysDVª‚u ¶yks %

 fofHkUu çdkj ds ijek.kqvksa ds bysDVª‚uksa dks pkjksa vksj ?kweus ds

fy, Lora=rk dh vyx&vyx fMxzh gSaA dqN çdkj dh lkefxz;ksa ds lkFk tSls
fd èkkrqvksa] ijek.kqvksa esa ckáre bysDVª‚uksa dks bruk <hyk ckè; fd;k
tkrk gS fd os vO;oLFkk ls ml lkexzh ds ijek.kqvksa ds chp varfj{k esa
LFkku&rkieku xeÊ ÅtkZ ds çHkko ls T;knk dqN ugha ys tkrs gSaA

 D;ksafd ;s okLro esa vuckmaM bysDVª‚uksa dks muds lacafèkr

ijek.kqvksa dks NksM+us vkSj vklUu ijek.kqvksa ds chp dh txg esa
¶yksV djus ds fy, Lora= gksrs gSa] D;ksafd mUgsa vDlj eq¶r bysDVª‚u
dgk tkrk gSA

 dkap ds :i esa vU; çdkj dh lkefxz;ksa esa] ijek.kq ds bysDVª‚uksa ds

pkjksa vksj ?kweus ds fy, cgqr de vktknh gksrh gSA tcfd HkkSfrd jxM+
tSls ckgjh 'kfä bu bysDVª‚uksa esa ls dqN dks vius ijek.kqvksa dks
NksM+us vkSj vU; lkexzh ds ijek.kqvksa esa LFkkukarfjr djus ds fy,
etcwj dj ldrh gS] ysfdu os ml inkFkZ ds Hkhrj ijek.kqvksa ds chp cgqr
vklkuh ls ugha c<+rsA

 lkexzh ds Hkhrj bysDVª‚uksa dh ;g xfr'khyrk fo|qr pkydrk ds :i esa tkuk

tkrk gSA

 lapj.k ,d inkFkZ esa ijek.kq ds çdkj ¼çR;sd ijek.kq ds ukfHkd esa çksV‚u
dh la[;k] bldh jklk;fud igpku fuèkkZfjr djus½ vkSj dSls ijek.kqvksa dks ,d
nwljs ds lkFk tksM+k tkrk gS dh la[;k ls fuèkkZfjr gksrk gSA

 mPp bysDVª‚u xfr'khyrk ¼dbZ eqä bysDVª‚uksa½ ds lkFk lkexzh dks

daMDVj dgk tkrk gS] tcfd de bysDVª‚u xfr'khyrk ¼dqN ;k fcuk eqä
bysDVª‚uksa½ ds lkFk lkexzh dks bUlqysVj dgk tkrk gSA

;gka daMDVj vkSj bUlqysVj ds dqN lkekU; mnkgj.k fn, x, gSa%

• daMDVj • ihry
• pkanh • ihry
• rkack • ikjk
• lksuk • xzsQkbV
• ,Y;qehfu;e • xank ikuh
• yksgk • daØhV
• bLikr • bUlqysVlZ
 • dkap
• jcj
• rsy
• Mkej
• QkbcjXykl
• phuh feêh ds crZu
• phuh feêh
• DokV~tZ
• ¼lw[kk½ dikl
• ¼lw[kk½ isij
• lw[kh ydM+h
• IykfLVd
• gok
• ngu'khy
• LoPN ikuh
1.2 Conductors, Insulators, and Electron Flow:
 The electrons of different types of atoms have different degrees of freedom to move around.
With some types of materials, such as metals, the outermost electrons in the atoms are so
loosely bound that they chaotically move in the space between the atoms of that material by
nothing more than the influence of room-temperature heat energy.
 Because these virtually unbound electrons are free to leave their respective atoms and float
around in the space between adjacent atoms, they are often called free electrons.
 In other types of materials such as glass, the atoms’ electrons have very little freedom to move
around. While external forces such as physical rubbing can force some of these electrons to
leave their respective atoms and transfer to the atoms of another material, they do not move
between atoms within that material very easily.
 This relative mobility of electrons within a material is known as electric conductivity.
 Conductivity is determined by the types of atoms in a material (the number of protons in each
atom’s nucleus, determining its chemical identity) and how the atoms are linked together with
one another.
 Materials with high electron mobility (many free electrons) are called conductors, while
materials with low electron mobility (few or no free electrons) are called insulators.

Here are a few common examples of conductors and insulators:

 Conductors  Insulators
 silver  glass
 copper  rubber
 gold  oil
 aluminum  asphalt
 iron  fiberglass
 steel  porcelain
 brass  ceramic
 bronze  quartz
 mercury  (dry) cotton
 graphite  (dry) paper
 dirty water  (dry) wood
 concrete  plastic
 air
 diamond
 pure water
 ;g le>uk pkfg, fd lHkh çokgdh; lkefxz;ksa esa lekurk dk çokg ugha gksrk
gS] vkSj lHkh bUlqysVj bysDVª‚u xfr ds leku çfrjksèkh ugha gksrs gSaA
 fo|qr çokgdrk dqN lkexzh dh ikjnf'kZrk ds vuq:i gksrh gS% lkexzh tks
vklkuh ls "vkpj.k" çdk'k dks "ikjn'kÊ" dgk tkrk gS] tcfd mudks "vikjn'kÊ"
ugha dgk tkrk gSA
 gkykafd] lHkh ikjn'kÊ lkexzh çdk'k ds lekukarj çokgdh; ugha gksrs gSaA
foaMks Xykl T;knkrj IykfLVd ls csgrj gS] vkSj fuf'pr :i ls "Li"V" QkbcjXykl
ls csgrj gksrs gSA rks ;g fo|qr daMDVj ds lkFk] dqN nwljksa dh rqyuk
esa csgrj gksrs gSA
 mnkgj.k ds fy,] "daMDVj" lwph esa flYoj lcls vPNk daMDVj gS] tks fdlh
Hkh vU; oLrq ds eqdkcys bysDVª‚uksa ds fy, vklku ekxZ çnku djrk gSA

 xans ikuh vkSj daØhV dks daMDVj ds :i esa Hkh lwphc) fd;k x;k gS]
ysfdu ;s lkexzh fdlh Hkh èkkrq ls dkQh de çokgdh; gksrs gSaA
 ;g Hkh le>k tkuk pkfg, fd dqN lkefxz;ksa dk vuqHko fofHkUu ifjfLFkfr;ksa
esa muds fo|qr xq.kksa esa ifjofrZr gksrk gSA mnkgj.k ds fy, Xykl] dejs
ds rkieku ij ,d cgqr vPNk bUlqysVj gksrk gS] ysfdu cgqr gh mPp rkieku
ds fy, xeZ gksus ij daMDVj cu tkrk gSA

 ok;q tSls xSlksa] lkekU; :i ls bUlqysV lkexzh] Hkh cgqr mPp rkieku ds fy,
xeZ vxj çokgdh; cu tkrs gSaA vfèkdrj èkkrq,a xje gksus ij daMDVj cu tkrs
gSa] vkSj BaMk gksus ij csgrj daMDVj gksrs gSaA csgn de rkieku ij dbZ
çokgdh; inkFkZ iwjh rjg ls çokgdh; gksrs gSa ¼bls lqijdaMfDVfoVh dgk
tkrk gS ½A
 tcfd daMDVj esa "Ýh" bysDVª‚uksa dh lkekU; xfr ;k–fPNd gksrh gS] fcuk
fdlh fo'ks"k fn'kk ;k xfr ds] ,d çokgdh; lkexzh ds ekè;e ls ,d lefUor QS'ku
esa bysDVª‚uksa dks LFkkukarfjr djus ds fy, çHkkfor fd;k tk ldrk gSA

 bysDVª‚uksa dh ;g ,d leku xfr gS ftls ge fctyh dgrs gSa] ;k fo|qr çokg dgrs
gSaA vfèkd lVhd gksus ds fy,] bls LFkSfrd fctyh ds foijhr xfr'khy fctyh
dgk tk ldrk gS] tks fo|qr pktZ dk ,d vckfèkr lap; gSA tSls ikbi dh [kkyhiu
ds ekè;e ls cgus okys ikuh dh rjg] bysDVª‚uksa daMDVj ds ijek.kqvksa
ds chp vkSj chp esa [kkyh txg esa tkus esa l{ke gksrs gSaA

 daMDVj gekjh vka[kksa ds fy, Bksl fn[k ldrk gS] ysfdu ijek.kqvksa ls cuk
gqvk dksbZ Hkh inkFkZ T;knkrj [kkyh txg gksrk gSA rjy&çokg lekurk bruk
 fQV gksrk gS fd ,d daMDVj ds ekè;e ls bysDVª‚uksa dh xfr dks vDlj
"çokg" dgk tkrk gSA
 ;gka ,d mYys[kuh; voyksdu fd;k tk ldrk gSA pwafd çR;sd bysDVª‚u ,d
daMDVj ds ekè;e ls leku :i ls pyrk gS] ;g blds vkxs c<+rk gS] tSls fd lHkh
bysDVª‚u lewg ds :i esa ,d lkFk pyrs gSaA ,d çokgdh; iFk dh yackbZ ds
ekè;e ls bysDVª‚u çokg ds çkjaHk vkSj jksd nwljs ls ,d daMDVj ds ,d
Nksj ls yxHkx rkRdkfyd gksrh gS] Hkys gh çR;sd bysDVª‚u dh xfr èkheh
gks ldrh gSAyxHkx lekurk ;g gS fd iRFkj ds lkFk lekIr gksus okyh ,d Vîwc
ds lkFk ,d Vîwc Hkjk gksrk gS%
 It must be understood that not all conductive materials have the same level of conductivity,
and not all insulators are equally resistant to electron motion.
 Electrical conductivity is analogous to the transparency of certain materials to light: materials
that easily “conduct” light are called “transparent,” while those that don’t are called
“opaque.”
 However, not all transparent materials are equally conductive to light. Window glass is better
than most plastics, and certainly better than “clear” fiberglass. So it is with electrical
conductors, some being better than others.
 For instance, silver is the best conductor in the “conductors” list, offering easier passage for
electrons than any other material cited.
 Dirty water and concrete are also listed as conductors, but these materials are substantially
less conductive than any metal.
 It should also be understood that some materials experience changes in their electrical
properties under different conditions. Glass, for instance, is a very good insulator at room
temperature, but becomes a conductor when heated to a very high temperature.
 Gases such as air, normally insulating materials, also become conductive if heated to very high
temperatures. Most metals become poorer conductors when heated, and better conductors
when cooled. Many conductive materials become perfectly conductive (this is
called superconductivity) at extremely low temperatures.
 While the normal motion of “free” electrons in a conductor is random, with no particular
direction or speed, electrons can be influenced to move in a coordinated fashion through a
conductive material.
 This uniform motion of electrons is what we call electricity, or electric current. To be more
precise, it could be called dynamic electricity in contrast to static electricity, which is an
unmoving accumulation of electric charge. Just like water flowing through the emptiness of a
pipe, electrons are able to move within the empty space within and between the atoms of a
conductor.
 The conductor may appear to be solid to our eyes, but any material composed of atoms is
mostly empty space! The liquid-flow analogy is so fitting that the motion of electrons through
a conductor is often referred to as a “flow.”
 A noteworthy
observation may
 be made here. As each electron moves uniformly through a conductor, it pushes on the one
ahead of it, such that all the electrons move together as a group.
 The starting and stopping of electron flow through the length of a conductive path is virtually
instantaneous from one end of a conductor to the other, even though the motion of each
electron may be very slow. An approximate analogy is that of a tube filled end-to-end with
marbles:
 Vîwc iRFkj ls Hkjk gqvk gS] tSls daMDVj ,d ckgjh çHkko ls çsfjr gksus ds
fy, rS;kj eqä bysDVª‚uksa ls Hkjk gksrk gSA ;fn vdsys laxejej dks vpkud
ck;ha rjQ ls bl Hkjs gq, Vîwc esa Mkyk tkrk gS] rks ,d nwljk laxejej rqjar
nkfguh rjg Vîwc ls ckgj fudyus dk ç;kl djsxhA
 gkykafd çR;sd ekcZy us dsoy FkksM+h nwjh dh ;k=k dh] Vîwc ds ekè;e
ls xfr ds gLrkarj.k dks ck,a Nksj ls nkfgus Nksj rd rkRdkfyd :i fn;k tkrk gS]
pkgs fdruk Hkh yEck Vîwc gksA

 fctyh ds lkFk] ,d daMDVj ds nwljs Nksj ls lexz çHkko çdk'k dh xfr ij gksrk
gS: ,d rst 186]000 ehy çfr lsdaMA çR;sd O;fäxr bysDVª‚u] daMDVj ds
ekè;e ls cgqr èkheh xfr ls ;k=k djrs gSaA

rkj%

 ;fn ge fdlh fuf'pr fn'kk esa bysDVª‚uksa dks fdlh fuf'pr fn'kk esa çokg djus
ds fy, pkgrs gSa] rks gesa muds fy, mfpr ekxZ çnku djuk gksxk] tSls fd ,d
Iyacj dks ikbfiax dks LFkkfir djuk pkfg, rkfd mls Hkjus ds fy, ikuh fey lds]
tgka og bldk çokg djuk pkgrk gSA bls lqfoèkktud cukus ds fy,] rkjsa ,d
foLr`r fofoèkrk esa rkacs ;k ,Y;wehfu;e tSls mPp çokgdh; èkkrqvksa ls
cus gksrs gSaA
 ;kn j[ksa fd bysDVª‚u dsoy rc gh çokg dj ldrs gSa tc mUgsa ,d inkFkZ ds
ijek.kqvksa ds chp txg esa LFkkukarfjr gksus dk volj feyrk gSA bldk vFkZ
gS fd ogka dsoy fo|qr~ çokg gh gks ldrk gS tgka bysDVªkuksa ds ekè;e
ls ;k=k djus ds fy, ,d uyh çnku djus okyh çokgdh; lkexzh dk fujarj ekxZ
ekStwn gksrk gSA

 laxejej ds lekurk esa] iRFkj Vîwc ds ck;ha rjQ ¼vkSj] ifj.kker%] Vîwc ds
ekè;e ls½ çokg dj ldrs gSa vkSj ;fn dsoy iRFkjksa ds çokg ds fy, nkfgus
rjQ ij Vîwc [kqyk gksA ;fn Vîwc nkfguh vksj ls can fd;k x;k gS] rks laxejej
Vîwc ds vanj "<sj" gksxk] vkSj laxejej "çokg" ugha gksxkA

 ogh fo|qr~ çokg ds fy, lgh gS: bysDVª‚uksa ds fujarj çokg dh vko';drk
gksrh gS fd çokg dks vuqefr nsus ds fy, ,d vckfèkr jkLrk gksA ;g le>kus
ds fy, ,d vkjs[k ns[ksa fd ;g dSls dke djrk gS%

 ,d iryh] Bksl js[kk ¼Åij fn[kk, x, vuqlkj½ rkj ds fujarj VqdM+s ds fy, ikjaifjd
çrhd gSA pwafd rkj ,d çokgdh; lkexzh ls cuk gksrk gS] tSls fd rkack] blds
?kVd ijek.kqvksa esa dbZ Lora= bysDVª‚u gksrs gSa tks vklkuh ls rkj ds
ekè;e ls tk ldrs gSaA
 gkykafd] bl rkj ds Hkhrj dHkh Hkh bysDVª‚uksa dk fujarj ;k ,dleku çokg
ugha gksxk] tc rd fd muds ikl vkus ds fy, txg ugha gksrh vkSj tkus ds fy,
txg ugha gksrhA pyks ,d dkYifud bysDVª‚u "lzksr" vkSj "xarO;" tksM+sa
 The tube is full of marbles, just as a conductor is full of free electrons ready to be moved by an
outside influence. If a single marble is suddenly inserted into this full tube on the left-hand
side, another marble will immediately try to exit the tube on the right.
 Even though each marble only traveled a short distance, the transfer of motion through the
tube is virtually instantaneous from the left end to the right end, no matter how long the tube
is.
 With electricity, the overall effect from one end of a conductor to the other happens at the
speed of light: a swift 186,000 miles per second!!! Each individual electron, though, travels
through the conductor at a much slower pace.

Wire:

 If we want electrons to flow in a certain direction to a certain place, we must provide the
proper path for them to move, just as a plumber must install piping to get water to flow where
he or she wants it to flow. To facilitate this, wires are made of highly conductive metals such as
copper or aluminum in a wide variety of sizes.
 Remember that electrons can flow only when they have the opportunity to move in the space
between the atoms of a material. This means that there can be electric current only where
there exists a continuous path of conductive material providing a conduit for electrons to
travel through.
 In the marble analogy, marbles can flow into the left-hand side of the tube (and, consequently,
through the tube) if and only if the tube is open on the right-hand side for marbles to flow out.
If the tube is blocked on the right-hand side, the marbles will just “pile up” inside the tube, and
marble “flow” will not occur.
 The same holds true for electric current: the continuous flow of electrons requires there be an
unbroken path to permit that flow. Let’s look at a diagram to illustrate how this works:
 A thin, solid line (as shown above) is the conventional symbol for a continuous piece of
wire. Since the wire is made of a conductive material, such as copper, its constituent atoms
have many free electrons which can easily move through the wire.
 However, there will never be a continuous or uniform flow of electrons within this wire
unless they have a place to come from and a place to go. Let’s add a hypothetical electron
“Source” and “Destination:”
 vc] bysDVªksu lzksr ds lkFk] ck;ha vksj rkj esa u, bysDVª‚uksa dks
èkdsyus ds fy,] rkj ds ekè;e ls bysDVª‚u çokg gks ldrk gS ¼tSlk fd ck,a ls
nk,a rhj }kjk bafxr djrs gq, ladsr fd;k x;k gS½ gkykafd] vxj ok;j }kjk xfBr
çokgdh;
iFk VwV x;k
rks çokg
ckfèkr gksxk%

fujarjrk%

 pwafd ok;q ,d bUlqysV lkexzh gS] vkSj ,d ok;q varj us rkj ds nks
VqdM+ksa dks vyx dj fn;k gS] ,d ckj fujarj ekxZ VwV x;k gS] vkSj
bysDVª‚u lzksr ls xarO; rd ugha tk ldrsA ;g ,d ikuh ds ikbi dks nks esa
dVus vkSj ikbi ds VwVs gq, fljksa dks dSi djus dh rjg gS% vxj ikbi ls
ckgj fudyus dk dksbZ jkLrk ugha gS rks ikuh ugha cg ldrk gSA fctyh
ds lanHkZ esa] gekjs ikl fctyh fujarjrk dh fLFkfr Fkh] tc rkj ,d VqdM+s
esa Fkk] vkSj vc fujarjrk ok;j dV vkSj vyx gksus ds lkFk VwV xbZ gSA

 ;fn geus rkj ds nwljs

VqdM+s dks xarO; rd ys
tkus ds fy, usr`Ro fd;k Fkk] vkSj lzksr ds fy, vxz.kh rkj ds lkFk HkkSfrd
laidZ cukus ds fy,] gesa ,d ckj fQj çokg ds fy, bysDVª‚uksa ds fy, ,d
fujarj iFk cukuk gksxkA vkjs[k esa nks fcanq bafxr djrs gSa fd rkj ds
VqdM+s ds chp HkkSfrd ¼èkkrq ls èkkrq½ laidZ%

 vc] gekjs ikl lzksr ls fujarjrk gS] uofufeZr dusD'ku] uhps] nkbZa vksj
vkSj xarO; rdA ;g dSIM&v‚Q ikbiksa esa ls ,d esa "Vh" fQfVax yxkus
vkSj blds xarO; ds fy, ,d u, lsxesaV ikbi ds ekè;e ls ikuh dk funZs'ku
djus ds fy, leku gSA —i;k è;ku nsa fd nkbZ vksj rkj ds VwVs gq, [kaM
 esa blds ekè;e ls cgus okys dksbZ bysDVª‚u ugha gksrs gSa] D;ksafd
;g lzksr ls xarO; rd dk iwjk jkLrk ugha gSA

 ;g è;ku j[kuk fnypLi gS fd fo|qr çokg ds dkj.k rkjksa ds Hkhrj dksbZ

"fo;j" ugha gksrk gS] tks ikuh ds ikbiksa ds foijhr ugha gksrs gSa] tks
varr% dqafBr gksrs gSa vkSj yacs le; rd çokg ls igus tkrs gSaA
bysDVª‚u tSls ?kwers gSa rks mUgsa dqN fMxzh ds ?k"kZ.k dk lkeuk
djuk iM+rk gS] gkykafd] vkSj ;g ?k"kZ.k ,d daMDVj esa xeÊ mRiUu dj
ldrk gSA ;g ,d ,slk fo"k; gS ftls ge ckn esa cgqr vfèkd foLrkj esa [kkst
djsaxsA
  Now, with the Electron Source pushing new electrons into the wire on the left-hand side, electron
flow through the wire can occur (as indicated by the arrows pointing from left to right). However,
the flow will be interrupted if the conductive path formed by the wire is broken:

Continuity:

 Since air is an insulating material, and an air gap separates the two pieces of wire, the once-
continuous
path has now
been broken,
and electrons cannot flow from Source to Destination. This is like cutting a water pipe in two and
capping off the broken ends of the pipe: water can’t flow if there’s no exit out of the pipe. In
electrical terms, we had a condition of electrical continuity when the wire was in one piece, and
now that continuity is broken with the wire cut and separated.
 If we were to take another piece of wire leading to the Destination and simply make physical
contact with the wire leading to the Source, we would once again have a continuous path for
electrons to flow. The two dots in the diagram indicate physical (metal-to-metal) contact between
the wire pieces:

 Now, we have continuity from the Source, to the newly-made connection, down, to the right, and
up to the Destination. This is analogous to putting a “tee” fitting in one of the capped-off pipes and
directing water through a new segment of pipe to its destination. Please take note that the broken
segment of wire on the right-hand side has no electrons flowing through it, because it is no longer
part of a complete path from Source to Destination.
 It is interesting to note that no “wear” occurs within wires due to this electric current, unlike water-
carrying pipes which are eventually corroded and worn by prolonged flows. Electrons do encounter
some degree of friction as they move, however, and this friction can generate heat in a conductor.
This is a topic we’ll explore in much greater detail later.
1-3 fo|qr ifjiFk%

 vki 'kk;n lksp jgs gksaxs fd bu

dkYifud bysDVª‚u lzksrksa
vkSj LFkyksa ds ykHk ds fcuk rkjksa
ds ekè;e ls ,d leku fn'kk esa bysDVª‚u yxkrkj çokg dj ldrs gSaA
 lzksr&vkSj&xarO; ;kstuk ds fy, dke djus ds fy,] nksuksa ds ikl ,d lrr çokg
cuk, j[kus ds fy, bysDVª‚uksa ds fy, ,d vuUr {kerk gksxhA

 laxejej vkSj Vîwc lk–';] laxejej ds lzksr vkSj laxejej ds xarO; ckfYV;ksa dk
mi;ksx djus ds fy, iRFkj ds "çokg" ds fujarj cuk, tkus ds fy, i;kZIr laxejej
{kerk j[kus ds fy, vlhe :i ls cM+k gksuk gksxkA

 bl fojksèkkHkkl dk tokc lfdZV dh voèkkj.kk esa ik;k tkrk gS%

bysDVª‚uksa ds fy, dHkh u [kRe gksus okyk ekxZ ywi gksrk gSA

 vxj ge ,d rkj ysrs gSa] ;k cgqr ls rkjksa dks ,aM&Vw&,aM esa 'kkfey fd;k
tkrk gS] vkSj bls pkjksa vksj ywi djsa
rkfd ;g ,d fujarj ekxZ cu lds] gekjs
ikl vuar lzksrksa vkSj LFkyksa dk
lgkjk ysus ds fcuk bysDVª‚uksa
ds ,d leku çokg dk leFkZu djus dk
eryc gS%

 çR;sd lfdZV esa nf{k.kkorZ vkxs c<+us okyk çR;sd bysDVª‚u blds lkeus
,d vksj èkdsyrk gS] vkSj blh rjg] vkSj blh rjg] tSls dh gwyk&gqi ekcZy ls
Hkjk gksrk gS vc] gekjs ikl vfu;fer bysDVª‚u vkiwfrZ vkSj Mai dh vko';drk
ds fcuk vfuf'pr dky ds bysDVª‚uksa ds fujarj çokg dk leFkZu djus dh {kerk
gSA
 ge lHkh dks bl çokg dks cuk, j[kus dh t+:jr gS] mu bysDVª‚uksa ds fy,
çsj.kk dk ,d lrr ekè;e gS] ftls ge bl vè;k; ds vxys Hkkx esa lacksfèkr
djsaxsA

 ;g eglwl fd;k tkuk pkfg, fd fujarjrk lfdZV esa mruk gh egRoiw.kZ gS

D;ksafd ;g rkj ds lhèks VqdM+s esa gksrs gSA tSlk fd mnkgj.k ds rkSj ij
 bysDVª‚u lzksr vkSj xarO; ds chp ds
rkj ds lhèks VqdM+s ds lkFk] bl
lfdZV esa dksbZ Hkh czsd
bysDVª‚uksa dks blds ekè;e ls
cgus ls jksdsxk%

 ,glkl djus ds fy, ,d egRoiw.kZ fl)kar ;g gS fd ;g dksbZ QdZ ugha iM+rk gS

fd fojke dgk¡ gksrk gSA lfdZV esa dksbZ vlarqyu iwjs lfdZV esa bysDVª‚u
çokg dks jksd nsxkA tc rd bysDVª‚uksa ds ekè;e ls çokg djus ds fy,
çokgdh; lkexzh dk fujarj] v[kaM jkscksV ugha gksrk gS] rc rd fujarj çokg
dks cuk, j[kk ugha tk ldrk gSA

1.3 Electric Circuits:

 You might have been wondering how electrons can
continuously flow in a uniform direction through wires
without the benefit of these hypothetical electron
Sources and Destinations.
 In order for the Source- and-Destination scheme to
work, both would have to have an infinite capacity for
electrons in order to sustain a continuous flow!
 Using the marble-and-tube analogy, the marble source and marble destination buckets would have to
be infinitely large to contain enough marble capacity for a “flow” of marbles to be sustained.
 The answer to this paradox is found in the concept of a circuit: a never-ending looped pathway for
electrons.
 If we take a wire, or many wires joined end-to-end, and loop it around so that it forms a continuous
pathway, we have the means to support a uniform flow of electrons without having to resort to infinite
Sources and Destinations:

 Each electron advancing clockwise in this circuit pushes on the one in front of it, which pushes on the
one in front of it, and so on, and so on, just like a hula-
hoop filled with marbles. Now, we have the capability of
supporting a continuous flow of electrons indefinitely
 without the need for infinite electron supplies and dumps.
 All we need to maintain this flow is a continuous means of motivation for those electrons, which we’ll
address in the next section of this chapter.
 It must be realized that continuity is just as important in a circuit as it is in a straight piece of wire. Just as
in the example with the straight piece of wire between the electron Source and Destination, any break
in this circuit will prevent electrons from flowing through it:
 An important principle to realize here is that it doesn’t matter where the break occurs. Any discontinuity
in the circuit will prevent electron flow throughout the entire circuit. Unless there is a continuous,
unbroken loop of conductive material for electrons to flow through, a sustained flow simply cannot be
maintained.

1-4 oksYVst vkSj djsaV%

 tSlk fd igys mYys[k fd;k x;k Fkk]

bysDVª‚uksa ds fujarj çokg ls igys gesa
,d fujarj iFk ¼lfdZV½ ls vfèkd dh
vko';drk gksrh gS: gesa lfdZV ds vklikl bu
bysDVª‚uksa dks èkDdk nsus ds dqN rjhdksa dh Hkh vko';drk gksrh gSA

 ,d ikbi esa ,d Vîwc ;k ikuh esa iRFkj dh rjg] ;g çokg 'kq: djus ds fy, fdlh rjg
dk çHkkodkjh cy ysrk gSA bysDVªkuksa ds lkFk] ;g cy LFkSfrd fctyh ds
dke esa ,d gh cy gS% fo|qr çHkkj ds vlarqyu }kjk mRikfnr cyA

 ;fn ge ekse vkSj Åu ds mnkgj.k ysrs gSa tks ,d lkFk feyk;s x, gSa] rks ge
ikrs gSa fd ekse ¼udkjkRed pktZ½ vkSj Åu ¼ldkjkRed pktZ½ esa
bysDVª‚uksa dh deh ds dkj.k bysDVª‚uksa ds vfèk'ks"k muds chp çHkkj
dk vlarqyu iSnk djrk gSA

 ;g vlarqyu [kqn nks oLrqvksa ds chp ,d vkd"kZd cy ds :i esa çdV gksrk

gS%
 vxj pktZj ekse vkSj Åu ds chp ,d çokgdh; rkj j[kk tkrk gS] rks bysDVª‚u
blds ekè;e ls çokfgr gksxk] D;ksafd ekse ds dqN vfrfjä bysDVª‚u rkj ds
ekè;e ls Åu rd okil tkrs gSa] ogka ij bysDVªkuksa dh deh dks Hkjus ds
fy,%

 Åu esa ijek.kqvksa vkSj ekse esa ijek.kqvksa ds chp ds bysDVª‚uksa ds

vlarqyu nksuksa lkexzh ds chp ,d cy iSnk djrk gSA ekse ls Åu rd tkus
okys bysDVª‚uksa ds fy, dksbZ jkLrk ugha] ;g lc cy nks oLrqvksa dks ,d
lkFk feydj vkdf"kZr dj ldrk gSA

 vc ml ,d daMDVj iqyksa dks bUlqysV varj] gkykafd] rkj ds ekè;e ls ,d leku

fn'kk esa çokg djus ds fy, cy bysDVª‚u dks mÙksftr djsxk] ysfdu dsoy
dqN gh le; esa] ml {ks= esa gksus okys pktZ fu"çHkkoh vkSj ekse vkSj
Åu ds chp dh 'kfä de gks tkrh gSA

 bu nksuksa lkefxz;ksa ds chp fctyh ds pktZ dks ,d lkFk jxM+ dj ,d fuf'pr

ek=k esa ÅtkZ laxzfgr djus ds fy, dk;Z djrk gSA ;g ÅtkZ ikuh ds mPp
tyk'k; esa laxzghr ÅtkZ ls fHkUu ugha gS ftls de&Lrj ds rkykc ls iai fd;k
x;k gS%
1.4 Voltage and Current:

 As was previously mentioned, we need more than just a continuous path (circuit) before a
continuous flow of electrons will occur: we also need some means to push these electrons around the
circuit.
 Just like marbles in a tube or water in a pipe, it takes some kind of influencing force to initiate flow. With
electrons, this force is the same force at work in static electricity: the force produced by an imbalance of
electric charge.
 If we take the examples of wax and wool which have been rubbed together, we find that the surplus of
electrons in the wax (negative charge) and the deficit of electrons in the wool (positive charge) creates
an imbalance of charge between them.
 This imbalance manifests itself as an attractive force between the two objects:

 If a conductive wire is placed between the charged wax and wool, electrons will flow through it, as
some of the excess electrons in the wax rush through the wire to get back to the wool, filling the
deficiency of electrons there:

 The imbalance of electrons between the atoms in the wax and the
atoms in the wool creates a force between the two materials. With no
path for electrons to flow from the wax to the wool, all this force can do is
attract the two objects together.
 Now that a conductor bridges the insulating gap, however, the force will provoke electrons to flow in a
uniform direction through the wire, if only momentarily, until the charge in that area neutralizes and the
force between the wax and wool diminishes.
 The electric charge formed between these two materials by rubbing them together serves to store a
certain amount of energy. This energy is not unlike the energy stored in a high reservoir of water that
has been pumped from a lower-level pond:
 tyk'k; esa ikuh ij xq#Rokd"kZ.k dk
çHkko ,d cy cukrk gS tks ikuh dks fupys
Lrj ij fQj ls LFkkukarfjr djus dk ç;kl
djrk gSA ;fn ,d mi;qä ikbi dks tyk'k; ls
okil rkykc esa yk;k tkrk gS] rks ikuh ikbi
ds ekè;e ls] tyk'k; ls uhps xq#Rokd"kZ.k ds
çHkko ds dkj.k cg tk,xk%

 ;g ikuh dks de&Lrjh; rkykc ls mPp&Lrjh; tyk'k; rd iai

djus ds fy, ÅtkZ ysrk gS] vkSj okil vius ewy Lrj rd ikbfiax ds ekè;e ls ikuh
dh xfr fiNys ifEiax ls laxzghr ÅtkZ dks tkjh djrk gSA

 ;fn ikuh dks ;|fi mPp Lrj ij iai fd;k tkrk gS] rks ,slk djus ds fy, ;g vkSj vfèkd
ÅtkZ ysxh] bl çdkj vfèkd ÅtkZ laxzghr dh tk,xh] vkSj vxj ikuh dks fQj ls
uhps ikbi ds ekè;e ls cgus dh vuqefr
nh tkrh gS rks vkSj vfèkd ÅtkZ
NksM+rh gS%

 bysDVª‚u cgqr vyx ugha gksrs gSa ;fn ge ekse vkSj Åu dks ,d lkFk
jxM+rs gSa] rks ge bysDVªku dks vius lkekU; "Lrjksa" ls nwj "iai" djrs
gSa] ;g ,d voLFkk cukrs gSa tgka ekse vkSj Åu ds chp ,d cy ekStwn
gksrk gS] tSls fd bysDVª‚u vius iwoZ voLFkk esa ¼vkSj vius lacafèkr
ijek.kqvksa ds Hkhrj larqyu½ dks fQj ls LFkkfir djus dk ç;kl djrs gSaA
 cy bysDVª‚uksa dks vius ijek.kqvksa ds ldkjkRed
ukfHkdksa ds vkl&ikl viuh ewy fLFkfr;ksa esa okil
ykus ds fy, vkdf"kZr djrk gS cy
xq#Rokd"kZ.k ds vuq:i tyk'k; esa ikuh ij
Mkyrk gS] tks bls vius iwoZ Lrj rd fups
ykus dh dksf'k'k djrk gSA
 The influence of gravity on the water in the reservoir creates a force that attempts to move the water
down to the lower level again. If a suitable pipe is run from the reservoir back to the pond, water will
flow under the influence of gravity down from the reservoir, through the pipe:

 It takes energy to pump that water from the low-level pond to the high-
level reservoir, and the movement of water through the piping back down
to its original level constitutes a releasing of energy stored from
previous pumping.
 If the water is pumped to an even higher level, it will take even more
energy to do so, thus more energy will be stored, and more energy
released if the water is allowed to flow through a pipe back down again:

 Electrons are not much different. If we rub wax and

wool together, we “pump” electrons away from their
normal “levels,” creating a condition where a force
exists between the wax and wool, as the electrons seek to
re-establish their former positions (and balance within their respective atoms).
 The force attracting electrons back to their original positions around the positive nuclei of their atoms is
analogous to the force gravity exerts on water in the reservoir, trying to draw it down to its former
level.
 tSls gh bdëk fd;s gq, ÅtkZ ds ,d mPp Lrj ds ifj.kkeksa dks ikuh esa iai
fd;k tkrk gS] "iafiax" bysDVª‚u ml vlarqyu esa tek gksus okyh ,d fuf'pr
jkf'k esa ÅtkZ ds ifj.kke esa fctyh pktZ dks vlarqfyr djrs gSaA

 tSls fd tyk'k; ds Åapkb;ksa ls ikuh dks okil cgus ds fy, ,d jkLrk çnku djrs
gSa] ifj.kkeLo:i ml laxzfgr ÅtkZ dks NksM+us esa gksrk gS] rFkk
bysDVªkuksa dks vius ewy "Lrj" esa okil vkus ds fy, ,d jkLrk çnku djrs
gSa ifj.kkeLo:i laxzfgr ÅtkZ dks NksM+us esa gksrk gS A

 tc ml fLFkj fLFkfr esa bysDVª‚uksa dks larqfyr j[kk tkrk gS ¼tSls ikuh
vHkh Hkh fLFkj gSa] ,d mPp tyk'k; esa ½] ogka laxzghr ÅtkZ dks
laHkkfor ÅtkZ dgk tkrk gS] D;ksafd blesa fjyht dh laHkkouk ¼laHkkfor½
gksrh gS tks vHkh rd iwjh rjg ls eglwl ugha dh xbZ gSAtc vki vius
jcM+&rYyk yxs gq, twrs dks ,d lw[ks fnu esa diM+s ds dkyhu ds foijhr iSj
jxM+dj pyrs gSa] rks vki vius vkSj dkyhu ds chp fctyh ds pktZ dk vlarqyu
cukrs gSaA

 vius iSjksa dks nckus dh dkjZokbZ muds ewy LFkkuksa ls bysDVª‚uksa

ds vlarqyu ds :i esa ÅtkZ cy dks lapfjr djrh gSA;g pktZ ¼LFkSfrd fctyh½
fLFkj gS] vkSj vkidks ugha irk gksxk fd ÅtkZ dks lHkh esa laxzfgr fd;k tk
jgk gSA gkykafd] ,d ckj tc vki ,d èkkrq ds njokt+s ds ?kqaMh ¼vkids
bysfDVªd pktZ dks csvlj djus ds fy, cgqr lkjs bysDVª‚u xfr'khyrk ds lkFk½
ds fo#) viuk gkFk j[k nsrs gSa] rks laxzghr ÅtkZ vkids gkFkksa ds ekè;e
ls bysDVª‚uksa ds vpkud çokg ds :i esa tkjh gksxh] vkSj vki bls ,d fctyh
ds >Vds ds :i esa eglwl djsaxsA

 ;g laHkkfor ÅtkZ] ,d bysfDVªd pktZ vlarqyu ds :i esa laxzfgr gksrh gS

vkSj ,d daMDVj ds ekè;e ls çokg djus ds fy, bysDVª‚uksa dks mÙksftr
djus esa l{ke gksrh gS] ftls oksYVst uked ,d 'kCn ds :i esa O;ä fd;k tk
ldrk gS] tks rduhdh :i ls bysDVª‚uksa ds çfr bdkbZ çHkkjh laHkkfor ÅtkZ
dk ,d mik; gS ;k dqN HkkSfrd foKkuh bls fof'k"V laHkkfor ÅtkZ dgrs gSaA

 LFkSfrd fctyh ds lanHkZ esa ifjHkkf"kr] oksYVst ,d LFkku ls nwljs LFkku

ij ,d ;wfuV pktZ dks LFkkukarfjr djus ds fy, visf{kr dk;Z dk eki gS] tks cy
dk fo|qr larqyu dks larqfyr j[kus dh dksf'k'k djrk gSA
 fo|qr ÅtkZ lzksrksa ds lanHkZ esa] oksYVst ,d daMDVj ds ekè;e ls
bysDVª‚uksa dks LFkkukarfjr djus ds fy, çfr ;wfuV pktZ ds fy, miyCèk
laHkkfor ÅtkZ ¼dke fd;k tkuk½ dh ek=k gSA

 D;ksafd oksYVst laHkkfor ÅtkZ dk vfHkO;fä gS] D;ksafd ÅtkZ dks ,d "Lrj"
ls nwljs LFkku ij ys tkus dh laHkkouk ;k ÅtkZ dh fjyht dh laHkkouk dk
çfrfufèkRo djrk gS] ;g ges'kk nks fcanqvksa ds chp lanfHkZr gksrk gSA
ty tyk'k; lekurk ij fopkj djsa%

 Mª‚i dh ÅapkbZ esa varj gksus ds dkj.k] tyk'k; ls ikbfiax ds ekè;e ls LFkku
2 ls LFkku 1 rd vfèkd ÅtkZ tkjh gksus dh laHkkouk gSA
 Just as the pumping of water to a higher level results in energy being stored, “pumping” electrons to
create an electric charge imbalance results in a certain amount of energy being stored in that imbalance.
 And, just as providing a way for water to flow back down from the heights of the reservoir results in a
release of that stored energy, providing a way for electrons to flow back to their original “levels” results
in a release of stored energy.
 When the electrons are poised in that static condition (just like water sitting still, high in a reservoir), the
energy stored there is called potential energy, because it has the possibility (potential) of release that
has not been fully realized yet. When you scuff your rubber-soled shoes against a fabric carpet on a dry
day, you create an imbalance of electric charge between yourself and the carpet.
 The action of scuffing your feet stores energy in the form of an imbalance of electrons forced from their
original locations. This charge (static electricity) is stationary, and you won’t realize that energy is being
stored at all. However, once you place your hand against a metal doorknob (with lots of electron
mobility to neutralize your electric charge), that stored energy will be released in the form of a sudden
flow of electrons through your hand, and you will perceive it as an electric shock!
 This potential energy, stored in the form of an electric charge imbalance and capable of provoking
electrons to flow through a conductor, can be expressed as a term called voltage, which technically is a
measure of potential energy per unit charge of electrons, or something a physicist would call specific
potential energy.
 Defined in the context of static electricity, voltage is the measure of work required to move a unit
charge from one location to another, against the force which tries to keep electric charges balanced.
 In the context of electrical power sources, voltage is the amount of potential energy available (work to
be done) per unit charge, to move electrons through a conductor.
 Because voltage is an expression of potential energy, representing the possibility or potential for energy
release as the electrons move from one “level” to another, it is always referenced between two points.
Consider the water reservoir analogy:
 Because of the difference in the height of the drop, there’s potential for much more energy to be
released from the reservoir through the piping to location 2 than to location 1.
 ,d pêku fxjus ds fl)kar dks lgt :i esa le>k tk ldrk gS% ftlds ifj.kkeLo:i vfèkd
fgald çHkko iM+rk gS] ;fn ,d pêku dks ,d QqV dh ÅapkbZ ls fxjk;k tkrk
gS] ;k mlh pêku dks ,d ehy dh ÅapkbZ ls fxjk;k tkrk gS\

 tkfgj gS] vfèkd ÅapkbZ ls fxjkus ij] ifj.kke Lo#i vfèkd ÅtkZ tkjh gksrh gS
¼vfèkd fgald çHkko gksrk gS½ ge fdlh ikuh Hk.Mkj.k esa laxzfgr ÅtkZ dh
ek=k dk vkdyu ugha dj ldrs gSa] cl ikuh dh ek=k dks ekidj] ge fdlh pêku
ds otu dks tkuus ds fy, cl fxjus okys pêku ds çHkko dh xaHkhjrk dh
Hkfo";ok.kh dj ldrs gSa: nksuksa gh ekeyksa esa gesa ;g Hkh fopkj djuk
pkfg, fd fdruh nwj ;s lewg viuh çkjafHkd ÅapkbZ ls fxjsaxhA
 æO;eku dks NksM+us dh vuqefr nsdj tkjh ÅtkZ dh ek=k mlds 'kq#vkrh
vkSj lekiu fcanqvksa ds chp dh nwjh ds lkis{k gksrh gSA blh rjg]
bysDVª‚uksa dks ,d fcanq ls nwljs LFkkukarfjr djus ds fy, miyCèk
laHkkfor ÅtkZ mu nks fcanqvksa ds lkis{k gksrh gSA

 blfy,] oksYVst dks ges'kk nks fcanqvksa ds chp ek=k ds :i esa O;ä fd;k
tkrk gS fnypLi :i ls i;kZIr] ,d cM+s iSekus ds lekurk dks ,d ÅapkbZ ls
nwljs rd "NksM+uk" ,d ,slk mi;qä e‚My gS tks nks fcanqvksa ds chp
oksYVst dks dHkh&dHkh ,d oksYVst Mª‚i dgk tkrk gSA

 oksYVst ,d nwljs ds fo#) fuf'pr çdkj dh lkefxz;ksa dks jxM+us ds vykok

vU; rjhdksa ls mRiUu fd;k tk ldrk gSA jklk;fud çfrfØ;kvksa] mTToy ÅtkZ]
vkSj daMDVj ij pqacdRo ds çHkko ds dqN rjhds gSa ftlesa oksYVst dk
mRiknu fd;k tk ldrk gSA
 oksYVst ds bu rhu lzksrksa ds laHkkfor mnkgj.k cSVjh] lkSj dksf'kdk,a
vkSj tujsVj gSa ¼tSls fd vkids v‚Vkseksckby ds gqM ds uhps "vYVjsVj"
bdkbZ½

 vHkh ds fy,] bu oksYVst lzksrksa esa ls çR;sd dSls dke djrk gS ] bl ckjs
esa ge foLrkj esa ugha tk;saxs & vkSj vfèkd egRoiw.kZ ;g gS fd ge le>rs
gSa fd lfdZV esa bysDVª‚u çokg cukus ds fy, oksYVst lzksr dSls ykxw fd,
tk ldrs gSaA

 pyks ,d jklk;fud cSVjh ds fy, çrhd ysrs gSa vkSj pj.k nj pj.k ,d lfdZV cukrs
gSa:

 cSVjh lfgr oksYVst ds fdlh Hkh lzksr] ds ikl fo|qr laidZ ds fy, nks fcanq
gSaA bl ekeys esa] gekjs ikl Åij fn, x, vkjs[k esa fcanq 1 vkSj fcanq 2
gSA
 vyx&vyx yackbZ dh {kSfrt js[kkvksa ls ladsr feyrk gS fd ;g ,d cSVjh gS]
vkSj os vkxs dh fn'kk dk ladsr nsrs gSa tks bl cSVjh ds oksYVst ,d lfdZV
ds ekè;e ls bysDVª‚uksa dks èkdsyus dk ç;kl djsaxsA
 rF; ;g gS fd cSVjh ds çrhd esa {kSfrt js[kk vyx&vyx fn[krh gSa ¼vkSj bl
çdkj bysDVª‚uksa ds fy, iFk ds :i esa dke djus esa vleFkZ½ fpark dk
dksbZ dkj.k ugha gS% okLrfod thou esa] mu {kSfrt js[kk,a rjy ;k v)Z&Bksl
,slh lkexzh tks u dsoy bysDVª‚uksa dk lapkyu djrh gS] cfYd IysVksa ds
lkFk baVjSDV djds mUgsa èkDdk nsus ds fy, oksYVst Hkh mRiUu djrh
gSA

 The principle can be intuitively understood in dropping a rock: which results in a more violent impact, a
rock dropped from a height of one foot, or the same rock dropped from a height of one mile?
 Obviously, the drop of greater height results in greater energy released (a more violent impact). We
cannot assess the amount of stored energy in a water reservoir simply by measuring the volume of
water any more than we can predict the severity of a falling rock’s impact simply from knowing the
weight of the rock: in both cases we must also consider how farthese masses will drop from their initial
height.
 The amount of energy released by allowing a mass to drop is relative to the distance between its
starting and ending points. Likewise, the potential energy available for moving electrons from one point
to another is relative to those two points.
 Therefore, voltage is always expressed as a quantity between two points. Interestingly enough, the
analogy of a mass potentially “dropping” from one height to another is such an apt model that voltage
between two points is sometimes called a voltage drop.
 Voltage can be generated by means other than rubbing certain types of materials against each other.
Chemical reactions, radiant energy, and the influence of magnetism on conductors are a few ways in
which voltage may be produced.
 Respective examples of these three sources of voltage are batteries, solar cells, and generators (such as
the “alternator” unit under the hood of your automobile).
 For now, we won’t go into detail as to how each of these voltage sources works—more important is
that we understand how voltage sources can be applied to create electron
flow in a circuit.
 Let’s take the symbol for a chemical battery and build a circuit step by step:

 Any source of voltage, including batteries, have two points for electrical
contact. In this case, we have point 1 and point 2 in the above diagram.
 The horizontal lines of varying length indicate that this is a battery, and they further indicate the
direction which this battery’s voltage will try to push electrons through a circuit.
 The fact that the horizontal lines in the battery symbol appear separated (and thus unable to serve as a
path for electrons to move) is no cause for concern: in real life, those horizontal lines represent metallic
plates immersed in a liquid or semi-solid material that not only conducts electrons, but also generates
the voltage to push them along by interacting with the plates.
 cSVjh çrhd ds rRdky ck;ha rjQ NksVs "$" vkSj "&" ladsrksa ij è;ku nsaA
 cSVjh dk udkjkRed ¼&½ Nksj ges'kk de ls de MS'k ds lkFk var gksrk gS]
vkSj cSVjh dk ldkjkRed ¼$½ Nksj ges'kk lcls yacs le; MS'k ds lkFk var
gksrk gSA
 pwafd geus bysDVª‚uksa dks "udkjkRed" pktZ dgus dk fu.kZ; fy;k gS
¼èkU;okn] csu½] cSVjh dk udkjkRed Nksj og Nksj gksrk gS tks
bysDVª‚uksa dks blls cgkj fudkyus dk ç;kl djrk gSA
 blh rjg] ldkjkRed Nksj og Nksj gksrk gS tks bysDVª‚uksa dks vkdf"kZr
djus dh dksf'k'k djrk gSA
 "$" vkSj "&" Nksj ds lkFk cSVjh ls dqN Hkh ugha tqM+k gksrk gS] mu
nks fcanqvksa ds chp oksYVst gksxk] ysfdu cSVjh ds ekè;e ls
bysDVª‚uksa dk dksbZ çokg ugha
gksxk] D;ksafd bysDVªkuksa dks
LFkkukarfjr djus ds fy, dksbZ fujarj
jkLrk ugha gS A

 blh fl)kar dks ty HkaMkj vkSj iai lekurk ds fy, lgh ekuk tkrk gS: fcuk fdlh
fjVuZ ikbi ds okil rkykc esa] rFkk laxzghr ÅtkZ dks ty çokg ds :i esa tyk'k;
esa ugha NksM+h tk ldrh gSA

 ,d ckj tyk'k; iwjh rjg ls Hkj tk;s] rks mles dksbZ çokg ugha gks ldrk gS]
pkgs fdruk Hkh ncko iai mRiUu dj ys dksbZ QdZ ugha iM+rkArkykc ls ty
ds çokg ds fy, ty ds fy, ,d iwjk iFk ¼lfdZV½ gksuk t:jh gS] vkSj rkykc esa
okil vkus ds fy, fujarj çokg gksuk pkfg,A
 ge cSVjh ds ,d Nksj ls nwljs rd rkj ds ,d VqdM+s dks dusDV djds cSVjh
ds fy, bl rjg ds ekxZ çnku dj ldrs gSaA rkj ds ,d ywi ds lkFk ,d lfdZV
cukus ls] ge ,d nf{k.kkorZ fn'kk esa bysDVª‚uksa dk fujarj çokg 'kq:
djsaxs%
 Notice the little “+” and “-” signs to the immediate left of the battery symbol.
 The negative (-) end of the battery is always the end with the shortest dash, and the positive (+) end of
the battery is always the end with the longest dash.
 Since we have decided to call electrons “negatively” charged (thanks, Ben!), the negative end of a
battery is that end which tries to push electrons out of it.
 Likewise, the positive end is that end which tries to attract electrons.
 With the “+” and “-” ends of the battery not connected to anything, there will be voltage between
those two points, but there will be no flow of electrons through the battery, because there is no
continuous path for the electrons to move.

 The same principle holds true for the water reservoir and pump analogy: without a return pipe back to
the pond, stored energy in the reservoir cannot be released in the form of water flow.
 Once the reservoir is completely filled up, no flow can occur, no matter how much pressure the pump
may generate. There needs to be a complete path (circuit) for water to flow from the pond, to the
reservoir, and back to the pond in order for continuous flow to occur.
 We can provide such a path for the battery by connecting a piece of wire from one end of the battery to
the other. Forming a circuit with a loop of wire, we will initiate a continuous flow of electrons in a
clockwise direction:
 tc rd cSVjh
oksYVst dk mRiknu tkjh j[krh gS vkSj fctyh iFk dh fujarjrk VwV ugha tkrh
gS] rc rd lfdZV esa bysDVª‚u tkjh jgsaxsA ,d ikbi ds ekè;e ls pyus okys
ikuh ds :id ds ckn] lfdZV ds ekè;e ls ;g fujarj] bysDVª‚uksa ds ,dleku çokg
dks djaV dgk tkrk gS A

 tc rd oksYVst lzksr ,d gh fn'kk esa "èkDdk" nsrk jgrk gS] rc rd bysDVª‚u

çokg lfdZV esa ,d gh fn'kk esa vkxs c<+uk tkjh j[ksxkA

 bysDVª‚uksa ds bl ,dy&fn'kk ds çokg dks ,d çR;{k djaV ;k Mhlh dgk tkrk

gSA bl iqLrd J`a[kyk ds nwljs laLdj.k esa] bysfDVªd lfdZV dk irk yxk;k x;k
gS] tgka orZeku fLopsl dh fn'kk vkxs vkSj ihNs gS: oSdfYid djaV ;k ,lh
ysfdu vHkh ds fy,] ge flQZ Mhlh lfdZV ds lkFk [kqn dk okLrk j[ksaxsA

 pwafd fo|qr djaV 'kkafriwoZd ,d daMDVj ds ekè;e ls lkekukarj cgus okys

O;fäxr bysDVª‚uksa dks ,dlkFk vkSj vkxs dh rjQ bysDVªku dks <dsyrs
gSa]tSls ,d Vîwc ds }kjk ekcZy ;k ,d ikbi ds }kjk ikuh] ,d gh lfdZV esa
çokg dh ek=k fdlh Hkh fcanq ij leku gksxhA

 vxj ge vdsys lfdZV esa rkj ds Ø‚l&lsD'ku dh fuxjkuh dj jgs Fks] rks
bysDVª‚uksa }kjk cgus okys dh fxurh]] ge lfdZV ds fdlh vU; fgLls ds :i esa
le; ds çfr bdkbZ dh lVhd ek=k ns[ksaxs] daMDVj dh yackbZ ;k daMDVj
ds O;kl dh ijokg fd, fcuk A

 ;fn ge fdlh Hkh fcanq ij lfdZV dh

fujarjrk dks rksM+rs gSa] rks
fctyh dk çokg iwjh ywi esa can
gks tk,xk] vkSj cSVjh }kjk
mRikfnr iw.kZ oksYVst dks
rksM+us ds nkSjku çdV fd;k
 tk,xk] tks rkj ds lekIr
gksus ds chp esa
ç;ksx ds fy, tqM+k
gqvk Fkk%

 So long as the battery continues to produce voltage and the continuity of the electrical path isn’t
broken, electrons will continue to flow in the circuit. Following the metaphor of water moving through a
pipe, this continuous, uniform flow of electrons through the circuit is called a current.
 So long as the voltage source keeps “pushing” in the same direction, the electron flow will continue to
move in the same direction in the circuit.
 This single-direction flow of electrons is called a Direct Current, or DC. In the second volume of this book
series, electric circuits are explored where the direction of current switches back and forth: Alternating
Current, or AC. But for now, we’ll just concern ourselves with DC circuits.
 Because electric current is composed of individual electrons flowing in unison through a conductor by
moving along and pushing on the electrons ahead, just like marbles through a tube or water through a
pipe, the amount of flow throughout a single circuit will be the same at any point.
 If we were to monitor a cross-section of the wire in a single circuit, counting the electrons flowing by,
we would notice the exact same quantity per unit of time as in any other part of the circuit, regardless
of conductor length or conductor diameter.
 If we break the circuit’s continuity at any point, the electric current will cease in the entire loop, and the
full voltage produced by the battery will be manifested across the break, between the wire ends that
used to be connected :
 lfdZV esa czsd ds Nksj ij "$" vkSj "&" fpUgksa dks uksfVl djsa] vkSj
cSVjh ds VfeZuyksa ds cxy esa "$" vkSj "&" fpàksa ds vuq:i dSls irk
pyrk gSA

 ;s ekdZj fn'kk funZsf'kr djrs gSa fd oksYVst bysDVª‚u çokg dks iq'k djus
dk ç;kl djrk gS] tks fd laHkkfor fn'kk dks vkerkSj ij è#oh; dgk tkrk gSA ;kn
j[ksa fd oksYVst ges'kk nks fcanqvksa ds chp lkis{k gSA

 bl rF; ds dkj.k] ,d oksYVst Mª‚i dh è#ork Hkh nks fcanqvksa ds chp lkis{k
gksrh gS: D;k lfdZV esa dksbZ fcanq "$" ;k "&" ds lkFk yscy fd;k tkrk gS
vU; fcanq ij bldk lanHkZ fn;k tkrk gSA

 fuEu lfdZV ij ,d ut+j Mkysa] tgka ywi ds çR;sd dksus esa lanHkZ ds fy, ,d
la[;k ds lkFk fpfàr fd;k x;k gS%

 vad 2 vkSj 3 ds chp VwVh gqbZ lfdZV dh fujarjrk ds lkFk] fcanq 2 vkSj 3
ds chp oksYVst dh è#oh;rk "&" fcanq 2 ds fy, vkSj "$" fcanq 3 ds fy, gSA
cSVjh dh è#oh;rk ¼1 "&" vkSj 4 "$"½ ywi ds }kjk nf{k.kkorZ 1 ls 2 ls 3 ls
4 rd vkSj okil fQj ls 1 ds rjQ bysDVª‚uksa dks èkdsyus dk ç;kl dj jgh gSA

 vc ns[krs gSa fd D;k gksxk vxj ge

nksckjk fQj ls 2 vkSj 3 dks tksM+sa]
ysfdu vad 3 vkSj 4 ds chp lfdZV esa ,d
czsd j[ksa%
 vkSj 4 ds chp ds czsd ds lkFk] mu nks fcanqvksa ds chp oksYVst Mª‚i dh
è#oh;rk 4 ds fy, "$"vkSj 3 ds fy, "&" gSA bl rF; ij fo'ks"k è;ku nsa fd fcanq
3 dk "fpà" igys mnkgj.k esa blds foijhr gS] tgka vad 2 vkSj 3 ds chp Fkk
¼tgka fcanq 3 dks "$" yscy fd;k x;k Fkk½A gekjs fy, ;g dguk vlaHko gS
fd bl lfdZV esa i‚baV 3 ges'kk "$" ;k "&"gksxk] D;ksafd iksyfjVh] oksYV
dh rjg gh] ,d fcanq ds fy, fof'k"V ugha gS] ysfdu ges'kk nks fcanqvksa ds
chp lkis{k gS!
 Notice the “+” and “-” signs drawn at the ends of the break in the circuit, and how they correspond
to the “+” and “-” signs next to the battery’s terminals.
 These markers indicate the direction that the voltage attempts to push electron flow, that potential
direction commonly referred to as polarity. Remember that voltage is always relative between two
points.
 Because of this fact, the polarity of a voltage drop is also relative between two points: whether a
point in a circuit gets labeled with a “+” or a “-” depends on the other point to which it is
referenced.
 Take a look at the following circuit, where each
corner of the loop is marked with a number for
reference:
 With the circuit’s continuity broken between
points 2 and 3, the polarity of the voltage
dropped between points 2 and 3 is “-” for point 2 and “+” for point 3. The battery’s polarity (1 “-”
and 4 “+”) is trying to push electrons through the loop clockwise from 1 to 2 to 3 to 4 and back to 1
again.
 Now let’s see what happens if we connect points 2 and 3 back together again, but place a break in
the circuit between points 3 and 4:

 With the break between 3 and 4, the polarity of the voltage drop between those two points is “+” for
4 and “-” for 3. Take special note of the fact that point 3’s “sign” is opposite of that in the first
example, where the break was between points 2 and 3 (where point 3 was labeled “+”). It is
impossible for us to say that point 3 in this circuit will always be either “+” or “-”, because polarity, like
voltage itself, is not specific to a single point, but is always relative between two points!
1-5 çfrjksèk%

 fiNys [kaM esa lfdZV ,d cgqr gh O;kogkfjd ugha gSA

 okLro esa] ;g fuekZ.k djus ds fy, dkQh [krjukd gks ldrk gS ¼rkj ds ,d
VqdM+s ds lkFk oksYVst lzksr ds [kaHks dks lhèks dusDV djuk½

 bldk dkj.k [krjukd gS D;ksafd bl rjg ds 'k‚VZ lfdZV esa fo|qr çokg dh
Hk;kogrk cgqr cM+h gks ldrh gS] vkSj ÅtkZ dh fjgkbZ cgqr gh ukVdh;
¼vkerkSj ij xeÊ ds :i esa½ gks ldrh gS

 vke rkSj ij] bysfDVªd lfdZV bl rjg ls rS;kj fd, tkrs gSa fd ftruh laHko gks
mruh lqjf{kr rjhds ls ml fjyht dh ÅtkZ dk O;kogkfjd mi;ksx fd;k tk ldsA

 fo|qr çokg dk ,d O;kogkfjd vkSj yksdfç; mi;ksx fo|qr çdk'k O;oLFkk dk

lapkyu gSA

 fctyh ds nhid dk ljyre :i ,d Li"V fxykl cYc ds vanj ,d NksVs èkkrq "js'kk"
gksrk gS] tks lQ+sn&xeZ ¼bUdsUtsfll½ dks m"eh; ÅtkZ ds lkFk pedrk
gS] tc i;kZIr fo|qr çokg mlds ikl ls xqtjrk gSA

 cSVjh dh rjg] blesa nks çokgdh; dusD'ku fcanq gksrs gSa] ,d bysDVªku
esa ços'k djus ds fy, vkSj nwljk
bysDVª‚u dks ckgj fudkyus ds
fy,A

 oksYVst ds lzksr ls tqM+k] ,d

fo|qr ySai lfdZV dqN ,slk fn[krk
gS%

 tSlk fd bysDVª‚uksa nhid dh iryh èkkrq dh fQykesaV ds ekè;e ls vius

jkLrs dk;Z djrs gSa] os xfr ds vfèkd fojksèk dk eqdkcyk djrs gSa] os
vkerkSj ij rkj ds eksVs VqdM+s esa gksrs gSaA
 fo|qr çokg dk ;g fojksèk lkexzh ds çdkj] mlds ikj ls lacafèkr {ks= vkSj mlds
rkieku ij fuHkZj djrk gSA

 ;g rduhdh :i ls çfrjksèk ds :i esa tkuk tkrk gSA ¼;g dgk tk ldrk gS fd bl

daMDVj ds ikl de çfrjksèk gksrk gS vkSj bUlqysVj ds ikl cgqr vfèkd
çfrjksèk gksrk gSA½

 ;g çfrjksèk pkyw lfdZV ds ekè;e ls cSVjh }kjk fn, x, oksYVst dh nh xbZ

ek=k dks lhfer djrk gS] "'k‚VZ lfdZV" ds eqdkcys] tgka gekjs ikl dqN Hkh
ugha Fkk] ysfdu ,d rkj oksYVst lzksr ds ,d Nksj ls ¼cSVjh½ nwljs esa
'kkfey gksrs gSaA
1.5 Resistance:
 The circuit in the previous section is not a very practical one.
 In fact, it can be quite dangerous to build (directly connecting the poles of a voltage source together
with a single piece of wire).
 The reason it is dangerous is because the magnitude of electric current may be very large in such a short
circuit, and the release of energy very dramatic (usually in the form of heat).
 Usually, electric circuits are constructed in such a way as to make practical use of that released energy,
in as safe a manner as possible.
 One practical and popular use of electric current is for the operation of electric lighting.
 The simplest form of electric lamp is a tiny metal “filament” inside of a clear glass bulb, which glows
white-hot (“incandesces”) with heat energy when sufficient electric current passes through it.
 Like the battery, it has two conductive connection points, one for electrons to enter and the other for
electrons to exit.
 Connected to a source of voltage, an electric lamp circuit looks something like this:

 As the electrons work their way through the thin metal filament of the lamp, they encounter more
opposition to motion than they typically would in a thick piece of wire.
 This opposition to electric current depends on the type of material, its cross-sectional area, and its
temperature.
 It is technically known as resistance. (It can be said that conductors have low resistance and insulators
have very high resistance.)
 This resistance serves to limit the amount of current through the circuit with a given amount of voltage
supplied by the battery, as compared with the “short circuit” where we had nothing but a wire joining
one end of the voltage source (battery) to the other.
 tc bysDVª‚u çfrjksèk ds fojksèk esa tkrs gSa] rks "?k"kZ.k" mRiUu gksrk
gSA eSdsfudy ?k"kZ.k dh rjg] ,d çfrjksèk ds f[kykQ cgus okys
bysDVª‚uksa }kjk fufeZr ?k"kZ.k gh xeÊ ds :i esa çdV gksrh gSA

 ,d nhid dh fQykesaV dh dsafær çfrjksèk ml fQykesaV esa QSyh xeÊ

ÅtkZ dh vis{kk—r cM+h ek=k esa gksrk gSA ;g xeZ ÅtkZ ds dkj.k
fQykesaV dks lQsn&xeZ pedus ds fy, i;kZIr gS] tcfd rkj dks nhid ls cSVjh
dks tksM+rs gSa ¼ftles cgqr de çfrjksèk gksrk gS½ ;|fi leku jkf'k ds djaV
dk lapkyu djrs le; xeZ gks tkrk gSA

 'k‚VZ lfdZV ds ekeys esa] ;fn fdlh

Hkh fcanq ij lfdZV dh fujarjrk VwV
tkrh gS] rks iwjs lfdZV esa bysDVª‚u
çokg can gks tkrk gSA blds txg esa
,d nhid ds lkFk] bldk eryc gS fd ;g ped
can gks tk,xk%

 tSlk fd igys] bysDVª‚uksa ds çokg ds fcuk] cSVjh dh iwjh {kerk

¼oksYVst½ czsd esa miyCèk gS] ml czsd ij iqy djus ds fy, dusD'ku ds
volj dh çrh{kk djrk gS vkSj bysDVª‚u ds çokg dks fQj ls cgus dh vuqefr
ekaxrk gSA

 bl fLFkfr dks ,d [kqys lfdZV ds :i esa tkuk tkrk gS] tgka lfdZV dh fujarjrk
esa ,d czsd gjtxg djaV dks jksdrk gSA;g lc ,d lfdZV dks "[kksyus" dh
fujarjrk esa ,d vdsyk czsd ysrk gSA

 ,d ckj dksbZ czsd fQj ls tqM+rk gS vkSj lfdZV dh fujarjrk fQj ls LFkkfir
gksrh gS] rks bls can lfdZV ds :i esa tkuk tkrk gSA

 ge ;gk¡ tks ns[krs gSa og fjeksV fLop }kjk ySai dks pkyw vkSj can djus
dk vkèkkj gSA
 D;ksafd lfdZV dh fujarjrk ds ifj.kke esa dksbZ Hkh czsd orZeku esa iwjs
lfdZV dks gjtxg jksdrk gS] ge ,d midj.k dk mi;ksx dj ldrs gSa ftls tkucw>dj
ml fujarjrk dks rksM+us ds fy, fMt+kbu fd;k x;k gS ¼ftls fLop dgk tkrk
gS½] lfdZV esa bysDVª‚uksa ds çokg dks fu;af=r djus ds fy, fdlh Hkh
lqfoèkktud LFkku ij tksM+s gq, rkjksa dks ge pyk ldrs gSa]
 When electrons move against the opposition of resistance, “friction” is generated. Just like mechanical
friction, the friction produced by electrons flowing against a resistance manifests itself in the form of
heat.
 The concentrated resistance of a lamp’s filament results in a relatively large amount of heat energy
dissipated at that filament. This heat energy is enough to cause the filament to glow white-hot,
producing light, whereas the wires connecting the lamp to the battery (which have much lower
resistance) hardly even get warm while conducting the same amount of current.
 As in the case of the short circuit, if the continuity of the circuit is broken at any point, electron flow
stops throughout the entire circuit. With a lamp in place, this means that it will stop glowing:

 As before, with no flow of electrons, the entire potential (voltage) of the battery is available across the
break, waiting for the opportunity of a connection to bridge across that break and permit electron flow
again.
 This condition is known as an open circuit, where a break in the continuity of the circuit prevents current
throughout. All it takes is a single break in continuity to “open” a circuit.
 Once any breaks have been connected once again and the continuity of the circuit re-established, it is
known as a closed circuit.
 What we see here is the basis for switching lamps on and off by remote switches.
 Because any break in a circuit’s continuity results in current stopping throughout the entire circuit, we
can use a device designed to intentionally break that continuity (called a switch), mounted at any
convenient location that we can run wires to, to control the flow of electrons in the circuit:
 bl rjg ls ,d ?kj dh nhokj ij
,d tqM+k gqvk fLop ,d
nhid dks fu;af=r dj ldrk gS
tks ,d yacs nkyku esa ;k fQj
nwljs dejs esa] tks fLop ls
dkQh nwj fups tqM+k gqvk
gks ldrk gSA

 fLop Lo;a gh ,d ;kaf=d yhoj ,aVq,Vj ;k iq'k cVu }kjk ,d çokgdh; laidksZa
ds tksM+s ¼tks vkerkSj ij fdlh çdkj dh èkkrq ls cuk gksrk gS½ dk fuekZ.k
fd;k tkrk gSA

 tc laidZ ,d&nwljs dks Li'kZ djrs gSa] rks bysDVª‚u ,d nwljs esa çokg djus
esa l{ke gksrs gSa vkSj lfdZV dh fujarjrk LFkkfir gksrh gS( tc laidZ vyx
gks tkrs gSa] rks ,d ls nwljs esa bysDVª‚u çokg dks gok ds bUlqys'ku ls
jksdk tkrk gS] vkSj lfdZV dh fujarjrk VwV tkrh gSA

'kk;n ewyHkwr fl)kar ds mnkgj.k ds fy, lcls vPNh rjg dk fLop "pkdw" fLop
gS%
 ,d pkdw fLop ,d çokgdh; yhoj ls T;knk dqN ugha gS] tks ,d fVdh gqbZ
oLrq ij èkqjh djus ds fy, Lora= gS] ;g ,d ;k vfèkd fLFkj laidZ fcanqvksa ds
lkFk HkkSfrd laidZ esa vk jgs gSa tks fd çokgdh; Hkh gSaA
 This is how a switch mounted on the wall of a house can control a lamp that is mounted down a long
hallway, or even in another room, far away from the switch.
 The switch itself is constructed of
a pair of conductive contacts
(usually made of some kind of metal)
forced together by a mechanical lever
actuator or pushbutton.
 When the contacts touch each other, electrons are able to flow from one to the other and the circuit’s
continuity is established; when the contacts are separated, electron flow from one to the other is
prevented by the insulation of the air between, and the circuit’s continuity is broken.6

Perhaps the best kind of switch to show for illustration of the basic principle is the “knife” switch:

 A knife switch is nothing more than a conductive lever, free to pivot on a hinge, coming into physical
contact with one or more stationary contact points which are also conductive.
 mijksä mnkgj.k esa fn[kk;k x;k fLop "CysM" ds fy, rkacs ¼,d mR—"V
daMDVj½ vkSj laidZ fcUnqvksa dk mi;ksx djrs gq, ,d iksflZysu csl ¼,d
mR—"V bUlqysV lkexzh½ ij cuk;k x;k gSA

 IykfLVd gSaMy dks v‚ijsVj ds gkFk dks fLop ds çokgdh; CysM ls [kksyrs
le; [kksyus ;k can djus ds fy, i`Fkd djuk gksrk gSA

 ;gka nwljs çdkj dh pkdw fLop gS] ftlesa ,d ds ctk; nks fLFkj laidZ gksrs
gSa%

 ;gka fn[kk, x, fo'ks"k pkdw fLop esa ,d "CysM" gksrk gS] ysfdu nks fLFkj
laidZ gksrs gSa] ftldk vFkZ gS fd ;g ,d ls vfèkd lfdZV dks cuk ;k rksM+
ldrk gSA

 vHkh ds fy, ;g tkuuk t+:jh ugha gS fd fLop D;k gS vkSj ;g dSls dke djrk
gSA

 pkdw fLop ,d fLop dSls dke djrk gS dh cqfu;knh fl)kar ds mnkgj.k ds fy,
egku gSa] ysfdu os mPp lqj{kk fctyh ds lfdZV esa bLrseky gksus ij
vyx&vyx lqj{kk leL;k,a is'k djrs gSaA

 ,d pkdw fLop esa mtkxj daMDVj lfdZV ds lkFk vkdfLed laidZ dks ,d vyx
laHkkouk cukrs gSa] vkSj pyrh CysM vkSj fLFkj laidZ ds chp gksus okyh
fdlh Hkh LikfdZax dks fdlh Hkh ikl dh Toyu'khy lkexzh dks tykus ds fy,
Lora= gksrs gSA

 vfèkdka'k vkèkqfud fLop fMt+kbuksa ds ikl muds pyus okys daMDVj vkSj
laidZ vad tks bu [krjksa dks de djus ds fy, ,d bUlqysV ekeys esa vanj can
gksrs gSaA

 dqN vkèkqfud fLop çdkjksa dh ,d rLohj crkrh gS fd fLofpax ra= pkdw

fMtkbu dh rqyuk esa fdruk vfèkd xqIr gS%

 lfdZV ds "[kqys" vkSj "can" 'kCnkoyh dks è;ku esa j[krs gq,] ,d fLop tks
,d dusD'ku VfeZuy ls nwljs rd laidZ dj jgk gS ¼mnkgj.k: CysM ds lkFk
pkdw fLop iwjh rjg ls fLFkj laidZ fcanq dks Nwrk gS½ ds ekè;e ls
bysDVª‚uksa dks çokg ds fy, fujarjrk çnku djrk gS] vkSj bls ,d can fLop
dgk tkrk gSA
 blds foijhr] ,d fLop tks fujarjrk dks rksM+ jgk gS ¼mnkgj.k% fLFkj laidZ
fcanq dks Nwus okys CysM ds lkFk pkdw fLop½ bysDVª‚uksa dks ikfjr
djus dh vuqefr ugha nsrk vkSj bls ,d [kqyk fLop dgk tkrk gSA

 ;g 'kCnkoyh vDlj bysDVª‚fuDl ds u;s Nk= dks Hkzfer djrk gS] D;ksafd
"[kqys" vkSj "can" 'kCnksa dks vkerkSj ij ,d njokts ds lanHkZ esa le>k
tkrk gS] tgka "[kqys" eq¶+r ekxZ ls cjkcj gksrk gS vkSj #dkoV ds lkFk
"can" gksrk gSA

 fo|qr fLop ds lkFk] bu 'kCnksa ds foijhr vFkZ gSa% "[kqys" dk eryc

dksbZ çokg ugha gS tcfd "can" dk vFkZ gS bysDVª‚uksa dk eq¶r ekxZA
 The switch shown in the above illustration is constructed on a porcelain base (an excellent insulating
material), using copper (an excellent conductor) for the “blade” and contact points.
 The handle is plastic to insulate the operator’s hand from the conductive blade of the switch when
opening or closing it.
 Here is another type of knife switch, with two stationary contacts instead of one:

 The particular knife switch shown here has one “blade” but two stationary contacts, meaning that it can
make or break more than one circuit.
 For now this is not terribly important to be aware of, just the basic concept of what a switch is and how
it works.
 Knife switches are great for illustrating the basic principle of how a switch works, but they present
distinct safety problems when used in high-power electric circuits.
 The exposed conductors in a knife switch make accidental contact with the circuit a distinct possibility,
and any sparking that may occur between the moving blade and the stationary contact is free to ignite
any nearby flammable materials.
 Most modern switch designs have their moving conductors and contact points sealed inside an
insulating case in order to mitigate these hazards.
 A photograph of a few modern switch types show how the switching mechanisms are much more
concealed than with the knife design:

 In keeping with the “open” and “closed” terminology of circuits, a switch that is making contact from
one connection terminal to the other (example: a knife switch with the blade fully touching the
stationary contact point) provides continuity for electrons to flow through, and is called a closed switch.
 Conversely, a switch that is breaking continuity (example: a knife switch with the blade not touching the
stationary contact point) won’t allow electrons to pass through and is called an open switch.
 This terminology is often confusing to the new student of electronics, because the words “open” and
“closed” are commonly understood in the context of a door, where “open” is equated with free
passage and “closed” with blockage.
 With electrical switches, these terms have opposite meaning: “open” means no flow while “closed”
means free passage of electrons.
vè;k; & 2

vkse dk fu;e%

2-1 dSls oksYVst] djaV] vkSj çfrjksèk lacafèkr gSa%

 tc fu%'kqYd

bysDVª‚uksa dks yxkrkj vkxs c<+us ds fy, ,d çokgdh; ekxZ cuk;k tkrk gS
rks ,d bysfDVªd lfdZV dk xBu gksrk gSA

 ,d lfdZV ds daMDVj ds ekè;e ls fu%'kqYd bysDVª‚uksa ds fujarj

vkanksyu dks djaV dgk tkrk gS] vkSj ;g vDlj "çokg" ds lanHkZ esa
lanfHkZr gksrk gS] tSls fd ,d [kks[kys ikbi ds ekè;e ls ,d rjy ds çokgA

 cy çsfjr bysDVª‚uksa dks ,d lfdZV esa "çokg" djus dks oksYVst dgk tkrk
gSA oksYVst laHkkfor ÅtkZ dk ,d fof'k"V mik; gS tks ges'kk nks
fcanqvksa ds chp lkis{k gksrk gSA

 tc ge lfdZV esa ekStwn ,d fuf'pr ek=k esa oksYVst dh ckr djrs gSa] rks
ge ;g eki dh ckr dj jgs gSa fd ml lfdZV ds fdlh fo'ks"k fcanq ls bysDVªku
dks ,d vkSj fo'ks"k fcanq ij LFkkukarfjr djus ds fy, fdruh laHkkfor ÅtkZ
ekStwn gS\ nks fcanqvksa ds lanHkZ ds fcuk ] "oksYVst" 'kCn dk dksbZ
eryc ugha gSA

 fu%'kqYd bysDVª‚u daMDVj ds ekè;e ls dqN ?k"kZ.k ;k xfr ds fojksèk ds

lkFk pyrs gSaA xfr ds bl fojksèk dks vkSj vfèkd Bhd çfrjksèk dgk tkrk gS
A

 lfdZV esa djaV dh ek=k bysDVª‚uksa dks çsfjr djus ds fy, miyCèk
oksYVst dh ek=k ij fuHkZj djrh gS] vkSj bysDVª‚u çokg dk fojksèk djus
ds fy, lfdZV esa Hkh çfrjksèk dh ek=k gksrh gSA
 cl oksYVst dh rjg] çfrjksèk nks vadksa ds eqdkcys ,d ek=k gSA bl dkj.k
ls] oksYVst vkSj çfrjksèk dh ek=k dks vDlj lfdZV esa “chp esa” ;k
“vkj&ikj” nks fcanqvksa ds :i esa dgk tkrk gSA

 lfdZV esa bu
ek=kvksa ds
ckjs esa lkFkZd
c;ku djus esa l{ke
gksus ds fy,] gesa
mudh ek=k dk mlh
rjg o.kZu djus esa
l{ke gksuk pkfg, fd ge æO;eku] rkieku] ek=k] yackbZ] ;k fdlh vU; çdkj dh
HkkSfrd ek=k dk ifjek.k dj ldrs gSaA

 cM+s iSekus ij ge "fdyksxzke" ;k "xzke" dh bdkb;ksa dk bLrseky dj ldrs

gSaA rkieku ds fy, ge fMxzh Q+kjsugkbV ;k fMxzh lsfYl;l dk bLrseky dj
ldrs gSaA fo|qr orZeku] oksYVst] vkSj çfrjksèk ds fy, eki dh ekud
bdkb;ka ;gka nh xbZ gSa%
Chapter – 2

Ohm's Law

2.1 How Voltage, Current, and Resistance Relate:

 An electric circuit is formed when a conductive path is created to allow free electrons to continuously
move.
 This continuous movement of free electrons through the conductors of a circuit is called a current, and
it is often referred to in terms of “flow,” just like the flow of a liquid through a hollow pipe.
 The force motivating electrons to “flow” in a circuit is called voltage. Voltage is a specific measure of
potential energy that is always relative between two points.
 When we speak of a certain amount of voltage being present in a circuit, we are referring to the
measurement of how much potential energy exists to move electrons from one particular point in that
 circuit to another particular point. Without reference to twoparticular points, the term “voltage” has no
meaning.
 Free electrons tend to move through conductors with some degree of friction, or opposition to motion.
This opposition to motion is more properly called resistance.
 The amount of current in a circuit depends on the amount of voltage available to motivate the
electrons, and also the amount of resistance in the circuit to oppose electron flow.
 Just like voltage, resistance is a quantity relative between two points. For this reason, the quantities of
voltage and resistance are often stated as being “between” or “across” two points in a circuit.
 To be able to make meaningful statements about these quantities in circuits, we need to be able to
describe their quantities in the same way that we might quantify mass, temperature, volume, length, or
any other kind of physical quantity.
 For mass we might use the units of “kilogram” or “gram.” For temperature we might use degrees
Fahrenheit or degrees Celsius. Here are the standard units of measurement for electrical current,
voltage, and resistance:
 çR;sd ek=k ds fy, fn, x, "çrhd" ,d ekud o.kZekyk i= gS tks chth; lehdj.k
esa ml ek=k dks cnyrk gSA bu tSls ekud i= HkkSfrdh vkSj bathfu;fjax ds
fo"k;ksa esa vke gSa] vkSj varjjk"Vªh; Lrj ij ekU;rk çkIr gSaA

 çR;sd ek=k ds fy, " laf{kIr ;wfuV " eki dh viuh fof'k"V bdkbZ ds fy,
y?kqdFkk ladsru ds :i esa of.kZr o.kkZuqØfed çrhd dks n'kkZrk gSA
vkSj] gk¡] ;g vthc&fn[kus okyk flEcy "?kksM+s dh uky" xzhd jkT; dk v{kj Ω
gS] dsoy ,d fons'kh o.kZekyk dk ,d 'kCn ¼;gk¡ ij fdlh Hkh xzhd ikBd ds fy,
ekQh½ gSA

 eki dh çR;sd bdkbZ dk uke fctyh ds ,d çfl) ç;ksxdrkZ ds uke ij j[kk x;k
gS% Ýkalhlh vkaæs ,e ,Eihjs ds cnys esa ,Ei] brkyoh ,yslsaMªks oksYVk
ds cnys esa oksYV] vkSj
teZu tsxkj lkbeu vkse
ds cnys esa vkseA

 çR;sd ek=k ds fy, xf.krh;

çrhd Hkh egRoiw.kZ gSA çfrjksèk ds fy, "vkj" vkSj oksYVst ds fy, "oh"
nksuksa Lo&O;k[;kRed gSa] tcfd djaV ds fy, "vkbZ" FkksM+k vthc yxrk
gSA

 "vkbZ" dks "rhozrk" ¼bysDVª‚u çokg dk½] vkSj oksYVst ds fy, vU; çrhd
dk çfrfufèkRo djus ds fy, dgk x;k gS] "bZ]" dk vFkZ "bysDVªkseksfVo cy"
gSA eSa D;k 'kksèk dj jgk gwa] "vkbZ" ds vFkZ ij dqN fookn yxrk gSA

 "bZ]" vkSj "oh" ds çrhd vfèkdka'k Hkkx ds fy, fofues; gSa] gkykafd dqN
xzaFk lzksrksa ¼tSls fd cSVjh ;k tujsVj½ esa oksYVst dk çfrfufèkRo djus
ds fy, "bZ]" dks vkjf{kr djrs gSa vkSj dqN vkSj esa oksYVst dk çfrfufèkRo
djus ds fy, "oh"

 bu lHkh çrhdksa dks cM+s v{kjksa ds ekè;e ls O;ä fd;k tkrk gS] mu
ekeyksa esa] tgka ,d ek=k ¼fo'ks"kdj oksYVst ;k orZeku½ dks laf{kIr
vofèk ¼ftls "rkRdkfyd" eku dgk tkrk gS½ ds :i esa of.kZr fd;k x;k gSA

 mnkgj.k ds fy,] ,d cSVjh dk oksYVst] tks yacs le; ls fLFkj gksrk gS] dks ,d
dSfiVy dSjsDVj "bZ" ds :i esa n'kkZ;k tk,xk] tcfd fctyh dh gM+rky ds pje
oksYVst ij rqjar ;g ,d ikoj ykbu dks çgkj dh laHkkouk gS le; ds ,d iy esa
gksus okys ewY; dks fufnZ"V djus ds fy, NksVs o.kZekyk okys v{kj "bZ"
¼;k NksVk v{kj "oh"½ dk çrhd gksrk gSA
 ;g ogh NksVk v{kj djaV ijaijk ds fy, Hkh lgh gS] le; ds dqN iy esa djaV
NksVs v{kj "vkbZ " dk çfrfufèkRo djrk gSA lcls çR;{k djaV ¼Mhlh½ eki]
gkykafd] le; ds lkFk fLFkj gksus ds dkj.k] dSfiVy v{kjksa dk çrhd gksxkA
 The “symbol” given for each quantity is the standard alphabetical letter used to represent that quantity
in an algebraic equation. Standardized letters like these are common in the disciplines of physics and
engineering, and are internationally recognized.
 The “unit abbreviation” for each quantity represents the alphabetical symbol used as a shorthand
notation for its particular unit of measurement. And, yes, that strange-looking “horseshoe” symbol is
the capital Greek letter Ω, just a character in a foreign alphabet (apologies to any Greek readers here).
 Each unit of measurement is named after a famous experimenter in electricity: The amp after the
Frenchman Andre M. Ampere, the volt after the Italian Alessandro Volta, and the ohm after the German
Georg Simon Ohm.
 The mathematical symbol for each quantity is meaningful as well. The “R” for resistance and the “V” for
voltage are both self-explanatory, whereas “I” for current seems a bit weird.
 The “I” is thought to have been meant to represent “Intensity” (of electron flow), and the other symbol
for voltage, “E,” stands for “Electromotive force.” From what research I’ve been able to do, there
seems to be some dispute over the meaning of “I.”
 The symbols “E” and “V” are interchangeable for the most part, although some texts reserve “E” to
represent voltage across a source (such as a battery or generator) and “V” to represent voltage across
anything else.
 All of these symbols are expressed using capital letters, except in cases where a quantity (especially
voltage or current) is described in terms of a brief period of time (called an “instantaneous” value).
 For example, the voltage of a battery, which is stable over a long period of time, will be symbolized with
a capital letter “E,” while the voltage peak of a lightning strike at the very instant it hits a power line
would most likely be symbolized with a lower-case letter “e” (or lower-case “v”) to designate that value
as being at a single moment in time.
 This same lower-case convention holds true for current as well, the lower-case letter “i” representing
current at some instant in time. Most direct-current (DC) measurements, however, being stable over
time, will be symbolized with capital letters.
 bysfDVªdy eki dh ,d ewyHkwr bdkbZ] ftls vDlj bysDVª‚fuDl ikBîØeksa
dh 'kq#vkr esa i<+k;k tkrk gS] ysfdu ckn esa dHkh&dHkh mi;ksx ugha
gksrk gS] tks ,d vlac) fLFkfr esa bysDVª‚uksa dh la[;k ds fy,
bysDVªksfud pktZ vuqikr dk ,d eki gksrk gSA pktZ dk ,d dwyEc
6]250]000]000]000]000]000]000 bysDVª‚uksa ds cjkcj gksrk gSA

 bysfDVªd pktZ ek=k dk çrhd cM+k v{kj "D;w" gS] tks fd cM+k v{kj "lh"
}kjk laf{kIr dwyEc dh bdkbZ ds lkFk gksrk gS ;g ,slk gksrk gS fd
bysDVª‚u çokg ds fy, bdkbZ] ,Ei] 1 lsdsaM esa ,d lfdZV esa fn, x, fcanq
ls xqtjus okys bysDVª‚uksa ds 1 dwyEc ds cjkcj gksrh gSA bu 'krksZa
esa dkLV djsa] orZeku esa ,d daMDVj ds ekè;e ls bysfDVªd pktZ çLrko
dh nj gSA

 tSlk fd igys dgk x;k gS] oksYVst ,d fcanq ls nwljs ds fy, bysDVª‚uksa dks
çsfjr djus ds fy, miyCèk çfr ;wfuV pktZ ij laHkkfor ÅtkZ dk eki gS A blls
igys fd ge ,d "okYV" dks Bhd ls ifjHkkf"kr dj ldsa] gesa le>uk pkfg, fd bl
ek=k dks dSls ekiuk pkfg, ftls ge "laHkkfor ÅtkZ" dgrs gSaA

 fdlh Hkh çdkj dh ÅtkZ ds fy, lkekU; ehfVªd bdkbZ ,d tkSy gS ] 1 ehVj ¼,d
gh fn'kk esa½ dh xfr ds ekè;e ls ç;qä 1 U;wVu ds cy }kjk dh xbZ dk;Z dh
ek=k ds cjkcj gksrk gSA fczfV'k bdkb;ksa esa] ;g 1 QqV dh nwjh ij yxk, x,
cy ds 3@4 ikmaM ls FkksM+k de gksrk gSA

 lkekU; 'kCnksa esa] tehu ij 3@4 ikmaM otu 1 QqV Åij mBkus ;k 3@4
ikmaM dh lekukarj [khapus okyh cy dk mi;ksx djds 1 QqV dh nwjh dks
[khapus ds fy, ÅtkZ dk yxHkx 1 twy ysrh gSA bu oSKkfud 'kCnksa esa
ifjHkkf"kr] 1 oksYV fctyh {kerk 1 twy çfr laHkkfor ÅtkZ 1 dwyEc pktZ ds
cjkcj gksrh gS ¼}kjk foHkkftr½A

 bl çdkj] ,d 9 oksYV dh cSVjh ,d lfdZV ds ekè;e ls pys x, bysDVª‚uksa ds

çR;sd dwyEc ds fy, 9 twy ÅtkZ dks fjyht djrh gSA

 fo|qr bdkb;ksa ds fy, ;s bdkb;ka vkSj çrhdksa dks tkuuk cgqr egRoiw.kZ
gksxk D;ksafd ge lfdZV esa mu nksuksa ds chp lacaèkksa dks ryk'kuk
'kq: djrs gSaA
 lcls igys] vkSj 'kk;n lcls egRoiw.kZ] orZeku] oksYVst vkSj çfrjksèk ds chp
lacaèk] ftls vksge y‚ dgrs gSa] tks t‚tZ lkbeu vkse }kjk [kkstk x;k vkSj
muds 1827 ds isij esa çdkf'kr] n Vsfyfouhd lfdZV us xf.krh; tkap dhA vkse
dh eq[; [kkst ;g Fkh fd lfdZV esa èkkrq ds daMDVj ds ekè;e ls fo|qr~
çokg dh ek=k lhèks ml oksYVst ds vkuqikfrd gksrh gS tks fdlh Hkh rkieku
ds fy, çHkkfor gksrh gSA

 vkse us ,d ljy lehdj.k ds :i esa viuh [kkst O;ä dh] ftlesa ;g crk;k x;k gS fd
oksYVst] orZeku vkSj çfrjksèk dSls ijLij gSa%
 One foundational unit of electrical measurement, often taught in the beginnings of electronics courses
but used infrequently afterwards, is the unit of the coulomb, which is a measure of electric charge
proportional to the number of electrons in an imbalanced state. One coulomb of charge is equal to
6,250,000,000,000,000,000 electrons.
 The symbol for electric charge quantity is the capital letter “Q,” with the unit of coulombs abbreviated
by the capital letter “C.” It so happens that the unit for electron flow, the amp, is equal to 1 coulomb of
electrons passing by a given point in a circuit in 1 second of time. Cast in these terms, current is the rate
of electric charge motion through a conductor.
 As stated before, voltage is the measure of potential energy per unit charge available to motivate
electrons from one point to another. Before we can precisely define what a “volt” is, we must
understand how to measure this quantity we call “potential energy.
 ” The general metric unit for energy of any kind is the joule, equal to the amount of work performed by
a force of 1 newton exerted through a motion of 1 meter (in the same direction). In British units, this is
slightly less than 3/4 pound of force exerted over a distance of 1 foot.
 Put in common terms, it takes about 1 joule of energy to
lift a 3/4 pound weight 1 foot off the ground, or to drag
something a distance of 1 foot using a parallel pulling force
of 3/4 pound. Defined in these scientific terms, 1 volt is equal to 1 joule of electric potential energy per
(divided by) 1 coulomb of charge.
 Thus, a 9 volt battery releases 9 joules of energy for
every coulomb of electrons moved through a
circuit.
 These units and symbols for electrical quantities will become very important to know as we begin to
explore the relationships between them in circuits.
 The first, and perhaps most important, relationship between current, voltage, and resistance is called
Ohm’s Law, discovered by Georg Simon Ohm and published in his 1827 paper, The Galvanic Circuit
Investigated Mathematically. Ohm’s principal discovery was that the amount of electric current through
 a metal conductor in a circuit is directly proportional to the voltage impressed across it, for any given
temperature.
 Ohm expressed his discovery in the form of a simple equation, describing how voltage, current, and
resistance interrelate:
 bl chth; vfHkO;fä esa] oksYVst ¼bZ½ djaV ¼vkbZ½ ds cjkcj gS çfrjksèk
¼vkj½ }kjk xq.kkA chtxf.kr rduhdksa dk mi;ksx djrs gq,] ge bl lehdj.k dks
nks fHkUurkvksa esa gsjQsj dj ldrs gSa] Øe'k% vkbZ vkSj vkj ds fy, gy dj
ldrs gSa%

 vkb, ns[ksa fd ;s lehdj.k ljy lfdZV dk fo'ys"k.k djus esa gekjh enn djus ds
fy, dSls dke dj ldrk gS%

 Let’s see how these equations might work to help us analyze simple circuits:

 mi;Zqä lfdZV esa] dsoy oksYVst dk ,d lzksr

¼ckbZa rjQ cSVjh gS½ vkSj djaV ¼nhid] nkbZa rjQ½ çfrjksèk dk dsoy ,d
lzksr gSA ;g vkse ds fu;e dks ykxw djuk cgqr vklku cukrk gSA

 vxj ge bl ifjiFk esa rhu ek=kvksa ¼oksYVst] djaV vkSj çfrjksèk½ ds fdlh
Hkh nks ds ewY;ksa dks tkurs gSa] rks ge rhljs dks fuèkkZfjr djus ds fy,
vkse ds fu;e dk mi;ksx dj ldrs gSaA
 In the above circuit, there is only one source of voltage (the battery, on the left) and only one
source of resistance to current (the lamp, on the right). This makes it very easy to apply Ohm’s
Law.

 If we know the values of any two of the three quantities (voltage, current, and resistance) in this
circuit, we can use Ohm’s Law to determine
the third.

 bl igys mnkgj.k esa] ge lfdZV esa djaV ¼vkbZ ½ dh ek=k dh x.kuk

djsaxs] oksYVst ¼bZ½ vkSj çfrjksèk ¼vkj½ ds oSY;w fn, x, gSaA
 bl lfdZV esa ekStwnk ¼vkbZ½ dh ek=k D;k gS\
 In this first example, we will calculate the amount of current (I) in a circuit, given values of
voltage (E) and resistance (R).
 What is the amount of current (I) in this
circuit?

 bl nwljs mnkgj.k esa] ge lfdZV esa çfrjksèk ¼vkj½ dh ek=k dh x.kuk

djsaxs] tks oksYVst ¼bZ½ vkSj
djaV ¼vkbZ½ ds ewY; fn, x, gSa%
 In this second example, we will calculate
the amount of resistance (R) in a circuit, given values of voltage (E) and
current (I):

 ySai }kjk çnÙk çfrjksèk ¼vkj½ dh ek=k D;k gS\

 What is the amount of resistance (R) offered by the
lamp?

 fiNys mnkgj.k esa] ge cSVjh }kjk fn, x,

oksYVst dh ek=k dh x.kuk djsaxs] djaV ¼vkbZ ½ vkSj çfrjksèk ¼vkj½ ds
oSY;w fn, x, gSa %
 In the last example, we will calculate the amount
of voltage supplied by a battery, given values of
current (I) and resistance (R):

 cSVjh }kjk çnÙk oksYVst dh ek=k D;k

gS\

 What is the amount of voltage provided by the

battery?

 vkse dk fu;e bysfDVªd lfdZV dk fo'ys"k.k djus ds fy, ,d cgqr ljy vkSj
mi;ksxh midj.k gSA

 ;g vDlj fctyh vkSj bysDVª‚fuDl ds vè;;u esa ç;ksx fd;k tkrk gS fd xaHkhj
Nk= }kjk Le`fr ds fy, çfrc) gksuk pkfg,A

 tks yksx vHkh rd chtxf.kr ds lkFk dEQVZscy ugha gSa] rks ;gk¡ ij ;kn
j[kus ds fy, ,d fVªd gS fd dSls fdlh ,d ek=k dks gy djuk gS] vU; nks fn, x,
gSaA

 lcls igys] bl rjg ls ,d f=dks.k esa bZ] vkbZ vkSj vkj v{kjksa dh O;oLFkk
djsa%
 Ohm’s Law is a very simple and useful tool for analyzing electric circuits.
 It is used so often in the study of electricity and electronics that it needs to be committed to
memory by the serious student.
 For those who are not yet comfortable with algebra, there’s a trick to remembering how to
solve for any one quantity, given the other two.

 First, arrange the letters E, I, and R in a triangle like this:

 ;fn vki bZ vkSj vkbZ dks tkurs gSa] vkSj vkj dk fuèkkZj.k djuk pkgrs gSa]
rks cl fp= ls vkj dks [kRe djsa vkSj ns[ksa fd
D;k cpk gS%

 If you know E and I, and wish to determine R, just

eliminate R from the picture and see what’s left:

 ;fn vki bZ vkSj vkj dks tkurs gSa] vkSj vkbZ dk fuèkkZj.k djuk pkgrs gSa]
rks vkbZ dks lekIr djsa vkSj ns[ksa fd D;k cpk gS%

 If you know E and R, and wish to determine I, eliminate I and see what’s left:

 vUr esa] vxj vki vkbZ vkSj vkj dks tkurs gSa] vkSj bZ dk fuèkkZj.k djuk
pkgrs gSa] rks bZ dks lekIr djsa vkSj ns[ksa fd D;k cpk gS%

 Lastly, if you know I and R, and wish to determine E, eliminate E and see what’s left:
 vkf[kjdkj] vkidks chtxf.kr ls ifjfpr
gksuk gksxk rkfd vki fctyh vkSj
bysDVª‚fuDl dks xaHkhjrk ls
vè;;u dj ldsa] ysfdu ;g fVi vkidh
igyh x.kuk dks ;kn j[kus esa
FkksM+k vklku dj ldrk gS

 ;fn vki chtxf.kr ds fy, lgt gSa] rks vkidks dsoy bZ ¾ vkbZvkj dks è;ku esa j[kuk gksxk
vkSj vU; nks Q+keZqyksa dks çkIr djuk gksxk tc vkidks mudh vko';drk gksxhA

 Eventually, you’ll have to be familiar with algebra to seriously study electricity and electronics,
but this tip can make your first calculations a little easier to remember.

 If you are comfortable with algebra, all you need to do is commit E=IR to memory and derive
the other two formulae from that when you need them.

2-2 vkse ds dkuwu ds fy, ,d lekurk%

 ;fn vki bls ikuh vkSj ikbi lekurk ds fy,

ykxw djrs gSa rks vkse dk fu;e Hkh lgt
Kku ;qä le> esa vkrk gSA

 ;fn gekjs ikl ,d ikuh dk iai gS tks ,d

çfrcaèk ¼çfrjksèk½ ds ekè;e ls ,d "lfdZV"
¼djaV½ ds pkjksa vksj ikuh dks <dsyus ds fy, ncko ¼oksYVst½ dk mi;ksx djrk gS]
rks ge e‚My rS;kj dj ldrs gS fd dSls rhu çHkkfor djus okyh oLrq,¡ vkil esa lEcafèkr
gksrh gSaA

 ;fn ty çokg dk çfrjksèk leku jgrk gS vkSj iai ncko dks c<+krk gS] rks çokg ds nj dks
Hkh c<+uk pkfg,A
 ;fn ncko ,d gh jgrk gS vkSj çfrjksèk c<+rk gS ¼ikuh ds çokg ds fy, bls vkSj vfèkd
eqf'dy cukrs gq,½] rks çokg dh nj de gksuh pkfg,%

 ;fn çokg dh nj ,d leku jgrh gS] tcfd çokg esa deh vkbZ gS] rks iai ls vko';d ncko de
gksxk%

 tSls fd ;g vthc yxrk gS] ncko] çokg vkSj çfrjksèk

ds chp okLrfod xf.krh; lacaèk okLro esa
bysDVª‚uksa ds fy, rFkk ikuh dh rjg rjy inkFkZ
ds fy, vfèkd tfVy gksrk gSA

 ;fn vki HkkSfrd foKku esa vkxs i<+kbZ djrs gSa] rks vki vius fy, bldk [kkst djsaxsA

 bysDVª‚fuDl Nk= ds fy, èkU;okn] vkse ds fu;e dk xf.kr cgqr lhèkk vkSj ljy gSA
2.2 An Analogy for Ohm’s Law:

 Ohm’s Law also makes

intuitive sense if you apply it to the water-and-pipe analogy.
 If we have a water pump that exerts pressure (voltage) to push water around a “circuit”
(current) through a restriction (resistance), we can model how the three variables interrelate.
 If the resistance to water flow stays the same and the pump pressure increases, the flow rate
must also increase.

 If the pressure stays the same and the resistance increases (making it more difficult for the
water to flow), then the flow rate must decrease:

 If the flow rate were to stay the same while the resistance to flow decreased, the required
pressure from the pump would necessarily decrease:

 As odd as it may seem, the actual mathematical relationship between pressure, flow, and
resistance is actually more complex for fluids like water than it is for electrons.
 If you pursue further studies in physics, you will discover this for yourself.
 Thankfully for the electronics student, the mathematics of Ohm’s Law is very straightforward
and simple.
2-3 bysfDVªd lfdZV esa 'kfä%

 'kfä% oksYVst vkSj djaV ds vykok]

ogk¡ ,d lfdZV esa eqä bysDVª‚u
xfrfofèk dk ,d vkSj mik; gSA lcls igys] gesa le>us dh vko';drk gS fd fdlh Hkh lfdZV
esa bldk fo'ys"k.k djus ls igys gesa D;k fctyh pkfg,A

 ikoj ,d eki gS fd fdlh fn, x, le; esa fdruk dke fd;k tk ldrk gS xq#Rokd"kZ.k cy ds f[kykQ
otu mBkus ds ekeys esa dke dks vke rkSj ij ifjHkkf"kr fd;k x;k gSA

 Hkkjh otu vkSj @ ;k Åaps dks mBk fy;k x;k gS] vfèkd dke fd;k x;k gSA ikoj ,d eki gS
fd ,d ekud jkf'k ds dke dks fdruh rsth ls fd;k tkrk gSA

 vesfjdu v‚VkseksckbYl ds fy,] batu 'kfä dks "vÜo'kfä" uked ,d ;wfuV esa jsV fd;k x;k
gS] ftls vkjafHkd :i ls LVhe batu fuekZrkvksa ds fy, vius fnu dh lcls lkekU; 'kfä lzksr ds
lanHkZ esa mudh e'khuksa dh dkedkt {kerk dk foLrkj djus ds fy, ,d [kkst ds :i esa
ns[kk x;k gS: vÜo'kfä ,d vÜo'kfä dks fczfV'k bdkb;ksa esa 550 QhV çfr lsdaM dk dke
çfr lsdaM ds :i esa ifjHkkf"kr fd;k x;k gSA

 ,d dkj ds batu dh 'kfä bafxr ugha djsxh fd ;g fdruh igkM+h ij p<+ ldrk gS ;k ;g fdruk
otu mBk ldrk gS] ysfdu ;g bafxr djsxk fd ;g fdruh rsth ls ,d fof'k"V igkM+h ij p<+ ldrk
gS ;k ,d fo'ks"k otu dks mBk ldrk gSA

 ,d eSdsfudy batu dh 'kfä batu dh xfr vkSj blds VkdZ nksuksa ds dk;Z vkmViqV 'kk¶V
esa çnku dh xbZ gSA batu ds vkmViqV 'kk¶V dh xfr dks çfr feuV pDdj ;k vkjih,e esa
ekik tkrk gSA

 VkdZ batu }kjk fufeZr ?kqeko cy dh ek=k gS] vkSj ;g vkerkSj ij ikmaM&QhV ;k
,ych&QhV esa ekik tkrk gS ¼QqV&ikmaM ;k Q+qV&ikSaM ds lkFk Hkzfer ugha
gksuk] tks dke ds fy, bdkbZ gS½A u rks xfr vkSj u gh VkdZ ,d batu dh 'kfä dk vdsyk
,d mik; gSA

 ,d 100 vÜo'kfä Mhty batu VªSDVj vis{kk—r èkheh xfr ls pkyw gksxk] ysfdu dkQh
ek=k esa VkdZ mRiUu djsxkA ,d 100 vÜo'kfä eksVjlkbfdy batu cgqr rsth ls pkyw
gksxk] ysfdu vis{kk—r de VkdZ çnku djsxkA nksuksa 100 vÜo'kfä dk mRiknu djsaxs]
ysfdu fofHkUu xfr vkSj fofHkUu VkdZ ijA 'kk¶V vÜo'kfä ds fy, lehdj.k ljy gSA

 è;ku nsa fd lehdj.k] ,l vkSj Vh ds nkfguh rjQ dsoy nks ifjorZuh; 'krZsa gSa] ml rjQ vU;
lHkh 'krZsa fLFkj gSaA 2 ihvkbZ] vkSj 33]000 lHkh fLFkj gSa ¼os ewY; esa ifjofrZr
ugha djrs gSa½A
 vÜo 'kfä dsoy xfr vkSj VkdZ esa ifjorZu ds lkFk gh cnyrh gS] vkSj dqN ughaA ge bl
lacaèk dks fn[kkus ds fy, lehdj.k dks iqu% fy[k ldrs gSaA

 pwafd "vÜo'kfä" dh bdkbZ ikmaM&QhV esa VkdZ }kjk xq.kk fd, x, çfr feuV pDdj esa
xfr ds lkFk fcYdqy esy ugha [kkrh gS] ge ;g ugha dg ldrs fd vÜo'kfä ,lVh ds cjkcj
gksrh gSA gkykafd] os ,d nwljs ds fy, vkuqikfrd gksrh gSaA ,lVh ds ifjorZu ds xf.krh;
mRikn ds :i esa] vÜo'kfä ds fy, ewY; leku vuqikr ls cny tk,xkA
2.3 Power in Electric Circuits:
 In addition to voltage and current, there is another measure of free electron activity in a circuit: power.
First, we need to understand just what power is before we analyze it in any circuits.
 Power is a measure of how much work can be performed in a given amount of time. Work is generally
defined in terms of the lifting of a weight against the pull of gravity.
 The heavier the weight and/or the higher it is lifted, the more work has been done. Power is a measure
of how rapidly a standard amount of work is done.
 For American automobiles, engine power is rated in a unit called “horsepower,” invented initially as a
way for steam engine manufacturers to quantify the working ability of their machines in terms of the
most common power source of their day: horses. One horsepower is defined in British units as 550 ft-lbs
of work per second of time.
 The power of a car’s engine won’t indicate how tall of a hill it can climb or how much weight it can tow,
but it will indicate how fast it can climb a specific hill or tow a specific weight.
 The power of a mechanical engine is a function of both the engine’s speed and its torque provided at
the output shaft. Speed of an engine’s output shaft is measured in revolutions per minute, or RPM.
 Torque is the amount of twisting force produced by the engine, and it is usually measured in pound-feet,
or lb-ft (not to be confused with foot-pounds or ft-lbs,
which is the unit for work). Neither speed nor torque alone
is a measure of an engine’s power.
 A 100 horsepower diesel tractor engine will turn relatively
slowly, but provide great amounts of torque. A 100 horsepower
motorcycle engine will turn very fast, but provide relatively little torque. Both will produce 100
horsepower, but at different speeds and different torques. The equation for shaft horsepower is simple:

 Notice how there is only two variable terms on the right-hand side of the equation, S and T. All the other
terms on that side are constant: 2 pi, and 33,000 are all constants (they do not change in value).
 The horsepower varies only with changes in speed and torque, nothing else. We can re-write the
equation to show this relationship:
 Because the unit of the “horsepower” doesn’t coincide exactly with speed in revolutions per minute
multiplied by torque in pound-feet, we can’t say that horsepower equals ST. However, they
are proportionalto one another. As the mathematical product of ST changes, the value for horsepower
will change by the same proportion.
 fo|qr ifjiFkksa esa] 'kfä nksuksa oksYVst vkSj djaV esa ,d dk;Z esa gksrk gSA
vk'p;Z dh ckr ugha gS fd ;g lEcUèk Åij "vkuqikfrd" g‚lZikoj QkeZwys ls leku fn[krk
gSA

 bl ekeys esa] gkykafd] fo|qr ¼ih½ okLro esa djaV

¼vkbZ½ ds cjkcj gksrk gS] ftldks xq.kk fd;k tkrk
gS oksYVst ¼bZ½ ls] u dsoy vkbZbZ ¼vkbZbZ½ ds
vkuqikfrd gksus ds ctk;A bl lw= dk mi;ksx djrs le;]
fctyh ds eki dh bdkbZ okV gS] ftls 'kCn "MCyw" ds lkFk ladsr fd;k x;k gSA

 ;g le>uk pkfg, fd u rks oksYVst vkSj u gh djaV }kjk fo|eku fctyh dks mRiUu fd;k tkrk
gScfYd] fctyh ,d lfdZV esa oksYVst vkSj djaV nksuksa ds la;kstd gSA

 ;kn j[ksa fd oksYVst fof'k"V dk;Z ¼;k laHkkfor ÅtkZ½ çfr ;wfuV pktZ
gS] tcfd djaV ml nj ij gS tgka fo|qr 'kqYd ,d daMDVj ds tfj;s pyrs
gSaA oksYVst ¼fof'k"V dke½ xq#Rokd"kZ.k cy ds f[kykQ otu mBkus ds dke ds vuq:i
lkekukarj gSA orZeku ¼nj½ ml xfr ds lkekukarj gS ftl ij og Hkkj mBk;k tkrk gSA

 ,d lkFk mRikn ¼xq.ku½] oksYVst ¼dke½ vkSj orZeku ¼nj½ ds :i esa 'kfä dk xBu
gksrk gS

 dsoy Mhty VªSDVj batu vkSj eksVjlkbfdy batu ds ekeys esa] mPp oksYVst vkSj de
djaV okyk ,d lfdZV de oksYVst vkSj mPp djaV okys ,d lfdZV ds leku gh fctyh dh ek=k
dks u"V dj ldrk gSA

 u rks vdsys oksYVst dh ek=k vkSj u gh djaV dh ek=k dsoy fo|qr lfdZV esa fctyh dh
ek=k dks bafxr djrh gSA

 ,d [kqys lfdZV esa] tgka oksYVst lzksr ds VfeZuyksa ds chp ekStwn gksrk gS vkSj
'kwU; pkyw gS] ogka 'kwU; 'kfä u"V gks tkrh gS] Hkys gh oksYVst fdruk cM+k gksA

 pwafd ih ¾ vkbZbZ vkSj vkbZ ¾ 0 vkSj 'kwU; ls xq.kk fd;k tkus okyk dksbZ Hkh pht+
'kwU; gksrk gS] fdlh Hkh [kqys lfdZV esa u"V gksus okyk fctyh Hkh 'kwU; gksrk gSA
blh rjg] vxj ge ,d lqij lfdZV ok;j ¼fcYdqy 'kwU; çfrjksèk½ ds ywi dk ,d 'k‚VZ lfdZV rS;kj
fd;k tk,] rks gekjs ikl 'kwU; oksYVst ds lkFk ywi esa djaV dh fLFkfr gks ldrh gS] vkSj
blh rjg dksbZ Hkh fctyh u"V ugha gksxhA

 pwafd ih ¾ vkbZbZ vkSj bZ ¾ 0 vkSj 'kwU; ls xq.kk fd;k tkus okyk dqN Hkh 'kwU;
gksrk gS] blfy, lqij lapkyu ywi esa O;Lr fctyh 'kwU; gksuk pkfg,A ¼ge ckn ds vè;k;
esa lqijdaMfDVfoVh ds fo"k; dh [kkst djsaxs½

 pkgs ge "vÜo'kfä" ;k "okV" dh bdkbZ esa fctyh dks ekirs gSa] fQj Hkh ge ,d gh ckr
ds ckjs esa ckr dj jgs gSaA fdlh fn, x, le; esa fdruk dke fd;k tk ldrk gSA
 nks bdkb;ka la[;kRed :i ls leku ugha gksrs gSa] ysfdu os ,d gh rjg dh ckr O;ä djrs
gSaA okLro esa] ;wjksih; v‚Vkseksckby fuekZrk vkerkSj ij vÜo'kfä ds ctk; fdyksokV~l
¼dsMCY;w½ ;k gtkjksa okV ds lanHkZ esa vius batu dh 'kfä dk foKkiu djrs gSa ,d
lkèkkj.k :ikarj.k Q‚eZwyk ls ;s nks bdkb;ka ,d&nwljs ls lacafèkr gSa A
 In electric circuits, power is a function of both voltage and current. Not surprisingly, this relationship
bears striking resemblance to the “proportional” horsepower formula above:

 In this case, however, power (P) is exactly equal to current (I)

multiplied by voltage (E), rather than merely being proportional to IE. When using this formula, the unit
of measurement for power is the watt, abbreviated with the letter “W.”
 It must be understood that neither voltage nor current by themselves constitute power. Rather, power
is the combination of both voltage and current in a circuit.
 Remember that voltage is the specific work (or potential energy) per unit charge, while current is the
rate at which electric charges move through a conductor. Voltage (specific work) is analogous to the
work done in lifting a weight against the pull of gravity. Current (rate) is analogous to the speed at
which that weight is lifted.
 Together as a product (multiplication), voltage (work) and current (rate) constitute
power.
 Just as in the case of the diesel tractor engine and the motorcycle engine, a circuit with high voltage and
low current may be dissipating the same amount of power as a circuit with low voltage and high
current.
 Neither the amount of voltage alone nor the amount of current alone indicates the amount of power in
an electric circuit.
 In an open circuit, where voltage is present between the terminals of the source and there is zero
current, there is zero power dissipated, no matter how great that voltage may be.
 Since P=IE and I=0 and anything multiplied by zero is zero, the power dissipated in any open circuit must
be zero. Likewise, if we were to have a short circuit constructed of a loop of superconducting wire
(absolutely zero resistance), we could have a condition of current in the loop with zero voltage, and
likewise no power would be dissipated.
 Since P=IE and E=0 and anything multiplied by zero is zero, the power dissipated in a superconducting
loop must be zero. (We’ll be exploring the topic of superconductivity in a later chapter).
 Whether we measure power in the unit of “horsepower” or the unit of “watt,” we’re still talking about
the same thing: how much work can be done in a given amount of time.
 The two units are not numerically equal, but they express the same kind of thing. In fact, European
automobile manufacturers typically advertise their engine power in terms of kilowatts (kW), or
thousands of watts, instead of horsepower! These two units of power are related to each other by a
simple conversion formula:
 blfy,] gekjs 100 vÜo'kfä Mhty vkSj eksVjlkbfdy batu dks " 74570 okV" batu ;k vfèkd
Bhd ls " 74-57 fdyksokV" batu ds :i esa ntZ fd;k tk ldrk gSA ;wjksih; bathfu;fjax
fof'k"Vrkvksa esa] ;g jsfVax viokn ds ctk;
vkn'kZ gksxkA

2-3 bysfDVªd ikoj dh x.kuk%

 geus bysfDVªd lfdZV esa fctyh dk fuèkkZj.k djus ds fy, QkeZwys dks ns[kk gSA
orZeku esa ",EIl" esa "oksYV" esa oksYVst dks xq.kk djds ge "o‚V~l" esa ,d mÙkj
çkIr djrs gSaA

 pfy, ;g lfdZV mnkgj.k ds fy, ykxw djrs gSaA

 mi;Zqä lfdZV esa] ge tkurs gSa fd gekjs ikl 18 oksYV dh ,d cSVjh oksYVst vkSj 3 Ω
dk nhid çfrjksèk gSA ekStwnk fuèkkZfjr djus ds fy, vkse ds dkuwu dk mi;ksx djrs gq,]
ge çkIr djrs gSaA

 vc tc fd ge djaV dks tkurs gSa] ge ml ewY;

dks ys ldrs gSa vkSj 'kfä fuèkkZfjr djus ds fy,
oksYVst }kjk bls c<+k ldrs gSaA

 mÙkj% ySai 108 okV 'kfä dks u"V djrk gS] tks
çdk'k vkSj xeÊ nksuksa ds :i esa lcls vfèkd
laHkkouk gSA

 vkb,] mlh lfdZV dks ysus vkSj cSVjh oksYVst

esa o`f) djus ds fy, ns[ksa fd D;k gksrk gSA
varKkZu gesa crkrk gS fd oksYVst c<+us ds
 lkFk gh lfdZV djaV c<+sxk vkSj ySai çfrjksèk fLFkj jgrk gSA

 blh rjg] 'kfä Hkh c<+ tk,xh%

2.3 Calculating Electric Power:

 We’ve seen the formula for determining the power in an electric circuit: by multiplying the voltage in “volts” by the current in
“amps” we arrive at an answer in “watts.”
 Let’s apply this to a circuit example:

 In the above circuit, we know we have a battery voltage of 18 volts and a lamp resistance of 3 Ω. Using Ohm’s Law to determine
current, we get:

 Now that we know the current, we can take that value and
multiply it by the voltage to determine power:

 Answer: the lamp is dissipating (releasing) 108 watts of power, most likely in the form of both light and heat.
 Let’s try taking that same circuit and increasing the battery voltage to see what happens. Intuition should tell us that the circuit
current will increase as the voltage increases and the lamp resistance stays the same.
 Likewise, the power will increase as well:
 vc] 18 oksYV ds txg ij 36 oksYV cSVjh oksYVst gksrk gSA ySai vHkh Hkh
bysDVª‚uksa ds çokg dks fo|qr çfrjksèk dks
3 Ω çnku djrk gSA djaV vc gS%

 bldk dkj.k ;g gS: vxj vkbZ ¾ bZ @ vkj] vkSj ge Mcy bZ tcfd vkj ,d gh jgrk gS] djaV dks
nksgjk gksuk pkfg,A njvly] blesa: vc gekjs ikl 6 ds ctk, orZeku ds 12 ,Eil gSa vc] 'kfä
ds ckjs esa D;k\

 lwpuk gS fd 'kfä esa o`f) gqbZ gS] tSlk fd gesa lansg gks ldrk gS]ysfdu ;g djaV dh
rqyuk esa dkQh vfèkd c<+ x;k gSA

 ,slk D;ksa gS\ D;ksafd 'kfä djaV }kjk xq.kk dh xbZ oksYVst dk ,d dk;Z gS] vkSj
nksuksa oksYVst vkSj djaV esa muds fiNys ewY;ksa ls nksxquh gks tkrh gS] 'kfä 2]
3] 2] ;k 4 ds ,d dkjd ls c<+sxhA

 vki bls 432 okV~l dks 108 okV~l ls foHkkftr djds ns[k ldrs gSa vkSj muds chp dk
vuqikr okLro esa 4 gksrk gSA

 lw= dks gsjQsj djus ds fy, fQj ls chtxf.kr dk mi;ksx djds] ge vius ewy 'kfä lw= dks ys
ldrs gSa vkSj bls ,sls vuqç;ksxksa ds fy,
la'kksfèkr dj ldrs gSa tgka gesa oksYVst vkSj
djaV nksuksa irk ugha gksrk gS:

 vxj ge dsoy oksYVst ¼bZ½ vkSj çfrjksèk ¼vkj½

dks tkurs gSa%

 ;fn ge dsoy djaV ¼vkbZ½ vkSj çfrjksèk ¼vkj½ dks tkurs gSa%

 ,d ,sfrgkfld uksV% ;g tsEl çsLd‚V tkSy Fkk] t‚tZ lkbeu vkse ugha] ftUgksaus igyh ckj
,d çfrjksèk ds ekè;e ls fctyh viO;; vkSj djaV ds chp xf.krh; lacaèk dh [kkst dhA
 1841 esa çdkf'kr bl [kkst us vkf[kjh lehdj.k ¼ih ¾ 2 2 vkj½ ds :i esa viuk;k ] vkSj bls
tkSy ds dkuwu ds :i esa tkuk tkrk gS gkykafd] ;g fo|qr lehdj.k lkekU;r% vkse ds y‚
lehdj.kksa ls tqM+s gksrs gSa tks oksYVst] djaV vkSj çfrjksèk ¼bZ ¾ vkbZvkj( vkbZ
¾ bZ @ vkj( vkSj vkj ¾ bZ @ vkbZ½ ls
tqM+s gksrs gSa] ftUgsa vDlj vkse esa
Js; fn;k tkrk gSA

 Now, the battery voltage is 36 volts instead of 18 volts. The lamp is still providing 3 Ω of electrical resistanceto the flow of electrons.
The current is now:

 This stands to reason: if I = E/R, and we double E while R stays the same, the current should double. Indeed, it has: we now have 12
amps of current instead of 6. Now, what about power?

 Notice that the power has increased just as we might have

suspected, but it increased quite a bit more than the current.
 Why is this? Because power is a function of voltage multiplied
by current, and both voltage and current doubled from their
previous values, the power will increase by a factor of 2 x 2, or 4.
 You can check this by dividing 432 watts by 108 watts and seeing that the ratio between them is indeed 4.
 Using algebra again to manipulate the formulae, we can take our original power formula and modify it for applications where we
don’t know both voltage and current:
 If we only know voltage (E) and resistance (R):

 If we only know current (I) and resistance (R):

 A historical note: it was James Prescott Joule, not Georg Simon Ohm, who first discovered the mathematical relationship between
power dissipation and current through a resistance.
 This discovery, published in 1841, followed the form of the last equation (P = I2R), and is properly known as Joule’s Law. However,
these power equations are so commonly associated with the Ohm’s Law equations relating voltage, current, and resistance (E=IR ;
I=E/R ; and R=E/I) that they are frequently credited to Ohm.

2.4 çfrjksèkd%

 D;ksafd fdlh Hkh lfdZV esa oksYVst] djaV vkSj çfrjksèk ds chp lacaèk dkQh fu;fer
gksrk gS] blfy, ge nwljs nks dks fu;af=r djds fdlh lfdZV esa et+cwrh ls
fdlh Hkh ifjorZu'khy dks fu;af=r dj ldrs gSaA

 'kk;n fdlh Hkh lfdZV dks fu;af=r djus esa lcls vklku oSfj,cy blds çfrjksèk gSA ;g
lkexzh] vkdkj vkSj mlds çokgdh; ?kVdksa ds vkdkj dks cnydj fd;k tk ldrk gSA

 lfdZV esa lfEeyu ds fy, çfrjksèk dh lVhd

ek=k cukus ds O;ä mís'; ds fy, çfrjksèkd
uked fo'ks"k ?kVdksa dks cuk;k x;k
gSA

 os vke rkSj ij èkkrq ds rkj ;k dkcZu dk

fuekZ.k djrs gSa] vkSj i;kZoj.k
fLFkfr;ksa dh ,d foLr`r J`a[kyk ij
,d fLFkj çfrjksèk eku dk fMt+kbu cukrs
gSaA ySai ds foijhr] os çdk'k dk mRiknu
ugha djrs gSa] ysfdu os xeÊ dk mRiknu djrs
gSaA D;ksafd ,d dk;Z'khy lfdZV esa muds }kjk fctyh dh 'kfä u"V gks tkrh gSA

 vkerkSj ij] gkykafd] ,d vojksèk dk mís'; ç;ksx djus ;ksX; xeÊ dk mRiknu ugha djrk gS]
cfYd dsoy fo|qr çfrjksèk dk lVhd ek=k
çnku djuk gSA

 ,d vojksèkd ds fy, lcls vke ;kstukc) çrhd

,d ft+x&t+Sx ykbu gS%

 vkse esa vojksèkd ewY; vkerkSj

 ij ,d vklUu la[;k ds :i esa fn[kk;k tkrk gS] vkSj ;fn dbZ çfrjksèkksa lfdZV esa ekStwn
gSa] rks mUgsa ,d vf}rh; igpkudrkZ la[;k tSls fd vkj 1] vkj 2] vkj 3] vkfn ds lkFk yscy
fd;k tk,xkA tSlk fd vki ns[k ldrs gSa] vojksèkd çrhdksa dks ;k rks {kSfrt ;k yacor
fn[kk;k tk ldrk gS%

 vlyh vojksèkd ft+x&t+Sx çrhd ds tSls ugha fn[krs gSa blds ctk;] os ,d NksVs ls
ufy;ksa ;k flysaMj dh rjg yxrs gSa] ftlesa ,d lfdZV ds lacaèk esa nks rkjksa ds ckgj
QSys gq, gksrs gSaA ;gka çfrjksèkksa ds fofHkUu çdkjksa vkSj vkdkjksa dk uewuk
fn;k x;k gS%
2.4 Resistors:

 Because the relationship between voltage, current, and resistance in any circuit is so regular, we can reliably control
any variable in a circuit simply by controlling the other two
 Perhaps the easiest variable in any circuit to control is its resistance. This can be done by changing the material, size,
and shape of its conductive components.
 Special components called resistors are made for the express purpose of creating a precise quantity of resistance
for insertion into a circuit.
 They are typically constructed of metal wire or carbon, and engineered to maintain a stable resistance value over a
wide range of environmental conditions. Unlike lamps, they do not produce light, but they do produce heat as
electric power is dissipated by them in a working circuit.
 Typically, though, the purpose of a resistor is not to produce usable heat, but simply to provide a precise quantity of
electrical resistance.
 The most common schematic symbol for a resistor is a zig-zag line:

 Resistor values in ohms are usually shown as an

adjacent number, and if several resistors are present in
a circuit, they will be labeled with a unique
identifier number such as R1, R2, R3, etc. As you can see,
resistor symbols can be shown either horizontally or
vertically:

 Real resistors look nothing like the zig-

zag symbol. Instead, they look
like small tubes or cylinders with two
wires protruding for connection to a
circuit. Here is a sampling of
different kinds and sizes of resistors:
 vius HkkSfrd Lo:i ds lkFk vfèkd j[krs gq,] ,d
vojksèkd ds fy, ,d oSdfYid ;kstukc) çrhd ,d
NksVs vk;rkdkj c‚Dl tSlk fn[krk gS%

 vojksèkd dks fLFkj fjfä;ksa ds ctk; vyx&vyx fn[kk;k tk ldrk gSA

 ;g ,d lek;ksT; çfrjksèk çnku djus ds mís'; ds fy, fMt+kbu fd, x, okLrfod HkkSfrd fMokbl
dk o.kZu djus ds mís'; ls gks ldrk gS] ;k ;g dqN ?kVd fn[kk ldrk gS tks fd vfLFkj
çfrjksèk ds fy, gksrk gS%

 okLro esa] fdlh Hkh le; tc vki

blds ekè;e ls ,d fod.kZ rhj ds
lkFk [khapk ,d ?kVd çrhd
ns[krs gSa] rks ml ?kVd esa
,d fuf'pr ewY; ds ctk; ,d
oSfj,cy gksrk gSA ;g
çrhd "la'kksèkd"
¼fod.kZ rhj½ ekud
bysDVª‚fud çrhd lEesyu
gksrk gSA

 ifjorZuh; çfrjksèkksa ds lek;kstu ds dqN HkkSfrd lkèku gksus pkfg,] ;k rks ,d ?kw.kZu
'kk¶V ;k yhoj tks fo|qr çfrjksèk dh
ek=k dks vyx djus ds fy, ys tk;k tk
ldrk gSA

 ;gka ,d rLohj gS ftles

iksVsaVhvksehVj uked
dqN fMokbl fn[kkrh gS] ftldk
oSfj,cy çfrjksèkksa ds :i esa
bLrseky fd;k tk ldrk gS%
 pwafd vojksèkdksa us xeÊ ÅtkZ dks u"V dj fn;k
D;ksafd muds ekè;e ls fo|qr èkkjk,a muds çfrjksèk
ds "?k"kZ.k" ls mcjrh gSa] vojksèkdksa dks Hkh vfr
xeZ vkSj fcuk {kfr ds jksdus esa fdruk xeZ ÅtkZ
u"V gks ldrh gSA

 In keeping more with their physical appearance, an alternative schematic symbol for a resistor looks like a small,
rectangular box:

 Resistors can also be shown to have

varying rather than fixed
resistances.
 This might be for the purpose of
describing an actual physical
device designed for the purpose of
providing an adjustable
resistance, or it could be to show
some component that just happens to
have an unstable resistance:

 In fact, any time you see a component symbol drawn with a diagonal arrow through it, that component has a
variable rather than a fixed value. This
symbol “modifier” (the diagonal arrow) is
standard electronic symbol convention.
 Variable resistors must have some physical
means of adjustment, either a rotating
shaft or lever that can be moved to vary
the amount of electrical resistance.
 Here is a photograph showing some
devices called potentiometers, which can be used as variable resistors:
 Because resistors dissipate heat energy as the electric currents through them overcome the “friction” of their
resistance, resistors are also rated in terms of how much heat energy they can dissipate without overheating and
sustaining damage.
 LokHkkfod :i ls] ;g 'kfä jsfVax "okV~l" dh HkkSfrd bdkbZ esa fufnZ"V gSA iksVZscy
jsfM;ks tSls NksVs bysDVª‚fud midj.kksa esa ik, tkus okys vfèkdka'k çfrjksèkksa dks
1@4 ¼0-25½ okV ;k mlls de ij jsV fd;k x;k gSA

 fdlh Hkh vojksèkd dh 'kfä nt+kZ eksVs rkSj ij vius HkkSfrd vkdkj ds fy, vkuqikfrd gSA
igyk vojksèkd QksVksxzkQ esa è;ku nsa fd 'kfä jsfVaXl vkdkj ds lkFk dSls lacafèkr
gSa: vojksèkd cM+k] bldh 'kfä viO;; nt+kZ vfèkd gSA ;g Hkh è;ku nsa fd vojksèkd
¼vkse esa½ vkdkj ds lkFk dqN Hkh ugha gSA

 ;|fi vc ;g dksbZ eryc ugha fn[krk gS fd ,d midj.k dqN Hkh ugha dj jgk gS] ysfdu fo|qr~
çokg dk fojksèk djus ij] vojksèkd lfdZVksa esa cgqr mi;ksxh midj.k gSaA

 D;ksafd os ljy vkSj lkekU;r% fctyh vkSj bysDVª‚fuDl dh iwjh nqfu;k esa bLrseky gksrs
gSa] ge çfrjksèkdksa vkSj cSVjh ls dqN Hkh ugha cukrs lfdZV dk fo'ys"k.k djus ds fy,
i;kZIr le; O;rhr djsaxsA

 çfrjksèkksa dh mi;ksfxrk ds ,d O;kogkfjd mnkgj.k ds fy,] uhps nh xbZ rLohj dk ijh{k.k

djsaA;g ,d eqfær lfdZV cksMZ] ;k ihlhch dh ,d rLohj gS% Qhuksfyd Qkbcj cksMZ
vkSj çokgdh; rkacs ds fLVªIl dks bUlqysV djus okyh lSaMfop dh ijrksa ls cuk ,d
vlsacyh] ftlesa ?kVdksa dks
Mkyus vkSj de rkieku osfYMax çfØ;k }kjk
lqjf{kr fd;k tk ldrk gS ftls "lksYMfjax"
dgk tkrk gSA

 bl lfdZV cksMZ ds fofHkUu ?kVdksa

dks eqfær yscy }kjk igpkuk tkrk gSA
fojksfèk;ksa dks "vkj" i= ds lkFk 'kq:
gksus okys fdlh Hkh yscy ls fpfàr fd;k
tkrk gSA

 ;g fo'ks"k lfdZV cksMZ ,d daI;wVj ,lsljh gS ftls "e‚Mse" dgk tkrk gS] tks VsyhQksu
ykbuksa ij fMftVy lwpuk gLrkarj.k dh vuqefr nsrk gSA
 de ls de ,d ntZu çfrjksèkksa ¼lHkh dk 1@4 okV fctyh viO;; ij jsV fd;k x;k gS½ tks bl
e‚Mse ds cksMZ ij ns[kk tk ldrk gSA dkys vk;rksa ¼ftls ",dh—r lfdZV" ;k "fpIl" dgk tkrk
gS½ esa ls çR;sd esa vius vkarfjd dk;ksZa ds fy, çfrjksèkksa dh lkFk gh lkFk viuh
J`a[kyk gksrh gSA

 ,d vU; lfdZV cksMZ mnkgj.k ls irk pyrk gS fd ";wfuV ekmaV fMokbl" Hkh NksVh
bdkb;ksa esa iSd fd;k x;k gSA

 ;g fo'ks"k lfdZV cksMZ ,d ilZuy daI;wVj gkMZ fMLd Mªkbo ds fupys fgLls gS] vkSj ,d
ckj fQj çfrjksèkksa dks ml ij Vkadk tkrk gS ftls "vkj" ls 'kq: gksus okys yscy ds lkFk
ukfer fd;k tkrk gSA
 Naturally, this power rating is specified in the physical unit of “watts.” Most resistors found in small electronic
devices such as portable radios are rated at 1/4 (0.25) watt or less.
 The power rating of any resistor is roughly
proportional to its physical size. Note in the
first resistor photograph how the power ratings
relate with size: the bigger the resistor, the higher its
power dissipation rating. Also note how resistances
(in ohms) have nothing to do with size!
 Although it may seem pointless now to have a
device doing nothing but resisting electric current,
resistors are extremely useful devices in circuits.
 Because they are simple and so commonly used
throughout the world of electricity and electronics, we’ll spend a considerable amount of time analyzing circuits
composed of nothing but resistors and batteries.
 For a practical illustration of resistors’ usefulness, examine the photograph below. It is a picture of a printed circuit
board, or PCB: an assembly made of sandwiched layers of insulating phenolic fiber-board and conductive copper
strips, into which components may be inserted and secured by a low-temperature welding process called
“soldering.”
 The various components on this circuit board are identified by printed labels. Resistors are denoted by any label
beginning with the letter “R”.
 This particular circuit board is a computer accessory called a “modem,” which allows digital information transfer
over telephone lines.

 There are at least a dozen resistors (all rated at

1/4 watt power dissipation) that can be
seen on this modem’s board. Every one of the
black rectangles (called “integrated circuits” or
“chips”) contain their own array of resistors for
their internal functions, as well.
 Another circuit board example shows resistors
packaged in even smaller units, called “surface mount devices.”
 This particular circuit board is the underside of a personal computer hard disk drive, and once again the resistors
soldered onto it are designated with labels beginning with the letter “R”:

 bl lfdZV cksMZ ij ,d lkS ls vfèkd lrg&ekmaV çfrjksèksa gSa] vkSj bl fxurh esa dkys
jax dh "fpIl" ds fy, çfrjksèkksa dh la[;k 'kkfey ugha gSA

 bu nksuksa rLohjksa dks fdlh dks Hkh çfrjksèk djus okyksa dks le>kuk pkfg,& ;s
midj.k tks "dsoy" bysDVª‚uksa ds çokg dk fojksèk djrs gSa&bysDVª‚fuDl ds nk;js esa
cgqr egRoiw.kZ ?kVd gSaA

 ;kstukc) vkjs[kksa esa] fo|qr la;kstu ds

lkFk dqN mi;ksxh lfdZV esa fdlh Hkh
lkekU; çdkj ds fMokbl dks o.kZu djus ds fy, dHkh&dHkh fojksèk fpàksa dk mi;ksx fd;k
tkrk gSA

 fdlh Hkh xSj&fof'k"V fo|qr midj.k dks vke rkSj ij yksM dgk tkrk gS] blfy, ;fn vki "yksM"
uked ,d vojksèkd çrhd fn[kkrs gq, ,d ;kstukc) vkjs[k ns[krs gSa] fo'ks"k :i ls VîwVksfj;y
lfdZV vkjs[k esa] ftlesa dqN voèkkj.kk fo|qr 'kfä ds okLrfod mi;ksx ls lacafèkr ugha
gS] rks ;g çrhd ,d vojksèk ls dqN vkSj vfèkd O;kogkfjd :i ls ,d y?kqdFkk dk çfrfufèkRo
djrk gSA

 la{ksi esa] bl ikB esa geus tks lh[kk gS] pyks fuEufyf[kr lfdZV dk fo'ys"k.k djrs gSa]
tks fd ge fn, x, lwpuk ls lHkh dk fuèkkZj.k dj ldrs gSa%
 ge lHkh dks ;gka 'kq: djus ds fy, fn;k x;k gS cSVjh oksYVst ¼10 oksYV½ vkSj lfdZV
djaV ¼2 ,,eih,l½ gSA ge vkse esa fojksèk djus okys çfrjksèk dks ugha tkurs gSa ;k
okV~l }kjk u"V gksus okyh 'kfä dk irk ugha yxkrs gSaA

 vkse ds dkuwu lehdj.kksa dh gekjh lj.kh dk loZs{k.k djrs gq, ] gesa nks lehdj.k feyrs
gSa tks gesa Kkr ek=kvksa ds oksYVst vkSj djaV ls mÙkj nsrs gSa%

 oksYVst ¼bZ½ vkSj orZeku ¼vkbZ½ ds Kkr ek=k esa bu nks lehdj.kksa esa Mkyus
ls] ge lfdZV çfrjksèk ¼vkj½ vkSj ikoj viO;; ¼ih½ fuèkkZfjr dj ldrs gSa%

 10 oksYV vkSj 2 ,,eih,l dh lfdZV dh fLFkfr ds fy,] çfrjksèkd dk çfrjksèk 5 Ω gksuk

pkfg,A vxj ge bu ewY;ksa ij lapkfyr djus ds fy, ,d lfdZV rS;kj dj jgs gSa] rks gesa 20
okVksa dh U;wure fctyh jsfVax ds lkFk ,d vojksèkd dks fufnZ"V djuk gksxk] vU;Fkk ;g
t+~;knk xje vkSj vlQy gksxkA
 There are over one hundred surface-mount resistors on this circuit board, and this count of course does not include
the number of resistors internal to the black “chips.”
 These two photographs should convince anyone that resistors—devices that “merely” oppose the flow of
electrons—are very important components in the realm of electronics!
 In schematic diagrams, resistor symbols are
sometimes used to illustrate any general type of
device in a circuit doing something useful with
electrical energy.
 Any non-specific electrical device is generally
called a load, so if you see a schematic diagram
showing a resistor symbol labeled “load,”
especially in a tutorial circuit diagram explaining
some concept unrelated to the actual use of electrical
power, that symbol may just be a kind of shorthand representation of something else more practical than a resistor.
 To summarize what we’ve learned in this lesson, let’s analyze the following circuit, determining all that we can from
the information given:

 All we’ve been given here to start with is the battery voltage (10 volts) and the circuit current (2 amps). We don’t
know the resistor’s resistance in ohms or the power dissipated by it in watts.
 Surveying our array of Ohm’s Law equations, we find two equations that give us answers from known quantities of
voltage and current:
 Inserting the known quantities of voltage (E) and current (I) into these two equations, we can determine circuit
resistance (R) and power dissipation (P):

 For the circuit conditions of 10 volts and 2 amps, the resistor’s

resistance must be 5 Ω. If we were designing a circuit to operate at these values, we would have to specify a
resistor with a minimum power rating of 20 watts, or else it would overheat and fail.
2-5 xSj ykbuj daMD'ku%

 vkse dk dkuwu ,d ljy vkSj 'kfä'kkyh xf.krh; midj.k gS] ftlls gesa bysfDVªd lfdZV dk
fo'ys"k.k djus esa lgk;rk feyrh gS] ysfdu bldh lhek,a gSa] vkSj gesa bu lhekvksa dks
okLrfod lfdZVksa ij Bhd ls ykxw djus ds fy, le>uk pkfg,A

 T;knkrj daMDVj ds fy,] çfrjksèk ,d LFkkbZ laifÙk gS] tks oksYVst ;k djaV ls vçHkkfor
gSA bl dkj.k ls ge dbZ lfdZV daiksu ,uVh,l ds çfrjksèk dks ,d fujarjrk ds :i esa ns[k
ldrs gSa] ;s oksYVst ds lkFk vkSj djaV esa lhèks ,d nwljs ls tqM+s gq, gksrs gSaA

 mnkgj.k ds fy,] 3 Ω ySai ds lkFk gekjs fiNys lfdZV mnkgj.k] ge lfdZV ds ekè;e ls
ekStwnk (I=E/R) çfrjksèk }kjk oksYVst dks foHkkftr djds x.kuk djrs gSaA ,d 18 oksYV
dh cSVjh ds lkFk] ;k vkj lfdZV orZeku 6 ,,eih,l FkkA

 36 oksYV ds fy, cSVjh oksYVst dks nksgjh djus ds ifj.kkeLo:i nksxquh djaV esa 12
,,eih,l gks tk;sxkA;g lc fuf'pr :i ls le> esa vkrk gS] brus yacs le; ds :i esa ySai bZ ds
ekè;e ls bZ ysDVªksu ds çokg ds fy, okLro esa ?k"kZ.k ¼çfrjksèk½ dh leku ek=k 3 Ω
çnku djrk gSA

 gkykafd] okLrfodrk ges'kk bruk ljy ugha gksrk gS,d ckn ds vè;k; esa irk pyk fd ,d
?kVuk esa rkieku ds lkFk cnyrs daMDVj çfrjksèkd gS A

 ,d xjekxje nhid esa ¼ftl rjg ls fo|qr èkkjk ds fl)kar dks rkj ds ,d irys fQ+ysesaV dks
gYds xeZ djus ds fy, ghfVax djus ds fl)kar dks fu;ksftr fd;k tkrk gS½] fQykesaV ok;j
ds çfrjksèk ukVdh; :i ls c<+sxk D;ksafd ;g dejs ds rkieku ls ifjpkyu rkieku rd c<+rk
gSA
 vxj ge ,d vlyh ySai lfdZV esa vkiwfrZ oksYVst dks c<+k jgs Fks] rks djaV c<+us dh
otg ls fQykesaV rkieku c<+sxk] ftlls blds çfrjksèk esa o`f) gksxh] bl rjg cSVjh oksYVst
esa vkxs c<+ksrjh ds fcuk djaV dks vkxs c<+us ls jksduk gksxkA

 urhtru] oksYVst vkSj orZeku ljy lehdj.k (I=E/R) ¼vkj ds lkFk 3 Ω ds cjkcj ekuk tkrk gS½
dk ikyu ugha djrs D;ksafd ,d vyx xje ySai dk fQykesaV çfrjksèk fofHkUu èkkjkvksa ds
fy, fLFkj ugha gksrk gS A

2.5 Nonlinear Conduction:

 Ohm’s Law is a simple and powerful mathematical tool for helping us analyze electric circuits, but it has limitations,
and we must understand these limitations in order to properly apply it to real circuits.
 For most conductors, resistance is a rather stable property, largely unaffected by voltage or current. For this reason
we can regard the resistance of many circuit components as a constant, with voltage and current being directly
related to each other.
 For instance, our
previous circuit
example with the 3 Ω
lamp, we
calculated current
through the circuit
by dividing voltage
by resistance (I=E/R).
With an 18 volt battery,
our circuit current
was 6 amps.
 Doubling the battery voltage to 36 volts resulted in a doubled current of 12 amps. All of this makes sense, of course,
so long as the lamp continues to provide exactly the same amount of friction (resistance) to the flow of electrons
through it: 3 Ω.
 However, reality is not always this simple. One of the phenomena explored in a later chapter is that of conductor
resistance changing with temperature.
 In an incandescent lamp (the kind employing the principle of electric current heating a thin filament of wire to the
point that it glows white-hot), the resistance of the filament wire will increase dramatically as it warms from room
temperature to operating temperature.
 If we were to increase the supply voltage in a real lamp circuit, the resulting increase in current would cause the
filament to increase temperature, which would in turn increase its resistance, thus preventing further increases in
current without further increases in battery voltage.
 Consequently, voltage and current do not follow the simple equation “I=E/R” (with R assumed to be equal to 3 Ω)
because an incandescent lamp’s filament resistance does not remain stable for different currents.
 rkieku esa fofoèkrk ds lkFk cnyrs çfrjksèk dh ?kVuk yxHkx lHkh èkkrqvksa }kjk
lk>k dh tkrh gS] ftuesa ls vfèkdka'k rkj curs gSaA

 vfèkdka'k vuqç;ksxksa ds fy,] çfrjksèk esa bu ifjorZuksa dks vuns[kk fd;k tkuk
FkksM+k dkQh gSA èkkrq ySai rarqvksa ds vkosnu esa] ifjorZu dkQh cM+k gksrk
gSA

 ;g bysfDVªd lfdZV esa "xSjjs[kk" dk ,d mnkgj.k gS bldk dksbZ eryc ugha gS ;g dsoy
mnkgj.k gSA xf.kr esa ,d "jSf[kd" Q+aD'ku tks ,d lhèkk js[kk dks VªSd djrk gS tc ,d
xzkQ+ ij Iy‚V fd;k tkrk gSA

 3 Ω ds fujarj fQykesaV çfrjksèk ds

lkFk ySai lfdZV dk ljyh—r laLdj.k
bl rjg ,d lkft'k mRiUu djrk gS%

 djaV vksoj oksYVst dh lhèkh js[kk okyh lkft'k ;g n'kkZrh gS fd çfrjksèk ,d lfdZV
oksYV~l vkSj èkkjkvksa dh ,d foLr`r J`a[kyk ds fy, ,d fLFkj] vifjorZuh; ewY; gSA ,d
"vkn'kZ" fLFkfr esa] ;g ekeyk gSA

 vojksèkd] tks çfrjksèk ds ,d fuf'pr] fLFkj ewY; çnku djus ds fy, fufeZr fd, tkrs gSa] Åij
fn[kk, x, ewY;ksa dh lkft'k dh rjg cgqr O;ogkj djrs gSaA xf.krK vius O;ogkj dks "jSf[kd"
dgrs gSaA

 ySai lfdZV dk ,d vkSj vfèkd ;FkkFkZoknh fo'ys"k.k] gkykafd] cSVjh oksYVst ds dbZ
vyx&vyx ekuksa ij bl vkdkj dh lkft'k mRiUu gksrh gS%
 The phenomenon of resistance changing with variations in temperature is one shared by almost all metals, of which
most wires are made.
 For most applications, these changes in resistance are small enough to be ignored. In the application of metal lamp
filaments, the change happens to be quite large.
 This is just one example of “nonlinearity” in electric circuits. It is by no means the only example. A “linear” function
in mathematics is one that tracks a straight line when plotted on a graph.
 The simplified version of the lamp circuit with a constant filament resistance of 3 Ω generates a plot like this:

 The straight-line plot of current over voltage indicates that resistance is a stable, unchanging value for a wide range
of circuit voltages and currents. In an “ideal” situation, this is the case.
 Resistors, which are manufactured to provide a definite, stable value of resistance, behave very much like the plot
of values seen above. A mathematician would call their behavior “linear.”
 A more realistic analysis of a lamp circuit, however, over several different values of battery voltage would generate
a plot of this shape:
 IykV vc ,d lhèkh js[kk ugha gS ;g ck,a rsth ls c<+rk gS] D;ksafd oksYVst 'kwU; ls de
Lrj rd c<+ tkrk gSA

 tSlk fd ;g nk;ha vksj c<+rk gS ge js[kk dks likV djrs gSa] lfdZV dks orZeku esa leku
o`f) çkIr djus ds fy, oksYVst esa vfèkd ls vfèkd c<+us dh vko';drk gksrh gSA

 ;fn ge vkse ds fu;e dks ykxw djus dh dksf'k'k djrs gSa rks oksYVst ds lkFk bl ySai
lfdZV ds çfrjksèk dk irk yxkus ds fy, vkSj ekStwnk oSY;w dks Iy‚V fd;k tkrk gS] rks ge
dbZ vyx&vyx ewY;ksa ij igqaprs gSaA

 ge dg ldrs gSa fd ;gka çfrjksèk vykbuykbu gS ] c<+rh gqbZ djaV vkSj oksYVst ds
lkFk c<+ jgk gSAySai fQykesaV ds èkkrq ds rkj ij mPp rkieku ds çHkko ls vlekurk dk
dkj.k gksrk gSA

 xSj&fo|eku orZeku çokgdÙo dk ,d vU; mnkgj.k ok;q ds :i esa xSlksa ds ekè;e ls gksrk
gS ekud rkieku vkSj ncko ij] gok ,d çHkkoh bUlqysVj gSA

 gkykafd] vxj ok;q varj ls vyx gksus okys nks daMDVj ds chp dk oksYVst dkQh c<+
tkrk gS] rks varj ds chp ds ok;q v.kq "vk;fur" gks tkrs gSa] ftlls rkjksa ds chp mPp
oksYVst ds cy ls mUgsa gVk fn;k tkrk FkkA

 ,d ckj v;ksfut+~M] ok;q ¼vkSj vU; xSlksa½ fctyh ds vPNs daMDVj cu tkrs gSa]
bysDVª‚u çokg dh btktr nsrs gSa tgka
dksbZ Hkh vk;uhdj.k ls igys
ekStwn ugha gks ldrk gSA

 ;fn ge ,d xzkQ+ ij djaV oksYVst dh lkft'k

dj jgs Fks tSls geus ySai lfdZV ds
lkFk fd;k] rks vk;ukbZdj.k dk çHkko
Li"V :i ls xSj&js[kk ds :i esa
ns[kk tk,xk%

 fn[kk;k x;k xzkQ+ NksVh gok dh [kkbZ ¼,d bap ls de½ ds fy, vuqekfur gSA
 ,d cM+h gok ds varjky esa mPp vk;ukbZts'ku {kerk dh laHkkouk gksrh gS] ysfdu I/E
dk vkdkj cgqr gh leku gksxk% O;kogkfjd :i ls vk;fu;kstu dh laHkkouk rd igqapus rd
dksbZ ekStwnk ugha gS] mlds ckn i;kZIr çokgdÙoA

 la;ksx ls] ;g dkj.k gS fd fo|qr~ bysDVª‚uksa ds fujarj çokg dh ctk;] {kf.kd o`f) ds dkj.k
fo|qrh; cksYV ekStwn gSaA

 i`Foh vkSj cknyksa ¼;k cknyksa ds fofHkUu lsVksa ds chp½ ds chp fufeZr oksYVst
dks ml fcanq rd c<+kuk pkfg,] tgka gok ds bvksukbts'ku dh laHkkouk ij dkcw ik,a] blls
igys fd bysDVª‚uksa ds i;kZIr çokg dks leFkZu nsus ds fy, gok dkQh de gks tk,A
 The plot is no longer a straight line. It rises sharply on the left, as voltage increases from zero to a low level.
 As it progresses to the right we see the line flattening out, the circuit requiring greater and greater increases in
voltage to achieve equal increases in current.
 If we try to apply Ohm’s Law to find the resistance of this lamp circuit with the voltage and current values plotted
above, we arrive at several different values.
 We could say that the resistance here is nonlinear, increasing with increasing current and voltage. The nonlinearity
is caused by the effects of high temperature on the metal wire of the lamp filament.
 Another example of nonlinear current conduction
is through gases such as air. At standard
temperatures and pressures, air is an effective
insulator.
 However, if the voltage between
two conductors separated by
an air gap is increased greatly enough, the air
molecules between the gap will become
“ionized,” having their electrons stripped off by the
force of the high voltage between the wires.
 Once ionized, air (and other gases) become good conductors of electricity, allowing electron flow where none
could exist prior to ionization.
 If we were to plot current over voltage on a graph as we did with the lamp circuit, the effect of ionization would be
clearly seen as nonlinear:
 The graph shown is approximate for a small air gap (less than one inch).
 A larger air gap would yield a higher ionization potential, but the shape of the I/E curve would be very similar:
practically no current until the ionization potential was reached, then substantial conduction after that.
 Incidentally, this is the reason lightning bolts exist as momentary surges rather than continuous flows of electrons.
 The voltage built up between the earth and clouds (or between different sets of clouds) must increase to the point
where it overcomes the ionization potential of the air gap before the air ionizes enough to support a substantial
flow of electrons.
 ,d ckj ,slk djus ds ckn] ekStwnk v;ksukbt+~M gok ds ekè;e ls pyuk tkjh jgsxk tc rd
fd nks fcanqvksa ds chp fLFkj çHkkj lekIr ugha gks tkrsA

 ,d ckj pktZ dh i;kZIr deh gks tkrh gS rkfd oksYVst ,d vkSj Fkzs'kksYM IokbaV ls uhps
fxj tk,] ok;q Mh &v;ksukbt+~M vkSj vR;ar lkekU; çfrjksèk dh lkekU; fLFkfr esa ykSVrh
gSA

 dbZ Bksl bUlqysV lkexzh leku çfrjksèk xq.k çnf'kZr djrh gSa: dqN egRoiw.kZ
Fkzs'kksYM oksYVst ds uhps bysDVª‚u çokg ds fy, vR;fèkd mPp çfrjksèk] fQj rks ml
Fkzs'kksYM ls vfèkd oksYVst ij cgqr de çfrjksèk gksrh gSA

 ,d ckj ,d Bksl bUlqysV lkexzh dks mPp oksYVst VwVus ls le>kSrk fd;k x;k gS] tSlk fd
bls dgk tkrk gS] ;g vDlj vius iwoZ bUlqysV LVsV ij vfèkdka'k xSlksa ds foijhr okil ugha
tkrk gSA

 ;g de oksYVst ij ,d ckj fQj ls i`Fkd gks ldrk gS] ysfdu blds czsdMkmu FkzslgksYM
oksYVst dks dqN fupys Lrj rd ?kVk fn;k tk,xk] ftlls Hkfo"; esa VwVus dh vklkuh gks
ldrh gSA

 ;g mPp oksYVst rkjksa esa foQyrk dk ,d lkekU; eksM gS: VwVus ds dkj.k bUlqys'ku
{kfrA ,slh foQyrkvksa dks mPp oksYVst ¼1000 oksYV ;k vfèkd½ dks fu;ksftr fo'ks"k
çfrjksèk ehVj ds mi;ksx ds ekè;e ls irk yxk;k tk ldrk gSA

 lfdZV ?kVdksa fo'ks"k :i ls xSj&js[kh; çfrjksèk ?kVrk çnku djus ds fy, bathfu;j gSa]
muesa ls ,d ofjLVj gSA

 vke rkSj ij tLrk v‚DlkbM ;k

flfyd‚u dkckZbM tSls ;kSfxdksa
ls cus gksrs gSa] ;s fMokbl
vius VfeZuyksa esa mPp
çfrjksèk dks cuk, j[krk gS tc rd
fd ,d fuf'pr "Qk;fjax" ;k
"czsdMkmu" oksYVst ¼,d
,;j varj ds "vk;uhdj.k
{kerk" ds lerqY;½ rd igqapk] ml fcanq ij muds çfrjksèk ukVdh; :i ls ?kV tkrh gSaA

 ,d bUlqysVj ds fo?kVu ds foijhr] okbfjLVj czsdMkmu nksgjkrs gS: vFkkZr ;g foQyrk ds

fcuk nksgjk;k VwVus dk lkeuk djus ds fy, fMt+kbu fd;k x;k gSA ,d ofjLVj dh ,d rLohj
;gk¡ fn[kk;k x;k gSA
 ;gka rd fd fo'ks"k xSl ls Hkjh gqbZ Vîwcsa gSa tks ,d gh pht+ dks djus ds fy, fMt+kbu
dh xbZ gSa] ,d fctyh ds cksYV }kjk ok;q ds vk;uhdj.k esa dke ij ,d gh fl)kar dk 'kks"k.k
djrs gSaA

 vU; fo|qr ?kVdksa dks Hkh bl ls vtuch djaV @ oksYVst ?kVrk çnf'kZr djrk gSA dqN
midj.kksa dks okLro esa djaV esa deh dk vuqHko gksrk gS D;ksafd ykxw oksYVst
c<+ tkrk gSA

 pwafd bl ?kVuk ds djaV @ oksYVst dh <yku udkjkRed gS ¼ck,a ls nk,a Åij dh rjQ
c<+us ds ctk; uhps fxjuk½] bls udkjkRed çfrjksèk dgk tkrk gSA
 Once it does, the current will continue to conduct through the ionized air until the static charge between the two
points depletes.
 Once the charge depletes enough so that the voltage falls below another threshold point, the air de-ionizes and
returns to its normal state of extremely high resistance.
 Many solid insulating materials exhibit similar resistance properties: extremely high resistance to electron flow
below some critical threshold voltage, then a much lower resistance at voltages beyond that threshold.
 Once a solid insulating material has been compromised by high-voltage breakdown, as it is called, it often does not
return to its former insulating state, unlike most gases.
 It may insulate once again at low voltages, but its breakdown threshold voltage will have been decreased to some
lower level, which may allow breakdown to occur more easily in the future.
 This is a common mode of failure in high-voltage wiring: insulation damage due to breakdown. Such failures may be
detected through the use of special resistance meters employing high voltage (1000 volts or more).
 There are circuit components specifically engineered to provide nonlinear resistance curves, one of them being
the varistor.
 Commonly manufactured from compounds such as zinc oxide or silicon carbide, these devices maintain high
resistance across their terminals until a certain “firing” or “breakdown” voltage (equivalent to the “ionization
potential” of an air gap) is reached, at which point their resistance decreases dramatically.
 Unlike the breakdown of an insulator, varistor breakdown is repeatable: that is, it is designed to withstand repeated
breakdowns without failure. A picture of a varistor is shown here:
 There are also special gas-filled tubes designed to do much the same thing, exploiting the very same principle at
work in the ionization of air by a lightning bolt.
 Other electrical components exhibit even stranger current/voltage curves than this. Some devices actually
experience a decrease in current as the applied voltage increases.
 Because the slope of the current/voltage for this phenomenon is negative (angling down instead of up as it
progresses from left to right), it is known as negative resistance.
 fo'ks"kdj] mPp&oSD;we bysDVª‚u fVVªksM vkSj ,fldh ;k lqjax Mk;ksM vkSj vèkZpkyd
Mk;ksM ds :i esa tkuk tkrk gS VîwCl ykxw oksYVst dh dqN Jsf.k;ksa ds fy, udkjkRed
çfrjksèk çnf'kZr djrk gSA

 vkse dk dkuwu ,sls ?kVdksa ds O;ogkj dk fo'ys"k.k djus ds fy, cgqr mi;ksxh ugha gS]
tgka çfrjksèk oksYVst vkSj orZeku ds lkFk fHkUu gksrk gSA

 dqN yksxksa us ;g Hkh lq>ko fn;k gS fd "vkse dk fu;e " fu;e " dh fLFkfr ls voekuuk
gksuk pkfg, D;ksafd ;g lkoZHkkSfed ugha gSA

 ;g lehdj.k ¼vkj ¾ bZ @ vkbZ½ dks çfrjksèk dh ifjHkk"kk] 'krksZa dh ,d ladh.kZ lhek

ds rgr lkexzh ds ,d fuf'pr Js.kh ds mi;qä gksus ds fy, vfèkd lVhd gks ldrk gS

 gkykafd Nk= ds ykHk ds fy,] ge eku ysaxs fd mnkgj.k ds lfdZV esa fufnZ"V çfrjksèk
'krksZa dh ,d foLr`r J`a[kyk ij fLFkr gSa tc rd vU;Fkk fufnZ"V ugha fd;k x;k gksA

 Most notably, high-vacuum electron tubes known as tetrodes and semiconductor diodes known
as Esaki or tunnel diodes exhibit negative resistance for certain ranges of applied voltage.
 Ohm’s Law is not very useful for analyzing the behavior of components like these where resistance varies
with voltage and current.
 Some have even suggested that “Ohm’s Law” should be demoted from the status of a “Law” because it is
not universal.
 It might be more accurate to call the equation (R=E/I) a definition of resistance, befitting of a certain class
of materials under a narrow range of conditions.
 For the benefit of the student, however, we will assume that resistances specified in example
circuits arestable over a wide range of conditions unless otherwise specified.
2-6 lfdZV ok;fjax%

 vc rd] ge ,dy&cSVjh] ,d& jksèkd lfdZV dk fo'ys"k.k dj jgs Fks ] ftlls ?kVdksa ds chp
rkjksa dks tksM+us ds lacaèk esa dksbZ lacaèk ugha gS] tc rd fd ,d iw.kZ lfdZV
cukbZ tkrh gSA

 D;k rkj dh yackbZ ;k lfdZV "vk—fr" gekjs x.kuk ds ekeys esa gS\ pfy, lfdZV
d‚fUQ+xjs'ku ds ,d tksM+s dks ns[ksa vkSj irk djsa%

 tc ge ,d lfdZV esa fcanqvksa dks tksM+us okys rkjksa dks vkdf"kZr djrs gSa] rks ge
vkerkSj ij ;g ekurs gSa fd bu rkjksa esa ux.; çfrjksèk gSA

 tSls] os lfdZV ds lexz çfrjksèk ij dksbZ çHkko'kkyh çHkko ugha nsrs] vkSj blfy, gekjs
lkFk la?k"kZ djus okyk ,dek= çfrjksèk ?kVdksa esa çfrjksèk gSA

 mi;Zqä lfdZV esa] dsoy çfrjksèk 5 Ω çfrjksèkksa ls vkrk gS] blfy, ge lHkh dks gekjh
x.kuk esa 'kkfey djsaxsokLrfod thou esa] èkkrq ds rkjksa esa okLro esa çfrjksèk
gksrk gS ¼vkSj blfy, 'kfä lzksr½] ysfdu os fjfä;ka vke rkSj ij nwljs lfdZV ?kVdksa esa
ekStwn çfrjksèk dh rqyuk esa cgqr de gksrh gSa ftUgsa mUgsa lqjf{kr :i ls utjvankt
fd;k tk ldrk gSA

 bl fu;e ds viokn 'kfä ç.kkyh ds rkjksa esa ekStwn gSa] tgka daMDVj çfrjksèk dh cgqr
NksVh ek=k esa orZeku ds lkekU; ¼mPp½ Lrj ds dkj.k egRoiw.kZ oksYVst dh
cwansa iSnk gks ldrh gSaA

 ;fn rkj çfrjksèk dks tksM+us esa cgqr FkksM+k ;k dksbZ Hkh ugha gS] rks ge lfdZV
esa tqM+s fcanqvksa dks fo|qr :i ls lkekU; gksus ds :i esa ns[k ldrs gSaA

 ;g gS] mijksä lfdZV esa 1 vkSj 2 ds vad HkkSfrd :i ls ,d lkFk ;k nwj vyx&vyx gks ldrs
gSa] vkSj mu fcanqvksa ds lkis{k fdlh Hkh oksYVst ;k çfrjksèk ekiu ds fy, dksbZ QdZ
ugha iM+rk gSA
 ogh vad 3 vkSj 4 ds fy, gksrk gSSA ,slk yxrk gS fd vojksèk ds Nksj lhèks cSVjh ds
VfeZuyksa esa lhèks tqM+s gksrs Fks] tgka rd gekjs vkse ds y‚ x.kuk vkSj oksYVst
ekiu dk lacaèk gSA ;g tkuuk mi;ksxh gS] D;ksafd bldk eryc gS fd lfdZV ds dk;Z dks
çHkkfor fd, fcuk vki ,d lfdZV vkjs[k ;k fQj rkj dks ,d lfdZV] NksVk ;k okafNr rkjksa dks
NksVk dj ldrs gSaA ;s lHkh ekeys ;g gS fd ?kVdksa dks ,d gh vuqØe esa ,d nwljs ds
lkFk layXu djuk gSA

2.6 Circuit Wiring:

 So far, we’ve been analyzing single-battery, single-

resistor circuits with no regard for the connecting wires
between the components, so long as a complete circuit is
formed.
 Does the wire length or circuit “shape” matter to our calculations? Let’s look at a couple of circuit configurations
and find out:

 When we draw wires connecting points in a circuit, we usually assume those wires have negligible resistance.
 As such, they contribute no appreciable effect to the overall resistance of the circuit, and so the only resistance we
have to contend with is the resistance in the components.
 In the above circuits, the only resistance comes from the 5 Ω resistors, so that is all we will consider in our
calculations. In real life, metal wires actually do have resistance (and so do power sources!), but those resistances
are generally so much smaller than the resistance present in the other circuit components that they can be safely
ignored.
 Exceptions to this rule exist in power system wiring, where even very small amounts of conductor resistance can
create significant voltage drops given normal (high) levels of current.
 If connecting wire resistance is very little or none, we can regard the connected points in a circuit as
being electrically common.
 That is, points 1 and 2 in the above circuits may be physically joined close together or far apart, and it doesn’t matter
for any voltage or resistance measurements relative to those points.
 The same goes for points 3 and 4. It is as if the ends of the resistor were attached directly across the terminals of
the battery, so far as our Ohm’s Law calculations and voltage measurements are concerned. This is useful to know,
because it means you can re-draw a circuit diagram or re-wire a circuit, shortening or lengthening the wires as
desired without appreciably impacting the circuit’s function. All that matters is that the components attach to each
other in the same sequence.
 bldk Hkh vFkZ gS fd "fo|qr lkekU;" vad ds lsVksa ds chp oksYVst eki leku gksxkA

 ;gh gS] vad 1 vkSj 4 ¼lhèks cSVjh esa½ ds chp dk oksYVst vad 2 vkSj 3 ds chp
oksYVst ds leku gksxk ¼lhèks vojksèkd ds ikj½A fuEu lfdZV ij djhc ls ns[ksa] vkSj ;g
r; djus dk ç;kl djsa fd dkSu&ls fcanq ,d&nwljs ds fy, lkekU; gSa%

 ;gka] gekjs ikl rkjksa dks NksM+dj dsoy 2 ?kVd gSa% cSVjh vkSj vojksèkdA

 gkykafd dusfDVax rkj ,d iw.kZ lfdZV cukus esa ,d tfVy iFk ysrs gSa] gkykafd]
bysDVª‚uksa ds jkLrs esa dbZ fo|qrh; lkekU; fcanq gksrs gSaA vad 1] 2] vkSj 3
,d&nwljs ds fy, lHkh leku gSa] D;ksafd os rkj }kjk lhèks tqM+s gq, gksrs gSaA ogh
vad 4] 5] vkSj 6 ds fy, ykxq gksrk gSA

 1 vkSj 6 vad ds chp dk oksYVst 10 oksYV gS] tks cSVjh ls lhèks vk jgk gSA gkykafd]
pwafd vad 5 vkSj 4 vke gSa 6 ds fy,] vkSj vad 2 vkSj 3 vke gSa 1 ds fy,] ogh 10
oksYV bu vU; tksM+s ds vadksa ds chp ekStwn gSa%

vad 1 vkSj 4 ds chp ¾ 10 oksYV

vad 2 vkSj 4 ds chp ¾ 10 oksYV

vad 3 vkSj 4 ds chp ¾ 10 oksYV ¼lhèks vojksèkd ds ikj½

vad 1 vkSj 5 ds chp ¾ 10 oksYV vad 2 vkSj 5 ds chp ¾ 10 oksYV

vad 3 vkSj 5 ds chp ¾ 10 oksYV vad 1 vkSj 6 ds chp ¾ 10 oksYV ¼lhèks cSVjh esa½

vad 2 vkSj 6 ds chp ¾ 10 oksYV vad 3 vkSj 6 ds chp ¾ 10 oksYV

 pwafd fctyh ds lkekU; fcanqvksa dks ,d lkFk ¼'kwU; çfrjksèk½ rkj }kjk tksM+k tkrk
gS] blfy, ml dusfDVax rkj ds ekè;e ls ,d ls vxys rd dh djaV dh ek=k dh ijokg fd, fcuk]
mu nksuksa ds chp dksbZ egRoiw.kZ oksYVst Mª‚i ugha gSA

 bl çdkj] ;fn ge lkekU; vad ds chp oksYVst i<+uk pkgrs gSa] rks gesa ¼O;kogkfjd :i
ls½ 'kwU; fn[kkuk pkfg,%

vad 1 vkSj 2 ds chp ¾ 0 oksYV

vad 1] 2] vkSj 3 ds chp vad 2 vkSj 3 gSa ¾ 0

oksYV fo|qr :i ls lkekU; gSa

vad 1 vkSj 3 ds chp ¾ 0 oksYV

vad 4 vkSj 5 ds chp ¾ 0 oksYV

vad 4] 5] vkSj 6 ds chp vad 5 vkSj 6 ¾ 0 oksYV

fo|qrh; lkekU; gSa

vad 4 vkSj 6 ds chp ¾ 0 oksYV

 It also means that voltage measurements between sets of “electrically common” points will be the same.
 That is, the voltage between points 1 and 4 (directly across the battery) will be the same as the voltage between
points 2 and 3 (directly across the resistor). Take a close look at the following circuit, and try to determine which
points are common to each other:

 Here, we only have 2 components excluding the wires: the battery and the resistor.
 Though the connecting wires take a convoluted path in forming a complete circuit, there are several electrically
common points in the electrons’ path. Points 1, 2, and 3 are all common to each other, because they’re directly
connected together by wire. The same goes for points 4, 5, and 6.
 The voltage between points 1 and 6 is 10 volts, coming straight from the battery. However, since points 5 and 4 are
common to 6, and points 2 and 3 common to 1, that same 10 volts also exists between these other pairs of points:

Between points 1 and 4 = 10 volts

Between points 2 and 4 = 10 volts

Between points 3 and 4 = 10 volts (directly across the resistor)

Between points 1 and 5 = 10 volts Between points 2 and 5 = 10 volts

Between points 3 and 5 = 10 volts Between points 1 and 6 = 10 volts (directly across the battery)

Between points 2 and 6 = 10 volts Between points 3 and 6 = 10 volts

 Since electrically common points are connected together by (zero resistance) wire, there is no significant voltage
drop between them regardless of the amount of current conducted from one to the next through that connecting
wire.
 Thus, if we were to read voltages between common points, we should show (practically) zero:

Between points 1 and 2 = 0 volts

Points 1, 2, and 3 are Between points 2 and 3 = 0 volts electrically common

Between points 1 and 3 = 0 volts

Between points 4 and 5 = 0 volts

Points 4, 5, and 6 are Between points 5 and 6 = 0 volts electrically

common

Between points 4 and 6 = 0 volts

 ;g xf.krh; :i ls Hkh le> esa vkrk gSA ,d
10 oksYV dh cSVjh vkSj 5 Ω
vojksèkd ds lkFk] pkyw lfdZV 2
,,eih,l gksxkA rkj çfrjksèk 'kwU;
gksus ds lkFk] fdlh Hkh fujarj
f[kapko ds rkj esa oksYVst Mª‚i
vkse ds fu;e ds ekè;e ls fuèkkZfjr fd;k
tk ldrk gS%

 ;g Li"V gksuk pkfg, fd fdlh lfdZV esa rkj ds fdlh Hkh fujarj yEckbZ esa x.kuk dh xbZ
oksYVst Mª‚i] tgka rkj dks 'kwU; çfrjksèk ekuk tkrk gS] ges'kk 'kwU; jgsxk] pkgs djaV
dh Hk;kogrk dqN Hkh gks] 'kwU; ls dqN Hkh xq.kk fd, tkus ds ckn og 'kwU; ds cjkcj
gksxkA

 D;ksafd lfdZV esa vke fcanq leku fjysfVo oksYVst vkSj çfrjksèk ekiu dk çn'kZu
djsaxs] lkekU; fcanqvksa dks tksM+us okys rkjksa dks vDlj mlh in ds lkFk yscy fd;k
tkrk gSA

 ;g dguk ugha gS fd VfeZuy dusD'ku vad gh dusfDVax rkj

ls mUgh rkjksa dks yscy djrs gSaA bl lfdZV dks ,d mnkgj.k ds :i esa ysa%

 vad 1] 2] vkSj 3 ,d&nwljs ds fy, lHkh leku gSa] blfy, rkj 1 ls 2 dks tksM+us okyk rkj
mlh ¼rkj 2½ dks rkj ds :i esa 2 ls 3 ¼rkj 2½ dks tksM+us ds rkj ds :i esa fpfàr djrk
gSA ,d okLrfod lfdZV esa] fcanq 1 ls 2 rd [khapus okyk rkj Hkh ,d gh jax ;k vkdkj dk
ugha gks ldrk] tSlk fd rkj 2 ls 3 dks tksM+us okyk rkj gksrk gS] ysfdu mUgsa lVhd
yscy ij gh j[kuk pkfg,A ;g 6] 5] vkSj 4 vad tksM+us okys rkjksa ds fy, Hkh ykxq gksrk
gSA

 ;g tkurs gq, fd fo|qr ds lkekU; fcanqvksa esa muds chp 'kwU; oksYVst Mª‚i ,d
ewY;oku eqlhcr 'kwfVax fl)kar gSA ;fn eSa ,d lfdZV esa vadksa ds chp oksYVst ds
fy, mik; djrk gwa tks ,d nwljs ds fy, vke gks] rks eq>s 'kwU; i<+uk pkfg,A

 vxj] gkykafd] eSaus mu nks fcanqvksa ds chp i;kZIr oksYVst i<+k] rks eq>s ;dhu gS
fd os ,d lkFk lhèks dusDV ugha fd, tk ldrs gSaA ;fn mu fcanqvksa dks fo|qr :i ls
lkekU; ekuk tkrk gS ysfdu os vU;Fkk iath—r djrs gSa] rks eq>s irk gS fd mu
fcanqvksa ds chp ,d "[kqyh foQyrk" gSA
 ,d vafre uksV: lcls O;kogkfjd mís';ksa ds fy,] ok;j daMDVj dks var ls var rd 'kwU;
çfrjksèk çkIr djus dk vuqeku yxk;k tk ldrk gSA gdhdr esa] gkykafd] rkj dh yackbZ ds
lkFk ges'kk dqN NksVh ek=k esa
çfrjksèk dk lkeuk djuk iM+rk gS] tc
rd fd ,d lqijdaMfDVax rkj u
gksA

 ;g tkuus ds fy,] gesa ;g è;ku esa

j[kuk gksxk fd fl)karksa dks fo|qr
ds ckjs esa vke ckrksa ds ckjs esa
lh[kk gS] ;s lHkh cM+s iSekus ij
ekU; gSa] ysfdu ,d iw.kZ fMxzh ds fy, ugha gSa vFkkZRk fu;e gS fd fo|qr :i ls lkekU;
fcanqvksa dks muds chp 'kwU; oksYVst gksus dh xkjaVh nh tkrh gS tSls fd vfèkd
lVhd :i ls dgk x;k gS: fo|qr :i ls vke fcanqvksa esa muds chp cgqr de oksYVst fxjkoV
gksxhA
 This makes sense mathematically, too. With a 10 volt battery and a 5 Ω resistor, the circuit current will be 2
amps. With wire resistance being zero, the voltage drop across any continuous stretch of wire can be
determined through Ohm’s Law as such:

 It should be obvious that the calculated voltage drop across any uninterrupted length of wire in a circuit where
wire is assumed to have zero resistance will always be zero, no matter what
the magnitude of current, since zero multiplied by anything equals zero.
 Because common points in a circuit will exhibit the same relative voltage
and resistance measurements, wires connecting common points are often
labeled with the same designation.

 This is not to say that the terminal connection points are labeled the same, just the connecting wires. Take this
circuit as an example:

 Points 1, 2, and 3 are all common to each other, so the wire connecting point 1 to 2 is labeled the same (wire 2)
as the wire connecting point 2 to 3 (wire 2). In a real circuit, the wire stretching from point 1 to 2 may not even
be the same color or size as the wire connecting point 2 to 3, but they should bear the exact same label. The
same goes for the wires connecting points 6, 5, and 4.
  Knowing that electrically common points have zero voltage drop between them is a
valuable troubleshootingprinciple. If I measure for voltage between points in a circuit that are supposed to be
common to each other, I should read zero.
 If, however, I read substantial voltage between those two points, then I know with certainty that they cannot
be directly connected together. If those points are supposed to be electrically common but they register
otherwise, then I know that there is an “open failure” between those points.
 One final note: for most practical purposes, wire conductors can be assumed to possess zero resistance from
end to end. In reality, however, there will always be some small amount of resistance encountered along the
length of a wire, unless its a superconducting wire.
 Knowing this, we need to bear in mind that the principles learned here about electrically common points are all
valid to a large degree, but not to an absolute degree. That is, the rule that electrically common points are
guaranteed to have zero voltage between them is more accurately stated as such: electrically common points
will have very little voltage dropped between them.

 rkj ds fdlh Hkh fgLls esa ik, tkus okys çfrjksèk ds NksVs] oLrqr% vifjgk;Z fu'kkuh bldh
yackbZ esa ,d NksVk oksYVst cukus ds fy, ckè; gS D;ksafd orZeku ds ekè;e ls bldk
lapkyu fd;k tkrk gSA tc rd vki le>rs gSa fd ;s fu;e vkn'kZ ifjfLFkfr;ksa ij vkèkkfjr gksrs
gSa] rc vki my>u esa ugha gksaxs tc vki fu;e dks viokn ds :i esa çdV gksus okyh fdlh
'krZ dks iwjk djsaxsA

 That small, virtually unavoidable trace of resistance found in any piece of connecting wire is bound to create a small
voltage across the length of it as current is conducted through. So long as you understand that these rules are based
upon ideal conditions, you won’t be perplexed when you come across some condition appearing to be an exception to
the rule.
vè;k; & 3

fo|qr lqj{kk

…-ƒ lqjf{kr vkpj.k:

 ;fn laHko gks] rks ml ij dksbZ dke djus ls igys lfdZV dh fctyh can dj nsaA

 blls igys fd flLVe ij dke djus ds fy, lqjf{kr ekuk tk lds] vkidks gkfudkjd ÅtkZ ds lHkh
lzksrksa dks lqjf{kr djuk gksxk m|ksx esa] bl ifjfLFkfr esa ,d lfdZV] fMokbl ;k flLVe
gkfly djuk lkekU;r% bls 'kwU; ÅtkZ voLFkk esa j[kus ds :i esa tkuk tkrk gSA

 bl lcd dk è;ku fuf'pr :i ls fo|qr lqj{kk gSA

 gkykafd] bu fl)karksa esa ls dbZ xSj&bysfDVªdy flLVe ij Hkh ykxw gksrs gSaA

 'kwU; ÅtkZ voLFkk esa dqN gkfly djuk bldk vFkZ fdlh Hkh rjg dh laHkkfor ;k laxzghr
ÅtkZ ds fy, fufgr gS] ftlesa fuEu 'kkfey gSa%

• [krjukd oksYVst

• fLçax ncko

• gkbMªksfyd ¼rjy½ ncko

• ok;oh; ¼ok;q½ ncko

• fuyafcr otu

• jklk;fud ÅtkZ ¼Toyu'khy ;k vU;Fkk çfrfØ;k'khy inkFkZ½

• ijek.kq ÅtkZ ¼jsfM;ksèkeÊ ;k ¶;wft+dy inkFkZ½

 bldh ç—fr }kjk oksYVst laHkkfor ÅtkZ dk ,d vfHkO;fä gS

 igys vè;k; esa] eSa Hkh orZeku ¼çokg½ dk mRiknu djus dh laHkkfor ¼{kerk½ okys
oksYVst dh laHkkfor ÅtkZ ds fy, ,d lekurk ds :i esa Å¡ps rjy dk mi;ksx djrk Fkk] ysfdu
;g vko';d ugha gS fd çokg ds fy, mi;qä iFk rd LFkkfir gksus rd vkSj laHkkfor çfrjksèk
çokg dks nwj djuk gSA

 mu nksuksa ds chp mPp oksYVst okys rkjksa dh ,d tksM+h [krjukd ugha ;k fn[krh gS]
gkykafd os vkids 'kjhj ds ekè;e ls ?kkrd ek=k ds djaV dks èkDdk nsus ds fy, i;kZIr
laHkkfor ÅtkZ dks vkJ; nsrs gSaA

 Hkys gh og oksYVst orZeku esa dqN Hkh ugha dj jgk gS] blds ikl {kerk gS] vkSj og
laHkkfor :i ls mu rkjksa ls 'kkjhfjd :i ls laidZ djus ds fy, lqjf{kr gksus ls igys csvlj gksuk
pkfg,A
 lfdZV ls oksYVst dks lqjf{kr djus ds fy, lHkh Bhd ls fMt+kbu fd, x, lfdZVksa esa
"fMLdusDV" fLop esdsfuTe gksrk gS dHkh&dHkh ;s "fMLdusDV" vR;fèkd djaV
ifjfLFkfr;ksa esa Lopkfyr :i ls [kksyus ds nksgjs mís'; dks çLrqr djrs gSa] bl ekeys esa
ge mUgsa "lfdZV czsdj" dgrs gSaA

Chapter – 3

Electrical Safety

3.1 Safe Practices:

 If at all possible, shut off the power to a circuit before performing any work on it.
 You must secure all sources of harmful energy before a system may be considered safe to work on. In industry, securing a circuit,
device, or system in this condition is commonly known as placing it in a Zero Energy State.
 The focus of this lesson is, of course, electrical safety.
 However, many of these principles apply to non-electrical systems as well.

Securing something in a Zero Energy State means ridding it of any sort of potential or stored energy, including but not limited to:

 Dangerous voltage

 Spring pressure

 Hydraulic (liquid) pressure

 Pneumatic (air) pressure

 Suspended weight

 Chemical energy (flammable or otherwise reactive substances)

 Nuclear energy (radioactive or fissile substances)

 Voltage by its very nature is a manifestation of potential energy.

 In the first chapter I even used elevated liquid as an analogy for the potential energy of voltage, having the capacity (potential) to
produce current (flow), but not necessarily realizing that potential until a suitable path for flow has been established, and
resistance to flow is overcome.
 A pair of wires with high voltage between them do not look or sound dangerous even though they harbor enough potential
energy between them to push deadly amounts of current through your body.
 Even though that voltage isn’t presently doing anything, it has the potential to, and that potential must be neutralized before it is
safe to physically contact those wires.
 All properly designed circuits have “disconnect” switch mechanisms for securing voltage from a circuit. Sometimes these
“disconnects” serve a dual purpose of automatically opening under excessive current conditions, in which case we call them
“circuit breakers.”
o nwljh ckj] fMLdusDV djus okys fLop dM+s rjhds ls eSU;qvy :i ls lapkfyr
gksrs gSa] ftlesa dksbZ Lopkfyr Q+aD'ku ugha gksrk gSA bl ekeys esa] os
vkidh lqj{kk ds fy,
gSa vkSj mUgsa Bhd
ls mi;ksx fd;k tkuk
pkfg,A

o —i;k è;ku nsa fd

fMokbl dks pkyw ;k
can djus ds fy,
fMLdusDV
fMokbl fu;fer fLop ls vyx gksuk pkfg,A ;g ,d lqj{kk fLop gS] ftldk mi;ksx dsoy
'kwU; ÅtkZ fLFkfr esa flLVe dks lqjf{kr djus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gS%

o fn[kk, x, "[kqyh" fLFkfr

esa fMLdusDV fLop
ds lkFk ¼dksbZ fujarjrk
ugha½] lfdZV VwV x;k
gS vkSj dksbZ Hkh djaV
vfLrRo esa ugha gksxkA

o Hkkj esa 'kwU; oksYVst gksxk] vkSj lzksr dk iw.kZ oksYVst fMLdusDV
fLop ds [kqys laidksZa esa fxjk fn;k tk,xkA uksV djsa fd lfdZV ds fupys
daMDVj esa fMLdusDV fLop dh dksbZ t+:jr ugha gSA

o D;ksafd lfdZV ds ml i{k dks –<+rk ls i`Foh ¼Hkwfe½ ls tksM+k tkrk gS] ;g
i`Foh ds lkFk fo|qr :i ls lkekU; gksrk gS vkSj ;g bldk NksM+us dk lcls vPNk
rjhdk gSA

o bl lfdZV ds yksM ij dke djus okys dfeZ;ksa dh vfèkdre lqj{kk ds fy,] Hkkj ds
'kh"kZ LFkku ij ,d vLFkk;h xzkmaM dusD'ku LFkkfir fd;k tk ldrk gS] ;g
lqfuf'pr djus ds fy, fd Hkkj esa dksbZ oksYVst dHkh ugha NksM+k tk ldrk
gS%
 o txg esa vLFkk;h tehu dusD'ku ds lkFk] yksM ok;fjax nksuksa vksj yksM ij
'kwU; ÅtkZ fLFkfr gkfly djus ds fy, tehu ls tqM+s gq, gksrs gSaA

o pwafd Hkkj ds nksuksa fdukjksa ij ,d vkèkkj dusD'ku yxk gqvk gksrk gS]
blfy, rkj ds lkFk Hkkj
esa 'k‚VZ&lfdZV
fo|qr ds cjkcj gS] tks
vfèkdre lqj{kk ds ,d
gh y{; dks iwjk djus
dk nwljk rjhdk gS%

o fdlh
Hkh rjg] yksM ds nksuksa fdukjksa ij fo|qr i`Foh ds fy, vke gks tk,xk] yksM
ds nksuksa rjQ ds chp vkSj tgk¡ tehu ij yksx [kM+s gksaxs dksbZ oksYVst
¼laHkkfor ÅtkZ½ ugha nh tk,xhA

o Mh&,utkZbTM+ ikoj flLVe esa vLFkk;h :i ls xzkmafMax daMDVj dh ;g

rduhd mPp oksYVst fctyh forj.k ç.kkyh ij j[kj[kko dk;Z esa cgqr lkekU; gSA
 Other times, the disconnecting switches are strictly manually-operated devices with no automatic function. In either case, they are
there for your protection and must be used
properly.
 Please note that the disconnect device should be
separate from the regular switch used to turn the
device on and off. It is a safety switch, to be used only
for securing the system in a Zero Energy State:

 With the disconnect switch in the “open” position as shown (no continuity), the circuit is broken and no current will exist.
 There will be zero voltage across the load, and the full voltage of the source will be dropped across the open contacts of the
disconnect switch. Note how there is no need for a disconnect switch in the lower conductor of the circuit.
 Because that side of the circuit is firmly connected to the earth (ground), it is electrically common with the earth and is best left
that way.
 For maximum safety of personnel working on the load of this circuit, a temporary ground connection could be established on the
top side of the load, to ensure that no voltage could ever be dropped across the load:
 With the temporary ground connection in place, both sides of the load wiring are connected to ground, securing a Zero Energy
State at the load.
 Since a ground connection made on both sides of the load is electrically equivalent to short-circuiting across the load with a wire,
that is another way of accomplishing the same goal of maximum safety:

 Either way, both sides of the load will be electrically

common to the earth, allowing for no voltage
(potential energy) between either side of the load
and the ground people stand on.
 This technique of temporarily grounding conductors in a
de-energized power system is very common in
maintenance work performed on high voltage power
distribution systems.


o bl ,gfr;kr dk ,d vkSj ykHk fMLdusDV fLop can gksus dh laHkkouk ds f[kykQ

lqj{kk gS ¼pkyw gksrk gS rkfd lfdZV fujarjrk LFkkfir gks½ tcfd yksx vHkh
Hkh yksM ls laidZ dj jgs gSaA

o tc fMLdusDV fLop can gks tk,xk rks yksM ds ikj vLFkk;h rkj ,d 'k‚VZ lfdZV
iSnk djsxk] tks lfdZV esa dksbZ Hkh vksojdjaV lqj{kk midj.k ¼lfdZV czsdj
;k ¶;wt+½ esa vpkud fVªfiax gksus ij] ;s fQj ls fctyh can dj nsxhA

o fMLdusDV fLop }kjk {kfr gksus ij ;g cgqr vPNh rjg ls gks ldrk gS] ,slk gksus
ij] ysfdu yksM ij dk;ZdrkZvksa dks lqjf{kr j[kk tkrk gSA

o bl fcanq ij ;g mYys[k djuk vPNk gksxk fd vksojdjaV midj.kksa ij fctyh ds

>Vds ls lqj{kk çnku djus dk bjknk ugha gSA cfYd] os vR;fèkd djaV ds dkj.k
'kh?kzrk ls daMDVj dh j{kk djus ds fy, iwjh rjg ekStwn gSaA

o vHkh
mfYyf[kr vLFkk;h 'k‚fVZax
rkjksa ls fMLdusDV fLop
dks can djus ds fy, lfdZV esa
vksojdjaV midj.kksa dks
"fVªi" esa NksM+ fn;k
tk,xk] ysfdu ;g eglwl djuk
pkfg, fd fctyh ds >Vds laj{k.k mu midj.kksa dk mís'; ugha gSA
 o 'k‚fVZax ok;j ds txg ij çkFkfed dk;Z dsoy Jfed laj{k.k ds ç;kstu ds fy,
bLrseky fd;k tkrk gSA

o pwafd ;g [kqys ¼v‚Q½ fLFkfr esa fdlh Hkh fMLdusDV djus okys fMokbl dks
lqjf{kr djus esa l{ke gksus ds fy, Li"V :i ls egRoiw.kZ gS vkSj lfdZV ij dke
fd;k tk jgk gS] ;g lqfuf'pr djus ds fy, lajf{kr lqj{kk ç.kkyh dh txg ysuk vko';d
gSA

o bl rjg dh ç.kkyh dks vkerkSj ij m|ksx esa ç;ksx fd;k tkrk gS vkSj bls
y‚d&vkmV @ VSx&vkmV dgk tkrk gSA

o ,d y‚d&vkmV @ VSx&vkmV çfØ;k bl rjg dke djrh gS: ,d lqjf{kr lfdZV ij dke dj
jgs lHkh O;fä;ksa dk viuk futh iSMy‚d ;k la;kstu y‚d gksrk gS tks flLVe ij
dk;Z djus ls igys fMLdusDV fMokbl ds fu;a=.k yhoj ij lsV gksrs gSaA

o blds vfrfjä] mUgsa flLVe ij fu"ikfnr djus okys dk;Z ds ç—fr vkSj vofèk dk
o.kZu djus okys y‚d ls ,d VSx dks Hkjuk vkSj ml ij gLrk{kj djuk gksxkA ;fn
ÅtkZ ds dbZ lzksr "y‚d vkmV" ¼dbZ fMLdusDV gksrs gSa] nksuksa
bysfDVªdy vkSj eSdsfudy ÅtkZ lzksr lqjf{kr gSa] vkfn½ gSa] rks dk;ZdrkZ
dks flLVe ls fctyh lqjf{kr djus ds fy, dke 'kq: djus ls igys vko';d :i esa mls
dbZ rkyksa dk mi;ksx djuk pkfg,A

o bl rjg] flLVe dks 'kwU; ÅtkZ fLFkfr esa cuk, j[kk tkrk gS tc rd fd lHkh vafre
y‚d lHkh fMLdusDV vkSj 'kVv‚Q fMokblksa ls gVk fn, tkrs gSa] vkSj bldk
vFkZ gS fd gj vafre dk;ZdrkZ viuh futh rkyksa dks gVk dj lgefr nsrk gSA

 A further benefit of this precaution is protection against the possibility of the disconnect switch being
closed (turned “on” so that circuit continuity is established) while people are still contacting the load.
 The temporary wire connected across the load would create a short-circuit when the disconnect switch
was closed, immediately tripping any overcurrent protection devices (circuit breakers or fuses) in the
circuit, which would shut the power off again.
 Damage may very well be sustained by the disconnect switch if this were to happen, but the workers at
the load are kept safe.
 It would be good to mention at this point that overcurrent devices are not intended to provide
protection against electric shock. Rather, they exist solely to protect conductors from overheating due
to excessive currents.
 The temporary shorting wires just described would indeed cause any overcurrent devices in the circuit
to “trip” if the disconnect switch were to be closed, but realize that electric shock protection is not the
intended function of those devices.
 Their primary function would merely be leveraged for the purpose of worker protection with the
shorting wire in place.
 Since it is obviously important to be able to secure any disconnecting devices in the open (off) position
and make sure they stay that way while work is being done on the circuit, there is need for a structured
safety system to be put into place.
 Such a system is commonly used in industry and it is called Lock-out/Tag-out.
 A lock-out/tag-out procedure works like this: all individuals working on a secured circuit have their own
personal padlock or combination lock which they set on the control lever of a disconnect device prior to
working on the system.
 Additionally, they must fill out and sign a tag which they hang from their lock describing the nature and
duration of the work they intend to perform on the system. If there are multiple sources of energy to be
“locked out” (multiple disconnects, both electrical and mechanical energy sources to be secured, etc.),
the worker must use as many of his or her locks as necessary to secure power from the system before
work begins.
 This way, the system is maintained in a Zero Energy State until every last lock is removed from all the
disconnect and shutoff devices, and that means every last worker gives consent by removing their own
personal locks.

 ;fn fu.kZ; ç.kkyh dks jh &,utkZbt djus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gS vkSj ,d O;fä dk y‚d vHkh Hkh
lHkh yksxksa dh mifLFkr gVk nsus ds ckn mlds LFkku ij cuk jgrk gS] rks VSx fn[kk,xk
fd og O;fä dkSu gS vkSj og D;k dj jgk gSA

 ;gka rd fd ,d vPNh y‚d&vkmV @ VSx&vkmV lqj{kk dk;ZØe ds lkFk&lkFk] vHkh Hkh

ifjJe vkSj lkekU; Kku lkoèkkuh dh vko';drk gSA ;g fo'ks"k :i ls vkS|ksfxd lsfVax esa
lgh gS tgka cgqr ls yksx midj.k ;k flLVe ij ,d ckj dke djrs gSaA

 buesa ls dqN yksxksa dks mfpr y‚d&vkmV @ VSx&vkmV çfØ;k ds ckjs esa ugha irk
gksrk gS] ;k blds ckjs esa irk gks ldrk gS] ysfdu bldk vuqlj.k djus ds fy, os cgqr lqLr
gksrs gSaA eku ysa fd gj dksbZ lqj{kk fu;eksa dk ikyu ugha djrk gSA

 ,d fo|qr ç.kkyh y‚d gksus vkSj vius O;fäxr y‚d ds lkFk VSx fd, tkus ds ckn] vkidks ;g
ns[kus ds fy, nks ckj tkap djuh pkfg, fd D;k okLro esa 'kwU; fLFkfr esa oksYVst lqjf{kr
gSA
 tkapus dk ,d rjhdk ;g ns[kuk gS fd ;fn çkjaHk fLop ;k cVu fØ;k'khy gS ¼;k tks dqN
Hkh ml ij dke fd;k tk jgk gS½ rks e'khu LVkVZ gks tk;sxkA;fn ;g 'kq: gksrk gS] rks vki
tkurs gSa fd vkius bls fo|qr 'kfä dks lQyrkiwoZd lqjf{kr ugha fd;k gSA

 lfdZV esa fdlh Hkh daMDVj dks okLro esa Li'kZ djus ls igys ] vkidks ges'kk ,d ekius
okys midj.k ds lkFk [krjukd oksYVst dh mifLFkfr dh tkap djuh pkfg, A lcls lqjf{kr jgus
ds fy,] vkidks vius ehVj dh tk¡p] mudk mi;ksx djus vkSj mlds ckn dh tk¡p djus dh bl
çfØ;k dk ikyu djuk pkfg,%

• ;g ns[kus ds fy, tkapsa fd vkidk ehVj oksYVst ds Kkr lzksr ij Bhd ls bafxr djrk
gSA

• fdlh Hkh [krjukd oksYVst ds fy, y‚d&vkmV lfdZV dk ijh{k.k djus ds fy, vius ehVj
dk mi;ksx djsaA

• oksYVst ds Kkr lzksr ij ,d ckj vius ehVj dh tkap djsa fd ;g vHkh Hkh ladsr djrk gS
fd ;g pkfg,A

 var esa] fo|qr deZpkjh lqj{kk tkap çfØ;k esa ,d fcanq ij igqap tk,xk tgka mls okLro esa
daMDVj ¼,l½ dks Nwus ds fy, lqjf{kr ekuk x;k gSA

 è;ku j[ksa fd ,gfr;krh dne mBk, tkus ds ckn] ;g vHkh Hkh laHko gS ¼gkykafd cgqr
laHkkouk ugha gS½ fd ,d [krjukd oksYVst ekStwn gks ldrk gSA bl fcanq ij ysus ds fy,
,d vafre lkoèkkuhiwoZd mik; ;g gS fd daMDVj ¼ gkFkksa ½ ds fiNys gkFk ls ihB ds
lkFk ;k blds lkFk laidZ esa ,d èkkrq midj.k ds lkFk {kf.kd laidZ djuk gSA

 D;ksa \ vxj] dqN dkj.kksa ls ml daMDVj vkSj i`Foh ds tehu ds chp oksYVst ekStwn
gS] rks lnes dh çfrfØ;k ¼,d eqëh esa dldj½ esa maxyh dh xfr ls daMDVj ds lkFk laidZ
VwV tk,xhA

 —i;k è;ku nsa fd ;g fcydqy vafre pj.k gS fd fdlh fctyh ds deZpkjh dks dHkh Hkh fctyh
O;oLFkk ij dke 'kq: djus ls igys ysuk pkfg,] vkSj [krjukd oksYVst dh tkap ds fy, dHkh
Hkh oSdfYid rjhdksa dk mi;ksx ugha fd;k tkuk pkfg,A

;fn vkids ikl vius ehVj dh foÜoluh;rk ij lansg djus dk dkj.k gks] rks "nwljh jk;" çkIr djus ds
fy, nwljs ehVj dk mi;ksx djsaA
 If the decision is made to re-energize the system and one person’s lock(s) still remain in place after
everyone present removes theirs, the tag(s) will show who that person is and what it is they’re doing.
 Even with a good lock-out/tag-out safety program in place, there is still need for diligence and common-
sense precaution. This is especially true in industrial settings where a multitude of people may be
working on a device or system at once.
 Some of those people might not know about proper lock-out/tag-out procedure, or might know about it
but are too complacent to follow it. Don’t assume that everyone has followed the safety rules!
 After an electrical system has been locked out and tagged with your own personal lock, you must then
double-check to see if the voltage really has been secured in a zero state.
 One way to check is to see if the machine (or whatever it is that’s being worked on) will start up if
the Start switch or button is actuated. If it starts, then you know you haven’t successfully secured the
electrical power from it.
 Additionally, you should always check for the presence of dangerous voltage with a measuring device
before actually touching any conductors in the circuit. To be safest, you should follow this procedure of
checking, using, and then checking your meter:

 Check to see that your meter indicates properly on a known source of voltage.
 Use your meter to test the locked-out circuit for any dangerous voltage.
 Check your meter once more on a known source of voltage to see that it still indicates as it should.

 Finally, the electrical worker will arrive at a point in the safety check procedure where it is deemed safe
to actually touch the conductor(s).
 Bear in mind that after all of the precautionary steps have taken, it is still possible (although very
unlikely) that a dangerous voltage may be present. One final precautionary measure to take at this point
is to make momentary contact with the conductor(s) with the back of the hand before grasping it or a
metal tool in contact with it.
 Why? If, for some reason there is still voltage present between that conductor and earth ground, finger
motion from the shock reaction (clenching into a fist) will breakcontact with the conductor.
 Please note that this is absolutely the last step that any electrical worker should ever take before
beginning work on a power system, and should never be used as an alternative method of checking for
dangerous voltage.
 If you ever have reason to doubt the trustworthiness of your meter, use another meter to obtain a
“second opinion.”
3-2 vkikrdkyhu çfrfØ;k%

 y‚d&vkmV @ VSx&vkmV çfØ;kvksa vkSj m|ksx esa fo|qr lqj{kk fu;eksa ds dbZ
iqujko`fÙk;ksa ds ckotwn] nq?kZVuk,a vHkh Hkh gksrh gSaA

 le; ds fo'kky cgqer] bu nq?kZVukvksa dks mfpr lqj{kk çfØ;kvksa dk ikyu u djus dk
urhtk gSA

 ysfdu ;|fi os gks ldrs gSa] os vHkh Hkh djrs gSa] vkSj fo|qr ç.kkfy;ksa ds vklikl dke
djus okys fdlh Hkh O;fä dks irk gksuk pkfg, fd fctyh ds >Vds ds f'kdkj ds fy, D;k djuk
pkfg,A

 ;fn vki fdlh dks csgks'k iM+s ns[krs gSa ;k "lfdZV ij fÝt"] rks lcls igyk dke djuk gS fd
lfdZV czsdj ;k mfpr fMLdusDV fLop dks [kksydj fctyh dks can dj nsaA

 ;fn 'k‚dM gq, O;fä dks dksbZ nwljk O;fä Nwrk gS] rks f'kdkj ds 'kjhj esa i;kZIr oksYVst
vk ldrk gSA ftlls cpkodrkZ dks >Vdk fey ldrk gS] ftlls nks yksxksa ds ctk; "Ýhftax" ,d
esa gksA,d ghjks er cuukA

 bysDVª‚u ohjrk dk lEeku ugha djrs lqfuf'pr djsa fd vkids vkxs c<+us ds fy, fLFkfr
lqjf{kr gS] ;k fQj vki vxyk f'kdkj cusaxs] vkSj vkids ç;klksa ls dksbZ Hkh ykHk ugha
mBk,xkA

 bl fu;e ds lkFk ,d leL;k ;g gS fd fctyh dk lzksr Kkr ugha gks ldrk gS] ;k lnes ds f'kdkj
dks vklkuh ls le; ij cpk;k tk ldrk gSA

 vxj ,d lnek ihfM+r O;fä dk Üokl vkSj fny dh èkM+du fo|qr èkkjk ls iSjykbt+ gks tkrk
gSa] rks mldk ftUnk jgus dk le; cgqr lhfer gksrk gSA ;fn lnek djaV i;kZIr ek=k dk gS]
rks fctyh djaV ds }kjk mlds 'kjhj vkSj vkarfjd vaxksa dks tYnh ls tyk dj u"V dj ldrk gS
D;ksafd ;g mlds 'kjhj ds ekè;e ls pykrk gSA

 ;fn fctyh dk fMLdusDV fLop tYnh ls ugha fn[krk gS] rks f'kdkj dks ml lfdZV ls ftl ij og
tek gqvk gSa ;k mUgsa lw[ks ydM+h ds cksMZ ;k xSj&esVfyd uyh ds VqdM+s ls
LFkkukarfjr djuk laHko gks ldrk gS] lkekU; vkbVe vkS|ksfxd fuekZ.k –';ksa esa ik;k
tkrk gSA

 ,d vkSj vkbVe tks lqjf{kr :i ls " tes gq, " f'kdkj dks fctyh ls nwj ls [khapus ds fy, bLrseky
fd;k tk ldrk gS ,d foLrkj d‚MZ gSmlds èkM+ ds pkjksa vksj ,d jLlh dks ywi djds vkSj
mls ,d jLlh ds :i esa bLrseky djds lfdZV ls nwj [khaprs gSa] daMDVj ij mudh idM+
VwV ldrh gSAè;ku j[ksa fd ihfM+r vius lHkh rkdr ds lkFk daMDVj dks idM+sxk] blfy,
mls [khapuk 'kk;n vklku ugha gksxkA

 ,d ckj tc ihfM+r dks fo|qr 'kfä ds lzksr ls lqjf{kr :i ls fMLdusDV fd;k tkrk gS] rks ihfM+r
ds fy, rRdky fpfdRlk lsokvksa dks Üolu vkSj lapyu ¼Üokl vkSj ukM+h½ esa ykuh
pkfg,A
 ;fn cpkodrkZ lhihvkj esa çf'kf{kr gS] rks mUgsa Üokl vkSj ukM+h dh tkap ds mi;qä
dneksa dk ikyu djuk pkfg,] fQj ihfM+r ds 'kjhj dks MhvksDlhtusV j[kus ds fy, vko';d
lhihvkj ykxw djuk pkfg,A

 lhihvkj dk eq[; fu;e tc rd vki ;ksX; dfeZ;ksa ls jkgr ugha fnyokrs rc rd pyrs jguk gSA

 ;fn ihfM+r lpsr gS] rks ;g lcls vPNk gS fd mlls rcrd >wB cksyuk iM+s cksfy;s tc rd fd
;ksX; vkikrdkyhu çfrfØ;k deÊ bl –'; ij ugha igqap tkrsA

 'kkjhfjd 'k‚d dh fLFkfr esa tkus okys ihfM+r O;fä dh laHkkouk gS& fctyh ds >Vds ls
i`Fkd jä ifjlapj.k dh fLFkfr& vkSj blfy, mUgsa laHkor% xeZ vkSj vkjkenk;d :i esa j[kk
tkuk pkfg,A

3.2 Emergency Response:

 Despite lock-out/tag-out procedures and multiple repetitions of electrical safety rules in industry,
accidents still do occur.
 The vast majority of the time, these accidents are the result of not following proper safety procedures.
 But however they may occur, they still do happen, and anyone working around electrical systems should
be aware of what needs to be done for a victim of electrical shock.
 If you see someone lying unconscious or “froze on the circuit,” the very first thing to do is shut off the
power by opening the appropriate disconnect switch or circuit breaker.
 If someone touches another person being shocked, there may be enough voltage dropped across the
body of the victim to shock the would-be rescuer, thereby “freezing” two people instead of one. Don’t
be a hero.
 Electrons don’t respect heroism. Make sure the situation is safe for you to step into, or else you will be
the next victim, and nobody will benefit from your efforts.
 One problem with this rule is that the source of power may not be known, or easily found in time to
save the victim of shock.
 If a shock victim’s breathing and heartbeat are paralyzed by electric current, their survival time is very
limited. If the shock current is of sufficient magnitude, their flesh and internal organs may be quickly
roasted by the power the current dissipates as it runs through their body.
 If the power disconnect switch cannot be located quickly enough, it may be possible to dislodge the
victim from the circuit they’re frozen on to by prying them or hitting them away with a dry wooden
board or piece of nonmetallic conduit, common items to be found in industrial construction scenes.
 Another item that could be used to safely drag a “frozen” victim away from contact with power is an
extension cord. By looping a cord around their torso and using it as a rope to pull them away from the
circuit, their grip on the conductor(s)may be broken. Bear in mind that the victim will be holding on to
the conductor with all their strength, so pulling them away probably won’t be easy!
 Once the victim has been safely disconnected from the source of electric power, the immediate medical
concerns for the victim should be respiration and circulation (breathing and pulse).
 If the rescuer is trained in CPR, they should follow the appropriate steps of checking for breathing and
pulse, then applying CPR as necessary to keep the victim’s body from deoxygenating.
 The cardinal rule of CPR is to keep going until you have been relieved by qualified personnel.
 If the victim is conscious, it is best to have them lie still until qualified emergency response personnel
arrive on the scene.
 There is the possibility of the victim going into a state of physiological shock—a condition of insufficient
blood circulation different from electrical shock—and so they should be kept as warm and comfortable
as possible.

 fny dh èkM+du ds rRdky #dkoV dk dkj.k gksus ds fy, vi;kZIr ,d fctyh ds >Vds] dbZ
?kaVs ckn fny dh vfu;ferrkvksa ;k fny dk nkSjk iM+us ds fy, dkQh etcwr gks ldrk
gS] blfy, bl ?kVuk ds ckn ihfMr dks vkn'kZ :i ls ns[kjs[k ds varxZr viuh fLFkfr ij
è;ku nsuk pkfg,A
 An electrical shock insufficient to cause immediate interruption of the heartbeat may be strong enough
to cause heart irregularities or a heart attack up to several hours later, so the victim should pay close
attention to their own condition after the incident, ideally under supervision.
vè;k; & 4

bysDVªhf'k;u

4-1 ifjp;%

 ;g 'kCn vke rkSj ij VªsMlZ dks ,d VªsMlZ ds :i esa ifjHkkf"kr djrk gS tks ?kjksa]
O;olk;ksa vkSj dkj[kkuksa esa fo|qr ç.kkfy;ksa dks LFkkfir j[krk gSA

 igyh ut+j esa] ;g ,d ljy dke dh rjg yx ldrk gS] ysfdu vki ik,axs fd tc vki ut+nhdh ut+j ls
ns[krs gSa rks ;g okdbZ cgqr tfVy gSA

 vfèkdka'k ifj;kstukvksa ij] fctyh ds {ks= lzksr ls

fctyh çkIr djus ds fy, ftEesnkj gksrs gS tgka Hkou
ds fofHkUu Hkkxksa esa bldh vko';drk gksrh gSA

 turk dks [krjs esa Mkys fcuk bls gkfly djus ds fy,]
mls lacafèkr fo|qr dksM dk vPNk dke djus ds Kku
ds lkFk&lkFk CywfçaV ls okLrfod çFkkvksa esa fo|qr ç.kkfy;ksa dk vuqokn djus dh
{kerk Hkh gksuh pkfg,A

 fctyh ds fcuk] gekjh nhokjksa esa Vhoh Iyx] daI;wVj] VsyhQksu ;k dksbZ jks'kuh
ugha gksxkA

 ,ysDVªhf'k;Ul eksVlZ] tujsVj] vkSj jkscksV fQfDlax dkj[kkuksa esa lHkh fo|qr e'khuksa
vkSj dkeksa dh ejEer djrs gSaAD;k vki dYiuk dj ldrs gSa fd fctyh ds fcuk gekjs thou
dk D;k gksxk\ gekjs ikl lHkh lqfoèkk,a vkSj ykHk gSa tks fctyh çnku djrk gSA

 gkykafd T;knkrj ,ysDVªhf'k;Ul vkSipkfjd f'k{kqrk ds ekè;e ls lh[krs gSa] dqN rduhdh
Ldwyksa esa Hkkx ysdj lh[krs gSA vfèkdka'k fLFkfr esa mUgsa ykblsal dh vko';d
gksrh gSA

4-2 ,d bysDVªhf'k;u dSls cu ldrs gS%

 ;fn vki bysDVªhf'k;u cuuk pkgrs gSa] rks ;gka ;gk¡ ;g dne ysus dh t#jr gSa %

 vius gkbZ Ldwy fMIyksek ;k GED çkIr djsaA ,d bysDVªhf'k;u dks xf.kr ¼vFkkZr~
chtxf.kr dk ,d o"kZ½] foKku ¼;kuh HkkSfrd foKku½ vkSj O;kogkfjd ikBîØe ¼;kuh]
bysDVª‚fuDl½ esa ,d vkèkkj dh t:jr gSA

 vkSipkfjd çf'k{k.k çkIr djsaA baVjus'kuy cznjgqM v‚Q bysfDVªdy odZlZ

¼vkbZchbZMCyw ½] us'kuy bysfDVªdy d‚UVªSDVj ,lksfl,'ku ¼,ubZlh,½ ;k
bafMMsMsaV bysfDVªdy d‚UVªSDVj ¼vkbZbZlh½ }kjk çk;ksftr bysDVªhf'k;u
,isafVlf'ki dk;ZØe esa 'kkfey gksaA

 bu dk;ZØeksa esa d{kk ikBîØe vkSj ukSdjh çf'k{k.k 'kkfey gSa] vkSj iwjk gksus
esa yxHkx 4 lky yxrs gSaA ;k ,d rduhdh O;kolkf;d Ldwy ;k çf'k{k.k vdkneh esa
çek.k i= vftZr djsaA

 ;fn vki bl ekxZ ij tkrs gSa] rks vki O;kolkf;d fo|ky; esa d{kk ds fl)kar dks lh[ksaxs]
vkSj fQj ukSdjh dkS'ky fodflr djus ds fy, ,d f'k{kqrk dh ryk'k djuh gksxhA

 dke dj çkIr djsaAtks yksx igys ls gh ,d o"kZ ;k mlls vfèkd çf'k{k.k fd;s gksrs gSa]
os vkerkSj ij lgk;d gksrs gSalgk;d dh ukSdjh lkbVksa ij ,d ¼;k vfèkd½ VªSosyj
bysfDVªd ds lkFk dke djus ds fy, vlkbu fd;k tk ldrk gSA
Chapter – 4

Electrician

4.1 Introduction:

 The dictionary generally defines an electrician as a tradesperson who installs and maintains electrical systems in
homes, businesses, and factories.
 At first glance, this might sound like a simple job, but you’ll find that it’s really quite complicated when you take a
closer look.
 On most projects, the electrician is responsible for getting the electricity from the source to where it is needed in
various parts of the building.
 To achieve this without endangering the public, he or she must have a good working knowledge of the relevant
electric codes as well as the ability to translate the electrical systems from the blueprints into actual practice.
 Without electricians, there would be no lights, telephones, computers, or televisions plugged into our walls.
 Electricians also repair all electric machines and work in factories fixing motors, generators, and robots. Could you
imagine what life would be like without electricians insuring we have all the comforts and benefits that electricity
provides?
 Although most electricians learn through a formal apprenticeship, some start out by attending a technical school.
Most states require licensure.
4.2 how to become an electrician:

 If you want to become an electrician, here are the steps to

take:

 Get your high school diploma or GED. An electrician needs

a foundation in math (i.e., one year of algebra), science
(i.e., physics) and practical courses (i.e., electronics).

 Get formal training. Join an electrician apprenticeship program sponsored by the International Brotherhood of
Electrical Workers (IBEW), National Electrical Contractors Association (NECA) or Independent Electrical
Contractors (IEC).

 These programs include both classroom courses and on-the-job training, and take about 4 years to complete. Or
earn a certificate in a technical vocational school or training academy.

 If you go this route, you will learn the classroom theory in the vocational school, and will then have to
look for an apprenticeship to develop the on-the-job skills.

 Get working. Those already with a year or more of training are usually called helpers. Helpers can
expect to be assigned to work with one (or more) journeyman electricians on job sites.

 vxj ,d çf'k{kq ds :i esa 'kq: dj jgs gS] rks bUgsa

ukSdjh ds fy, ¼vkSj bysDVªhf'k;u vçsafVlf'ki
çf'k{k.k ds ekeys esa & ,d d{kk½ lh[kuk gksxk]
tcfd mudks ,d dk;Z djus okys bysfDVªf'k;u ds
fudV i;Zos{k.k ds rgr dke djuk gksxkA

 ykblsal çkIr djukA gkykafd fo|qrh; ykblsaflax

vko';drkvksa dks {ks= esa cnyuk iM+rk gS] fctyh ds fy, vkerkSj ij ,d LFkku&fof'k"V
ijh{kk mÙkh.kZ djuh gksrh gS tks fo|qr fl)kar] jk"Vªh; fo|qr lafgrk] vkSj LFkkuh;
fctyh vkSj fcfYMax dksM ds vius Kku dk ijh{k.k djkrh gSA

4-3 bysDVªhf'k;u D;ksa curs gSa\

 fctyh ds lkFk dke djuk ,d ifjiw.kZ dSfj;j gS D;ksafd blds fy, bysDVªhf'k;u dks lacafèkr
fctyh dksMksa dk vPNk dke djus ds fy, vko';d gSA

 fo|qr dke dfBu ugha gksrk gS] D;ksafd gj fnu is'ks ds fy, u;k vkSj dqN rktk yxrk gSA
;g tcjnLr ykHk vkSj dSfj;j dh {kerk Hkh çnku djrk gSA

ukSdjh çf'k{k.k %
 bysDVªhf'k;u cuus ds fy, ,d cM+k ykHk ;g gS fd vki ,d egku thou thus ds fy, Nk= _.k
ds ,d vdYiuh; jkf'k ,df=r ugha djsaxsA okLro esa] ,d çf'k{kq fctyh feL=h ds :i esa] vki
vius O;kikj dks lh[krs le; dekus esa l{ke gksaxsA

 bldk eryc ;g gS fd tc yksx d‚yst esa Hkkx ysrs gSa] rks mUgsa Lukrd gksus ds ckn
ukSdjh dh dksbZ xkjaVh ugha gksrh gSa] vki ,d gh le; esa ,d mfpr dekbZ vkSj vius
fctyh ds çf'k{k.k dj jgs gksaxsA

ukSdjh lqj{kk vkSj volj%

 Je lkaf[;dh C;wjks us Hkfo";ok.kh dh gS fd ;ksX; fctyh ds fy, ekax vxys nl o"kksZa

esa dkQh rsth ls c<+sxkA

 okLro esa] os mEehn djrs gSa fd bl le; dh vofèk esa 114]700 ls vfèkd u, fctyh
feL=h t‚Cl cuk, tk,axs] tks fd „å% dh c<+ksrjh gS A

 fofHkUu m|ksxksa vkSj O;olk;ksa ds fodkl ds muds fo'ys"k.k ds vkèkkj ij] ;g vkSlr
ls dkQh vfèkd gSA

;g ,d cgqr lEekfur O;olk; gS%

 bysDVªhf'k;u dk fuekZ.k {ks= esa cgqr vPNh rjg ls lEeku fd;k tkrk gS vkSj dbZ
yksxksa }kjk bl m|ksx dks 'kh"kZ is'kk ekuk tkrk gSA

 vxj lHkh ugha rks vfèkdka'k yksx bl ckr ls lger gksaxs fd gj ,d fnu fctyh ds lkFk
dq'ky vkSj fo'ks"kK Kku dh ,d cM+h ek=k dk;Z djrh gSA

 If starting out as an apprentice however, these will have to be learned on the job (and in the case of
electrician apprenticeship training – a classroom) while working under the close supervision of a
journeyman electrician.

 Get licensed. Although electrician licensing requirements vary from area to area, electricians usually
must pass a location-specific examination that tests their knowledge of electrical theory, the National
Electrical Code, and local electric and building codes.

4.3 Why become an electrician?

 Working with electricity is a fulfilling career because it requires an electrician to have a good working knowledge of the relevant
electric codes.

 Electrical work doesn’t get tedious, because every day brings something new and fresh to the profession. It also offers tremendous
benefits and career potential.

On the job training:

 A huge benefit to becoming an electrician is that you won’t accumulate

an unimaginable amount of student debt to earn a great living. In fact,
as an apprentice electrician, you’ll be able to earn while you learn your
trade.

 That means that while others are attending college with no guarantee of a job after they graduate, you’ll be earning a decent wage
and your electrical training at the same time.

Job security & opportunities:

 The Bureau of Labor Statistics also predicts that the demand for qualified electricians will explode in the next ten years.

 In fact, they expect more than 114,700 new electrician jobs to be created before over this time period, which is a staggering 20%
increase.

 Based on their analysis of the growth of various industries and professions, this is significantly higher than average.

It’s a very respected profession:

 Electricians are very well respected within the construction trade and are considered by many to be the top profession within the
industry.

 Most if not all people would agree that it takes a large amount of skill and expert knowledge to work with electricity every single day.

dSfj;j fodkl ds fy, volj%

 ,d bysDVªhf'k;u ds :i esa vki vius dSfj;j

esa mUufr ds volj dk vuqHko djsaxsA

 lsok rduhf'k;u ds :i esa 'kq: djus ds ckn]

esgurh vkSj lefiZr fctyh ds yksxksa dks
QhYM eSustj] v‚ijs'ku eSustj vkSj ;gka rd
fd mudh daiuh vkSj {ks= ds Hkhrj forj.k
çcaèkd dks Hkh c<+kok fn;k tk ldrk gSA

4-4 bysDVªhf'k;u ds :i esa vki ukSdjh ls D;k mEehn dj ldrs gSa\

bysDVªhf'k;u ,d dq'ky O;kikjh gS tks vkoklh; ?kjksa] O;olk;ksa vkSj dkj[kkuksa esa
mi;ksx fd, tkus okys fo|qr ç.kkfy;ksa vkSj mRiknksa dks fMtkbu] LFkkfir] j[kj[kko vkSj
ejEer djrk gSA

 fo|qr] jks'kuh] vkS|ksfxd midj.k vkSj midj.kksa dks lqfuf'pr djus ds fy, bekjrksa ds vanj
;k ckgj bekjrksa dk dke lqjf{kr vkSj foÜoluh; <ax ls lapkfyr djrk gSA

 vkoklh; fctyh?kj lfgr dbZ fo'ks"k çdkj ds fctyh?kj gSa] tks ok;fjax dks yxkrs gSa vkSj
?kjksa esa fctyh dh leL;kvksa dks gy djrs gSa] vkSj vanj ds bysDVªhf'k;u] tks
O;olk;ksa vkSj dkj[kkuksa esa fu;a=.k ç.kkfy;ksa] eksVlZ vkSj fctyh ds midj.k dks cuk,
j[krs gSa vkSj ejEer djrs gSaA

 dbZ bysDVªhf'k;u vius dke ds voljksa dks c<+kus ds fy, dbZ çdkj ds fo|qr dk;ksZa
dks l{ke cukrs gSaA

4-5 mÙkjnkf;Ro%

 bysDVªhf'k;u ds :i esa] vki vius lzksr ls mu txgksa rd fctyh igqapkus ds fy, ft+Eesnkj
gks ldrs gSa tgka O;fä;ksa vkSj O;olkf;d miHkksäk bldk mi;ksx dj ldrs gSaA

 bl ukSdjh ls tqM+s fof'k"V ft+Eesnkfj;ka fo'ks"kKrk ds {ks= ds vkèkkj ij fHkUu gks ldrh
gSa] ysfdu muesa 'kkfey gks ldrs gSa%

 fctyh ds vkmVysV] ykbV fQDlj] ghfVax vkmVysV~l vkSj osafVys'ku flLVe ds fy,
lcls vPNh fLFkfr lfgr ubZ bekjrksa ds fy, fo|qr ç.kkfy;ksa dh ;kstuk cukukA

 vkfdZVsDV CywfçaV] lfdZV vkjs[k vkSj vU; rduhdh nLrkostksa dks i<+uk vkSj
O;k[;k djukA

 uxj fuxe dksM ds vuqlkj] u, vkSj ekStwnk Hkouksa esa rkjksa] çdk'k O;oLFkk vkSj
fu;a=.k ç.kkyh LFkkfir djukA

 fctyh ds rkjksa dks ?kVdksa vkSj fQDlj ls tksM+us vkSj iw.kZ fd, x, lfdZVksa dk
ijh{k.k djds fo|qr lfdZV cukukA

 fLopsl] lfdZV czsdj iSuy] fjys] vkSj vU; fo|qr fu;a=.k vkSj forj.k midj.k LFkkfir djukA

 fctyh ds mRiknksa dk leFkZu djus ds fy, gSaxj vkSj dks"Bd LFkkfir djukA

 vPNs dk;Z Øe esa rkjksa] çdk'k O;oLFkk vkSj fu;a=.k ç.kkyh j[kus ds fy, j[kj[kko
çfØ;kvksa dk çn'kZu djukA

 nks"kksa ds fy, lfdZV rksM+us okys] VªkalQkeZj vkSj vU; fo|qr ?kVdksa dk
fujh{k.k djukA
Opportunity for career growth:
 As an electrician you will experience the opportunity for advancement in your career.

 After starting as a service technician, hard-working and committed electricians can become promoted to
field managers, operation managers and even distribution managers within their company and field.

4.4 What can you expect from a job as an electrician?

 An electrician is any skilled tradesperson who designs, installs, maintains, and repairs the electrical systems
and products used in residential homes, businesses, and factories.
 Electricians work inside or outside buildings to ensure lights, industrial equipment, and appliances operate
safely and reliably.
 There are many special types of electricians, including residential electricians, who install wiring and solve
electrical problems in homes, and inside electricians, who maintain and repair control systems, motors, and
electrical equipment in businesses and factories.
 Many electricians become competent in several types of electrical work to increase their job opportunities.

4.5 Responsibilities:

 As an electrician, you're responsible for getting electricity from its source to the places where individuals
and business consumers can use it.

 The specific responsibilities associated with this job may vary depending on the area of specialization, but
they might include:

 Planning the electrical systems for new buildings, including the best position for electrical outlets, light
fixtures, heating outlets, and ventilation systems
 Reading and interpreting architect blueprints, circuit diagrams, and other technical documents
 Installing wiring, lighting, and control systems in new and existing buildings, according to municipal
codes
 Forming electrical circuits, by connecting electrical wires to components and fixtures and testing
completed circuits
 Installing switches, circuit breaker panels,
relays, and other electrical control and
distribution equipment
 Installing hangers and brackets to support
electrical products
 Performing maintenance procedures to keep
wiring, lighting, and control systems in good working order
 Inspecting circuit breakers, transformers, and other electrical components for faults
  fctyh ds mRiknksa vkSj flLVe [kjkc D;ksa gSa ;g tkuus ds fy, ijh{k.k midj.kksa dk
mi;ksx djukA

 lqjf{kr gVkus vkSj çfrLFkkiu ds fy, vyx&vyx nks"kksa lfgr nks"kiw.kZ ;k iqjkuh fctyh
ds midj.kksa] fQDlj vkSj rkjksa dh ejEer] mUgsa cnyus vkSj mUgsa vixzsM djukA

 vU; bysDVªhf'k;uksa dks çf'k{k.k nsuk vkSj mUgsa fof'k"V dk;Z djus ds fy, funZs'k
nsukA

4-6 dke dk egkSy%

 bysDVªhf'k;u fctyh ;k nwjlapkj ç.kkfy;ksa ij fuekZ.kkèkhu ;k uohuhdj.k ;k ckgj ds

Hkouksa ds vanj dke djrs gSA

 os cM+s LFkku ;k rax gkyr esa dke dj ldrs gSa muds dk;Z ds okrkoj.k esa vDlj thfor
fctyh ds rkjsa 'kkfey gksrs gSa] blfy, mfpr lkoèkkuh u cjrus ij os dkQh [krjukd gks ldrs
gSaA

 vDlj bysDVªhf'k;u Lora= :i ls ifj;kstukvksa ij dke djrs gSa] ysfdu os ,d cM+h fuekZ.k
Vhe dk fgLlk Hkh gks ldrs gSaA

 dbZ deZpkfj;ksa ds foijhr] tks fu;fer :i ls dke djrs gSa] vxys le; rd tkus ls igys]
bysfDVªd ,d fuf'pr le; ds fy, ,d nwjnjkt ds LFky ij dke djrs gSa] tks ,d fnu ls dqN eghus
rd gksrh gSA ukSdjh lkbVsa bysDVªhf'k;u ds ?kjksa ls nwj gks ldrh gSaA

 fctyh ds dke dks iwjk djus ds fy, vius ?kj ls 100 ehy ;k vfèkd ;k=k djuk vlkekU; ugha
gSA

4-7 dkS'ky %

 fctyh vius inksa esa mR—"Vrk çkIr djus ds fy, rduhdh dkS'ky vkSj O;fäxr
fo'ks"krkvksa ij fuHkZj djrh gSA

 gkykafd bu fo'ks"krkvksa dks vkerkSj ij bysDVªhf'k;u ukSdjh fooj.k ij lwphc) ugha fd;k
tkrk gS] ysfdu çcaèkdksa dh HkrÊ ds fy, budh vihy dks de er le>uk%

 fctyh ds ekudksa dks le>uk & lHkh çfr"Bkuksa vkSj ejEer ds fy, fctyh ls ekU;rk
çkIr ekudksa dks iwjk djuk pkfg,A

 xf.krh; vkSj oSKkfud fl)karksa dks le>uk & tcfd fctyh ds yksxksa dks mUur xf.krh;
vkSj oSKkfud dkS'ky dh vko';drk ugha gksrh gS] os bu fo"k;ksa ds cqfu;knh
fl)karksa dks vius dke esa ykxw djrs gSa A

 vPNh le> dkS'ky & ;s u, fljs ls dke djus okys eseks] CywfçaV vkSj rduhdh
nLrkostksa dh O;k[;k vkSj le>us esa bysDVªhf'k;u dh lgk;rk djsaxsA
  xgjh –f"V vkSj gkFk&ut+j leUo; & fo|qr mRiknksa] ?kVdksa vkSj ç.kkfy;ksa ds
lkFk dke djuk lVhd dk;Z gS tks fLFkj gkFkksa vkSj mR—"V –f"V ij fuHkZj djrk gSA

 Lora= dk;ZdrkZ & tcfd bysDVªhf'k;u ,d cM+h fuekZ.k Vhe ds Hkkx ds :i esa dke dj
ldrs gSa] ;g fLFkfr ,d ,dkUr Hkwfedk gksrh gS tks fd yksxksa ds fy, mi;qä gksrh
gS tks Lo;a dk dke djuk ilan djrs gSaA

 Using testing devices to discover why electrical products and systems are malfunctioning
 Repairing, replacing, and upgrading faulty or outdated electrical equipment, fixtures, and wiring,
including isolating faults for safe removal and replacement
 Training other electricians and directing them to perform specific tasks

4.6 Work Environment:

 Electricians may spend their time working inside buildings under construction or renovation or outdoors
on power and telecommunications systems.

 They may work in large spaces or in cramped conditions. These working environments often involve live
electrical wires, so they can be quite dangerous if the proper precautions aren't taken.

 Often electricians work independently on projects, but they may also be part of a larger construction team.

 Unlike many employees who have a regular place of work, electricians work on a remote site for a certain
period of time, ranging from a single day to a few months, before moving on to the next job. Job sites can
be far from electricians' homes.

 It's not uncommon for electricians to travel 100 miles or more from their home to complete work.

4.7 Skills:

 Electricians rely on a variety of technical skills and personal attributes to excel in their positions.

 While these attributes aren't usually listed on an electrician job description, don't underestimate their
appeal to hiring managers:
 Understanding of electrical standards – Electricians must meet recognized standards for all
installations and repairs.
 Understanding of mathematical and scientific principles – While electricians don't need advanced
mathematical and scientific skills, they will apply the basic principles of these disciplines to their work.
 Good comprehension skills – These will help electricians interpret and understand memos, blueprints,
and technical documents they receive on new job sites.
 Keen eyesight and hand-eye coordination – Working with electrical products, components, and
systems is precise work which relies on steady hands and excellent vision.
 Independent worker – While electricians may work as part of a larger construction team, this position
tends to be a solitary role that suits people who prefer working on their own.

 le; çcaèku & ;g le; ds fy, vPNh rjg ls vkSj iw.kZ ifj;kstukvksa dks çcafèkr djus ds
fy, fctyh dk dke iwjk djus ds fy, vko';d gSA

 lqj{kk ds fy, fpark & [krjukd okrkoj.k esa fo|qr dke tks mUgsa >Vds vkSj tyus ds
[krjs esa Mkyrs gSa] blfy, lkoèkku jguk egRoiw.kZ gSA

 egRoiw.kZ lksp & mRikn vkSj flLVe ijh{k.k ds ckn] bysDVªhf'k;u mu leL;kvksa dk
funku djus ds fy, ,df=r MsVk dk mi;ksx djrs gSa vkSj lcls vPNk lekèkku fuèkkZfjr
djrs gSaA

 rkfdZd leL;k fuokj.k dkS'ky & tc fctyh ds mRikn vkSj ç.kkfy;ka foQy gksrh gSa] rks
bysDVªhf'k;u dks bu leL;kvksa dk lekèkku [kkstus ds fy, rkfdZd :i ls lkspuk pkfg,A

 xzkgd lsok dkS'ky & ,d lq'khy vkpj.k gksus ls bysDVªhf'k;u dks vkoklh; vkSj
O;kikfjd xzkgdksa ls fuiVus esa enn feyrh gSA

 'kkjhfjd èkhjt & bysDVªhf'k;u vDlj vdlj [kM+s gksrs gSa ;k ?kqVus Vsdrs gSa] tks
'kjhj ij Vksy ys ldrs gSaA

 'kkjhfjd rkdr & ;g fctyh ds fy, Hkkjh ek=k esa 50 ikmaM otu ds fy, dne mBkus ds
fy, vlkekU; ugha gSA

 usr`Ro & tSls&tSls bysDVªhf'k;u ds dfj;j esa çxfr gksrh gS] mUgsa dk;ZLFky esa
çf'k{kqvksa vkSj dfu"B bysDVªhf'k;u dks laLFkkuksa dk çcaèku djus ds fy, cqyk;k
tkrk gS A
 Time management – It's essential for electricians to complete work to manage their time well and
complete projects on schedule.
 Concern for safety – Electricians work in dangerous environments which place them at risk of shocks
and burns, so it's important to be cautious.
 Critical thinking – After product and system testing, electricians use the data they collect to diagnose
problems and determine the best solutions.
 Logical problem-solving skills – When electrical products and systems fail, electricians must think
logically to find solutions to these problems.
 Customer service skills – Having a personable demeanor helps electricians deal with residential and
business customers.
 Physical endurance – Electricians often have to stand or kneel for extended periods, which can take a
toll on the body.
 Physical strength – It's not uncommon for electricians to move heavy components weighing as much
as 50 pounds.
 Leadership – As electricians progress in their careers, they will be called on to manage apprentices and
junior electricians in the workplace.
vè;k; & 5

,d Nr ia[kk yxkuk

vkSt+kj %

 lek;ksT; fjap
 fMªYl ¼fdjk, ij ysus ds fy, gekjs midj.k fdjk;k dsaæ ij½
 fpeVk
 oksYVst ijh{kd
 rkj dVj @ fLVªilZ
 gFkkSM+k
 çR;kxkeh ns[kk ¼fdjk, ij ysus ds fy, gekjs midj.k fdjk;k dsaæ ij½
 dhgksy l‚
 ykbueSu fpeVk
 y‚Ux ukst fpeVk

lkexzh %

 lhfyax QSu
 uhps j‚M foLrkjd
 ykbV fdV
 fMej
 fLop
 bysDVªhf'k;u Vsi
 ok;j uV
Chapter – 5

Install a ceiling fan

 TOOLS

 Adjustable wrench
 Drills (rental available at our Tool Rental Center)
 Pliers
 Voltage tester
 Wire cutters / strippers
 Hammer
 Reciprocating saw (rental available at our Tool Rental Center)
 Keyhole saw
 Lineman's pliers
 Long nose pliers

 MATERIALS

 Ceiling fan
 Down rod extender
 Light kit
 Dimmer
 switch
 Electrician's tape
 Wire nuts
 lhfyax QSu e‚mafVax fdV @c‚Dl

pj.k & 1 bysfDVªdy vkmVysV dh fuxjkuh djuk%

 ekStwnk taD'ku c‚Dl dk fujh{k.k djsa fd ;g lhfyax QSu ç'kaldksa ds fy, ewY;kadu
fd;k x;k gSA
 ;g bafxr djus ds fy, c‚Dl ij ,d f'kykys[k gksuk pkfg,A
 c‚Dl vkerkSj ij èkkrq dk gksrk gS;fn ugha] rks QSu ds otu dk leFkZu djus esa
lgk;rk djus ds fy, Nr okys tLV ds chp ,d QSu&jsVsM taD'ku c‚Dl vkSj QSu czsl ls
fjiysl djsaA bl çfØ;k dks pj.k 2 esa fn[kk;k tk,xkA

pj.k & 2 taD'ku c‚Dl dks ekmaV djsa%

 'khVj‚d esa Nsn ds ekè;e ls vkSj Nr ij QSu dks lfEefyr djsaA

 czsl dk LDok;j Vîwc Nsn ds lkFk fcp esa gksuk pkfg,A
 vius gkFk ls LDok;j Vîwc ?kqek,a tc rd nkarksa dks tLV esa y‚d ugha fd;k tkrkA
vius ifj.kke dks xst djus ds fy, pkjksa vksj yxk,a A
 QSu czsl djus ds fy, ;w&cksYV czSdsV layXu djsaA bls uhps dh rjQ cksYV ds
lkFk Nsn esa dsafær djuk pkfg,A
 dscy ds rkj dks taD'ku c‚Dl esa FkzsM djsaA c‚Dl Åij fLyi djsa rkfd cksYV mlds
ekè;e ls LykbM dj ldsa vkSj uV~l dks blds txg esa VkbV djsa rkfd c‚Dl dks lqjf{kr
dj ldsA

pj.k & 3 czsdsV dks ekmaV djsa %

 e‚mafVax czSdsV ds dsaæ ds ekè;e ls eq[; rkjksa dks FkzsM djsa

 ;fn QSu dh ,d LykbM&v‚u czSdsV gS] rks vki taD'ku c‚Dl ij e‚mafVax cksYV dks
NksM+ ldrs gSa vkSj cl QSu czSdsV dks c<+rs LØw ij LykbM dj ldrs gSaA
mUgsa lqjf{kr dl ysa A
 ;fn vkids QSu esa LykbM&v‚u QSu czSdsV ugha gS] rks QSu czSdsV dks
ekmafVax cksYV ij j[ksa] tks czSdsV ds ekè;e ls çgkj djrs gSa vkSj çnku fd, x, uV
ds lkFk bls tdM+saA

pj.k & 4 uhps ds j‚M lsV djsa%

 ,d likV lrg dk mi;ksx djuk] dSuksih ij uhps dh NM+h ij fLyi vkSj eq[; rkjksa dks pykus
ds ekè;e lsADyhfot+ vkSj d‚Vj fiu dks Mkmu j‚M esa Mkysa] rkfd og ia[ks ds csl ls
tqM+ tk,A
 Nr ij e‚mafVax czSdsV dks uhps okyh NM+h ds Åij cYc&vkdkj fQfVax layXu djsaA

STEP – 1 INSPECT ELECTRICAL OUTLETS

 Inspect the existing junction box to make sure it’s rated for ceiling fans.
 There should be an inscription on the box to indicate this.
 The box is usually metal. If not, replace it with a fan-rated junction box and a fan brace between the ceiling joists to help support the
fan’s weight. This process will be shown in Step 2.

STEP – 2 MOUNT THE JUNCTION BOX

 Insert the fan brace through the hole in the sheetrock and onto the ceiling.
 The square tube of the brace should be centered with the hole.
 Rotate the square tube with your hand until the teeth are firmly locked into the joist. Feel around to gauge your results.
 Attach the U-bolt bracket to the fan brace. It should be centered in the hole with the bolts facing downward.
 Thread the cable wire into the junction box. Slip the box up so that the bolts slide through it and tighten the nuts to secure the box
into place.

STEP – 3 MOUNT THE BRACKET

 Thread the main wires through the center of the mounting bracket
 If the fan has a slide-on bracket, you can leave the mounting bolts on the junction box and simply slide the fan bracket over the
mounting screws. Tighten them securely.
 If your fan doesn't have the slide-on fan bracket, place the fan bracket over the mounting bolts that poke through the bracket and
fasten it with the nuts provided.

STEP – 4 SET THE DOWN ROD

 Using a flat surface, slip the canopy onto the down rod and run the main wires through. Insert the clevis and cotter pins to the down
rod, so that it connects to the fan's base.
 Attach the bulb-shape fitting at the top of the down rod to the mounting bracket on the ceiling.
pj.k & 5 lhfyax QSu esa rkj Mkyuk %

 QSu ds rkjksa dks vius ?kj ds rkjksa ls dusDV djsa dqN QSu vfrfjä rkjksa ds lkFk
vkrs gSa] blfy, fof'k"V funZs'kksa ds fy, vius vksulZ eSuqvy dk ikyu djuk lqfuf'pr
djsaA
 rkjksa dks lqjf{kr djus ds fy, vius ç'kald fdV ds lkFk vkiwfrZ dh xbZ rkjksa dk
mi;ksx djsaA
 rkjksa dk feyku djsa: dbZ ekeyksa esa] ia[ks ds rkack ;k gjh fo|qr&jksfèkr rkj tehu
ds rkj ls tqM+rs gSA ia[ks dh dkyh eksVj rkj vkiwfrZ dkyk rkj ls tqM+rk gSA
 ia[ks dh gYdh fdV rkj] uhys ;k èkkjhnkj] Hkh vkiwfrZ dkys rkjksa ds lkFk dusDV
gksrk gSA QSu dh eksVj lQsn rkj lQsn] ;k U;wVªy] rkj dh vkiwfrZ ds lkFk tqM+rh
gSA
 ,d ckj ;s rkj lqjf{kr :i ls tqM+ tk,¡] rks mUgsa taD'ku c‚Dl esa nck,aA
 rkjksa dks dkVus ds fy, rkj dVj dk mi;ksx djsa ;fn os c‚Dl esa fQV ugha gks ldrs
gSaA
 tc ia[kk pyrk gS rc ;s dSuksih ds f[kykQ fgyrs jgsaxsA
 e‚mafVax czSdsV ij dSuksih dks fDyi djsa vkSj LØw ls dl nsaA

pj.k & 6 CysM vkSj cYc dks tksM+uk %

 dqN QSu esa Rofjr&baLV‚y CysM gksrs gSa ftlls baLVkys'ku dks rst+h ls dj ldrs
gSaA
 CysM dhgksy Ly‚V ds ekè;e ls lhèks CysM ckag dh iksLVksa dks lajsf[kr djsa
vkSj tc rd os txg ij fDyd u djsa rc rd mUgsa ckgj dh vksj LykbM djsaA
 fDod &bULV‚y CysM QSu ds fy,] CysM vkeZ ij QSu CysM dks LØw djsaA
 CysM dh fn'kk ftldks vki fn[kkuk pkgrs gSa uhps dh vksj gksuk pkfg,A
 ,Dok&vkeZ CysM czSdsV ds lkFk lhfyax QSu ds baLVkys'ku esa rsth yk ldrh gSA
;s czSdsV layXu CysM LØwt+ ds lkFk vkrs gSaA blds vykok] czSdsV ij ,d lajs[k.k
iksLV gS tks CysM ckag dks fcuk e‚mafVax Nsn dks vyx fd;s e‚mafVax esa enn
djsxkA
 ,Dok&vkeZ dh lqfoèkk ds fcuk QSu ds fy,] CysM vlsacyh dks nks f'kdats ds lkFk
eksVj esa tdM+saA
 LØw dks èkhjs&èkhjs Mªkbo djus ls CysM dks vyx gksus vkSj >qdus ls cpsa]
vkSj lqjf{kr :i ls dl ysaA
 vius fdV esa 'kkfey fd, tkus okys Xyksc vkSj çdk'k cYcksa dks LFkkfir djsaA
 fctyh dks fjLVksj djsa ] QSu dks pkyw djsa vkSj gok dk vkuan ysaA
STEP – 5 WIRE THE CEILING FAN

 Connect the fan wires to your household wiring. Some fans come with additional wires, so be sure to follow your
owner's manual for specific instructions.
 Use the wire nuts supplied with your fan kit to secure the wires.
 Match up the wires: In many cases, the fan's copper or green insulated wire connects with the ground wire. The fan's
motor black wire connects with the supply black wire.
 The fan's light kit wires, blue or striped, also connect with the supply black wires. The fan's motor white wire connects
with the supply white, or neutral, wire.
 Once these wires are securely connected, push them into the junction box.
Use wire cutters to cut the wires if they can't fit into the box.
 This will keep them from vibrating against the canopy when the fan is running.
Clip the canopy onto the mounting bracket and tighten the screws.

STEP – 6 ATTACH THE BLADES AND BULBS

 Some fans have quick-install blades that can make the installation faster.
 Simply align the blade arm posts through the blade keyhole slots and slide them outward until they click and lock into
place.
 For fans without quick-install blades, screw the fan blades onto the blade arms.
 The side of the blade that you want shown should face downward.
 Ceiling fans with accu-arm blade brackets can also speed up installation. These brackets come with the blade screws
attached. Also, there's an alignment post on the bracket that will help in mounting the blade arm without stripping the
mounting hole.
 For fans without the accu-arm feature, fasten the blade assembly to the motor with two screws.
 Drive the screws in slowly to avoid stripping and bending the blades, and tighten securely.
 Install the globe and light bulbs that may be included in your kit.
 Restore power, turn on the fan and enjoy the breeze!
ÅtkZ forj.k%

lzksr fuekZ.k LVs'ku] lcLVs'ku ls fctyh çnku djsa vkSj fo|qr usVodZ ds ekè;e ls fctyh ds
fofHkUu yksM vFkkZr eksVlZ] VªkalQkeZj] fLopcksMZ dks forfjr djsaA fctyh forj.k ds fy,
fuEufyf[kr dkjdksa ij fopkj djsaA

• oksYVst]
• djaV
• vko`fÙk
• çdkj ¼baMksj @ vkmVMksj½

oksYVst Lrj dk oxÊdj.k%

de ruko ¼,yVh½ % uhps 660 oh

eè;e mPp oksYVst ¼,e,pVh½ % 660 oh ls Åij & 33 dsoh ds uhps

mPp ruko ¼,pVh½ % 33 dsoh & 132 dsoh

vfrfjä mPp oksYVst ¼bZ,poh½ % 220 dsoh&400 dsoh

vYVªk gkbZ oksYVst ¼;w,poh½ % 760 dsoh

Power distribution:
Provide the power from source generating station, substation and distribute the power
various load i.e. Motors, transformers, switchboards through an electrical network. The
following factors considered for power distribution

 Voltage,
 Current
 Frequency
 Type (Indoor/outdoor)

Classification of Voltage levels:

Low tension (LT) : Below 660V
Medium high voltage (MHT) : Above 660V - Below 33kv
High tension (HT) : 33kv – 132kv
Extra High Voltage (EHV) : 220 kV- 400 kV
Ultra High Voltage (UHV) : 760 kV
vfFkZax

 lqj{kk dfeZ;ksa ds fy, vfFkZax dh O;oLFkk cgqr egRoiw.kZ gS vkSj fuekZ.k vkSj
fu;fer j[kj[kko dks fufnZ"V djrs gq, lkoèkkuhiwoZd è;ku nsus dh t:jr gSA
 VªkalQ‚eZj] tujsVj ds U;wVªy fcanqvksa dks tksM+us ds fy, fdlh Hkh bysfDVªdy
midj.k c‚Mh dks tehu ij ykuk vkSj xSj&djaV ynku okys èkkrq ds fgLlksa tSls fd
<qykbZ ds <kaps] rkj] VSad] ¶+jse vkfn tSls <kaps dks tksM+us ds fy, vfFkZax
LVs'ku dh vko';drk gksrh gSA vfFkZax ç.kkyh lxZ vjsLVlZ ds vfFkZax ds ekè;e ls
gksrk gSA
 LVs'ku vfFkZax ç.kkyh dk dke tehu dh lrg ls uhps vkSj fo'ks"k midj.k {ks= ds vklikl
,d xzkmafMax eSV çnku djuk gS] tks tehu ds lacaèk esa leku {kerk ls 'kwU; gks
ldrk gSA
 uhps xzkmafMax vfFkZax flLVe ¼eq[; la;a=] fLop ;kMZ] lh,pih] ,,pih vkfn½ ijLij
tqM+s gq, gksaxsA

fLopfx;j%

fLopcksMZ dk ukedj.k%

igyk vad % ;wfuV uacj ¼0] 1] 2½

nwljk vad % oksYVst Lrj ¼ch] lh] Mh] ,Q½

rhljk vad % cksMZ dk uke ¼,] ch] lh] --- --½

• 0 % LVs'ku

• 1 % vad &1

• 2 % vad & 2

• ch % 11 dsoh

• lh % 3-3 dsoh

• Mh % 0-43 dsoh

• ,Q % Mhlh 220oh

cl&ckj%
cl&ckj ,Y;wehfu;e ;k d‚ij ds dBksj daMDVj gSa tks leFkZu bUlqysVlZ ij lefFkZr gksrs
gSaA vlsacyh QSfczdsVsM eqM+s gq, bLikr oxksZa ij lefFkZr gksrk gS vkSj LVhy 'khV
;k ,Y;wfefu;e 'khV~l }kjk layXu gksrk gSA
Earthing:
 The Earthling system is very important for safety personnel and needs careful
attention while designating erection and routine maintenance.
 The station earthling is necessary for connecting neutral points of transformers,
generators to ground any electrical equipment body and also connecting non-current
carrying metal parts such as structures overhead shielding wires, tanks, frames..etc.
to earth. Earthling of surge arrestors is through the earthling system.
 The function of station earthling system is providing a grounding mat below ground
surface and around the particular equipment area which will have uniformly Zero
potential with respect to ground.
 The below grounding earthling systems (Main plant, Switchyard, CHP,AHP etc..) shall
be interconnected.

Switchgear:
Nomenclature of Switchboard:
1st Digit : Unit number (0, 1, 2)
nd
2 Digit : Voltage level (B, C, D, F)
3rd Digit : Board name (A,B,C,…..)
 0 : Station
 1 : Unit-1
 2 : 2 unit-2
 B : 11kv
 C : 3.3kv
 D : 0.43kv
 F : DC 220V

Bus –bar:
The bus-bars are rigid conductors of aluminium or copper supported on support insulators
.The assembly is supported on fabricated rolled steel sections and enclosed by sheet steel or
aluminium sheets.
vyx&vyx pj.k cl ufydk ¼,lihchMh½%

rhu pj.kksa ds daMDVj ,d èkkrq ds lkFk çR;sd pj.k ds fy, daMDVj vkSj ,uDykslj ds chp
bUlqysVlZ ckèkkvksa ds lkFk vyx&vyx pj.k ufydkvksa ds Hkhrj ,d lkekU; èkkrq ?ksjk esa
gksrs gSaA

xSj vyx pj.k cl ufydk ¼,uihchMh½%

rhu pj.kksa ds daMDVj èkkrq ds lkFk ,d vke èkkrq esa] daMDVj vkSj ,uDykslj ds chp
bUlqysVj ckèkk,a gksrh gSaA

i`Fkd pj.k cl ufydk ¼vkbZihchMh½%

çR;sd pj.k ds pj.k daMDVj ,d vyx èkkrq ?ksjk esa layXu gksrs gSA

fcuk vkKk%

lzksr ls fo'ks"k cl&lsD'ku ¼yksM dsaæ½ rd fo|qr gLrkarj.k vU; lzksr @ VkbZ QhMj ds
lkFk tqM+s fu;a=.k vkSj lqj{kk vkSj baVjy‚fdax ds lkFkA

cl ;qXed%

,d lfdZV czsdj ds lkFk iSuy ds Hkhrj ,d cl ls nwljs cl lsD'ku ¼foijhr Øe½ ls cl VªkalQjA

VkbZ fQMj%

fLopcksMZ var ds nksuksa ij fLFkr nks lfdZV czsdj ds lkFk ,d fLopcksMZ ls nwljs
fLopcksMZ ¼,d gh oksYVst Lrj½ esa ikoj VªkalQjA

LVs'ku 11 dsoh fLopcksMZ %

 LVs'ku fLopcksMZ LVs'ku VªkalQkeZj ds ekè;e ls pktZ vkSj LVs'ku Hkkj ds fy,
lgk;d fctyh vkiwfrZ dk forj.k djrk gS ;kuh chvksih HkkjA
 LVs'ku VªkalQkeZj ds fuokjd j[kj[kko ds le; lgk;d fLofpax ds fy, ,d fLop cksMZ ls
nwljs fLopcksMZ ¼blds foijhr½ ds fy, nks vyx&vyx LVs'ku fLopcksMZ ¼lzksr ls
tqM+k fofHkUu LVs'ku VªkalQkeZj½ ds chp LVs'ku lacaèkksa dks çnku fd;k tkrk
gS vkSj ;g fLFkfr Hkh rksM+ nsrh gSA
 chvksih Hkkj ,d ls tqM+s ,d bdkbZ ls tqM+k bdkbZ &1 i{k vkSj vU; ;wfuV &2 dh
vksj ls tqM+k gksxkA

;wfuV 11 dsoh fLopcksMZ %

 ;wfuV VªkalQkeZj ¼;wVh½ ds ekè;e ls pktZ fd;k tkus okyk ;wfuV fLopcksMZ vkSj
;wfuV yksM ds fy, lgk;d fctyh vkiwfrZ dk forj.k ;kuh bdkbZ lsok fLopcksMZ] c‚;yj]
 bZ,lih] vkbZMh] ih,] ,QMh] Mh,elhMCY;w] feYl] lhbZih] chlhMCY;w] ,lhMCY;w]
,MCY;wih
 ;wfuV lacaèkksa dks LVs'ku fLopcksMZ ls ;wfuV fLopcksMZ ds fy, lgk;d ikoj
VªkalQj ds fy, LVs'ku ls ;wfuV rd ds le; IykaV LVkVZ&vi vkSj ;wfuV vlQy fLFkfr
esa çnku fd;k tkrk gSA LFkkukUrj.k LVs'ku dks bdkbZ ds vuqlkj rnuqlkj mlds lzksr
jsfVax LFkkukarfjr djsaA

Segregated phase bus duct (SPBD):

The conductors of the three phases are in a common metal encloser inside with phase
segregated ducts for each phase with metal, insulators barriers between conductor and
encloser.
Non segregated phase bus duct (NPBD):
The conductors of the three phases are in a common metal enclose with metal, insulators
barriers between conductor and encloser.

Isolated phase bus duct (IPBD):

The phase conductor of each phase is enclosed in a separated metal encloser.

Incomer:
Power transfer from source to particular bus –section (load centre). With associated
controlling and protection and interlocking with other source/tie feeders.
Bus- coupler:
Power transfer from one bus section to another bus section (Vice versa) within the panel
with one circuit breaker.
Tie feeders:
Power transfer from one switchboard to another switchboard (same voltage level) with two
circuit breakers located at both switchboards end.

Station 11kv switchboards:

 Station switchboard charged through station transformers and distributes the
auxiliary power supply for station loads i.e. BOP loads .
 Stations ties are provided between two different station switchboards (source
connected different Station transformers) for auxiliary power transfer one switch
board to another switchboard (vice versa) at the time of preventive maintenance of
station transformer and also break down conditions.
 BOP loads connected one section connected unit-1 side and other will be connected
in Unit-2 side.
Unit 11kv switchboards:
 Unit switchboard charged through unit transformers (UT) and distributes the
auxiliary power supply for unit loads i.e. Unit service switchboards, Boiler, ESP,
ID,PA,FD, DMCW, Mills, CEP,BCW,ACW,AWP
  Unit ties are provided between Station switchboards to Unit switchboard for
auxiliary power transfer from station to unit at the time plant start-up and also unit
fail condition. Transfer direction station to unit only accordingly its source rating.

LVs'ku 3-3 dsoh fLopcksMZ %

LVs'ku 3-3 dsoh fLopcksMZ ¼vkslh,½ LVs'ku lgk;d VªkalQkeZj ¼,l,Vh½ ds ekè;e ls
pktZ fd;k tkrk gS vkSj lh,pih] ,,pih] daçs'klZ] Qk;j gkbMªaV vkSj Lçs iaiksa ds fy, lgk;d
fctyh vkiwfrZ dk forj.k djrk gSA

bdkbZ 3-3 dsoh fLopcksMZ %

bdkbZ 3-3 dsoh fLopcksMZ ¼1 lh,] 2 lh,½ bdkbZ lgk;d VªkalQkeZj ¼;w,Vh½ ds ekè;e ls
pktZ fd;k tkrk gS vkSj ;wfuV 3-3 fdyks yksM] Mh,elhMCY;w] feYl] lhbZih] chlhMCY;w]
,lhMCY;w] ,MCY;wih ds fy, lgk;d fctyh vkiwfrZ dk forj.k djrk gSA

LVs'ku lsok fLopcksMZ% ¼,l,lch½

LVs'ku lsok fLopcksMZ LVs'ku lsok VªkalQkeZj ¼LVs'ku 11 dsoh ,lMCywchMh esa
tqM+k gqvk½ ds ekè;e ls pktZ vkSj çdk'k] ok;q ok'kd ,elhlh vkSj eq[; IykaV osafVys'ku
Hkkj ds fy, LVs'ku lgk;d vkiwfrZ forfjr djrk gSA

bdkbZ lsok fLopcksMZ% ¼;w,lch½

bdkbZ lsok fLopcksMZ ¼;wfuV 11 dsoh ,lMCywchMh esa tqM+k gqvk½ ds ekè;e ls
bdkbZ lfoZl fLopcksMZ pktZ vkSj ;wfuV vkikrdkyhu ,lohchMh ¼1 Mhth½] c‚;yj vkSj
Vjckbu ,elhlh] cSVjh pktZlZ vkSj ;wih,l Hkkj ds fy, ;wfuV dh lgk;d vkiwfrZ forfjr djrh gSA

cnyko dh ;kstuk %

LVs'ku fLopfx;j ls ;wfuV fLopfx;j dks fctyh vkiwfrZ ds fpduh cnyko ds fy, VªkalQj lqfoèkk
çnku dh tkrh gS] tSls ;wfuV lzksr ls ;wfuV fLopfx;j esa fctyh ds #dkoV ds ekeys esa
;wfuV vkSfDlyhjht oSdfYid ikoj lzksr ls pyuk tkjh jgrk gSA

QkLV cnyko ;kstuk ¼Lopkfyr cnyko½%

LVs'ku lzksr oksYVst vkSj ;wfuV cl oksYVst dh vko`fÙk] pj.k dks.k vkSj ifjek.k fujarj
fuxjkuh dh tk,xh vkSj LVs'ku lzksr lfdZV czsdj dks can djus dk vkns'k bdkbZ lzksr 'kfä
esa #dkoV dh fLFkfr esa tkjh fd;k tk,xk] c'krZs nksuksa ds chp varj lfn'k lw=ksa dh
Lohdk;Z lhek ds Hkhrj gS vkSj vU; flLVe dks Loh—fr nh xbZ gSA bl ;kstuk ds fy, ,d uacj
flaØukbt+s'ku fjys ¼,ldsMh ;k lerqY;½ vkSj ,d ;qXeu fjys iSuy esa 11 dsoh @ 3-3 dsoh
;wfuV fLopfx;j VkbZ Vw LVs'ku fLopfx;j ds fy, çnku fd, tk,axsA

èkheh cnyko dh ;kstuk% ¼Lopkfyr cnyko½

pyrh lfdZV czsdj [kksys tkus ij ;g cnyko dks çHkkfor djrk gS vkSj cl oksYVst dks „å % ls
de ds Lrj rd {kh.k djus dh btktr gksrh gS vkSj fQj budfeax czsdj can gks tkrk gSA

eSuqvy cnyko%

e`r cl dh fLFkfr ij eSU;qvy cnyko dh lqfoèkk ds fy, cnyko ç.kkyh dks bathfu;j fd;k tk,xkA

vkikrdkyhu Mhty tujsVj%

Station 3.3kv switchboards:

Station 3.3kv switchboard (oCA) charged through station auxiliary transformer (SAT) and
distributes the auxiliary power supply for CHP, AHP, Compressors, fire hydrant and spray
pumps.
Unit 3.3kv switchboards:
Unit 3.3kv switchboard (1CA,2CA) charged through unit auxiliary transformer (UAT) and
distributes the auxiliary power supply for unit 3.3kv loads DMCW, Mills, CEP, BCW, ACW,
AWP.
Station service switchboard :(SSB)
Station service switchboard charged through Station service transformers (Connected in
station 11kv Swbd) and distribute station auxiliary supply for Lighting,Air washer MCC and
main plant ventilation loads.
Unit service switchboard :(USB)
Unit service switchboard charged through Unit service transformers (Connected in unit 11kv
Swbd) and distribute Unit auxiliary supply for Unit emergency swbd (1DG), Boiler and
turbine MCC, battery chargers and UPS loads.

Changeover Scheme:
Transfer facility is provided for smooth changeover of power supply to Unit switchgear from
Station Switchgear such that Unit Auxiliaries continue to run from the alternate power
source in case of interruption in power in unit switchgear from unit source.
Fast Changeover Scheme (Automatic Changeover):
Frequency, phase angle and magnitude of the station source voltage and unit bus voltage
shall be continuously monitored and the closing command to the station source circuit
breaker shall be issued in the event of interruption in the unit source power, provided the
differential vector between the two sources is within the permissible limit and other system
permissive are fulfilled. For this scheme one number synchronization relay (SKD or
equivalent) and one coupling relay shall be provided in the panels for 11 KV/ 3.3 KV Unit
switchgears Tie to Station Switchgear.
Slow Changeover Scheme: (Automatic Changeover)
It shall affect changeover when the running circuit breaker is opened and bus voltage is
allowed to decay to a level of less than 20% and then the incoming breaker is closed.
Manual Changeover:
The Changeover System shall be engineered to facilitate Manual Changeover on dead bus
condition.

Emergency Diesel generator:

Cy‚d vkmV fLFkfr esa vkikrdkyhu Mhty tujsVj dk mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA Cy‚d vkmV fLFkfr
esa] vkikrdkyhu Mhty tujsVj xaHkhj midj.kksa ds thou dh j{kk ds fy, egRoiw.kZ midj.kksa
dks 'kfä çnku djrs gSaA

vkikrdkyhu fLopcksMZ%

vkikrdkyhu fLopcksMZ bejtsalh Mhty tsujsVj ls Q+hM gksrk gSA lkekU; fLFkfr]
vkikrdkyhu fLopcksMZ ;w,lVh ls Q+hM gksrk gS Cy‚d vkmV fLFkfr esa vkikrdkyhu
fLopcksMZ iwoZ ;w,lVh] VhvkbZbZ czsdlZ fVªisM gkyr esa bZMhth ls Q+hM gksrk gSA
vkikrdkyhu fLopcksMZ esa tqM+s yksM tsujsVj dwfyax ç.kkyh] cSVjh pktZj] ;wih,l]
tsvksih] ,vksih vkfn gSaA

MhlhMhch%

MhlhMhch Mhlh forfjr cksMZ gSA Mhlh vkiwfrZ laj{k.k vkSj fu;a=.k lfdZV ds fy, fLopfx;j ls
vfèkd vkiwfrZ djrh gS] vkSj fØfVdy midj.k tSls tsvksih] ,vksih] vkSj LdSuj QSu gksrs
gSaA

cSVjh pktZj% ¼,Qlhchlh½

cSVjh pktZj la;a= dk fny gS] fctyh dh lkekU; fLFkfr ds nkSjku cSVjh pktZj ¶yksV eksM
esa cSVjh cSad dks pktZ djrk gS] vxj cSVjh oksYVst ds varxZr tkrh gS rks cSVjh
Lopkfyr :i ls pktZ gksrk gSaA

fLopfx;j%

;g lkekU; 'kCn gS ftlesa laiw.kZ fLofpax fMokbl vkSj mudk la;kstu lacafèkr fu;a=.k] ekius
vkSj lqj{kkRed fjys ç.kkyh ds lkFk 'kkfey gksrk gSa ftUgs fLopfx;j dgk tkrk gSA bUgsa
ncko jkgr ¶ySi ds lkFk ,d èkkrq esa j[kk tkrk gSA

fLopfx;j ds çdkj%

1- buMksj

2- vkmVMksj

fLopfx;j ds ?kVd%

1½ lfdZV czsdj

2½ djaV VªkalQkeZj ¼lhVh½

3½ laHkkfor VªkalQkeZj ¼ihVh½

4½ lqj{kk fjys

5½ fu;a=.k fLop

6½ ¶+;wt+
Emergency diesel generator is used in block out condition. In Block out condition,
Emergency diesel generator supplies power to critical equipment’s to severe the life of the
equipment.

Emergency Switchboard:
Emergency Switchboard is feed from Emergency Diesel Generator. Normal condition,
emergency switchboard is feed from UST. In block out condition emergency switchboard is
feed from EDG in prior UST TIE Breakers are in tripped condition. In Emergency Switchboard
the connected loads are Generator cooling system, Battery Charger, UPS, JOP, AOP etc.
DCDB:
DCDB is DC Distributed Board. DC Supply supplied to all over the Switchgear for Protection &
Control circuits, and Critical equipment’s like JOP, AOP, and Scanner fan.
Battery charger: (FCBC)
Battery charger is the heart of the plant, during power normal condition Battery charger
charge the battery bank in float mode , if battery gone into under voltage then battery
charger automatically

Switchgear:
It is the generic term including the entire switching devices and their combination with
associated control, measuring, and protective relay system is called Switchgear. These are
housed in a metal enclose with a pressure relief flap.

Switchgear Type:
1. In door
2. Out door
Components of Switchgear:
1) Circuit breaker
2) Current transformer(CT)
3) Potential transformer(PT)
4) Protective relays
5) Control switches
6) Fuses
7½ VªkalMîwlj ¼oksYV] pkyw] dsMCY;w½

8½ cgqvk;keh ehVj

9½ ¶+;wt+

10½ lxZ vjsLVj ¼,l,½

11½ fLop ¶;wt bdkb;ka ¼,l,Q;w½

¼12½ fefu,pj lfdZV czsdj

13½ iSuy ,ybZMh ladsr

14½ iSuy varfj{k ghVj

lfdZV czsdj %

;g ,d fLofpax ds :i esa lkekU; vkSj lkFk gh vlkekU; fLFkfr;ksa ds rgr cukus vkSj rksM+us
¼v‚u&v‚Q+½ djus esa l{ke gksrk gS A ;g fo'ks"k :i ls midj.kksa ds fuokjd j[kj[kko esa
Hkkx ysus ds nkSjku eSU;qvy :i ls jSd bu @ vkmV ds lkFk fMLdusDV gks jgk gSA

lfdZV czsdj ds çdkj%

 ,;j lfdZV czsdj ¼,lhch½

 U;wure rsy lfdZV czsdj ¼,evkslhch½
 oSD;we lfdZV czsdj ¼ohlhch½
 ,l,Q 6 lfdZV czsdj

lfdZV czsdj dk mís';%

 lfdZV czsdj dk eq[; mís'; ;g gS fd xyrh dks tYn ls tYn ckfèkr djuk vkSj lzksr ls
nks"k {ks= dks vyx djuk gSA
 VªkalQkeZj eSXusfVusft+ax vkSj ykbu pkftZax èkkjk,a LFkkfir djrk gSA
 FkeZy vkSj ;a=or :i ls jksdrk gS vkSj nks"kksa dks ckfèkr djrk gS

lfdZV czsdj ds ?kVd%

1½ ckèkk Mkyusokyk

2½ czsdj t‚o laidZ

 7) Transducers (Voltage, Current, KW)
8) Multi-functional meter
9) Fuses
10) Surge arresters(SA)
11) Switch fuse units(SFU)
12) Miniature circuit breaker
13) Panel LED indications.
14) Panel space heater

Circuit breaker:
It as a switching devise to capable of making and breaking (ON-OFF), under normal as well
as abnormal conditions. It is simply disconnecting with mains manually Rack in/out while
attending the preventive maintenance of particular equipment.
Types of Circuit breakers:
 Air circuit breaker(ACB)
 Minimum oil circuit breaker(MOCB)
 Vacuum circuit breaker(VCB)
 SF6 Circuit breaker

Purpose of Circuit breakers:

 The main purpose of the circuit breaker it is to interrupt the fault current as quickly as
possible and isolate the fault zone from source.
 Withstands transformer magnetising and line charging currents.
 Withstands thermally and mechanically and interrupting faults

Components of circuit breaker:

1) Interrupter
2) Breaker jaw contacts
3½ lekiu d‚by

4½ fVªfiax d‚by

5½ fLçax pktZ eksVj

6½ fLçax pkftZax fx;j c‚Dl

7½ czsdj lgk;d fLop

8½ ,aVh&ifEiax fjys

djaV VªkalQkeZj ¼lhVh½%

djaV VªkalQ‚eZj dks fo'ks"k pj.k esa okLrfod èkkjkvksa dks ekius ds fy, rS;kj fd;k x;k gS
vkSj èkkjkvksa dks mPp ewY; ls de ewY; ¼ekud ekuksa ds fglkc ls bldk vuqikr½ esa
dne j[kus ds fy, rS;kj fd;k x;k gS] tks fd muds f}rh;d okbafMax gSa tks eq[; ikoj lfdZV ls
i`Fkd gSaA bu çfr—fr èkkjkvksa dks fjysfDVo fjys ds fy, buiqV ds :i esa mi;ksx fd;k tkrk
gS tks fd ?kVuk xyrh gkyr esa ,d 'kfä lfdZV ds fgLls dks Lopkfyr :i ls vyx dj nsxkA

lfdZV esa lhVh ds vkosnu%

• lqj{kk

• ekiu

laHkkfor VªkalQkeZj ¼ihVh½ %

laHkkfor VªkalQ‚eZj dks fctyh O;oLFkk esa okLrfod oksYVst dks ekius vkSj f}rh;d
okbafMax esa oksYVst ¼rnuqlkj blds vuqikr½ uhps dne ds fy, fMtkbu fd, gSaA vke rkSj
ij ihVh lfdZV eki oksYVst esa gSa vkSj fjys ds ekè;e ls mPp vkSj fuEu oksYVst ls flLVe
dh j{kk djrs gSaA

ykbu ihVh%

ykbu ihVh çkbejh ykbu ls tqM+h ¼budej ls igys½ vkSj okafNr oksYVst ifjfLFkfr;ksa esa
vufxur fVªfiax lekiu lfdZV esa mi;ksx fd, tkus okys ykbu oksYVst vkSj laj{k.k dks ekius ds
fy, vkmViqV dks c<+k;kA

cl ihVh%

cl ihVh çkbejh fo'ks"k cl ls tqM+h gqbZ gS vkSj cl oksYVst dks ekius ds fy, mRiknu
c<+k;k x;k gS vkSj laj{k.k oksYVst dh ifjfLFkfr;ksa esa pyus okys lacafèkr tqM+k gqvk
vkmVxksbax QhMj vkSj vU; lzksr ¼VkbZ QhMj @ cl d‚iyj½ dks e`r cl gkyr ¼cl oksYVst
<20% ½

lqj{kkRed fjys%

 fjys ÅtkZ ç.kkyh ds ,d fgLls esa vlkekU; fLFkfr ¼eku½ dks le>us ds fy, ,d ;kstuk
vkSj ,d vykeZ ;k LoLFk ç.kkyh ls Hkkx dks vyx djrh gS A
 gj fo|qr midj.k ds fy, lqj{kkRed fjys ç.kkyh vko';d gSA

3) Closing coil
4) Tripping coil
5) Spring charge motor
6) Spring charging gear box
7) Breaker auxiliary switches
8) Anti-pumping relay

Current transformer (CT):

Current Transformers are designed to measure the actual currents in particular phase and
step down the currents from higher value to lower value (In standard values accordingly it’s
ratio) their secondary windings which are isolated from the main power circuit. These replica
currents are used as inputs to protective relays which will automatically isolate part of a
power circuit in the event fault condition.
Application of the CT in circuits:
 Protection
 Measurement
Potential transformer (PT):
Potential Transformers are designed to measure the actual Voltage in power systems and
step down the voltage (accordingly its ratio) in secondary windings. Generally PT’s are to in
circuit measure voltage and protect the system from higher and lower voltages through
relays.
Line PT:
Line PT primary connected at line (before incomer) and extended the output for measuring
the line voltage and protection used in incomer tripping, closing circuits in under voltage
conditions as desired.
Bus PT:
Bus PT primary connected at particular Bus section and extended the output for measuring
the Bus voltage and protection used respective connected outgoing feeders tripping in
under voltage conditions and allow the other source(Tie feeder /bus coupler) Auto close on
dead bus condition (Bus voltage <20% )
Protective Relays:
 Relay is a devise to sense the abnormal conditions (Values) in a part of the power
system and gives an alarm or isolate the part from the healthy system

 Protective relay system is necessary provide for every electrical equipment.

lqj{kk dk fodYi dbZ igyqvksa ij fuHkZj djrk gS tSls lajf{kr midj.kksa ds çdkj vkSj jsfVax]
bldk egRo] LFkku] laHkkfor vlkekU; ifjfLFkfr;kaA tujsVj vkSj vafre Hkkj vad ds chp dbZ
fo|qr midj.k vkSj fofHkUu jsfVaXl dh e'khusa gksrh gSaA çR;sd vU; ç.kkfy;ksa ds lkFk
mfpr fjys leUo; ds lkFk dqN fuf'pr lqj{kk dh vko';drk gksrh gSA

,pVh @ ,yVh flLVe ds fy, lkekU; lqj{kk %

क्रम QhMj dk fooj.k lqj{kk

संख्‍या

01 djaV ls vfèkd] i`Foh dh xyrh] oksYVst ds rgr

vk; ¼:-½
VkbZ fQMj] cl dIylZ] djaV ls vfèkd] èkjrh dh xyrh
02
vkmVxksbax QhMj
djaV ls vfèkd] i`Foh dh xyrh] foHksnd] vksVhvkbZ]
MCY;wVhvkbZ] cq'kksy] ihvkjoh ¼foHksnd ykxw
03 VªkalQ+‚eZj
>5MVA jsfVax½

djaV ls vfèkd] FkeZy Hkkj] èkjrh dh xyrh] foHksnd

vaMj oksYVst] teheM jksVj] pj.k ,d 'ks"k jkf'k] 'kq:vkr
04 ,pVh eksVlZ dh la[;k ¼foHksnd ykxw 1000KW jsfVax½

djaV ls vfèkd] FkeZy Hkkj] i`Foh dh xyrh] oksYVst

05 ,yVh eksVlZ >110 fdyksokV ds rgr] tehM jksVj] ,d larqfyr pj.kA

06 ,yVh eksVlZ <110 fdyksokV djaV ls vfèkd] FkeZy ij Hkkj] èkjrh dh xyrh

fjys dh dk;kZRed vko';drk,a%

foÜoluh;rk %

lqj{kkRed çlkj.k dh lcls egRoiw.kZ vko';drk foÜoluh;rk gS D;ksafd os fdlh xyrh ls igys
yacs le; rd lfdZV dh fuxjkuh djrs gSa] ;fn dksbZ xyrh gksrh gS] rks fjys dks rqjUr vkSj lgh
rjhds ls tokc nsuk pkfg,A
p;ukRedrk%

çlkj.k mu 'krksZa ds chp HksnHkko ¼p;u½ djus esa l{ke gksuk pkfg, ftlds fy, 'kh?kz
dkjZokbZ dh vko';drk gksrh gS vkSj ftuds fy, dksbZ v‚ijs'ku ugha gksrk gS] ;k le; nsjh ds
v‚ijs'ku dh vko';drk gksrh gSA

laosnu'khyrk %

çlkj.k midj.k i;kZIr :i ls laosnu'khy gksuk pkfg, rkfd okLrfod fLFkfr;ksa ds rgr t:jh gks fd tc
;g de ls de v‚ijsfVax ço`fÙk iSnk djs] rc ;g foÜoluh; <ax ls lapkfyr gksA

xfr%
 The choice of protection depends upon several aspects such as type and rating of the
protected equipment its importance, location, probable abnormal conditions.
Between generators and final load points there are several electrical equipment and
machines of various ratings. Each needs certain adequate protection with proper
relay coordination with other systems.
General protection for HT/LT Systems:
Sl.no Description of the feeder Protection
01 Incomers Over current, Earth fault, Under voltage
Tie feeders, Bus couplers, Over current, Earth fault
02
Outgoing feeders
Over current, Earth fault, Differential, OTI, WTI,
03 Transformers
Buchholz, PRV (Differential applicable >5MVA Rating)
Over current, Thermal over load, Earth fault,
Differential Under voltage, Jammed rotor, Phase Un
04 HT Motors balance, Nos of starts (Differential applicable 1000KW
Rating)
Over current, Thermal over load, Earth fault, Under
05 LT Motors > 110Kw
voltage, Jammed rotor, Phase Un balance.
06 LT Motors < 110Kw Over current, Thermal over load ,Earth fault,

The Functional requirements of the relay:

Reliability:
The most important requisite of protective relay is reliability since they supervise the circuit
for a long time before a fault occurs if a fault then occurs, the relays must respond
instantly and correctly.
Selectivity:
The relay must be able to discriminate (select) between those conditions for which prompt
operation is required and those for which no operation, or time delayed operation is
required.
Sensitivity:
The relaying equipment must be sufficiently sensitive so that it operates reliably when
required under the actual conditions that produces least operating tendency.
Speed:
fjys dks vko';d xfr ij dk;Z djuk pkfg, ;g u rks cgqr èkhek gksuk pkfg,] ftlds ifj.kkeLo:i midj.k
dks uqdlku gks vkSj u gh ;g cgqr rst+ gksuk pkfg, ftlds ifj.kkeLo:i vokafNr v‚ijs'ku gks ldrk
gSA

fu;a=.k fLop%

Mhlh lzksr p;u fLop%

cl ihVh iSuy ij fLFkr Mhlh lzksr p;udrkZ fLopA Mhlh fu;a=.k dh vkiwfrZ nks vyx&vyx
lzksrksa ls vkrh gS vkSj lzksr p;udrkZ fLop ds ekè;e ls Mhlh cl ls tqM+h p;fur lzksr dh
vkiwfrZ djrk gSA

,lh lzksr p;u fLop%

,lh lzksr p;udrkZ fLop cl ihVh iSuy ij fLFkr gSA ,lh Lisl ghVj] nks vyx&vyx lzksrksa ls vkus
okys iSuy jks'kuh dh vkiwfrZ vkSj lzksr p;udrkZ fLop ds ekè;e ls ,lh cl ls tqM+s p;fur lzksr
dh vkiwfrZ djrk gSA

,lh @ Mhlh fu;a=.k fLop%

,lh @ Mhlh fu;a=.k dh vkiwfrZ dks fu;af=r djus ds fy, ;s vyx&vyx QhMj fLFkr gSaA

VªkalMîwllZ %

VªkalMîwlj ¼orZeku] oksYVst] vkSj dsMCY;w½ ekud bysfDVªdy ,uky‚x buiqV oSY;w dks
NksVs fo|qr ekud ,uky‚x vkmViqV ¼4&20 ,e,½ esa ifjofrZr djus vkSj çkFkfed ewY;ksa
dks çnf'kZr djus ds fy, ;wfuV @ ,p,evkbZ çnf'kZr djus ds fy, Hkjk tkrk gSA

cgq&dk;kZRed ehVj%

eYVh&QaD'kuy ehVj ,d ladsr vkSj fjd‚fMZax ;kstuk gSA eYVh&QaD'kuy ehVj dk eq[;
mís'; oksYVst] djaV] dsMCY;w] ikoj dkjd vkSj lfØ;] fj,fDVo ikoj dks fjd‚MZ fd;k x;k gSA
ÅtkZ çcaèku ç.kkyh ds lkFk ,d çkoèkku varjQyd gSA

¶;wt %

¶;wt dk ç;ksx xyrh dh fLFkfr ds nkSjku djaV vkSj 'k‚VZ lfdZV laj{k.k ds fy, fd;k tkrk gS]
blds ¶+;wt+ rRo mldh jsVsM {kerk ds vuqlkj mM+ tkrk gSA vius èkkjd ;k vkèkkj ij ¶;wt
rRo @ fQDl fyad A

¶;wt rRoksa ds çdkj ¼¶;wt fyad½%

1- iqu% & ok;jcy

2- ,pvkjlh ¼mPp jiV dh {kerk½

3- vèkZpkyd
4- ,pth ¶;wt ¼g‚uZ varj½

mNky cUnh%
The relay must operate at the required speed. It should neither be too slow which may result
in damage to the equipment nor should it be too fast which may result in undesired
operation
Control switches:
DC source selection switch:
DC source selector switch located at Bus PT panel. DC control supply coming from two
different sources and selected source supply connected to DC bus through source selector
switch.
AC source selection switch:
AC source selector switch located at Bus PT panel. AC Space heater, Panel illumination
supply coming from two different sources and selected source supply connected to AC bus
through source selector switch.
AC/DC Control switch:
These are located individual feeders to control ON-OFF the AC/DC control supply.
Transducers:
Transducers (Current, Voltage, and KW) are such devise to convert the standard electrical
Analogue input values into smaller electrical standard analogue output (4-20mA) and further
fed to display unit/HMI to display the primary values.
Multi-functional meter:
Multi- functional meter is a indicating and recording devise. The main purpose of The Multi-
functional meter indicate the voltage, Current, KW, Power factor and recorded the Active,
Reactive power. There is a provision interfacing with energy management system.
Fuse:
Fuse is used for over current and short circuit protection during fault conditions its
fuse element got blown accordingly to its rated capacity. The fuse element/Link fixes
on its holder or base.
Types of fuse elements (Fuse link):
1. Re-wireble
2. HRC (High ruptured capacity)
3. Semiconductor.
4. HG Fuse(Horn gap)

Surge arrestor:
bu ;a=ksa dks fo|qr midj.k @ flLVe dh lqj{kk ds fy, fMt+kbu fd;k x;k gS ftlls i`Foh ij
mrkj&p<+ko vkSj lfdZV bUlqys'ku dks èkjrh ds lacaèk esa viuh lkekU; rkdr ds lkFk cgky
djus ls 'kksj dks gYds ls ns[kk tk ldrk gSA;s midj.kksa vkSj ykbuksa ds lkFk lekukarj
tqM+s gq, gksrs gSaA

èkkrq v‚DlkbM ¼tsM,uvks & ftad v‚DlkbM½ ykbVfuax vjsLVj gekjs flLVe esa çnku dh
tkrh gSaA

¶+;wt+ bdkb;ka fLop djsa ¼,l,Q;w½%

;g fLofpax vkSj ¶;wt dk la;kstu gS] ftlesa Mcy czsd lqfoèkk gSA ;g QhMj esa fLFkr gS tks
fd eq[; ls fctyh ls yksM @ vU; lfdZV rRo dks LFkkukarfjr djrk gSA ,l,Q;w dh jsfVax jsVsM
{kerk ds 3 VkbEl ls < ugha gksuh pkfg,A lkekU;r% ,yVh fLopfx;j] çdk'k vkSj ?kjsyw
vuqç;ksxksa esa mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA

y?kq lfdZV czsdj ¼,elhch½%

orZeku vkSj 'k‚VZ lfdZV nks"kksa ds fo#) ;g fLofpax vkSj laj{k.k dk la;kstu gSA QkYV ds
nkSjku èkkrq ds fLça dk foLrkj gksrk gS vkSj laidZ [kqy tkrk gSA QkYV dks lkQ djus ds
ckn bls fQj ls can fd;k tk ldrk gSA

iSuy ,ybZMh ladsr%

uhps fn, x, fLopfx;j dh fLFkfr tkuus ds fy, lkeus ds iSuy ij nh xbZ iSuy ,ybZMh ladsrA

1½ v‚u % lhch can fLFkfr esa

2½ v‚Q % lhch vksiu gkyr esa

3½ VsLV % lhch ijh{k.k dh fLFkfr esa

4½ lsok % lhch ijh{k.k dh fLFkfr esa

5½ pktZ fd;k x;k % lhch fLçax pktZ fd;k x;k gkyr

6½ v‚Vks fVªi % lhch lqj{kk ij fVªiM

7½ fVªi lhdsVh LoLFk % fVªi dk rkj LoLFk

8½ Mhlh foQy % Mhlh vkiwfrZ foQy gks x;k

9½ LoLFk ls ckgj fudyuk % ekLVj fVªi okLro esa LoLFk

iSuy Lisl ghVj%

;g iSuy czsdj pSacj] cl&ckj pSacj] dscy pSacj esa fLFkr gksrk gS] tks rkieku dks daVªksy
esa djus okys FkfeZLVj ds ek/;e ls tqM+k gksrk gSA Lisl ghVj dk eq[; mís'; iSuy esa ueh
dh igqap ls cpuk gSA
These are equipment designedtoprotect electrical equipment/System from
lighteningsurgesbydivertingthe surge toearthandinstantly restoringthe circuit insulationtoits normal
strengthwith respect toearth.These areconnectedparallel with the equipment andlines.
Metal Oxide (ZnO – Zinc Oxide) Lightning Arresters are provided in our system.

Switch fuses units (SFU):

It is combination of switching and fuse devise with double break facility. It is located in
feeder to transfer power from mains to the load/other circuit element. The rating of the SFU
should not < than 3times of rated capacity. Generally used in LT switchgear, lighting and
domestic applications.

Miniature circuit breaker (MCB):

It is combination of switching and protection devise against over current and short circuit
faults. During faults the metallic spring expands and contacts got opened. After fault
clearing it can be re close.

Panel LED indications:

Panel LED indications provided on the front panel to know the status of the Switchgear as
mentioned below
1) ON : C.B in Close condition
2) OFF : C.B in Open condition
3) Test : C.B In test position
4) Service : C.B In test position
5) Charged : C.B spring charged condition
6) Auto trip : CB Tripped on Protection
7) Trip ckt Healthy : Trip coil healthy
8) DC Fail : DC supply got fail
9) Lock out healthy : Master trip relay health

Panel space heater:

It is located in the panel Breaker chamber, Bus-bar chamber, cable chamber it is connected
through temperature controlling devise Thermistor. The main purpose of the space heater is
to avoid moisture ingress in the panel.
fLopfx;j vuqes; baVjy‚d vkSj vkns'k:
Ø-
baVjy‚d dk fooj.k
la-
1. fLopfx;j miyC/k gS
a½ pktZ fd;k gqvk czsdj fLçax
b½ lsok gkyr esa czsdj
c½ yksdy esa yksdy fjeksV fLop
d½ fVªi lfdZV LoLFk
2. fLopfx;j v'kkar
a½ Mhlh ¼DC½ lIykbZ foQy
b½ laj{k.k lapkfyr
3. ekLVj fVªi jhys lapkfyr
4. Y Qst djaV QhM cSd
5. bZihch Mhlh,l ¼DCS½ dks bZihch ¼EPB½ lapkfyr
6. Dykst QhM cSd
7. vksiu QhM cSd
8. Mhlh,l ¼DCS½ ls Dykst dekaM
9. Mhlh,l ¼DCS½ ls vksiu dekaM
10 bZihch ¼EPB½ LV‚i ihch ¼PB½ lapkfyr
11 bZihch ¼EPB½ LV‚i ihch ¼PB½ bZihch lapkfyr ugha

çfØ;k & 400 dsoh ¼kV½ vk;lksys'ku

400 dsoh ¼kV½ lfdZV czsdj vksifuax çfØ;k ¼fjeksV ls½

 czsdj ek'kZfyax c‚Dl esa] czsdj fjeksV/yksdy flysDVj fLop dks fjeksV eksM esa vkSj
,lh ,elhch ¼AC MCBs½ dks fLop v‚u djsa [,elhch &11 ¼MCB&1½] ,elhch & 2
¼MCB&2½] ,elhch & 3 ¼MCB&3½ vkSj ,elhch & 6 ¼MCB&6½] vkSj Mhlh ,elhch
¼,elhch & 5½ [DC MCB ¼MCB&5½]A
 ,l,,l ¼SAS½ esa] fo'ks"k czsdj fefed i`"B [kksysaA
  vykeZ jhlsV gSa bldh iqf"V djsaA
 czsdj dk p;u djsa] ,d MkbZy‚x c‚Dl fn[kkbZ nsxkA
 Mk;y‚x c‚Dl esa '[kksysa ¼Open½' ij] vkSj mlds ckn 'fu"ikfnr djsa ¼Execute½' ij fDyd
djsaA

It is located in the panel Breaker chamber, Bus-bar chamber, cable chamber it is connected
through temperature controlling devise Thermistor. The main purpose of the space heater is
to avoid moisture ingress in the panel.

Switchgear permissive interlocks and Commands:

Sl.no Interlock description
1. Switchgear available
a) Breaker spring charged
b) Breaker in service position.
c) Local remote switch in local
d) Trip circuit healthy
2. Switchgear disturbed
a) DC supply fail
b) Protection operated
3. Master trip relay operated
4. Y Phase Current feed back
5. EPB Operated to DCS
6. Close Feed back
7. Open Feed back
8. Close Command from DCS
9. Open Command From DCS
10 EPB Stop PB Operated
11 EPB Stop PB Not operated

Procedure - 400kV Isolations

400kV circuit breaker opening procedure (from remote)

 At breaker marshalling box, put the breaker Remote/Local selector switch in remote
mode and switch ON AC MCBs (MCB-1, MCB-2, MCB-3 and MCB-6) and DC MCB (MCB-5)
  In SAS, open the particular breaker mimic page.
 Confirm the alarms are reset.
 Select the breaker, a dialog box will appear.
 Click OPEN in the dialog box and then click EXECUTE.

 /;ku nsa] czsdj bafMdsVj gjs jax esa cny tkrk gS ¼yky jax ls½] tks ;g fn[kkrk gS fd
czsdj [kqyk gSA
 yksdy ij] '[kqyk/can' bafMdsVj ls fo'ks"k czsdj '[kqyh' gkyr esa gS bls ns[ksaA

400 dsoh ¼kV½ lfdZV czsdj [kksyus dh çfØ;k ¼fjeksV ls½:

• ,l,,l ¼SAS½ ls czsdj [kksysa] vxj ugha [kksyrk gS] rks uhps nh xbZ çfØ;k dk ikyu djsaA
• lfdZV czsdj ek'kZfyax c‚Dl ds njokts dks [kksysaA
• ns[ksa fd vkbZ,y1& lhch ¼IL1&CB½ ySai ped jgk gS tks ;g fn[kkrk gS fd lfdZV czsdj
'can' gSA
• vxj pkyw gkyr esa ugha gSa] rks bl ckr dks lqfuf'pr djsa fd ,lh ,elhch ¼AC MCBs½] ,elhch
&1 ¼MCB&1½] ,elhch &2 ¼MCB&2½ vkSj ,elhch &3 ¼MCB&3 ½ pkyw gkyr esa gSaA
• vxj pkyw gkyr esa ugha gSa] rks bl ckr dks lqfuf'pr djsa fd Mhlh ¼DC½ lzksr ,elhch &5
¼MCB&5½ vkSj ,lh ¼AC½ lzksr ,elhch &6 ¼MCB&6 ½ pkyw gkyr esa gSaA
• yksdy/fjeksV flysDVj fLop dks yksdy eksM esa j[ksaA ;fn fLçax pktZ ugha gksrh gS] rks
4-2-12 dk ikyu djsaA
• çsl 'iq'k' cVu ihch,l1 ¼PBS1½ ¼gjk jax½ nck,a vkSj lfdZV czsdj dke djus yxrk gSA
• ns[ksa fd vkbZ,y1& lhch ¼IL1&CBCB½ ySai ped jgk gS tks ;g fn[kkrk gS fd lfdZV czsdj
'[kqyk' gSA daVªksy d{k dks lwfpr djsaA
• ,elhch ¼MCBs½] ,elhch &1 ¼MCB&1½] ,elhch &2 ¼MCB&2½ vkSj ,elhch &3 ¼MCB&3
½ dks pktZ djus okys czsdj fLçax dks can djsaA
• 220 oksYV ¼V½ Mhlh ¼DC½ lzksr ,elhch &5 ¼MCB&5½ dks can djsaA
• ,lh ¼AC½ lzksr ,elhch &6 ¼MCB&6½ dks can djsaA
• eSuqvy fLçax pkftaZx dh çfØ;k:
a. 220 oksYV ¼V½ Mhlh ¼DC½ lzksr ,elhch &5 ¼MCB&5½ dks can
djsaA
b. ,elhch &1 ¼MCB&1½] ,elhch &2 ¼MCB&2½ vkSj ,elhch &3 ¼MCB&3 ½
vkSj ,elhch &6 ¼MCB&6½ dks can djsaA
c. lh<+h ij p<+sa vkSj eSdsfute c‚Dl dks [kksysaA
d. tgka fLçax pkftaZx bafMds'ku yscy fn;k x;k gS] ogka '[kqyk/can' Mk;y
ds cxy esa xSi esa jksVsfVax gSaMy dks MkysaA
e. lh/ks iq#"k laidZ ¼esy dkaVWDV½ esa gSaMy Mkysa] vkSj ftl çdkj ls
fn[kk;k x;k gS] ml çdkj ls gSaMy dks rc rd ?kqek,a] tc rd fLçax
pktZ/fLçax fMLpktZ bafMdsVj pktZ dh gkyr ugha fn[kkrkA
f. gSaMy dks fudky ysa vkSj bls vius fufnZ"V txg esa j[ksa

400 dsoh ¼kV½ lfdZV czsdj Dyksftax çfØ;k ¼fjeksV ls½

 czsdj ek'kZfyax c‚Dl esa] czsdj dks fjeksV/yksdy flysDVj fLop dks fjeksV eksM+ esa j[ksa
vkSj ,lh ,elhch ¼,elhch &1] ,elhch &2] ,elhch &3 vkSj ,elhch &6½ vkSj Mhlh ,elhch ¼,elhch
&5½ pkyw djsaA
  ,l,,l ¼SAS½ esa] fo'ks"k czsdj fefed i`"B [kksysaA
 vykeZ jhlsV gSa bldh iqf"V djsaA
 czsdj dk p;u djsa] ,d MkbZy‚x c‚Dl fn[kkbZ nsxkA
 Mk;y‚x c‚Dl esa '[kksysa ¼Open½' ij] vkSj mlds ckn 'fu"ikfnr djsa ¼Execute½' ij fDyd djsaA
 /;ku nsa] czsdj bafMdsVj yky jax esa cny tkrk gS ¼gjs jax ls½] tks ;g fn[kkrk gS fd czsdj
[kqyk gSA
 yksdy ij] '[kqyk/can' bafMdsVj ls fo'ks"k czsdj '[kqyh' gkyr esa gS bls ns[ksaA

400 dsoh ¼kV½ lfdZV czsdj Dyksftax çfØ;k ¼yksdy ls½

 lacaf/kr czsdj ij tk,aA

 lfdZV czsdj ek'kZfyax c‚Dl ds njokts dks [kksysaA
 Observe that, the breaker indication turns green colour (from red colour) indicating the
breaker is open.
 At local observe for, the particular breaker is in Open condition from OPEN/CLOSE
indicator.

400kV circuit breaker opening procedure (from remote):

 Open the breaker from SAS, if not opening, then follow the below procedure.
 Open the circuit breaker marshalling box door.
 Observe IL1-CB lamp is glowing indicating circuit breaker is CLOSE.
 Ensure AC MCBs, MCB-1, MCB-2 and MCB-3 are in ON position, if not put in ON position.
 Ensure DC source MCB-5 and AC source MCB-6 are in ON position, if not switch ON.
 Put Local/Remote selector switch in local mode. If spring is not getting charged then, follow
4.2.12.
 Press Push button PBS1 (Green colour) and the circuit breaker operates.
 Observe for IL2-CB lamp glowing indicating circuit breaker is OPEN. Inform control room.
 Switch off the breaker spring charging MCBs, MCB-1, MCB-2 and MCB-3 (for each phase).
 Switch off 220V DC source MCB-5.
 Switch off AC source MCB-6.
 Manual spring charging procedure:
a. Switch off 220V DC source MCB-5.
b. Switch off MCB-1, MCB-2, MCB-3 and MCB-6.
c. Climb the ladder and open the mechanism box.
d. Insert rotating handle in the gap beside open/close dial where spring
charging indication label is given.
e. Insert handle straight in the male contact, rotate handle as indicated until the
spring charge / spring discharge indicator shows charge condition.
f. Take out the handle and place it in its designated place

400kV circuit breaker closing procedure (from remote)

 At breaker marshalling box, put the breaker Remote/Local selector switch in remote mode
and switch ON AC MCBs (MCB-1, MCB-2, MCB-3 and MCB-6) and DC MCB (MCB- 5).
 In SAS, open the particular breaker mimic page.
  Confirm the alarms are reset.
 Select the breaker, a dialog box will appear.
 Click CLOSE in the dialog box and then click EXECUTE.
 Observe that, the breaker indication turns red colour (from green colour) indicating the
breaker is closed.
 At local observe for, the particular breaker is in Close condition from OPEN/CLOSE indicator.

400kV circuit breaker closing procedure (from local)

 Go to respective breaker.
 Open the circuit breaker marshalling box door.
 ns[ksa fd vkbZ,y2& lhch ¼IL2&CB½ ySai ped jgk gS tks ;g fn[kkrk gS fd lfdZV czsdj '[kqyk'
gSA
 vxj pkyw gkyr esa ugha gSa] rks bl ckr dks lqfuf'pr djsa fd ,lh ,elhch ¼AC MCBs½] ,elhch
&1 ¼MCB&1½] ,elhch &2 ¼MCB&2½ vkSj ,elhch &3 ¼MCB&3 ½ pkyw gkyr esa gSaA
 vxj pkyw gkyr esa ugha gSa] rks bl ckr dks lqfuf'pr djsa fd Mhlh ¼DC½ lzksr ,elhch &5
¼MCB&5½ vkSj ,lh ¼AC½ lzksr ,elhch &6 ¼MCB&6 ½ pkyw gkyr esa gSaA
 yksdy eksM esa flysDVj fLop ¼fjeksV / yksdy½ j[ksaA ;fn olar dk vkjksi yxk;k ugha tk jgk
gS]
 çsl cVu PBS2 ¼yky jax½ cVu nck,a vkSj lfdZV czsdj lapkfyr gksrk gSA
 vkbZ,y 1&lhch nhid ped ds fy, ns[ksa lfdZV czsdj dk ladsr can gSA
 daVªksy d{k dks lwfpr djsaA
 yksdy eSuqvy eksM esa eSuqvy fLçax pkftaZx vkSj czsdj Dyksftax çfØ;k:
o 220 oksYV ¼V½ Mhlh ¼DC½ lzksr ,elhch &5 ¼MCB&5½ dks can djsaA
o ,elhch &1 ¼MCB&1½] ,elhch &2 ¼MCB&2½ vkSj ,elhch &3 ¼MCB&3½
vkSj ,elhch &6 ¼MCB&6½ dks can djsaA
o lh<+h ij p<+sa vkSj eSdsfute c‚Dl dks [kksysaA
o tgka fLçax pkftaZx bafMds'ku yscy fn;k x;k gS] ogka '[kqyk/can' Mk;y ds
cxy esa xSi esa jksVsfVax gSaMy dks MkysaA
o lh/ks iq#"k laidZ ¼esy dkaVWDV½ esa gSaMy Mkysa] vkSj ftl çdkj ls
fn[kk;k x;k gS] ml çdkj ls gSaMy dks rc rd ?kqek,a] tc rd fLçax pktZ /fLçax
fMLpktZ bafMdsVj pktZ dh gkyr ugha fn[kkrkA
o gSaMy dks fudky ysa vkSj bls vius fufnZ"V txg esa j[ksaA

400 dsoh ¼kV½ lfdZV czsdj vksifuax çfØ;k ¼fjeksV ls½

 vkbZlksysVj ekLVj ek'kZfyax c‚Dl ¼vkj& Qst lajpuk ij fLFkr½ esa fLFkr ,lh ,elhch ¼AC
MCB½ vkSj Mhlh ,elhch ¼DC MCB½ dks pkyw djsa vkSj yksdy/fjeksV flysDVj fLop dks
fjeksV gkyr MkysaA
 bafMfotqvy/ekLVj daVªksy fLop dks ekLVj eksM esa j[ksaA
 ,l,,l ¼SAS½ esa] [kksys tkus okys vkbZlksysVj ds fof'k"V fefed ist dks [kksysaA
 vykeZ foJke esa gSa bldh iqf"V djsaA
 vkbZlksysVj dks pqusa] ,d MkbZy‚x c‚Dl fn[kkbZ nsxkA
 Mk;y‚x c‚Dl esa '[kksysa ¼Open½' ij] vkSj mlds ckn 'fu"ikfnr djsa ¼Execute½' ij fDyd djsaA
  /;ku nsa] vkbZlksysVj bafMds'ku gjs jax esa cny tkrk gS ¼yky jax ls½] tks ;g fn[kkrk gS fd
czsdj [kqyk gSA
 yksdy ij] '[kqyk/can' bafMdsVj ls fo'ks"k vkbZlksysVj HkkSfrd '[kqyh' gkyr esa gS bls
ns[ksaA

400 dsoh ¼kV½ vkbZlksysVj vksifuax çfØ;k ¼fjeksV ls½

 ekLVj ek'kZfyax c‚Dl [kksysa ¼vkj&Qst lajpuk ij fLFkr½ vkSj yksdy/fjeksV flysDVj fLop ,l3
dks yksdy gkyr esa MkysaA
 fLop v‚u] ,lh ¼AC½ fctyh dh lIykbZ ,elhch ¼MCB½ vkSj Mhlh ¼DC½ daVªksy lIykbZ ,elhch
¼MCB½
 dkly dh ¼castle key½ baVjy‚d gkyr esa gS ;g lqfuf'pr djsaA
 xSax v‚ijs'ku ds fy, ekLVj/bafMfotqvy daVªksy fLop dks ekLVj eksM esa j[ksaA
 [kksysa iq'k cVu nck,aA
 vkbZlksysVj ds vklkuh ls [kqyus ds fy, fujh{k.k djsaA ;g lqfuf'pr djsa fd dk¡VWDV dks fQaxj
dk¡VWDV Bhd ls rksM+ jgs gSaA ;fn vkbZlksysVj [kksy ugha jgk gS] rks 4-6-9 dk ikyu
djsaA
 daVªksy d{k dks lwfpr djsaA
 ,lh ¼AC½ fctyh dh lIykbZ ,elhch ¼MCB½ vkSj Mhlh ¼DC½ daVªksy lIykbZ ,elhch ¼MCB½
dks can djsaA
 Observe IL2-CB lamp is glowing indicating circuit breaker is OPEN.
 Ensure AC MCBs, MCB-1, MCB-2 and MCB-3 are in ON position, if not put in ON position.
 Ensure DC source MCB-5 and AC source MCB-6 are in ON position, if not switch ON.
 Put selector switch (Remote/Local) in Local mode. If spring is not getting charged, f
 Press Push Button PBS2 (Red colour) button and the circuit breaker operates.
 Observe for IL1-CB lamp glowing indicating circuit breaker is CLOSE.
 Inform control room.
 Manual Spring charging and breaker closing procedure in Local Manual mode:
o Switch off 220V DC source MCB-5.
o Switch off MCB-1, MCB-2, MCB-3 and MCB-6.
o Climb the ladder and open the mechanism box.
o Insert rotating handle in the gap beside open/close dial where spring
charging indication label is given
o Insert handle straight in the male contact, rotate handle as indicated until the
spring charge / spring discharge indicator shows charge condition.
o Take out the handle and place it in its designated place.

400kV Isolator opening procedure (from remote)

 Switch on the AC MCB and DC MCB in Isolator Master marshalling box (located on R- phase
structure) and put Local/Remote selector switch in Remote position.
 Put the Individual/Master control switch in Master mode.
 In SAS, open the particular mimic page of the isolator to be opened.
 Confirm the alarms are rest.
  Select the isolator, a dialogue box will appear.
 Click OPEN in the dialogue box and then click EXECUTE.
 Observe that, the isolator indication turns green colour (from red colour) indicating the
isolator is opened.
 At local observe for, the particular isolator is in physical OPEN condition.

400kV Isolator opening procedure (from local)

 Open the Master marshalling box (located on R-phase structure) and put the Local/ Remote
selector switch S3 in local position.
 Switch ON, AC power supply MCB & DC control supply MCB
 Ensure for castle key is in interlock position.
 Put Master/Individual control switch in Master mode for gang operation.
 Press the open push button.
 Observe for smooth opening of the isolator. Ensure the finger contacts are properly breaking
the contact. If Isolator is not opening, then follow 4.6.9.
 Inform control Room.
 Switch OFF, AC power supply MCB & DC control supply MCB.

 vkbZlksysVj dks eSuqvy [kksyus dh çfØ;k:

o ,lh ¼AC½ fctyh dh lIykbZ ,elhch ¼MCB½ vkSj Mhlh ¼DC½ daVªksy lIykbZ
,elhch ¼MCB½ dks pkyw j[ksaA
o iq'k cVu ¼PB½ nckdj] dkly dh ¼castle key½ dks gVk nsa vkSj dqath dks
gSaMy y‚d ¼ek'kZfyax c‚Dl ds fdukjs fLFkr½ esa j[ksa vkSj bl çdkj
?kqek,a fd vUnj dh ¶ySi nwj gks tk, vkSj v‚ijsfVax gSaMy dks Mkyus ds
fy, jkLrk çnku fd;k tk,A
o v‚ijsfVax gSaMy dks Mkysa vkSj vkbZlksysVj Qst dks [kksyus ds fy,
?kM+h dh fn'kk esa ?kqek,aA
o /;ku nsa fd] eSuqvy eksM esa] vkblksysVj dks iksy ds vuqlkj [kksyk tk ldrk
gS] ysfdu xSax v‚ijs'ku esa ughaA
o blds vykok] /;ku nsa fd] dkly dh ¼castle key½ dsoy vkj&Qst ekLVj
ek'kZfyax c‚Dl esa fLFkr gS vkSj vU; iksyksa ds fy, blh dkly dh ¼castle
key½ dk mi;ksx fd;k tkuk pkfg,A

400 dsoh ¼kV½ vkbZlksysVj can djus dh çfØ;k ¼fjeksV ls½

 vkbZlksysVj ekLVj ek'kZfyax c‚Dl ¼vkj&Qst lajpuk esa fLFkr½ ds ,lh ,elhch ¼AC MCB½
vkSj Mhlh ,elhch ¼DC MCB½ dks 'kq: djsa vkSj yksdy/fjeksV flysDVj fLop dks fjeksV gkyr
esa j[ksaA
 bafMfotqvy/ekLVj daVªksy fLop dks ekLVj eksM esa j[ksaA
 ,l,,l ¼SAS½ esa] [kksys tkus okys vkbZlksysVj ds fof'k"V fefed ist dks [kksysaA
 vykeZ foJke esa gSa bldh iqf"V djsaA
 vkbZlksysVj dks pqusa] ,d MkbZy‚x c‚Dl fn[kkbZ nsxkA
 Mk;y‚x c‚Dl esa 'can djsa ¼CLOSE½' ij] vkSj mlds ckn 'fu"ikfnr djsa ¼Execute½' ij fDyd
djsaA
 /;ku nsa fd vkbZlksysVj bafMdsVj yky jax esa cny tkrk gS ¼gjs jax ls½] tks ;g fn[kkrk gS fd
vkbZlksysVj can gSA
 yksdy ij] fo'ks"k vkbZlksysVj HkkSfrd 'can' gkyr esa gS bls ns[ksaA

400 dsoh ¼kV½ vkbZlksysVj can djus dh çfØ;k ¼yksdy ls½

 lacaf/kr vkbZlksysVj ij tk,a

 vkj&Qst lajpuk ij fLFkr ekLVj ek'kZfyax c‚Dl dk njoktk [kksysaA
 yksdy/fjeksV flysDVj fLop ,l3 dks yksdy gkyr esa j[ksaA
 ;fn pkyw ugha gS] rks Mhlh ¼DC½ daVªksy dk ,elhch ¼MCB½ pkyw gS ;g lqfuf'pr djsaA
 ;fn pkyw ugha gS] rks ,lh ¼AC½ lIykbZ daVªksy dk ,elhch ¼MCB½ pkyw gS ;g lqfuf'pr
djsaA
 dkly dh ¼castle key½ baVjy‚d gkyr esa gS ;g lqfuf'pr djsaA
 xSax v‚ijs'ku ds fy, ekLVj/bafMfotqvy daVªksy fLop dks ekLVj eksM esa j[ksaA
 can iq'k cVu nck,aA
 vkbZlksysVj ds dk¡VWDVl can gksrs gq, ns[ksaA vxj vkbZlksysVj can ugha gks jgk gS] rks
4-8-11 dk ikyu djsaA
 daVªksy d{k dks lwfpr djsaA
 vkbZlksysVj eSuqvy can djus dh çfØ;k:
o ,lh ¼AC½ fctyh dh lIykbZ ,elhch ¼MCB½ vkSj Mhlh ¼DC½ daVªksy lIykbZ
,elhch ¼MCB½ dks can djsaA
o ,lh ¼AC½ fctyh dh lIykbZ ,elhch ¼MCB½ vkSj Mhlh ¼DC½ daVªksy lIykbZ
,elhch ¼MCB½ dks pkyw j[ksaA
o iq'k cVu ¼PB½ nckdj] dkly dh ¼castle key½ dks gVk nsa vkSj dqath dks
gSaMy y‚d ¼ek'kZfyax c‚Dl ds fdukjs fLFkr½ esa j[ksa vkSj bl çdkj ?kqek,a fd
vUnj dh ¶ySi nwj gks tk, vkSj v‚ijsfVax gSaMy dks Mkyus ds fy, jkLrk çnku
fd;k tk,A

 Isolator Manual Opening procedure:

o Keep AC power supply MCB & DC control supply MCB.
o By pressing the Push Button (PB), remove the castle key & keep the key in
handle lock (located at the side of marshalling box) and rotate so that the
inside flap moves away and provides way for inserting the operating handle.
o Insert the operating handle and rotate in clockwise for opening the isolator
phase.
o Note that, in manual mode, the isolators can be opened pole wise but not in
gang operation.
o Also, note that, the caste key is located only in R-Phase Master marshalling
box and same castle key to be used for other poles.

400kV Isolator closing procedure (from remote)

 Switch on the AC MCB and DC MCB in Isolator Master marshalling box (located on R-
phase structure) and put Local/Remote selector switch in Remote position.
 Put the Individual/Master control switch in Master mode.
 In SAS, open the particular mimic page of the isolator to be opened.
 Confirm the alarms are rest.
 Select the isolator, a dialogue box will appear.
 Click CLOSE in the dialogue box and then click EXECUTE.
 Observe that, the isolator indication turns red colour (from green colour) indicating the
isolator is closed.
 At local observe for, the particular isolator is in physical CLOSE condition.

400kV Isolator closing procedure (From local)

 Go to the respective isolator.

 Open the door of the Master marshalling box located on R-phase structure.
 Put Local/Remote selector switch S3 in local position.
 Ensure MCB of DC control is ON, if not switch ON the same.
 Ensure MCB of AC supply control is ON, if not switch ON the same.
 Ensure castle key is in interlock position.
 Put Master/Individual control switch in Master mode for gang operation.
 Press the close push button.
 Observe for closing of the isolator contacts. If isolator is not closing then follow 4.8.11.
 Inform control room.
 Isolator Manual Closing procedure:
o Switch OFF, AC power supply MCB & DC control supply MCB.
o Keep AC power supply MCB & DC control supply MCB.
o By pressing the Push Button (PB), remove the castle key & keep the key in
handle lock (located at the side of marshalling box) and rotate so that the inside
flap moves away and provides way for inserting the operating handle.

o v‚ijsfVax gSaMy dks Mkysa vkSj vkbZlksysVj Qst dks can djus ds fy, ?kM+h
dh myVh fn'kk esa ?kqek,aA
o lacaf/kr vkbZlksysVj iksy dks can gksrs gq, ns[ksaA
o /;ku nsa fd] eSuqvy eksM esa] vkbZlksysVlZ dks iksy ds vuqlkj can fd;k tk
ldrk gS] ysfdu xSax v‚ijs'ku esa ughaA
o blds vykok] /;ku nsa fd] dkly dh ¼castle key½ dsoy vkj&Qst ekLVj ek'kZfyax
c‚Dl esa fLFkr gS vkSj vU; iksyksa ds fy, blh dkly dh ¼castle key½ dk mi;ksx
fd;k tkuk pkfg,A

400 dsoh ¼kV½ vFkZ fLop [kksyus dh çfØ;k

 lacaf/kr vFkZ fLop ij tk,aA

  vkj&Qst lajpuk ij fLFkr ekLVj ek'kZfyax c‚Dl dk njoktk [kksysaA
 ;fn pkyw ugha gS] rks Mhlh ¼DC½ daVªksy dk ,elhch ¼MCB½ pkyw gS ;g lqfuf'pr djsaA
 ;fn pkyw ugha gS] rks ,lh ¼AC½ lIykbZ daVªksy dk ,elhch ¼MCB½ pkyw gS ;g lqfuf'pr
djsaA
 xSax v‚ijs'ku ds fy, ekLVj daVªksy fLop dks ekLVj eksM esa j[ksaA
 [kksysa iq'k cVu nck,aA
 vFkZ fLop [kqyrs gq, ns[ksa ¼lHkh rhu iksy vFkZ fLop [kqyrs gSa½A ;fn vFkZ fLop ugha
[kksyrk gS] rks 4-9-11 dk ikyu djsa
 ,lh ¼AC½ daVªksy ,elhch ¼MCB½ dks can djsaA
 fLop v‚Q Mhlh ¼DC½ daVªksy ,elhch ¼MCB½ dks can djsaA
 daVªksy d{k dks lwfpr djsaA

vFkZ fLop eSuqvy [kksyus dh çfØ;k:

o ,lh ¼AC½ daVªksy ,elhch ¼MCB½ vkSj Mhlh ¼DC½ daVªksy ,elhch
¼MCB½ dks can djsaA
o iq'k cVu ¼PB½ nckdj] dkly dh ¼castle key½ dks gVk nsa vkSj dqath
dks gSaMy y‚d ¼ek'kZfyax c‚Dl ds fdukjs fLFkr½ esa j[ksa vkSj bl
çdkj ?kqek,a fd vUnj dh ¶ySi nwj gks tk, vkSj v‚ijsfVax gSaMy dks
Mkyus ds fy, jkLrk çnku fd;k tk,A
o v‚ijsfVax gSaMy Mkysa vkSj vFkZ fLop Qst dks [kksyus ds fy,
?kM+h dh fn'kk esa ?kqek,aA
o lacaf/kr vFkZ fLop iksy dks [kksyrs gq, ns[ksaA
o blds vykok] /;ku nsa fd] dkly dh ¼castle key½ dsoy vkj&Qst ekLVj
ek'kZfyax c‚Dl esa fLFkr gS vkSj vU; iksyksa ds fy, blh dkly dh
¼castle key½ dk mi;ksx fd;k tkuk pkfg,A

400 dsoh ¼kV½ vFkZ fLop can djus dh çfØ;k ¼dsoy yksdy eksM esa lapkfyr½

 lacaf/kr vFkZ fLop ij tk,aA

 vkj&Qst lajpuk ij fLFkr ekLVj ek'kZfyax c‚Dl dk njoktk [kksysaA
 ;fn pkyw ugha gS] rks Mhlh ¼DC½ daVªksy dk ,elhch ¼MCB½ pkyw gS ;g lqfuf'pr djsaA
 ;fn pkyw ugha gS] rks ,lh ¼AC½ lIykbZ daVªksy dk ,elhch ¼MCB½ pkyw gS ;g lqfuf'pr
djsaA
 xSax v‚ijs'ku ds fy, ekLVj/bafMfotqvy daVªksy fLop dks ekLVj eksM esa j[ksaA
 can iq'k cVu nck,aA
 vFkZ fLop can gksrs gq, ns[ksa ¼lHkh rhu iksy vFkZ fLop can gksrs gSa½A vxj can ugha
gks jgk gS] rks 4-10-9 dk ikyu djsaA

o Insert the operating handle and rotate in anti-clockwise for closing the isolator
phase.
o Observe for closing of the respective isolator pole.
o Note that, in manual mode, the isolators can be closed pole wise but not in gang
operation.
 o Also, note that, the caste key is located only in R-Phase Master marshalling box
and same castle key to be used for other poles.

400kV Earth Switch opening procedure

 Go to the respective earth switch.

 Open the door of the Master marshalling box located on R-phase structure.
 Ensure for MCB of DC control is ON, if not switch ON the same.
 Ensure for MCB of AC control is ON, if not switch ON the same.
 Put Master control switch in Master mode for gang operation.
 Press the open push button.
 Observe for opening of earth switch (all three poles earth switches open). If earth switch not
opening, follow 4.9.11.
 Switch OFF AC control MCB.
 Switch OFF DC control MCB.
 Inform control room.
 Earth Switch Manual opening procedure:
o Switch OFF AC control MCB and DC control MCB.
o Pressing the Push Button (PB), remove the castle key & keep the key in
handle lock (located at the side of marshalling box) and rotate so that
the inside flap moves away and provides way for inserting the
operating handle.
o Insert the operating handle and rotate in clockwise for opening the
earth switch phase.
o Observe for opening of the respective earth switch pole.
o Also, note that, the caste key is located only in R-Phase Master
marshalling box and same castle key to be used for other poles

400kV Earth Switch closing procedure (operated only in Local mode)

 Go to the respective earth switch.

 Open the door of the Master marshalling box located on R-phase structure.
 Ensure for MCB of DC control is ON, if not switch ON the same.
 Ensure for MCB of AC control is ON, if not switch ON the same.
 Put Master/Individual control switch in Master mode for gang operation.
 Press the close push button.
 Observe for closing of earth switch (all three poles earth switches close). If not closing, follow
4.10.9.
 daVªksy d{k dks lwfpr djsaA

vFkZ fLop eSuqvy can djus dh çfØ;k:

o ,lh ¼AC½ daVªksy ,elhch ¼MCB½ vkSj Mhlh ¼DC½ daVªksy ,elhch
¼MCB½ dks can djsaA
 o iq'k cVu ¼PB½ nckdj] dkly dh ¼castle key½ dks gVk nsa vkSj dqath
dks gSaMy y‚d ¼ek'kZfyax c‚Dl ds fdukjs fLFkr½ esa j[ksa vkSj bl
çdkj ?kqek,a fd vUnj dh ¶ySi nwj gks tk, vkSj v‚ijsfVax gSaMy dks
Mkyus ds fy, jkLrk çnku fd;k tk,A
o v‚ijsfVax gSaMy lfEefyr djsa vkSj vFkZ fLop pj.k dks can djus ds fy,
?kM+h dh foifjr fn’kk esa ?kqek,aA
o lacaf/kr vFkZ fLop iksy dks can djus ds fy, fujh{k.k djsaA
o blds vykok] /;ku nsa fd] dkly dh ¼castle key½ dsoy vkj&Qst ekLVj
ek'kZfyax c‚Dl esa fLFkr gS vkSj vU; iksyksa ds fy, blh dkly dh
¼castle key½ dk mi;ksx fd;k tkuk pkfg,A

,pVh ¼HT½ fLopfx;j:

,pVh ¼HT½ lfdZV czsdj jSd vkmV çfØ;kA ¼lsok ls ysdj ijh{k.k dh gkyr rd½
 lfdZV czsdj [kqyk ¼can½ gkyr esa gS ;g lqfuf'pr djsaA [gjh ,ybZMh ¼LED½ vkSj yscy
dh ikjn'khZ Xykl dh tkap djsa]
 daVªksy d{k ij fLFkr Mhlh ¼DC½ daVªksy lIykbZ ¼,l,l 2½ dks "can" djsaA
 gkFk ls Vªd ds V‚i dh Vªd y‚d fiuksa dks ¼nksuksa rjQ½ dks vktkn djsaA
 v‚ijsfVax gSaMy dk mi;ksx dj ds baVjy‚d dks 'y‚d' gkyr ls 'Vªd Ýh' gkyr esa ?kqek,aA
 nksuksa gkFkksa ls lfdZV czsdj dks ckgj fudyrs jgsa] tc rd fd ;g ijh{k.k dh gkyr esa
can ugha gks tkrk gSA
 v‚ijsfVax gSaMy dk mi;ksx dj ds baVjy‚d dks 'Vªd eqä fLFkfr' ls 'y‚d' gkyr esa ?kqek,a
 v‚ijsfVax gSMy }kjk baVjy‚d dks okil Vªd y‚DM gkyr esa ?kqek,a ¼bl gkyr esa lfdZV
czsdj dks ijh{k.k dh gkyr esa lapkfyr fd;k tk ldrk gS½A
 ihVhMCY;w ¼PTW½ VSx çnku djsa [ihVhMCyw ¼PTW½ ua vkSj ihVhMCyw ¼PTW½
bathuhvj dk uke½
 daVªksy d{k/ihVhMCyw ¼PTW½ fjlhoj dks lkSaih e‚Mîwy vkSj dqath dks y‚d djsaA

,pVh ¼HT½ lfdZV czsdj jSd bu çfØ;kA ¼VsLV ls ysdj lsok dh gkyr rd½

 iSuy dks vuy‚d djsa

 lqfuf'pr djsa fd Mhlh ¼DC½ can gS [daVªksy d{k ij fLFkr Mhlh ¼DC½ fLop ,l,l2 ¼SS2½
can gS] dksbZ Hkh bafMds'ku ySai ped ugha jgk gS½]
 czsdj fLçax fMLpktZ lqfuf'pr djsa ¼fLçax fMLpktZ ds fy, eSdsfudy }kjk czsdj ÝaV iSuy
ls czsdj can gks tkrk gS vkSj [kksyrk gS½A
 v‚ijsfVax gSaMy dk mi;ksx dj ds baVjy‚d dks 'y‚d' gkyr ls 'Ýh fLFkfr' esa ?kqek,aA
 nksuksa gSaMyksa dks idM+ dj] czsdj Vªd dks rc rd /kdsysa tc rd ;g can ugha gks
tkrk gSA
 v‚ijsfVax gSaMy }kjk baVjy‚d dks y‚d gkyr esa ?kqek,aA
 lsok gkyr esa Vªd V‚i ij Vªd y‚d fiUl y‚d djsaA
 czsdj njokts dks y‚d esa can djsa vkSj Mhlh ¼DC½ lIykbZ dks pkyw ¼fLop SS2½djsa
A
  czsdj lsok gkyr esa gS ;g lqfuf'pr djsa ¼daVªksy d{k ij fLFkr czsdj lsok gkyr
bafMds'ku ds ek/;e ls½
 vc lfdZV czsdj dks fjeksV eksM esa pyk;k tk ldrk gSA
 Inform control room.

Earth Switch Manual Closing procedure:

o Switch OFF, AC control MCB & DC control MCB.
o By pressing the Push Button (PB), remove the castle key & keep the
key in handle lock (located at the side of marshalling box) and rotate
so that the inside flap moves away and provides way for inserting the
operating handle.
o Insert the operating handle and rotate in anti-clockwise for closing the
earth switch phase.
o Observe for closing of the respective earth switch pole.
o Also, note that, the caste key is located only in R-Phase Master
marshalling box and same castle key to be used for other poles.

HT Switchgear:
HT circuit breaker rack out procedure. (From service to test position)
 Ensure circuit breaker in open (OFF) condition. (check green LED & Label –thru
transparent glass)
 Switch “off” the DC control supply (SS2) located at control cubicle.
 Free the truck lock pins (both side) on truck top by hand
 Using operating handle Turn the interlock from ‘locked’ position to ‘truck free’ position
 By both hands Pull out the circuit breaker till it stops at test position.
 Using operating handle Turn the interlock from ‘truck free position’ position to ‘locked’
position
 Turn interlock back to truck locked position by operating handle. (in this position circuit
breaker can be operated in test position).
 Provide the PTW tag (PTW no & name of PTW engr)
 Lock the module and key handed over to Control room /PTW receiver.

HT circuit breaker rack in procedure. (From test to service position)

 Unlock the panel

 Ensure the DC is off (DC switch SS2 Off Located at control panel, no indicating lamp is
glowing)
 Ensure the breaker spring discharge (breaker closes and open done from breaker front
panel by mechanical for spring discharge).
 Using operating handle, Turn interlock from ‘locked position’ to ‘free position’
 Gripping both handle, Push breaker truck till it stops.
 Turn interlock to lock position by operating handle.
 Lock truck lock pins on truck top at service position.
 Close the breaker door locked and switch on (switch SS2) the DC supply.
  Ensure the breaker in Service position (Thru breaker service position indication located at
control panel)
 Now circuit breaker can be operated in remote mode.
 ihVhMCY;w ¼PTW½ VSx dks gVk,Aa

D;wfcdy ls ckgj czsdj ckgj fudyrk gSA

 lfdZV czsdj [kqyh ¼can½ gkyr esa gS ;g lqfuf'pr djsaA [gjh ,ybZMh ¼LED½ vkSj yscy
dh ikjn'khZ Xykl dh tkap djsa]
 Mhlh ¼DC½ daVªksy lIykbZ ,l,l2 ¼SS2½ can dj fn;kA ¼vxj bls pkyw fd;k x;k gS½
 lqfuf'pr djsa fd czsdj baVjy‚d] y‚DM gkyr esa gSA
 czsdj fLçax fMLpktZ lqfuf'pr djsa ¼fLçax fMLpktZ ds fy, eSdsfudy }kjk czsdj ÝaV iSuy
ls czsdj can gks tkrk gS vkSj [kksyrk gS½A
 l‚dsV ls czsdj daVªksy lIykbZ Iyx dks gVk nsaA
 nksuksa gSaMyksa dks idM+ dj] D;wfcdy ls lfdZV czsdj Vªd dks [khapsa vkSj
?kqek,aA
 czsdj ds njokts dks y‚d djsaA

ckgj ls D;wfcdy esa czsdj dks MkyukA

 lfdZV czsdj [kqyh ¼can½ gkyr esa gS ;g lqfuf'pr djsaA ¼czsdj ÝaV ij fLFkr [kqys/can
yscy ds ek/;e ls tkap djsa½
 czsdj fLçax fMLpktZ lqfuf'pr djsa ¼fLçax fMLpktZ ds fy, eSdsfudy }kjk czsdj ÝaV iSuy
ls czsdj can gks tkrk gS vkSj [kksyrk gS½A
 lqfuf'pr djsa fd czsdj baVjy‚d] y‚DM gkyr esa gSA
 nksuksa gSaMyksa dks idM+ dj] D;wfcdy ls VsLV gkyr rd lfdZV czsdj Vªd dks
[khapsa vkSj ?kqek,aA
 l‚dsV esa czsdj daVªksy lIykbZ Iyx dks tksM+saA
 Mhlh ¼DC½ daVªksy lIykbZ&,l,l2 ij dks pkyw djsa vkSj VsLV gkyr esa czsdj dks
lqfuf'pr djsaA
 Vh,ulh ¼TNC½ fLop ds ek/;e ls VsLV dh gkyr esa czsdj v‚ijs'ku lqfuf'pr djsa

,yVh ¼LT½ fLopfx;j:

,yVh ,lhch ¼LT ACB½ czsdj & vkbZlksys'ku çfØ;k
 ,lhch ¼ACB½ [kqys ¼can½ gkyr esa gS vkSj [,ehVj esa /kkjk] ,e,Q,e ¼MFM½ vkSj
fjys 'kwU; gSa] vkSj v‚Q ,ybZMh ySai ped jgk gS ;g lqfuf'pr djsaA
 daVªksy iSuy ds njokts dks [kksysa] czsdj daVªksy D;wfcdy ij fLFkr Mhlh ¼DC½
daVªksy lIykbZ dks "can" djsa [eq[; Mhlh ¼DC½ fLop S1 can djsa]A
 czsdj ds ckbZa vkSj nkbZa nksuksa rjQ ds eSdsfudy y‚d dks eqä djus ds fy, y‚fdax
uVksa dks ?kM+h dh myVh fn'kk esa ?kqek,aA
  czsdj ds ckbZa vkSj nkbZa nksuksa rjQ ds eSdsfudy y‚d dks eqä djus ds fy,] y‚fdax
yhoj dks uhps dh vksj nck,aA
 czsdj dks jSd vkmV djus ds fy,] v‚Q eSdsfut~e iq'k cVu nck,a vkSj czsdj ds gSaMy
dks tksM+saA
 czsdj gSaMy dks rc rd ?kMh dh myVh fn'kk esa ?kqek,a] tc rd og vyx gkyr esa ugha
igqap tkrkA vkSj czsdj ls gSaMy dks gVk nsaA

,yVh ,lhch ¼LT ACB½ czsdj & lkekU;dj.k çfØ;k

 Remove the PTW tag.

Breaker draws out from the Cubical to outside.

 Ensure circuit breaker in Open (off) condition. (check green LED & Label –thru
transparent glass)
 Switched off the DC control supply SS2. (if it is switched ON)
 Ensure the breaker interlock in locked position.
 Ensure the breaker spring discharge (breaker closes and open done from breaker front
panel by mechanical for spring discharge).
 Disengage the breaker control supply plug from socket.
 Gripping both handle Pull and rotate the circuit breaker truck from the cubicle
 Lock the breaker door.

Breaker inserting from outside to cubical.

 Ensure circuit breaker in Open (off) condition. (check thru Open/close label located at
breaker front)
 Ensure the breaker spring discharge (breaker closes and open done from breaker front
panel by mechanical for spring discharge).
 Ensure the breaker interlock in locked position
 Gripping both handle Push and rotate the circuit breaker truck into cubical up to test
position.
 Engage the breaker control supply plug into the socket.
 Switched on the DC control supply-SS2 and ensure the Breaker in Test position.
 Ensure the breaker operation in test position through TNC Switch

LT Switchgear:
LT ACB Breaker – Isolation Procedure
 Ensure ACB in open (OFF) condition and (current in ammeter, MFM and Relays are zero)
and OFF LED lamp glows
 Open the Control panel door, Switch “off” the DC control supply located at Breaker
Control cubicle (Switch off Main DC Switch S1).
  Rotate the locking nuts anti clock wise for releasing the mechanical locks provided at
both left and right sides of the breaker.
 Press the locking lever down side for releasing the mechanical locks provided at both left
and right sides of the breaker.
 Press the off Mechanism push button and engage the handle in the breaker for racking
out the breaker.
 Rotate the breaker handle anti clockwise until the breaker reaches the isolated position.
And remove the handle from the breaker.

LT ACB Breaker – Normalization Procedure

 czsdj eSdfute yhoj ij ,lhch ¼ACB½] [kqyh ¼can½ gkyr esa gS ;g lqfuf'pr djsaA
 v‚Q eSdsfuTe iq'k cVu nck,a vkSj czsdj dks jSd bu djus ds fy, gSaMy dks czsdj esa
tksM+saA
 czsdj gSaMy dks rc rd ?kMh dh myVh fn'kk esa ?kqek,a] tc rd og lsok dh gkyr esa
ugha igqap tkrkA vkSj fQj czsdj ls gSaMy gVk nsaA
 czsdj ds ckbZa vkSj nkbZa nksuksa rjQ ds eSdsfudy y‚dksa dks y‚d djus ds fy, y‚fdax
uVksa dks ?kM+h dh fn'kk esa ?kqek,aA
 daVªksy iSuy ds njokts dks [kksysa] czsdj daVªksy D;wfcdy ij fLFkr Mhlh ¼DC½
daVªksy lIykbZ dks "pkyw" djsa [eq[; Mhlh ¼DC½ fLop S1 pkyw djsa]A daVªksy
lIykbZ LoLFk] czsd vksiu] lfoZl esa czsd] fVªi lfdZV LoLFk vkSj fLçax pktZ LoLFk]
,ybZMh ¼LED½ ped jgs gSa bu ckrksa dks lqfuf'pr djsaA
 iSuy dk njoktk can djsaA
 czsdj ds ckbZa vkSj nkbZa nksuksa rjQ ds eSdsfudy y‚dksa dks y‚d djus ds fy, y‚fdax
uVksa dks ?kM+h dh fn'kk esa ?kqek,aA
 daVªksy iSuy ds njokts dks [kksysa] czsdj daVªksy D;wfcdy ij fLFkr Mhlh ¼DC½
daVªksy lIykbZ dks "pkyw" djsa [eq[; Mhlh ¼DC½ fLop S1 pkyw djsa]A daVªksy
lIykbZ LoLFk] czsd vksiu] lfoZl esa czsd] fVªi lfdZV LoLFk vkSj fLçax pktZ LoLFk]
,ybZMh ¼LED½ ped jgs gSa bu ckrksa dks lqfuf'pr djsaA
 iSuy dk njoktk can djsaA

,yVh QhMj ¼,l,Q;w e‚Mîwy½ & vkbZlksys'ku çfØ;k

 midj.k can gqvk gS ¼,ehVj esa /kkjk 'kwU; gS½ vkSj v‚Q ,ybZMh ¼LED½ ySai ped
jgk gS ;g lqfu'pr djsaA
 bZihch ¼EPB½ nck,aA
 vkbZlksysVj dks can djsa
 e‚Mîwy dk njoktk [kksysa] iqf"V djsa fd ,l,Q;w ¼SFU½ lqbZ can gkyr esa gS
 daVªksy ¶;wt dks gVk,a
 ¶;wt iqyj dk mi;ksx dj ds] fctyh ds ¶;wt dks gVk,a vkSj ¶;wt c‚Dl esa j[ksaA

,yVh QhMj ¼,l,Q;w e‚Mîwy½ & lkekU;dj.k çfØ;k

 lqfuf'pr djsa fd dke ijfeV jí dj fn;k x;k gSA
 '[krjs dk VSx' gVk,a vkSj e‚Mîwy dk njoktk [kksysa
 e‚Mîwy dk njoktk [kksysa] iqf"V djsa fd ,l,Q;w ¼SFU½ lqbZ can gkyr esa gS
  ¶;wt iqyj dk mi;ksx djds fctyh ds ¶;wt dks MkysaA ¶;wt vkSj bldh jsfVax dh LoLFkrk
lqfuf'pr djsaA
 daVªksy ¶;wt dks Mkysa ¼LokLF; vkSj mlds jsfVax dh tkap djsa½

lcLVs'ku/fLop;kMZ

fo|qr ÅtkZ dh fo'ks"krkvksa dks ,d :i ls nwljs :i esa cny nsus okys midj.k dh vlSEcyh ds :i esa
lcLVs'ku dks ifjHkkf"kr fd;k tk ldrk gS tks A ,lh fo|qr ¼AC½ ÅtkZ de oksYVst ij mRiUu gksrh gS]
ysfdu Vªkalfe'ku ds fy, oksYVst dks c<+k;k tkrk gSA oksYVst ftruk vf/kd gksrk gS] mruh /kkjk de
gksrh gS vkSj fctyh dk de uqdlku ¼I²R½ vkSj oksYVst Mª‚i ¼IR½ de gSA blh rjg miHkksäk mPp
oksYVst dk mi;ksx ugha djrs gSa vkSj blfy, bldk oksYVst de j[kk tkuk pkfg,A lcLVs'ku esa
oksYVst dks T;knk vkSj de fd;k tkrk gSA budfeax ykbUl] vkmVxksbax ykbUl] VªkalQkeZj] cl&dIyj
vkSj cl VªkalQj vkfn ds fy, fofHkUu cst ¼bays½ gksrs gSaA çR;sd cs ¼bay½ esa lhVh ¼CT½]
ihVh ¼PT½] lfdZV czsdj] vkblksysVlZ] iksLV bUlqysVj vkfn tSls midj.k gksrs gSaA

 Ensure ACB in open (OFF) condition at breaker mechanism lever.

 Press the off Mechanism push button and engage the handle in the breaker for racking in
the breaker.
 Rotate the breaker handle clockwise until the breaker reaches the service position. And
then remove the handle from the breaker.
 Rotate the locking nuts clock wise for locking the mechanical locks provided at both left
and right sides of the breaker.
 Switch “ON” the DC control supply located at Breaker Control cubicle (Switch ON Main
DC Switch S1). And Ensure Control Supply Healthy, Brk Open, Brk in Service, Trip circuit
healthy and Spring Charge Healthy LED indications glowing.
 Close the Panel door.
 Rotate the locking nuts clock wise for locking the mechanical locks provided at both left
and right sides of the breaker.
 Switch “ON” the DC control supply located at Breaker Control cubicle (Switch ON Main
DC Switch S1). And Ensure Control Supply Healthy, Brk Open, Brk in Service, Trip circuit
healthy and Spring Charge Healthy LED indications glowing.
 Close the Panel door.

LT Feeder (SFU module) – Isolation Procedure

 Ensure the equipment is stopped (current in ammeter is zero) and OFF LED lamp glows
 Press the EPB.
 Switch Off Isolator
 Open the Module door, confirm SFU needle is OFF position
 Remove the control fuse
 Using fuse puller Remove the power fuse and keep in fuse box.
LT Feeder (SFU module) – Normalization Procedure
 Ensure the permit to work has been cancelled.
 Remove the Danger Tag and open the module door
 Open the Module door, confirm SFU needle is OFF position
 Using fuse puller Insert the power fuse. Ensure the healthiness of the fuse and its rating.
 Put the control fuse (check for healthiness and its rating)

Sub-station / Switchyard

The Substation may be defined as assembly of apparatus which transforms the characteristics of
electrical energy from one form to another. AC electrical energy is generated at low voltage but for
transmission the voltage is stepped up. Higher the voltage, lesser is the current and lesser is the
power loss (I²R) and lesser is the voltage drop (IR). Similarly the consumers do not use high voltage
and so the same must be stepped down to low voltage. The stepping up and stepping down of
voltage is done in the substations. There are various bays for Incoming Lines, Outgoing Lines,
Transformer, Bus-coupler and Bus transfer etc. Each bay has equipment such as CT, PT, Circuit
Breaker, Isolators, Post Insulators, etc.

oksYVst ds Lrjksa dk oxhZdj.k

de oksYVst ¼LV½ : 1000 oksYV ¼V½ ls de

e/;e mPp oksYVst ¼MV½ : 1000 oksYV ¼V½ vkSj 33 dsoh ¼kV½ ds
chp
mPp oksYVst ¼HV½ : 33 dsoh ¼kV½ ls T;knk vkSj 132 dsoh
¼kV½ rd
vfrfjä mPp oksYV ¼EHV½ : 220 dsoh ¼kV½] 400 dsoh ¼kV½
vfr mPp oksYVst ¼UHV½ : 760 dsoh ¼kV½

11 dsoh ¼kV½ rd dk lcLVs'ku] vke rkSj ij /kkrq ls <ds gq, Mª‚ vkmV fLopfx;j ds lkFk baMksj
lcLVs'ku gksrk gSA ,sls fLopfx;j esa] lfdZV czsdj dks dSfjt ij j[kk tkrk gSA czsdj [kksyus ds ckn]
mls uhps fd;k tk ldrk gS vkSj dSfjt dks [khap fy;k tk ldrk gSA 33 dsoh ¼kV½ vkSj Åij ds oksYVst
ds fy,] vkmVMksvj lcLVs'ku dks vke rkSj ij ilan fd;k tkrk gSA ,sls lcLVs'ku esa] lfdZV czsdj]
v;lksysVj] lhVh ¼CT½] lhohVh ¼CVT½/ihVh ¼PT½] VªkUlQ‚eZj ckgj LFkkfir fd, tkrs gSaA cl cklZ
vkSj dusDVlZ dks [kqyh vka[kksa ls ns[kk tk ldrk gSA cl cklZ dks iksLV bUlqysVlZ ;k LVªsu
bUlqysVj ij j[kk tkrk gSA lcLVs'ku ds midj.k vkSj budfeax ;k vkmVxksbax ykbuksa ds liksVZ ds
fy, tLrh bLikr lajpuk gksrh gSA

fLop;kMZ midj.k

lfdZV czsdj [400 dsoh ¼kV½] 3150 v¡fivj ¼A½:

,l,Q6 lhch ¼SF6 CB½ ,d Lopkfyr :i ls lapkfyr fo|qr fLop gksrk gS ftldk fuekZ.k] vf/kHkkj ;k 'k‚VZ
lfdZV ds dkj.k gksus okys uqdlku ls] fctyh ds lfdZV dks cpkus ds fy;k fd;k tkrk gSA çksVsfDVo
fjys ,d xyrh dh gkyr dk irk yxkrk gS vkSj lhch ¼CB½ dks fVªi djrk gSA ,d ¶;wt ds foijhr] tks ,d ckj
lapkfyr gksrk gS vkSj ftls fQj çfrLFkkfir djuk gS] lkekU; v‚ijs'ku dks fQj ls 'kq: djus ds fy,] ,d lfdZV
czsdj dks jhlsV fd;k tk ldrk gS ¼;k rks eSU;qvy :i ls ;k Lopkfyr :i ls½A lhch ¼CB½ ,d egaxk
midj.k gksrk gSA ykxr de djus ds fy, & 2 midj.kksa dks 3 lhch ¼CB½ ls tksM+k tkrk gSA ¼;kuh]
2 midj.kksa ds fy, 3 lhcht ¼CBs½ blfy, bls 1½ czsdj Ldhe uke fn;k x;k gS½A
lfdZVksa dks pkyw vkSj can djus ds fy,] lfdZV czsdj ,d fLop gksrk gSA ¼/kkjk bdkbZ dks
baVjçhV djrh gS½ blfy, lhch ¼CB½ ij dke djus ds fy,] lhch ¼CB½ ds nksuksa rjQ vkbZlksysVj
vkSj vFkZ fLop çnku fd, tkrs gSaA

lhch ¼CB½ ,d egaxk midj.k gksrk gSA ykxr dks de djus ds fy, & 2 midj.kksa dks 3 lhch ¼CB½ ls
tksM+k tkrk gSA
¼;kuh] 2 midj.kksa ds fy, 3 lhcht ¼CBs½ blfy, bls czsdj Ldhe uke fn;k x;k gS½A

,p,uihlh,y dk ,l,yMh ¼SLD of HNPCL½] 2 X 520 esxkokV ¼MW½]

fo'kk[kkiÙkue

Classification of Voltage Levels

Low Voltage (LV) : Below 1000 V

Medium high voltage (MV) : Between 1000 V and 33 kV
High Voltage (HV) : Above 33 kV and up to 132 kV
Extra High Voltage (EHV) : 220 kV, 400 kV
Ultra High Voltage (UHV) : 760 kV

Substation up to 11 KV is generally Indoor substation with metal-clad draw out type switchgear. In
such switchgear, circuit breaker is mounted on a carriage. After opening of the breaker, the same
can be lowered and the carriage can be pulled out. For voltage of 33 KV and above, outdoor
substation is generally preferred. In such substation, circuit breakers, isolators, CT, CVT/PT,
transformers are installed outside. Bus bars and connectors can be seen by naked eye. The bus bars
are supported on post insulators or strain insulators. The substation has galvanized steel structures
for supporting the equipment, insulators and the incoming or outgoing lines.

Switchyard Equipment

Circuit Breaker (400 kV, 3150 A):

SF6 CBisanautomaticallyoperatedelectricswitchdesignedtoprotect anelectrical circuit
fromdamagecausedbyoverloadorshort circuit.Protectiverelaysdetect a faultcondition
andtripsaCB.Unlike a fuse, whichoperatesonce andthenhastobe replaced,a circuitbreakercan be
reset (eithermanually orautomatically) toresume normaloperation. CB isa costly apparatus. To
reducecost–2equipmentare connectedto3 CB. (i.e., 3CBsfor2equipmenthence named1½
breakerscheme).

Circuit Breaker is a switch for switching ON & OFF circuits. (Current interprets unit) hence to work on
the CB, isolators & earth switches are provided on both sides of CB.

CB is a costly apparatus. To reduce cost – 2 equipment are connected to 3 CB

i.e. 3CBs for 2 equipment, hence the name is 1 ½ breaker scheme.

SLD of HNPCL, 2 X 520 MW, Visakhapatnam

 vk—fr 400 dsoh ¼kV½ fLop;kMZ ,l,yMh ¼SLD½
vkbZlksysVlZ [400 dsoh ¼kV½] 2000 v¡fivj ¼A½]:
lfdZV czsdj ds nksuksa rjQ vkblksysVlZ çnku fd, tkrs gSaA blls gesa lhch ¼CB½ ij dke dj ldrs
gSaA çHkkj dks fMLpktZ djus ds fy, vkblksysVlZ ds lkFk vFkZ fLop çnku fd, tkrs gSaA
gksfjtksaVy lsaVj czsd ¼HCB½ vkblksysVlZ çnku fd, tkrs

Fig. 400 kV Switchyard SLD

Isolators (400 kV, 2000 A):
Isolators are providedonboth sidesof aCircuit breaker. Thisallowsusto work ona CB. Earth
switchesare provided alongwithisolatorstodischarge the charges.Horizontal Centre Break (HCB)
gSaA

cl ckj [400 dsoh ¼kV½] 3150 v¡fivj ¼A½:

cl ckj ,d Bksl/[kks[kyk daMDVj gksrk gS ftlls buiqV vkSj vkmViqV dusD'ku cuk, tkrs gSaA
fo'oluh;rk c<+kus ds fy, 2 cl cklZ dk mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA

dSisflVj oksYVst VªkalQkeZj [400 dsoh ¼kV½] 50 gVZ~t ¼Hz½]:

lhohVh ¼CVT½ ,d VªkalQkeZj gksrk gS] ftldk mi;ksx] eki ds fy, ;k lqj{kkRed fjys dks lapkfyr
djus ds fy,] vfrfjä mPp oksYVst flXuyksa dks de djus ds fy;k tkrk gSA
jsVsM çk;ejh oksYVst 400 dsoh ¼kV½/1-732
jsVsM lsdsaMjh oksYVst 110 oh ¼kV½/1-732

djaV VªkalQkeZj [400 dsoh ¼kV½] 2000 v¡fivj ¼A½]:

tc lfdZV dh /kkjk] eki midj.kksa ij lh/ks ykxw djus ds fy, cgqr vf/kd gksrh gS] rks lhVh ¼CT½ dk
mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA ,d lhVh ¼CT½] lfdZV dh /kkjk ds lVhd :i ls vkuqikfrd /kkjk dk mRiknu djrh
gS] ftls vklkuh ls] ekius ds vkSj fjd‚fMaZx midj.kksa ls tksM+k tk ldrk gSA vko';drk uqlkj] çR;sd
dksj ij fofHkUu vuqikr çkIr djus ds fy,] cgq&vuqikr lhVh ¼CT½ VSfiax dks lsdsaMjh i{k ij çnku
fd;k tk,xkA

ykbZVfuax vjsLVj [336 dsoh ¼kV½] 50 gVZ~t ¼Hz½]:

bu midj.kksa dk fuekZ.k] ltZ ¼surge½ dks /kjrh esa eksM+dj vkSj /kjrh ds laca/k esa] lfdZV
bUlqys'ku dks rRdky mldh lkekU; rkdr cgky djus ds }kjk] fctyh ykbuksa vkSj fo|qr çfr"Bkuksa ds
bUlqysVlZ dks cpkus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gSA os egaxs midj.kksa vkSj ykbuksa ds cgqr djhc tksM+s
tkrs gSaA
/kkrq v‚DlkbM ¼ZnO & ftad v‚DlkbM½ ykbZVfuax vjsLVj çnku fd, tkrs gSaA

cl fj,DVj [80 ,eoh,vkj ¼MVAR½] 400 dsoh ¼kV½]:

flLVe oksYVst dks cuk, j[kus ds fy, cl esa ,d cl fj,DVj LFkkfir fd;k tkrk gSA Vªkalfe'ku ykbu ds
dSisflfVo çHkko dks v‚QlsV djus ds fy, vkSj ikoj flLVe ds oksYVst vkSj fj,fDVo ikoj dks fofu;fer
djus ds fy,] ;g flLVe dks bUMDVUl tksM+rk gSA

fctyh ls lqj{kk:
'khYM ok;j dh enn ls fctyh ls laj{k.k fd;k tkrk gSA vksojgsM Vªkalfe'ku ykbu esa ykbVfuax ltZ
¼surge½ dk dkj.k ykbZVfuax LVªksd ds }kjk vk?kkr igqapkuk gks ldrk gSA bls Vªkalfe'ku ykbu
ds V‚i daMDVj ls ,d mi;qä ÅapkbZ ij] 'khYM ok;j ;k vFkZ ok;j çnku djds lajf{kr fd;k tk ldrk gSA
ykbZVfuax LVªksd ls fctyh ds midj.kksa ds laj{k.k ds fy, bysfDVªdy lcLVs'ku ij vksojgsM vFkZ
ok;j ;k xzkmaM ok;j ;k 'khYM ok;j dk Hkh mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA

fLop;kMZ esa 20 feeh ls 40 feeh dh pêku ¼ctjh½ dh 100&150 feeh dh ijr lrg ij QSykbZ tkrh gS]
 ljhl`i ls [krjksa dks de djus ds fy,
 ?kkl ds fodkl dks grksRlkfgr djus ds fy,
 vUnj dh feêh esa ueh cuk, j[kus ls de ewY; ij feêh dh çfrjks/kdrk cuk, j[kus ds fy,
 lcLVs'ku dh lrg ds xank gksus ls vkSj ikuh dks bdëk gksus ls jksdus ds fy,
 dk;Zjr dfeZ;ksa ds fy, mPp çfrjks/kdrk çnku djus ds fy,
 ,d lhch ¼CB½ ds lkFk tqM+s midj.k dks vke rkSj cs ¼BAY½ dgk tkrk
gSA

iwjs fLop;kMZ 40 feeh ,e,l j‚M ls cuk eWV xzkmafMax ¼MAT

Grounding½ ls xzkmaM fd;k tkrk gSA iqjs fLop;kMZ midj.k dks
Mcy vfFkaZx ls xzkmaM fd;k tkrk gSA

isolatorsareprovided.
Bus Bar (400 kV, 2000 A):
Bus bar is a solid/hollow conductorfrom whichinput &output
connectionsare made. To increase the reliability 2 busbarsare used.

CapacitorVoltageTransformer (400 kV, 50 Hz):

CVT isa transformer usedtostepdownextra highvoltagesignals andprovide a lowvoltagesignal,
formeasurement orto operate a protectiverelay.
Ratedprimaryvoltage400KV/1.732
Ratedsecondary voltage 110V/1.732

Current Transformer (400 kV, 2000 A):

Whencurrentinacircuit istoohightodirectlyapplyto measuringinstruments, a CT
isused.ACTproducesareducedcurrentaccurately proportionaltothe current inthe circuit,
whichcanbeconvenientlyconnectedto measuringandrecordinginstruments.Multi-ratio CT
tappingshallbe provided onthesecondarysidetoobtain differentratiosoneachcore,as desired.

LighteningArrestor (336 kV, 50 Hz):

These are equipment designedtoprotect insulatorsof power linesandelectrical installationsfrom
lighteningsurgesbydivertingthe surge toearthandinstantly restoringthe circuit insulationtoits normal
strengthwith respect toearth.They areconnectedveryneartocostlyequipment andlines.
Metal Oxide (ZnO – Zinc Oxide) Lightning Arresters are provided.

Bus Reactor (80 MVAR, 400 kV):

Abusreactorisinstalled ina busto maintainsystem voltage. It addsinductance tothe systemto offset
thecapacitiveeffect of the transmissionlineandtoregulate the voltageandreactivepower of the
power system.

LightningProtection:
Theprotectionfrom the lightningis done withthehelpof shieldwire. Lightningsurge inoverhead
transmissionlinemay be caused due todirecthits of lighteningstrokes. Itcan be
protectedbyprovidinga shieldwire orearthwireat a suitableheightfrom the top conductorof
transmissionline.Overhead earth wire orgroundwire orshield wire isalsousedto over the
electricalsubstationtoprotectdifferentelectrical equipment from lightningstrokes.

In switchyardasurface layer of100-150mm ofrock (Gravel) of 20 mm to40mm is spread,

  To minimize hazardsfromreptiles
 To discourage growthofweed
 To maintainthe resistivity of soil at lower value byretaining moistureintheunder layingsoil
 To preventsubstation surface muddy andwaterlogged
 To providehighresistivityforworkingpersonnel

Equipment associatedwithone CB isgenerallycalledaBAY.

The whole switchyardis groundedwithMAT Grounding made of

40mmMS rod. All Switchyard equipment isgroundedby double
earthing.
oso VªSi& MCY;w ¼WT½:
ih,ylhlh ¼ikoj ykbu dSfj;j dE;qfuds'ku½ flXuyksa dks idM+us/Nkuus
ds fy,

ih,ylhlh ¼PLCC½ dk mi;ksx bUgsa VªkalfeV djus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gS:
1½ fjys v‚ijs'ku dh tkudkjh
2) ykbu ds nwljs Nksj ds chp lapkj

nks"kksa ds çdkj:
 vFkZ nks"k vkSj Qst nks"k
 T;knk oksYVst

vk—fr fVfidy cs

baVjy‚Dl:
 vk;lksysVlZ% ;fn lacaf/kr vFkZ fLop dks can fd;k tkrk gS] rks vk;lksysVj dks can ugha fd;k
tk ldrk gS] vkSj blds foijhrA ;fn lacaf/kr lfdZV czsdj dks can dj fn;k tkrk gS] rks
vkbZlksysVj dks can ugha fd;k tk ldrk gSA
 cl ckj vkblksysVj: ;fn cl ckj ls tqM+k vFkZ fLop can gks tkrk gS] rks cl ckj vkbZlksysVj can
ugha fd;k tk ldrk gS] vkSj blds foijhrA
 cl ckj vFkZ fLop: cl ckj ls tqM+s lHkh cl ckj vkblksysVlZ [kqys gksus pkfg, vkSj vFkZ fLop
can gksus ls igys dksbZ oksYVst ekStwn ugha gksuk pkfg,A
 ;fn QhMlZ ij oksYVst ekStwn gS] rks QhMlZ ds vFkZ fLop can ugha fd;k tk ldrs gSaA
 VªkalQkeZj ds vFkZ fLop dsoy rc gh can fd, tk ldrs gSa] tc dksbZ oksYVst ekStwn ugha
gksrk gSA

lqj{kk:
çR;sd 400 dsoh ¼kV½ ykbu dks fuEufyf[kr lqj{kk çnku dh tkrh gS:
 eq[;&I nwjh lqj{kk
 eq[;&II nwjh lqj{kk
 nks Lora= oksYVst vkSj le; ds pj.k okys vksoj oksYVst
 cSd&vi vksojdjaV
 vFkZ ds nks"k ls lqj{kk
 LVc ¼STUB½ lqj{kk
 fLop&v‚u&Vw&Q‚YV lqj{kk
 VwVk daMDVj
lcLVs'ku v‚Vkses'ku flLVe:
fjeksV daVªksy lsaVj ¼RCC½ dh lkFk&lkFk yksdy daVªksy dsaæ ls lHkh mi&LVs'ku/fLop;kMZ
midj.k dks fu;af=r djus vkSj mldh fuxjkuh djus ds fy,] lcLVs'ku v‚Vkses'ku flLVe ¼SAS½ LFkkfir dh
tkrh gS A ;g ekuo e'khu varjQyd ¼HMI½ vkSj daVªksy l‚¶Vos;j iSdst ds }kjk ,d ihlh ¼PC½ ds
ek/;e ls yksdy LVs'ku daVªksy dks l{ke djrk gSA
iwjs flLVe ds rqY;dkyu ¼flaØukbts'ku½ ds fy,] thih,l ¼GPS½ le; rqY;dkfyr ¼flaØukbTM½ flXuy
Hkh çnku fd;k tkrk gSA
tgka çR;sd cs ds fy, fjys iSuy fLFkr gksrs gSa] ogka cs Lrj ij] fodsUæh—r daVªksy ds fy,]
cs daVªksy d{k ¼BCRs½ çnku fd, tkrs gSaA fufEyf[kr ds fy,] çR;sd fjys iSuy dk ,d cs
daVªksy ;wfuV ¼BCU½ gksrk gS:
 daVªksy eksM p;u
 baVjy‚fdax vkSj Cy‚fdax
 Mcy dekaM
 flad&psd] oksYVst dk p;u
 lfdZV czsdj ds fy, v‚ijs'ku dkmaVj
 gjsd Qst ds fy, czsdj gkyr ladsr
 vykeZ dh ?kks"k.kk
Wave Trap –WT:
For trapping /filtering the PLCC (Power Line Carrier Communication) signals

PLCC is used for transmitting the

1) information of relay operation
2) Communication between other end of the line
Types of Faults:
 Earth faults and phase faults
 Over-voltages

Fig. Typical Bay

Interlocks:
 Isolators: If the corresponding earth switch is closed, isolator cannot be closed, and vice
versa. If the corresponding circuit breaker is closed, the isolator cannot be closed.
 Bus bar isolators: If the earth switch connected to the bus bar is closed, the bus bar isolator
cannot be closed, and vice versa.
 Bus bar earth switch: All bus bar isolators connected to the bus bar must be open and no
voltage present before the earth switch can be closed.
 If voltage is present on the feeders, the earth switches on the feeders cannot be closed.
 The earth switches on the transformer can only be closed when no voltage is present.

Protections:
Each 400 kV line is provided with the following protection:
 Main-I distance protection
 Main-II distance protection
 Over Voltage having two independent voltage and time stages
 Back-up Overcurrent
 Earth fault Protection
 STUB protection
 Switch-On-To-Fault Protection
  Broken Conductor

Substation Automation System:

The Substation Automation System (SAS) is installed to control and monitor all the sub-station /
switchyard equipment from remote control center (RCC) as well as from local control center. It
enables local station control via a PC by means of human machine interface (HMI) and control
software package.
The GPS time synchronizing signal for the synchronization of the entire system is also provided.
Bay Control Rooms (BCRs) are provided for decentralized control in bay level, where relay panels for
each bay are located. Each relay panel has a Bay Control Unit (BCU) for:
 Control mode selection
 Interlocking and blocking
 Double command
 Synch-check, voltage selection
 Operation counters for circuit breakers
 Breaker position indication per phase
 Alarm annunciation
 ekiu dk çn'kZu
 yksdy ,p,evkbZ ¼yksdy funsZf'kr] vkikrdkyhu eksM½
 LVs'ku ,p,evkbZ ¼HMI½ ds fy, baVjQslA
 de ls de 200 bZosaV ds fy, MsVk dk laxzg.k
 bdkbZ ds vanj dh vfrfjä I/ O ;k Qkbcj v‚fIVd lapkj vkSj çfØ;k cl ds ek/;e ls foLrkj dh
laHkkouk,a

,uthZ ehVfjax:
'miyC/krk ds vk/kkj ij VSfjQ ¼ABT½' vko';drk ds fy,] ÅtkZ ehVj dejksa esa 400 dsoh ¼kV½
ykbuksa esa ls çR;sd ds fy,] nks uacj] Dykl 0-2,l lVhdrk ÅtkZ ehVj çnku fd, tkrs gSaA

thVh ¼GT½] ,lVh ¼ST½] fj,DVj] vkSj çR;sd ykbu ds fy, fLop;kMZ lhlhvkj ¼CCR½ ij ,dy ÅtkZ ehVj
miyC/k djk, tkrs gSaA

ikoj VªkalQkeZj

fo|qr ikjs"k.k vkSj forj.k ç.kkyh esa VªkalQkeZj ,d lcls egRoiw.kZ midj.kksa esa ls ,d gSA ;g
oksYVst dks de ;k T;knk djrk gS ,d gh ÝhDosalh ij ,d ,lh ¼AC½ oksYVst dks nwljs ,lh ¼AC½
oksYVst rd oksYVst dks LFkkukarfjr djrk gSA VªkalQkeZj dh çkFkfed vkSj f}rh;d okbZafMaXt
gksrh gSa] tks rsy ls Hkjs eq[; VSad esa fLFkr gksrh gSaA rsy dk mi;ksx bUlqys'ku çnku djus
ds fy, vkSj lkFk gh esa okbZafMaXt dks BaMk djus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gSA

1) VªkalQkeZj dh {kerk oksYV&,Eih;j ¼dsoh, / ,eoh,½ esa O;ä dh tkrh gS

2) :ikarj.k vuqikr K ¼fujarj½ ¾ Vs / Vp ¾ Ns / Np

tgka] Vp] Np Øe'k% çkFkfed oksYVst vkSj VUlZ dks lwfpr djrs gSa
Vs] Ns Øe'k% ek/;fed oksYVst vkSj VUlZ dks lwfpr djrs gSaA

;fn K > 1] rks VªkalQkeZj dks LVsi&vi VªkalQkeZj dgk tkrk gS

;fn K < 1] rks VªkalQkeZj dks LVsi&Mkmu VªkalQkeZj dgk tkrk gS
vkn'kZ VªkalQkeZj ds fy,] buiqV VA ¾ vkmViqV VA
;kuh] Vp x Ip ¾ Vs x Is or Is / Ip ¾ Vp / Vs ¾ 1 / K ¼tgka Ip vkSj Is Øe'k% çkFkfed vkSj ek/;fed
/kkjk,a gksrh gSa½A blçdkj] /kkjk,a] ¼oksYVst½ ifjorZu vuqikr ds O;qRØe vuqikr esa gksrh
gSaA

ikoj VªkalQkeZj vkSj muds dk;ksaZ ds eq[; fQDLpj uhps lwphc) gSa:

cqdgksYt ¼Buchholz½ fjys:

bl fjys] çeq[k czsdMkmu ls cpus ds fy,] çkjafHkd pj.k esa VªkalQkeZj vkarfjd xyrh dk irk yxkus ds
fy, fMtkbu fd;k x;k gSA VªkalQkeZj ds vUnj dk nks"k] VSad ds vanj xehZ vkSj fpaxkjh ds dkj.k
rsy ds vi?kVu ls xSlksa dks mRiUu djrk gSA ;s xSl] daoVZj VSad dh vksj Åij dh rjQ tkrs gSa vkSj
xSl fjys ds LFkku esa Qalrs gSa] ftlls rsy dk Lrj fxjrk gSA Åijh ¶yksV ?kqekrk gS vkSj fLopksa
dks can djrk gS vkSj bl rjg vykeZ fn;k tkrk gSA

,d xaHkhj xyrh ds ekeys esa] xSl dk vf/kd mRiknu gksrk gS] ftlds dkj.k de ¶yksV dk lapkyu gksrk
gS vkSj lfdZV czsdj dks fVªi fd;k tkrk gSA xSl fMLikstscy xSl fo'ys"k.k ¼DGA½ ds fjys ds V‚i ij ,d
NksVs okYo ls xSl ,d= dh tk ldrh gSA

 Measurement display
 Local HMI (local guided, emergency mode)
 Interface to the station HMI.
 Data storage for at least 200 events
 Extension possibilities with additional I/O's inside the unit or via fiber-optic communication
and process bus

Energy Metering:
Two numbers, class 0.2S accuracy energy meter suitable for Availability Based Tariff (ABT)
requirement are provided for each of the 400 kV lines at Energy Meter rooms.

Single energy meters are provided at Switchyard CCR for GT, ST, Reactor, and each line.

Power Transformer

Transformer is one of the most important equipment in a power transmission and distribution
system. It does stepping up or stepping down the voltage and transfer power from one AC voltage
to another AC voltage at the same frequency. Transformer has Primary & Secondary windings
housed in main tank filled with insulated oil. Oil is used for providing insulation as well as cooling of
windings.

1) The capacity of Transformer is expressed in Volt-ampere (KVA / MVA)

2) The transformation ratio K (constant) = V s / Vp = Ns / Np
Where Vp, Np denote primary voltage & turns, respectively
Vs, Ns denote secondary voltage & turns respectively.

If K > 1, then transformer is called step-up transformer

If K < 1, then transformer is called step-down transformer

For an ideal transformer, Input VA = Output VA

i.e., Vp x Ip = Vs x Is or Is / Ip = Vp / Vs = 1 / K (where Ip& Is are Primary and Secondary current
respectively). Hence currents are in the inverse ratio of the (voltage) transformation ratio.

Main Fixtures of Power Transformer and their Functions are Listed Below:

Buchholz Relay:
This relay is designed to detect transformer internal fault in the initial stage to avoid major
breakdown. Internal fault in transformer generates gases by decomposition of oil due to heat &
spark inside the tank. These gases pass upward towards the conservator tank, trapped in the
housing of the relay, thereby causing the oil level to fall. The upper float rotates & switches contacts
close & thus giving alarm.

In case of a serious fault, gas generation is more, which causes operation of lower float & trips the
circuit breaker. The gas can be collected from a small valve at the top of relay for Dissolved Gas
Analysis (DGA).

rsy ltZ ¼surge½ fjys:

;g dqN ifjorZuksa ds lkFk cqdgksYt ¼Buchholz½ fjys ds leku gSA bldk dsoy ,d gh ¶yksV gksrk
gS vkSj tc vks,lvkj ¼OSR½ ds QksYV rd rsy ds ltsZl ¼surges½ igqaprs gSa ml ij vk?kkr djrs gSa]
;g lapkfyr gksrk gSA bldk VSi psUtj ds vanj fdlh Hkh {kfr ;k xyrh dk irk yxkus ds fy, vks,yVhlh
¼OLTC½ ds lkFk ç;ksx fd;k tkrk gS vkSj vks,yVhlh ¼OLTC½ VSad esa de rsy ds Lrj ds ekeys esa
uy psUtj dks uqdlku ls jksdrk gSA

çs'kj fjyhQ okYo:

tc VSad esa ncko iwoZfu/kkZfjr lqjf{kr lhek ls vf/kd gks tkrk gS] rks ;g okYo 'kq: gksrk gS vkSj
fuEu dk;Z djrk gS:
1) rRdky iksVZ dks [kksy dj ncko dks de dj nsrk gSA
2) ,d >aMk mapk djds okYo lapkyu ds –'; ladsr nsrk gSA
3) ,d lw{e fLop lapkfyr djrk gS] tks czsdj dks fVªi dekaM nsrk gSA

rsy rkieku ladsrd:

;g Mk;y Vkbi FkekZehVj gS tks ok"i ds ncko fl)kar ij dke djrk gSA 'tkap' ds :i esa igpkus tkus
okyk cYc] ekius ds fy, rkieku ds laidZ esa vkrk gS] tks 'v‚ijsfVax csy' ls igpkus tkus okyh ,d yach
V;wfcax ls] cksMZu xst Vîwc ls tqM+k gksrk gSA ;g csyks ¼bellow½ ,d mM+u'khy æo ls Hkjk
gksrk gSA cYc ds rkieku esa ifjorZu ds dkj.k ok"i ds ncko esa cnyko vkrk gS vkSj fMxzh
lsaVhxzsM esa dSfyczsV fd, x, Mk;y ij pyus okyk i‚baVj] v‚ijsfVax csyks ¼bellow½ dh gypy dks
bafxr djrk gSA blesa laidZ ds nks tksM+s gSa] ,d vykeZ ds fy, vkSj nwljk fVªi ds fy,A lkekU; rkSj
ij] rsy dk rkieku vykeZ 800°& 850 lsfYl;l ij lsV gksrk gS vkSj rsy dk rkieku 850°& 900 lsfYl;l ij lsV
gksrk gSA

okbZafMax rkieku ladsrd:

;g vksVhvkbZ ¼OTI½ ds leku gS ysfdu blesa dqN cnyko gSaA blesa 2 dSfiyjht ds lkFk ,d çksc
¼probe½ gksrh gSA dSfiyjht nks vyx csyks ¼ifjpkyu/{kfriwfrZ½ ls tqMh gksrh gSaA ;s csykst
¼bellows½ rkieku lwpd ds lkFk tqM+s gksrs gSaA v‚ijsfVax csyks ¼bellow½ ghVj d‚by ls f?kjk
gksrk gS] ftls rc ,d MCY;wVhvkbZ lhVh ¼WTI CT½ /kkjk çkIr gksrh gS] tc VªkalQkeZj ij yksM c<+
tkrk c<+us gS] v‚ijsfVax csyks ¼bellow½ ij fLFkr ghVj d‚by dh vksj lacaf/kr /kkjk tkrh gSA ok"i'khy
æo ls Hkjs v‚ijsfVax csyks ¼bellow½ dks ghVj dh ok;j xeZ djrh gSA

bl xehZ ds dkj.k] ok"i'khy æo dk ok"i ncko c<+ tkrk gS] blfy, vksVhvkbZ ¼OTI½ dh rqyuk esa
MCY;wVhvkbZ ¼WTI½ vf/kd rkieku fn[kkrk gSA pkj edZ~;qjh fLop gksrs gSa] 1 laidZ vykeZ ds
fy,] fVªi lfdZV ds fy, 2 vkSj dwyj daVªksy ds fy, 3 vkSj 4 ,d Lis;j ds :i esaA lkekU; rkSj ij]
okbZafMax rkieku vykeZ 850°& 900°lsfYl;l ij lsV gksrk gS vkSj okbZafMax rkieku fVªfiax 90 0°&
950° lsfYl;l ij lsV gksrk gSA QSu v‚Vks v‚u v‚ijs'ku 600 lsfYl;l ij lsV gksrk gS vkSj QSu v‚Vks v‚Q
550° lsfYl;l ij lsV gksrk gSA

dk¡tjosVj:
VªkalQkeZj eq[; VSad esa foLrkj vkSj ladqpu gksrk gS] ftlds QyLo:i ogh ?kVuk dk¡tjosVj esa
gksrh gS D;ksafd ;g ,d ikbi ds }kjk eq[; VSad ls tqM+k gksrk gSA czhnj ikbZi ls tqM+s fMgk;MjsVj
dks lfEefyr djus okys ,d czhnj ds ek/;e ls] dk¡tjosVj ok;qeaMy ds lkFk lapkj djrk gSA bl ikbi dk
nwljk Nksj] dk¡tjosVj dh Åijh nhokj ds Bhd uhps] dk¡tjosVj esa Åij ij [kqyrk gSA

czhnj:
;g ,d fo'ks"k ok;q fQYVj gS ftlesa fMgk;MjsfVax lkexzh 'kkfey gS] ftls flfydk tsy dgk tkrk gSA bldk
mi;ksx] ueh vkSj nwf"kr gok dks dk¡tjosVj esa tkus ls jksdus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gSA blesa flfydk tsy
ls Hkjk ,d vkarfjd /kkrq flysaMj gksrk gSA bl flysaMj ds nksuksa fljksa dks ok;j es'k LØhu ls can
fd;k gqvk gksrk gSA bl flysaMj dks dPps yksgs ds ckgjh vkoj.k esa can fd;k gqvk gksrk gSA
vkoj.k ds 2 Hkkx gksrs gSaA Åijh Hkkx vkoj.k gksrk gS; tcfd fupyk fgLlk] rsy lhy ds lkFk tqM+k
gqvk gksrk gSA tc VªkalQ‚eZj esa lkal yh tkrh gS] rks gok ços'k djrh gS tks rsy lhy esa tkrh gSA
çnw"k.k dks] ;fn dksbZ gks rks] bl rsy esa ns[kk tkrk gSA fQj gok flfydk tsy ls xqtjrh gS] tgka ueh]
;fn dksbZ gks rks] flfydk tsy ds ek/;e ls ns[kh tkrh gS vkSj 'kq) vkSj 'kq"d gok VªkaltjQ‚eZj ds
dk¡tjosVj VSad esa tkrh gSA flfydk tsy dk lkekU; jax uhyk gksrk gSA ;fn ;g xqykch gks tkrk gS]
rks flfydk tsy dks rkts tsy }kjk iqu% lfØ;/çfrLFkkfir fd;k tkuk pkfg,A

Oil Surge Relay:

It is similar to Buchholz relay with some changes. It has only one float & operates when oil surges
reach and strike the float of OSR. It is used with OLTC for detection of any damage or fault inside the
tap changer and prevents tap changer from damages in case of low oil level in OLTC tank.

Pressure Relief Valve:

When the pressure in the tank rises above predetermined safe limit, this valve operates & performs
the following functions:
4) Allows the pressure to drop by instantaneously opening the port.
5) Gives visual indication of valve operation by raising a flag.
6) Operates a micro switch, which gives trip command to breaker.

Oil Temperature Indicator:

It is dial type thermometer, works on the vapor pressure principle. The bulb, which is known as
‘Probe’ is exposed to the temperature to be measured, is connected by a length of flexible tubing to
a Borden gauge tube, which is known as 'operating bellow'. This bellow is filled with a volatile liquid.
The change in bulb temperature causes change in the vapor pressure of the liquid & pointer moving
on a dial calibrated in degree centigrade indicates the consequent movement of the operating
bellow. It has two pair of contacts, one for Alarm & another for Trip. In general, oil temperature
alarm is set at 80°- 85° C and oil temperature tripping is set at 85°- 90° C.
Winding Temperature Indicator:
It is also similar to OTI but has some changes. It consists of a probe fitted with 2 capillaries. Capillaries
are connected with two separate bellows (operating/compensating). These bellows are connected
with temperature indicator. Operating bellow is surrounded by heater coil, which gets current from
one WTI CT, when load on transformer increases, corresponding current passes to the heater coil
mounted on operating bellow. The heater coil heats the operating bellow, which is filled with volatile
liquid.
Due to this heat, vapor pressure of volatile liquid increases hence WTI shows more temperature as
compared to OTI. There are four mercury switches, 1 contact for Alarm, 2 for Trip circuit and 3 for
cooler control and 4 as a spare. In general, winding temperature alarm is set at 85°- 90° C and winding
temperature tripping is set at 90°- 95° C. The fan Auto ON operation is set at 60 °C and Fan auto OFF
is set at 55 °C.
Conservator:
As expansion and contraction occurs in transformer main tank, consequently the same phenomena
takes place in conservator as it is connected to main tank through a pipe. Conservator communicates
with the atmosphere through a breather, incorporating a dehydrator, which is connected to the
breather pipe. Other end of this pipe opens at the top in the conservator, just below the conservator
upper wall.

Breather:
This is a special air filter incorporating a dehydrating material, called Silica Gel. It is used to prevent
the ingress of moisture and contaminated air into conservator. It consists of an inner metal cylinder
filled with silica gel. Both ends of this cylinder are enclosed by wire mesh screen. This cylinder is
enclosed in an outer casing of cast iron. Casing has 2 parts. The upper part is cover; whereas lower
part is attached with an oil seal. When transformer breathes in, the air enters which passes into the
oil seal. The contamination, if any, is observed in this oil. Then air passes through silica gel, where the
moisture, if any, is observed by the silica gel and pure and dry air goes to conservator tank of
transformer. Normal color of Silica Gel is blue. If it turns to pink, then Silica Gel is to be reactivated /
replaced by fresh Gel.
rsy Lrj ladsrd ¼MOG½:
bls pqacdh; rsy xst ¼MOG½ds :i esa Hkh tkuk tkrk gSA blesa pqacd dh ,d tksM+h gksrh gSA
dk¡tjosVj VSad dh /kkrq dh nhokj] fdlh Hkh Nsn ds fcuk pqacd dks vyx djrh gSA pqacdh; {ks=
ckgj vkrk gS vkSj bldk ladsr ds fy, mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA ;g fjlko dh fdlh Hkh laHkkouk dks lekIr
djrk gSA Mªkbfoax pqacd ?kwerk gS vkSj rsy Lrj dh ÅapkbZ ds vuqlkj gkyr çkIr djrk gS] D;ksafd
;g ,d ¶yksV ls tqM+k gqvk gksrk gSA ¶yksV DCtknkj ¼fgaTM½ gksrk gS vkSj rsy ds Lrj ds lkFk
Åij vkSj uhps >qdrk gSA ;g o`f) ;k fxjkoV csosy fx;j vkSj fifu;u dh lgk;rk ls Mªkbfoax pqacd dks
?kqekrs gSaA Qksyksvj ¼pkfyr½ pqacd rnuqlkj pyrk gS vkSj ,d lwpd vkSj ,d dSe dks lapkfyr djrk
gSA lwpd rsy ds Lrj dks i<+rk gS vkSj dSe dks rsy dh gkyr ds vuqlkj] dSe rsy dk vykeZ nsus ds
fy, ,d ikjk fLop lapkfyr djus ds fy, dSe lsV fd;k tkrk gSA

jsfM,Vj:
NksVs VªkalQ‚eZj] osYMsM dwfyax Vîwc ;k nck, x, 'khV LVhy jsfM,VlZ ds lkFk miyC/k djk, tkrs
gSaA ysfdu cM+s VªkalQkeZj dks vyx&vyx jsfM,Vj Iyl okYo ds lkFk çnku fd;k tkrk gSA vfrfjä
'khryu ds fy,] jsfM;sVj ij fudkl QSUl dks çnku fd;k tkrk gSA eq[; VSad dk xeZ rsy Åij pyk tkrk gS
vkSj jsfM;sVj esa ços'k djrk gSA jsfM;sVj esa BaMk gksus ds ckn] çk—frd ok;q ;k cyiwoZd gok
ls] rsy fQj ls uhpys okYo ls eq[; VSad esa tkrk gS vkSj yxkrkj QSyrk jgrk gSA

cqf'kaXl:
blesa oxhZ—r bUlqys'ku ls f?kjs ,d dsaæh; daMDVj 'kkfey gSA tc ,d daMDVj dks /kkrqbZ VSad
;k nhokj ls ckgj fudkyk tkrk gS] rks cqf'kax vko';d gksrh gSA 33 dsoh ¼kV½ vuqç;ksxksa ds fy,] ls
rsy Hkjh cqf'kax dk mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA cqf'kax dks d‚EiSDV cukus ds fy,] 33 vkSj 66 dsoh
¼kV½ vuqç;ksxksa ds fy,] flaFksfVd jsf>u ck¡MsM daMsulj cqf'kax dk miksx fd;k tkrk gSA 132
dsoh ¼kV½ vkSj Åij ds oksYVst ds fy,] rsy ;qä isij daMsulj cqf'kax dk mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA blesa
,d dsaæh; daMDVj gksrk gS] tks bUlqysfVax isij vkSj fVu Q‚by ds oSdfYid ijrksa ls f?kjk gksrk
gSA bUlqysfVax isij vkSj fVu Q‚by ds oSdfYid ijrksa }kjk xfBr diSflVj ls] daMDVj dh lrg vkSj
vFkZ~M ¶ySat ds chp ,d leku fctyh ds ruko dk forj.k gksrk gSA cqf'kax dksj dks mi;qä jsftu ds
lkFk ysfir fd;k tkrk gSA vlsEcyh dks [kks[kys phuh feêh ds cjru esa can fd;k tkrk gS vkSj liksVZ
¶ySat vkSj V‚i gqM ds lkFk çnku fd;k tkrk gSA phuh feêh ds cjru dks rsy ls Hkj fn;k tkrk gSA

VSi ifjorZd ¼vks,yVhlh/vkslhVhlh½:

tSls gh VªkalQkeZj ij yksM c<+ tkrk gS] f}rh;d VfeZuy oksYVst de gksrk gSA f}rh;d oksYVst dks
cuk, j[kus ds fy,] VSi psatj dk mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA VSi psatjksa dks ,p-oh- ¼H-V-½ okbZafMax
¼çkFkfed okbZafMax½ ds lkFk tksM+k tkrk gSA blfy, VSi psatjksa VªkalQkeZj esa] ,p-oh- ¼H-
V-½ i{kksa esa nks okbZafMaXt gksrh gSa] 1½ eq[; okbZafMax vkSj 2½ VSi okbZafMaxA VSi
psatj nks çdkj ds gksrs gSaA

A½ v‚Q yksM VSi psatj & bl çdkj esa] flysDVj dks fgykus ls igys] VªkalQkeZj dks nksuksa fljksa
ls 'can' fd;k tkrk gSA bl rjg ds VSi psatjksa ds ihry ds dk¡VWDV~l gksrs gSa] tgka VSi lekIr gksrs
gSaA xfr'khy dk¡VWDV~l ihry ds cus gksrs gSa vkSj mudk vkdkj jksyj ;k lsxesaV dh rjg gksrk
gSA

B½ v‚u yksM VSi psatj & la{ksi esa ge bls vks,yVhlh ¼OLTC½ ds dgrs gSaA bl esa] VªkalQkeZj
dks can fd, fcuk] VSIl dks gkr ;k ;kaf=d ;k fctyh ds vkijs'ku ds }kjk Hkh cnyk tk ldrk gSA ;kaf=d
vkijs'ku ds fy,] vks,yVhlh ¼OLTC½ ds xSj v‚ijs'ku ds fy, baVjy‚Dl çnku fd, tkrs gSa & VSi dh
U;wure fLFkfr ds uhps vkSj VSi dh mPpre fLFkfr ijA blh rjg fctyh ds v‚ijs'ku ds fy,] VSi dh U;wure
fLFkfr ds uhps vkSj VSi dh mPpre fLFkfr ij xSj v‚ijs'ku ds fy, lfdZV esa fyfeV fLopsl çnku fd, tkrs
gSaA ;kaf=d vkijs'ku ds fy,] ,d gSaM baVjy‚d fLop dks lfdZV esa çnku fd;k tkrk gSA tSls gh ge
gSaMy dks Mkyrs gSa] gSaM baVjy‚d fLop] fctyh ds lfdZV dks [kksyrk gS vkSj dksbZ Hkh
vks,yVhlh ¼OLTC½ dks fo|qr rjhds ls v‚ijsV ugha dj ldrk gSA

Oil Level Indicator (MOG):

It is also known as magnetic oil gauge (MOG). It has a pair of magnet. The metallic wall of
conservator tank separates magnets without any through hole. Magnetic field comes out and it is
used for indication. This eliminates any chances of leakage. The driving magnet rotates and acquires
the position corresponding to height of oil level, as it is linked with a float. The float is hinged &
swings up and down with oil level. This rise or fall rotates driving magnet with the help of bevel gear
and pinion. Follower (Driven) magnet moves accordingly and operates a pointer & a cam. The
pointer reads oil level & cam is set to operate a mercury switch to give low oil alarm as per the oil
position.

Radiators:
Small Transformers are provided with welded cooling tubes or pressed sheet steel radiators. But
large transformers are provided with detachable radiators plus valves. For additional cooling,
exhaust fans are provided on radiators. The hot oil in main tank goes up and enters in the radiators.
After cooling in radiators, either by natural air or forced air, oil again goes to main tank from the
lower valve and circulates continuously.

Bushings:
It comprises a central conductor surrounded by graded insulation. Bushing is necessary when a
conductor is taken out through metallic tank or wall. Oil filled bushing is used for 33 KV applications.
For making bushing compact, synthetic resin bonded condenser bushing is used for 33 and 66 KV
applications. For 132 KV & above voltages, oil impregnated paper condenser bushing is used. It
consists of a central conductor surrounded by alternate layers of insulating paper & tin foil. The
capacitor formed by alternate layers of tin foil and paper insulation results in uniform electric stress
distribution between conductor surface and earthed flange. The bushing core is coated with suitable
resin. The assembly is enclosed in hollow porcelain and is provided with support flange and top
hood. The porcelain is filled with oil.

Tap Changer (OLTC / OCTC):

As load on the transformer increases, secondary terminal voltage decreases. To maintain the
secondary voltage, tap changers are used. Tap changers are connected with H.V. winding (Primary
winding). Therefore in tap changers transformer, there are two windings in H.V. side, 1) Main winding
and 2) Tap winding. There are two types of tap changers.

A) Off Load Tap Changer - In this type, before moving the selector, transformer is made OFF from
both ends. Such tap changers have fixed brass contacts, where taps are terminated. The moving
contacts are made of brass in the shape of either roller or segment.

B) On Load Tap Changer - In short we call it as OLTC. In this, taps can be changed manually by
mechanical or electrical operation without making off the transformer. For mechanical operation,
interlocks are provided for non-operation of O.L.T.C. below lowest tap position and above highest
tap position. Similarly for electrical operation, limit switches are provided in circuit for non-operation
of tap change below lowest tap position and above highest tap position. For mechanical operation,
one hand interlock switch is provided in the circuit. As soon as we insert handle, hand interlock
switch opens out the electrical circuit and no one can operate O.L.T.C. electrically.

VªkalQkeZj dk laj{k.k
 varj ¼fMQjsaf'kvy½ laj{k.k
 fjLVªhDVsM vFkZ Q‚YV ¼REF½ ls laj{k.k
  vksoj djaV ls laj{k.k
 vFkZ Q‚YV ls laj{k.k
 okbZafMax dk rkieku
 rsy dk rkieku

nSfud ifjpkyu fuxjkuh:

i;Zos{kd ;k MîwVh ij rSukr v‚ijsVj fuEufyf[kr ds fy, ftEesnkj gS:

1- VªkalQkeZj dk gj ?kaVs rkieku] yksM] vkfn vkSj os vuqes; lhek ;k lHkh 'kkfey ;k lfdZV
esa tqM+s midj.kksa dh jsfVax ls vf/kd ugha gS bu ckrksa dh fuxjkuh djukA
2- ftl çdkj ykxw gks ml çdkj] QhMj dh çfr?kaVk [kir /fuekZ.k fy[k ysukA
3- tc ,d QhMj fVªi djrk gS] rc blds ladsr dks fy[k ysuk pkfg, vkSj lcaf/kr jftLVj esa ntZ fd,
tkus pkfg,A ohlhch ¼VCB½ ;k ,l,Q6 lhch ¼SF6 CB½ daVªksfyax vksojgsM ykbuksa dks
2&3 feuV dh fVªfiax ds ckn pktZ fd;k tk ldrk gS D;ksafd vf/kdka'k leL;k {kf.kd LoHkko dh
gksrh gSaA vxj czsdj fQj fVªi djrk gSa] rks QhMj nks"kiw.kZ ?kksf"kr fd;k tkuk pkfg, vkSj
lans'k ds :i esa lacaf/kr O;fä dks lans'k Hkstuk pkfg, vkSj x'r dh O;oLFkk dh tkuh pkfg,A
VªkalQkeZj dh fVªfiax ds ekeys esa] pktZ djus ls igys mldk dkj.k nwj fd;k tkuk pkfg,A
4- ges'kk dh tkap djsa vkSj lqfuf'pr djsa fd mfpr Mh-lh- ¼D-C½ lIykbZ] fVªi lfdZV ij miyC/k
gSA fVªi lfdZV dh LoLFkrk dh tkap ds fy,] lhvkjih ¼CRP½ ij iq'k cVu Hkh çnku fd;k tkrk
gSA fVªi lfdZV lqijfotu fjys ij Hkh] gjk ,ybZMh ¼LED½ LoLFkrk vkSj yky ,ybZMh ¼LED½
vLoLFkrk nh[krk gSA ;fn vko';d gks] rks mlds vuqlkj] lq/kkjkRed dkjZokbZ djsaA
5- VªkalQkeZj ds vks,yVhlh ¼OLTC½ dks v‚ijsV djsa vkSj vko';drk ds vuqlkj oksYVst cuk,
j[ksaA
6- lqfuf'pr djsa fd cSVjht pktZ dh mfpr gkyr esa gSa vkSj mudk lgh oksYVst vkSj pktZ jsV
gS vkSj mlh dh gj fnu tkap dh tkuh pkfg,A

lkaf[;dh;:
nSfud vk/kkj ij fuEufyf[kr dk fjd‚MZ j[ksa:
a. j[kj[kko dh y‚x&cqd
b. fVªfiax dh ?kVuk,a
c. VªkalQ‚eZj ds vks,yVhlh ¼OLTC½ v‚ijs'kal
d. czsdj vkSj ,y, ¼LA½ ds dkmaVj v‚ijs'kal
e. ,l,Q6 ¼SF6½ lfdZV czsdj ds fy, xSl ds ncko dh fjd‚fMaZx
f. VªkalQkeZj] lhVh ¼CT½ vkSj lhohVh ¼CVT½ ds rsy dk fjlko
g. VªkalQkeZj esa flfydk tsy dk jax
h. cSVjh oksYVst vkSj pktZj gkyr dh tkap djsa
i. ,uthZ ehVj jhfMax
Transformer Protection
 Differential protection
 Restricted Earth Fault (REF) protection
 Over Current protection
 Earth fault protection
 Winding temperature
 Oil temperature

Daily Operational Watch:

The supervisor or operator on duty is responsible for following:

1. Watch the hourly transformer temperature, load, etc. and they do not exceed the
permissible limit or the rating of all the equipment involved or connected in the circuit.
2. Note down the hourly consumption / generation on the feeders as applicable.
3. When a feeder trips, its indication should be noted and entered in the relevant register. VCB
or SF6 CB controlling overhead lines can be charged after a 2-3 minutes of tripping as most
of the problems are of transient nature. If the breaker trips again, the feeder should be
declared as faulty and message sent to concerned person and patrolling arranged. In case of
tripping of Transformer, cause of the same is to be cleared before charging.
4. Always check and ensure that proper D.C. supply is available on the trip circuit. For checking
Trip circuit healthiness, Push button is provided on the CRP. Also on Trip circuit supervision
relay, Green LED shows the healthiness, and Red LED shows unhealthiness. Take corrective
actions accordingly if required.
5. Operate O.L.T.C. of Transformer and maintain voltage as required.
6. Ensure that batteries are in proper state of charge and have correct voltage and charge
rates and the same are to be checked every day.

Statistical:
Keep records of followings on daily basis:
a) Maintenance logbook
b) Tripping events
c) OLTC operations of Transformers
d) Counter operations of breakers & LA
e) Recording of Gas pressure for SF6 circuit breaker
f) Oil leakage of Transformer, CT & CVT
g) Color of Silica Gel in Transformer
h) Check the Batteries voltages and charger condition
i) Energy meter readings
fo|qr lqj{kk

fo|qr vkx:
uohure vo/kkj.kk ds vuqlkj] fctyh dh vkx] ,d fo'ks"k oxZ dk xBu ugha djrh gSA fctyh ds midj.kksa
ls lcaf/kr dksbZ Hkh vkx] oxZ A ;k oxZ B ls gksrh gSA vkx ,slh vkx esa lkekU; çfØ;k ;g gS fd
midj.kksa dks fo|qr lIykbZ ls oafpr j[ksa vkSj tyrh lkexzh ds fy, ,d mfpr 'keu ehfM;k dk mi;ksx
djsaA vxj fctyh dh lIykbZ dk ldkjkRed vkbZlksys'ku lqfuf'pr ugha fd;k x;k gS] rks uyh /kkjk ds :i
esa ikuh dk fdlh Hkh ekeys esa fctyh ds vkx esa mi;ksx fd;k tkuk pkfg,A

fctyh dk >Vdk:
fctyh ds >Vds ds dkj.k ekSr gks ldrh gS &
a) fny ds rarqfodlu ¼fQfczys'ku½ ds dkj.kA ;kuh] fny ds NksVs VqdM+s djds uqdlku dj nsuk] ftlls
lkal can gks tkrh gS;
b½ 'olu dk dkj.k cuus okyh raf=dk ç.kkyh esa ukdkcanh dh otg ls] lkal ysus dh dkjZokbZ dks
jksdus ds dkj.k;
c½ 'kjhj ds LFkkuh; vf/kd xeZ gksus ;k 'kjhj ds tyus ds dkj.kA

fny rarqfodlu ¼fQfczys'ku½ ekSr dk lcls xaHkhj dkj.k gS vkSj bldk dksbZ bykt ugha gS] ;|fi ckn
ds nks dkj.kksa ls ihfM+r O;fä dk cpko djus dh laHkkouk gSA

>Vds dk bykt:
tc fdlh dks Hkh >Vdk yx tkrk gS] rks ;g ?kVuk ns[kus okys O;fä dk igyk vkSj egRoiw.kZ drZO;
gS] eq[; lIykbZ can djuk ;k 'kjhj dks lw[kh ydM+h dh NM+h ls nwj yq<+dkuk pkfg,A vxj ,d NM+h
vkfn vklikl ugha gS] rks ykbo esUl ls 'kjhj dks vyx djus ds fy,] lw[ks diMs dk mi;ksx fd;k tkuk pkfg,
;k vxj og miyC/k ugha gS rks] foifÙk&xzLr O;fä ds dksV ;k 'kVZ tSls <hys diMs dks] mlds 'kjhj
dks fcuk Nq, lko/kkuh ls [khapuk pkfg,A fctyh ds vf/kdka'k >Vdksa esa] ;g {kf.kd gS vkSj ykbo
ok;j ds lkFk laidZ viw.kZ gksrk gS] ,sls ekeyksa esa lkal {k.k Hkj ds can gks tkrh gSA ysfdu
>Vds ds dkj.k foifÙk&xzLr O;fä csgks'k gks tkrk gS] mldh lkal can gks tkrh gS vkSj mldk fny
vHkh Hkh /kM+drk gS] bl foifÙk&xzLr O;fä ds fy, lcls t:jh vkSj rRdky bykt ;g gS fd mls rRdky —
f=e 'olu fn;k tkuk pkfg, vkSj tc rd foifÙk&xzLr O;fä lkekU; :i ls ysuk 'kq: ugha djrk] rc rd bls tkjh
j[kk tkuk pkfg,A ;g ckr /;ku esa j[kuh pkfg, fd foifÙk&xzLr Bhd gksus ds rqjar ckn] —f=e 'olu jksd
fn;k tkrk gS rks] og fQj ls csgks'k gks ldrk gSA ,sls ekeyksa esa —f=e 'olu dks 6 ls 8 ?kaVksa rd
tkjh j[kk tkuk pkfg,A gj fctyh daVªksy d{k vkSj lcLVs'ku ij —f=e 'olu dh fof/k çnf'kZr fd;k tkrk gSA

>Vds ds f[kykQ ,gfr;kr:

jksdFkke bykt ls csgrj gSA
1- ykbo esUl ij dke djus ls cpsa vkSj dke djus ls igys mls can dj nsuk pkfg,A ;fn esUl can
djuk laHko ugha gS] rks dke djus ls igys vius gkFk ;k iSj xhys ugha gSa] ;g lqfuf'pr
djsaA
2- mPp oksYVst ij dke djrs le;] ;g lqfuf'pr djsa fd ¶yksvj daMDVj ugha gSA daØhV ds
¶yksvj [krjukd rjhds ls çokgdh; ¼daMfDVo½ gksrs gSaA mPp oksYVst ij dke djrs le;]
vius ck,a gkFk dks tsc esa j[kus dh dksf'k'k djsa] ;kfu fdlh Hkh ykbo daMDVj ;k midj.k
;k /kkrq dk iksy ;k Ø‚l vkeZ~l ds /kkrqbZ vkoj.k ds lkFk laidZ esa vkidk ck;ka gkFk
ykus ls cpsaA
3- ,slh txg ij dke u djsa] tgka vkidk lj ykbo esUl dks Nwus dh laHkkouk gSA ,slh txg ij
dke djrs le; lfdZV dks can djsaA
4- ,sls O;fä dks cpkus ds fy, ftls fctyh dk >Vdk yxk gS] dksbZ vU; bUlqysVj cpko ds fy,
miyC/k ugha gS] rks ctk; vius iSjksa ds] gkFkksa dk mi;ksx djsaA
Electrical Safety

Electrical Fires:
According to latest concept, electrical fires do not constitute a particular class. Any fire involving
electrical equipment is a fire of class A or class B. The normal procedure in such fires is to cut off the
electrical supply of the equipment and to use an extinguishing media appropriate to the burning
material. Water in the form of hose stream should in no case be used in electrical fires unless positive
isolation of electric supply has been ensured.

Electric Shock:
The effect of electric shock may be death –
a) Due to fibrillation of heart. i.e., damaging the heart to small pieces causing stopping of breathing;
b) Due to stopping of breathing action caused by blockade in the nervous system causing
respiration;
c) Due to local overheating or burning of body.

The fibrillation of the heart is the most serious cause of death and there is no cure, although there is
possibility of rescuing a man who has suffered by the latter two causes.

Cure of Shocks:
When anyone gets a shock, the first and foremost duty of the observer is to break the contact of the
live mains and body either by switching off the main supply or the body should be rolled away with a
dry wooden stick. If a stick etc. is not at hand, a dry piece of cloth should be used to detach the body
from the live mains or if that is not available the loose cloth such as coat or shirt of the victim should
be pulled with care without touching his body. In most of the electric shocks, it is momentary and
the contact with live wire is imperfect, in such cases breath stops momentarily. But due to the shock
the victim becomes unconscious, stops breathing and his heart still beats, the most urgent and
immediate cure for this victim is that he should be given immediate artificial respiration and it should
be continued until the victim starts breathing normally. It should be borne in mind that if the artificial
respiration is stopped just after the victim recovers, he is liable to become unconscious again. In such
cases the artificial respiration is to be continued for 6 to 8 hours. Method of artificial respiration is
displayed at every electric control room and substation.

Precautions against Shock:

Prevention is better than cure.
1) Try to avoid work on live mains which should be switched off before working. If it is not possible
to switch off the mains, be sure before working that your hands or feet are not wet.
2) When working on high voltages, be sure that the floor is not conductor. Concrete floors are
dangerously conductive. When working on high voltage, try to keep your left hand in the pocket
i.e., avoid your left hand to get in contact with any live conductor or metallic casing of an
apparatus or metal pole or cross arms.
3) Do not work in such a place where your head is liable to touch the live mains before making the
circuit dead.
4) In order to rescue a person who has got an electric shock if there is no other insulator available
for rescuing, use your feet rather than hands.

fu;e:
1- lcLVs'ku ds vf/k—r O;fä;ksa dks [kqn dks vPNh rjg ls] lcLVs'ku ds ysvkmV] budfeax
QhMlZ] vkmVxksbax QhMlZ] ls ifjfpr gks tkuk pkfg,A QhMj ds ysvkmV dks lcLVs'ku
daVªksy d{k esa çnf'kZr fd;k tkuk pkfg,A
2- vfFkaZx lsV] gkFk ds nLrkus] lh<h;ka] vkfn ds i;kZIr lsV ges'kk lqpk# lapkyu ds fLFkfr esa
lcLVs'ku esa j[ks tkus pkfg, vkSj mudk lqjf{kr :i ls bl rjg ds dke ds fy, mi;ksx fd;k tk ldrk gS
bu ckrksa ij /;ku nsaA
3- dsoy vf/k—r iq#"k çk:iksa ds vuqlkj dke djus ds fy, ijfeV ysaA tcfd nwljksa ds fy, ijfeV tkjh
djrs le;] mfpr vfFkaZx lqfuf'pr dh tkuh pkfg,A lacaf/kr MsM QhMj ij 'lapkfyr u djsa] deZpkjh
dke dj jgs gSa' [krjs dh uksfVl fpidkbZ tkuh pkfg,A
4- vfXu'keu midj.k] çkFkfed fpfdRlk c‚Dl] vkfn dks mfpr gkyr esa cuk, j[kk tkuk pkfg,A
çkFkfed fpfdRlk pkVZ] vaxzsth ;k LFkkuh; Hkk"kk esa daVªksy d{k esa çnf'kZr fd;k tkuk
pkfg,A

vkx vkSj iksVsZcy vfXu'kkedksa dh mi;qärk dk oxhZdj.k

vuq- vkx dk oxZ Qkse dkcZu MkbvkDlkbM lw[kk jlk;u
dz- ,DlfVafXo'kj ,DlfVafXo'kj ikmMj
,DlfVafXo'kj
1 oxZ A vkx mi;qä flQkfj'k ugha dh xbZ mi;qä
¼Bksl lkexzh½ lrg dh NksVh vkx ds
vykok
2 oxZ B vkx mi;qä mi;qä mi;qä
¼Toyu'khy æo½
3 oxZ C vkx mi;qä ugha mi;qä mi;qä
¼xSl½
4 oxZ D vkx mi;qä ugha mi;qä ugha fo'ks"k lw[kk
¼ngu'khy /kkrq½ ikmMj
5 oxZ E vkx mi;qä ugha mi;qä mi;qä
¼bysfDVªdy vkx½

,gfr;kr:
1- ykbo fctyh ds midj.kksa vkSj /kkrq ls tqMh vkx ij Qkse Qk;j ,fDLVafXo'kj dk mi;ksx u
djsaA
2- cM+s vkdkj dh vkx ij CO2 Qk;j ,fDLVafXo'kj dk mi;ksx u djsaA bldk /kkrq lacaf/kr vkx ij
Hkh mi;ksx ugha fd;k tkuk pkfg,A rsy lacaf/kr vkx dks cq>krs le;] ¶yS'k cSd ;k fQj ls
çToyu ds f[kykQ ,gfr;kr cjruh pkfg,A
eksVj:

,d fo|qr eksVj bl çdkj dk ,d fo|qr midj.k gS] tks fo|qr ÅtkZ dks ;kaf=d ÅtkZ esa ifjofrZr djrk gSA

Fkzh Qst baMD'ku eksVj dk LVsVj:

3 Qst ,lh ¼AC½ lzksr ls tksM+us tkus okys ,d 3 Qst okbZfUMax lfdZV dk fuekZ.k djus ds fy,] ;g
vusd Ly‚V ls cuk gksrk gSA Ly‚V~l esa rhu Qst Qst okbZfUMaXt dks bl çdkj fcBk;k tkrk gS] ftlls
mUgsa ,lh ¼AC½ çnku djus ds ckn] ?kw.kZu ¼jksVsfVax½ pqacdh; {ks= dk fuekZ.k fd;k tkrk
gSA

Fkzh Qst baMD'ku eksVj dk jksVj:

daMDVj dks ys tk ldus okys lekukarj Ly‚V~l ds lkFk csyukdkj ¼flfyaMªhdy½ ySfeusVsM dksjA
daMDVj ;g Hkkjh rkacs ;k ,Y;wfefu;e dh lyk[ksa ¼cklZ½ gksrh gSa] tks çR;sd Ly‚V esa fQV
cSBrh gSa vkSj mUgsa ,aM fjaXt }kjk 'k‚VZ lfdZV fd;k tkrk gSA Ly‚V~l dks 'kk¶V ds /kqjh ds
fcydqy lekukarj ugha cuk;k x;k gksrk gS] ysfdu FkksM+klk frjNk Ly‚V fd;k x;k gksrk gS D;ksafd
;g O;oLFkk pqacdh; xquxqukgV 'kksj dks de djrh gS vkSj eksVj ds jksds tkus ls cpk tk ldrk gSA

Rules:
1) Authorized persons of the substation should get themselves thoroughly familiar with the layout
of the substation, Incoming feeders, Outgoing feeders, etc. The layout of the feeders should be
displayed in the substation control room.
2) See that sufficient sets of earthing sets, hand gloves, ladders, etc. are always kept at the
substation in proper working order & can be safely used for such work.
3) Only authorized men take permits to work as per formats. While issuing permits to others,
proper earthing should be ensured. Danger notice ‘Do not operate, men at work’ should be
affixed on the concerned dead feeder.
4) Firefighting equipment, first aid box, etc. is maintained in proper condition. First aid chart should
be displayed in control room in English or Local language.
Classification of Fire and Suitability of Portable Fire Extinguishers
Sl. Class of Fire Foam Carbon dioxide Dry Chemical
No. Extinguisher Extinguisher Powder
Extinguisher
1 Class A Fire Suitable Not recommended Suitable
(Solid materials) except for small surface
fire
2 Class B Fire Suitable Suitable Suitable
(Flammable liquids)
3 Class C Fire Not Suitable Suitable Suitable
(Gases)
4 Class D Fire Not Suitable Not Suitable Special dry
(Combustible metals) powder
5 Class E Fire Not Suitable Suitable Suitable
(Electrical Fire)
Caution:
1) Do not use Foam Fire Extinguisher on fires involving live electrical equipment and metal.
2) Do not use CO2 Fire Extinguisher on big size fire. It is also not to be used on metal fire. While
extinguishing oil fire, precaution against flash back or re-ignition is to be taken.
Motor:

An electrical motor is such an electromechanical device which converts electrical energy into a
mechanical energy.

Stator of three phase induction motor:

It is made up of numbers of slots to construct a 3 phase winding circuit which is connected to 3

phase AC source. The three phase winding are arranged in such a manner in the slots that they
produce a rotating magnetic field after AC is given to them.

Rotor of three phase induction motor:

Cylindrical laminated core with parallel slots that can carry conductors. Conductors are heavy copper
or aluminum bars which fits in each slots & they are short circuited by the end rings. The slots are not
exactly made parallel to the axis of the shaft but are slotted a little skewed because this
arrangement reduces magnetic humming noise & can avoid stalling of motor.

?kw.kZu ¼jksVsfVax½ pqacdh; {ks= dk fuekZ.k:

120° ds ,d fctyh ds dks.k }kjk v‚QlsV fd, x, vksojySfiax okbZafMax ds }kjk eksVj dk LVsVj cuk
gksrk gSA tc çkFkfed okbZafMax ;k LVsVj ds ,d 3 Qst ,lh ¼AC½ lzksr tksM+k tkrk gS] rc blls ,d
?kw.kZu ¼jksVsfVax½ pqacdh; {ks= LFkkfir gksrk gS] tks rqY;dkfyd xfr ls ?kwerk gSA

V‚dZ% V‚dZ ,d f=T;k ds ek/;e ls VfuaZx QkslZ gS vkSj mldh bdkb;ka ,lvkbZ&ç.kkyh
¼SI&system½ esa & Nm vkSj bEisfj;y ç.kkyh esa & lb ft gksrh gSaA vrqY;dkfyd çsj.k eksVlZ }kjk
fodflr V‚dZ] eksVj dh xfr ds lkFk cnyrk jgrk gS] tc ;g iw.kZ fojke ;k 'kwU; xfr ls] vf/kdre v‚ijsfVax xfr
ls ?kweus yxrh gSA

y‚DM jksVj ;k LVkfVaZx V‚dZ% y‚DM jksVj ;k LVkfVaZx V‚dZ ,d ,slk V‚dZ gS] tks fo|qr
eksVj esa fodlfr gksrk gS] tc og foJke ;k 'kwU; xfr ls 'kq: gksrh gSA

,d mPp 'kq: V‚dZ] dfBukbZ ls 'kq: gksus okyh ,WfIyds'kuksa ;k e'khuksa ds fy, vf/kd
egRoiw.kZ gS & tSls fd iksftfVo fMLIyslesaV] Øsu vkfn ,d de 'kq: V‚dZ dks dsUækilkjd
¼lsaVªh¶;wxy½ QSUl ds :i esa vuqç;ksxksa ;k iai tSls ,WfIyds'kuksa esa Lohdkj fd;k tk
ldrk gS tgka 'kq#vkrh yksM de ;k 'kwU; ds djhc gksrk gSA
iqy&vi VkWdZ% iqy&vi V‚dZ ;g fo|qr eksVj }kjk fodflr U;wure V‚dZ gS tc ;g 'kwU; ls
iw.kZ yksM xfr ls pyrh gS ¼blds czsd Mkmu V‚dZ fcanq rd igqapus ls igys½

tc eksVj 'kq: gksrh gS vkSj xfr c<+kuk 'kq: djrh gS] rc lkekU; :i esa V‚dZ deh gksrk jgrk
gS tc rd dh ;g ,d fuf'pr xfr ij ugha igqaprk gS & V‚dZ ds igys dk iqy&vi V‚dZ c<+rk jgrk gS
tc rd ;g mPp xfr ij mPpre V‚dZ ij & czsd Mkmu V‚dZ ij igqap ugha tkrkA

iqy&vi V‚dZ ,sls ,WfIyds'kuksa ds fy, egRoiw.kZ gks ldrk gS ftuds fy,] fctyh dks dqN
vLFkk;h ck/kkvksa dks ikj djds dke dh fLFkfr çkIr djus dh vko';drk gksrh gSA

czsd&Mkmu V‚dZ%

igys Vksd de gks tkrh gS tc e'khu dke dh fLFkfr dh vksj rsth ls xfr çkIr djus yxrh gS] rc
V‚dZ de gksus ls igys] czsd&Mkmu V‚dZ ;g miyC/k mPpre V‚dZ gSA

Qqy yksM ¼jsVsM½ V‚dZ ;k czsfdax V‚dZ%

Qqy&yksM xfr ls pyus okyh fo|qr eksVj ds jsVsM ikoj ds fuekZ.k ds fy, Qqy yksM V‚dZ
vko';d gSA

baMD'ku eksVj dk ?kkVk vkSj {kerk

yxkrkj ;k fQDLM ?kkVk

a. vk;ju ¼yksgk½ ;k dksj ?kkVk

b. ;kaf=d ?kkVk
c. cz'k ?k"kZ.k ?kkVk

Production of Rotating Magnetic Field:

The stator of the motor consists of overlapping winding offset by an electrical angle of 120°. When
the primary winding or the stator is connected to a 3 phase AC source, it establishes a rotating
magnetic field which rotates at the synchronous speed.

Torque: Torque is the turning force through a radius and the units is rated in - Nm - in the SI-system
and in - lbft - in the imperial system.The torque developed by asynchronous induction motors varies
with the speed of the motor when its accelerate from full stop or zero speed, to maximum operating
speed.

Locked Rotor or Starting Torque: The Locked Rotor Torque or Starting Torque is the torque
the electrical motor develop when its starts at rest or zero speed.
A high Starting Torque is more important for application or machines hard to start - as
positive displacement pumps, cranes etc. A lower Starting Torque can be accepted in
applications as centrifugal fans or pumps where the start loads is low or close to zero.

Pull-up Torque: Pull-up Torque is the minimum torque developed by the electrical motor when it
runs from zero to full-load speed (before it reaches the break-down torque point)

When the motor starts and begins to accelerate the torque in general decrease until it reach
a low point at a certain speed - the pull-up torque - before the torque increases until it reach
the highest torque at a higher speed - the break-down torque - point.

The pull-up torque may be critical for applications that need power to go through some
temporary barriers achieving the working conditions.

Break-down Torque:

The Break-down Torque is the highest torque available before the torque decreases when
the machine continues to accelerate to the working conditions.

Full-load (Rated) Torque or Braking Torque:

The Full-load Torque is the torque required to produce the rated power of the electrical
motor at full-load speed.

Losses and Efficiency of Induction Motor

Constant or Fixed Losses

a) Iron or Core Losses

b) Mechanical losses
c) Brush Friction Losses
 d) Translation of above figure
eksVj buiqV
LVsVj d‚ij dh gkfu jksVj ds fy, buiqV
vkSj vk;ju ¼yksgs½ dh gkfu
jksVj d‚ij dh gkfu ;kaf=d 'kfä dk fodkl

foUMst vkSj ?k"kZ.k ¼fÝD'ku½ gkfu eksVj vkmViqV

e) rqY;dkfyd ¼flaØksul½ xfr:

,d ,lh ¼AC½ eksVj dh rqY;dkfyd ¼flaØksul½ xfr] ] ;g LVsVj ds pqacdh; {ks= ds
jksVs'ku dh nj gS] tks çfr feuV fjo‚Y;q'ku [vkjih,e ¼RPM½] ds :i esa

O;ä dh tkrh gSA

tgka gVZ~t esa eksVj dh lIykbZ dh vko`fÙk ¼fQdZ~oSUlh½ vkSj pqacdh;
0
/#oksa dh la[;k gSA ;kuh] 120 °nwj lsV dh xbZ rhu iksy&tksfM+;ksa ds lkFk ds Ng iksy
Fkzh&Qst eksVj ] ;g 6 ds cjkcj gksrh gS vkSj 50 gVZ~t vkSj 60 gVZ~t dh lIykbZ
ç.kkfy;ksa ds fy, Øe'k: 1]000 vkjih,e ¼RPM½ vkSj 1]200 vkjih,e ¼RPM½ ds cjkcj gksrh
gSA

fLyi:
bls ,d gh vko`fÙk ¼ÝhDoSalh½ ij] rqY;dkfyd ¼flaØksul½ xfr vkSj v‚ijsfVax xfr ds chp varj ds :i
esa ifjHkkf"kr fd;k tkrk gS vkSj mls vkjih,e ¼RPM½ esa ;k çfr'kr ;k rqY;dkfyd ¼flaØksul½ xfr ds
vuqikr esa O;ä fd;k tkrk gSA bl çdkj
Variable losses.

Synchronous speed:

An AC motor's synchronous speed, , is the rotation rate of the stator's magnetic field, which is
expressed in revolutions per minute as

(RPM),

where is the motor supply's frequency in hertz and is the number of magnetic poles. That is, for a
six-pole three-phase motor with three pole-pairs set 120° apart, equals 6 and equals 1,000 RPM
and 1,200 RPM respectively for 50 Hz and 60 Hz supply systems.

Slip:
It is defined as the difference between synchronous speed and operating speed, at the same
frequency, expressed in rpm or in percent or ratio of synchronous speed. Thus
MîwVh lkbZfdy: fctyh dh eksVjksa çpkyu fLFkfr;ksa dk o.kZu djus ds fy,] vkbZbZlh ¼varjkZ"Vªh;
fo|qr rduhdh vk;ksx½ vkB MîwVh lkbZfdy MsftXus'kuksa dk mi;ksx djrk gSA

rkieku larqyu rd igqapus ds fy, i;kZIr le; ds fy, ,d fujarj yksM ij eksVj
S1 lrr MîwVh
dke djrh gSA

eksVj ,d fujarj yksM ij dke djrh gS] rkieku larqyu rd igqapus ds fy,
S2 y?kq&le; MîwVh dkQh ughaA foJke dh vof/k] eksVj ifjos'k ds rkieku rd igqapus ds
fy, i;kZIr yach gksrh gSA

varjkf;d
fLFkj yksM ds lkFk vuqØfed] leku ju vkSj jsLV lkbZfdyA rkieku
¼baVjfeVaV½
S3 larqyu dks dHkh Hkh gkfly ugha fd;k tkrk gSA rkieku o`f) ij 'kq#vkrh
vkof/kd ¼fifjv‚fMd½
/kkjk dk vf/kd çHkko ugha iM+rkA
MîwVh

'kq#vkrh varjkf;d 'kq#vkrh vuqØfed] leku 'kq:vkr] fLFkj yksM ds lkFk ju vkSj jsLV
S4 ¼baVjfeVaV½ lkbZfdyA rkieku larqyu gkfly ugha fd;k tkrk] ysfdu 'kq#vkrh /kkjk ls
MîwVh rkieku o`f) çHkkfor gksrh gSA

bysfDVªd czsfdax ds
lkFk varjkf;d vuqØfed] 'kq#vkr ds leku lkbZfdy] fujarj yksM ij pyrk gS vkSj dksbZ
S5
¼baVjfeVaV½ Hkh yksM ds lkFk ugha pyrk gSA dksbZ foJke vof/k ughaA
MîwVh

varjkf;d
vuqØfed] lapkyu ds leku lkbZfdy] fujarj yksM ij pyrk gS vkSj dksbZ
S6 ¼baVjfeVaV½ yksM
Hkh yksM ds lkFk ugha pyrk gSA dksbZ foJke vof/k ughaA
ds lkFk lrr lapkyu

fctyh czsd ds lkFk lrr 'kq#vkr ds vuqØfed leku pØ] fujarj yksM vkSj fctyh czsfdax ij pyrk
S7
lapkyu gSA dksbZ foJke vof/k ughaA

yksM vkSj xfr esa

varjkf;d fujarj yksM vkSj fn, x, xfr ds vuqØfed] leku MîwVh lkbZfdy pyrs
S8 ¼baVjfeVaV½ gSa] ckn esa vU; fLFkj Hkkj vkSj xfr ij pyrs gSaA dksbZ foJke
ifjorZu ds lkFk lrr vof/k ughaA
lapkyu
okbZafMax bUlqys'ku oxZ%fctyh ds midj.kksa ds de thou dk ,d egRoiw.kZ dkjd xehZ gSA
eksVj esa mi;ksx fd;k tkus okyk bUlqys'ku dk çdkj] eksVj ftl rkieku dk lkeuk djsxh ml ij fuHkZj
djrk gSA eksVj ds vkarfjd v‚ijsfVax rkieku esa o`f) ds lkFk vkSlr bUlqys'ku thou] rsth ls de gksrk
tkrk gSA

rkieku lfg".kqrk oxZ vf/kdre v‚ijs'ku

vuqes; ¼vykmM½ rkieku ¼oC½
A 105
B 130
F 155
H 180

Duty cycle: IEC (the International Electro technical Commission) uses eight duty cycle designations to
describe electrical motors operating conditions

The motor works at a constant load for enough time to reach

S1 Continuous duty
temperature equilibrium.

The motor works at a constant load, but not long enough to reach
S2 Short-time duty temperature equilibrium. The rest periods are long enough for the
motor to reach ambient temperature.

Sequential, identical run and rest cycles with constant load.

Intermittent periodic
S3 Temperature equilibrium is never reached. Starting current has little
duty
effect on temperature rise.

Sequential, identical start, run and rest cycles with constant load.
Intermittent periodic
S4 Temperature equilibrium is not reached, but starting current affects
duty with starting
temperature rise.

Intermittent periodic
Sequential, identical cycles of starting, running at constant load and
S5 duty with electric
running with no load. No rest periods.
braking

Continuous operation Sequential, identical cycles of running with constant load and running
S6
with intermittent load with no load. No rest periods.

Continuous operation Sequential identical cycles of starting, running at constant load and
S7
with electric braking electric braking. No rest periods.
 Continuous operation
Sequential, identical duty cycles run at constant load and given speed,
S8 with periodic changes
then run at other constant loads and speeds. No rest periods.
in load and speed

Winding insulation class:A critical factor in the reduced life of electrical equipment is heat. The type
of insulation used in a motor depends on the operating temperature that the motor will experience.
Average insulation life decreases rapidly with increases in motor internal operating temperatures.

Temperature Tolerance Class Maximum Operation

Temperature Allowed (oC)
A 105
B 130
F 155
H 180
Translation of above figure:

dksM o.kZu fp=.k

vkbZlh 01 &[kqyh e'khu

&QSu 'kk¶V ij fcBk;k gqvk

&ges'kk ^fMªi&çwQ* eksVj dgk tkrk gS

vkbZlh 40

¼U;w: vkbZlh 410½ &vUnj can dh xbZ eksVj

&lrg dks uSlfxZd dUosD'ku vkSj jsfM,'ku BaMk fd;k tkrk gS

&ckgjh QSu ugha

vkbZlh 41

¼U;w: vkbZlh 411½ & vUnj can dh xbZ eksVj

& fpduh vkSj ijnkj dsflax

& ges'kk VhbZ,Qlh ¼TEFC½ eksVj dgk tkrk gS

vk;lh 43

¼U;w: vkbZlh 416A½ & vUnj can dh xbZ eksVj

& fpduh vkSj ijnkj dsflax

& e'khu ds lkFk ckgjh eksVkjkbZTM ,fDl,y QSu

vkbZlh 43 R

¼U;w: vkbZlh 416 R½ & vUnj can dh xbZ eksVj

& fpduh vkSj ijnkj dsflax

& e'khu ds lkFk ckgjh eksVkjkbZTM QSu

vkbZlh 61

¼U;w: vkbZlh 610½ & vUnj can dh xbZ eksVj

& ghV ,Dlpsat fcBk;k gqvk

& nks vyx ,vj lfdZV

& 'kk¶V ij fcBk, gq, QSu

& ges'kk lh,lh, ¼CacA½ eksVj dgk tkrk gS

Cooling type:
,lh ¼AC½ eksVlZ ds çdkj:
 1. rqY;dkfyd ¼flaØksul½ eksVlZ
2. vrqY;dkfyd ¼vflaØksul½ eksVlZ
a) fLyi fjax baMD'ku eksVj
b) fLDojy dst baMD'ku eksVj

fLyi fjax baMD'ku eksVj:

fLyi fjax baMD'ku eksVj dk vke rkSj ij ,d "Qst&oqaM" jksVj gksrk gSA bl çdkj ds jksVj dh 3&Qst]
Mcy&ys;j] forfjr okbZafMax gksrh gS tks v‚YVjusVlZ esa mi;ksx esa tkus okyh d‚bZy ls cuh gksrh
gSA xBu dh lqfo/kk ds fy, jksVj dksj LVhy ySfeus'ku ls cuk gksrk gS] tks ftlesa Q‚eZ~M 3&flaxy
Qst ds fy, Ly‚V~l gksrs gSa

fLyi fjax baMD'ku eksVlZ ds ykHk:

 ,d fLyi fjax baMD'ku eksVlZ dk eq[; ykHk ;g gS fd bldh xfr dks vklkuh ls fu;af=r fd;k tk ldrk
gSA
 "iqy&vkmV V‚dZ" dks 'kwU; vkjih,e ¼RPM½ ls Hkh çkIr fd;k tk ldrk gSA
 fLDojy dst baMD'ku eksVj dh rqyuk esa bldk ,d mPp çkjafHkd V‚dZ gksrk gSA blds iw.kZ
yksM V‚dZ yxHkx 200 & 250%A
 ,d fLDojy dst baMD'ku eksVj] iw.kZ yksM /kkjk dk 600% 700% ysrh gS] ysfdu ,d fLyi fjax
baMD'ku eksVj] iw.kZ yksM /kkjk dk] cgqr de 'kq#vkrh /kkjk yxHkx 250% ls 350% ysrh
gSA

fLDojy dst baMD'ku eksVj:

eksVj jksVj dk vkdkj ,d ,d 'kk¶V ij p<+k, x, flysaMj dh rjg gksrk gSA vkarfjd :i ls bl esa vuqnS/kZ~;
¼yk¡xhVîwMuy½ çokgdh; ¼daMDVho½ lyk[ksa ¼vkerkSj ij ,Y;wehfu;e ;k rkacs dk cuk½ 'kkfey
gksrh gSa] tks [kkaps esa lsV dh xbZ gksrh gS vkSj nksuksa fljksa ij] ,d fiatjs tSlh vk—fr dk
fuekZ.k djus okys 'k‚fVaZx fjaXl ls tqM+h gksrh gSaA bl fjaXt&,¡M&ckj okbZafMax vkSj fxygjh
fiatjs ¼LDohjy dst½ ds chp lekurk ls ;g uke O;qRiUu gqvk gSA

Types of AC Motors:

3. Synchronous motors
4. A synchronous motors
c) Slip ring induction motor
d) Squirrel cage induction motor

Slip ring induction motor:

Slip ring motors usually have a “phase-wound” rotor. This type of rotor has a 3-phase, double-layer,
distributed winding consisting of coils used in alternators. The rotor core is made up of steel
laminations which have slots to accommodate formed 3-single phase windings

Advantages of slip ring induction motors:

 The main advantage of a slip ring induction motor is that its speed can be controlled easily.
 "Pull-out torque" can be achieved even from zero RPM.
 It has a high starting torque when compared to squirrel cage induction motor. Approximately
200 - 250% of its full-load torque.
 A squirrel cage induction motor takes 600% to 700% of the full load current, but a slip ring
induction motor takes a very low starting current approximately 250% to 350% of the full load
current.

Squirrel case induction motor:

The motor rotor shape is a cylinder mounted on a shaft. Internally it contains longitudinal conductive
bars (usually made of aluminum or copper) set into grooves and connected at both ends by shorting
rings forming a cage-like shape. The name is derived from the similarity between this rings-and-bars
winding and a squirrel cage.

fLDojy dst baMD'ku eksVj ykHk:

 fLDojy dst baMD'ku eksVlZ ljy vkSj fuekZ.k esa etcwr gksrh gSaA baMD'ku eksVlZ ds
ykHk ;g gS fd os etcwr gksrh gSa vkSj fdlh Hkh i;kZoj.k gkyr esa dke dj ldrh gSa
 fLDojy dst baMD'ku eksVlZ cz'ksl] dE;wVlZ] vkSj fLyi fjax ds vHkko ds dkj.k] ykxr esa
lLrh gksrh gSa
 os cz'k] dE;wVlZ vkSj fLyi fjax ds vHkko ds dkj.k Mhlh ¼DC½ eksVlZ ds foijhr] j[kj[kko
eqä eksVlZ gSaA
 fLDojy dst baMD'ku eksVlZ dks çnwf"kr vkSj foLQksVd okrkoj.k esa lapkfyr fd;k tk ldrk
gS D;ksafd muds cz'k ugha gksrs gSa] tks fpaxkjh iSnk dj ldrs gSaA

,pVh ,yVh ¼HT LT½ eksVlZ%

Ø-la- fdyks oSV dsoh ¼kV½ esa e‚Mîwy 'kq#vkrh

oksYVst
1 <30kW 0.43 ,l,Q;w ¼SFU½ Mhvks,y ¼DOL½
2 30-110kW 0.43 ,l,Q;w ¼SFU½ Mhvks,y ¼DOL½
3 110-160kW 3.3 czsdj Mhvks,y ¼DOL½
4 160-1000kW 3.3 ohlhch ¼VCB½ Mhvks,y ¼DOL½
5 1000 dsMCY;w ¼kW½ ls 11 ohlhch ¼VCB½ Mhvks,y ¼DOL½
Åij

,pVh ¼HT½ eksVj ds fy, vuq'kaflr ¼jsdeaMsM½ laj{k.k lsfVaXl:

11 dsoh ¼kV½ eksVlZ 3-3 dsoh ¼kV½

Ø-la- laj{k.k ds çdkj laj{k.k dksM ds fy, lsfVaXl eksVlZ ds fy, lsfVaXl

fVªi foyac fVªi foyac

1.01 x ,Q- vk;Mh,eVh 1.01 x ,Q- vk;Mh,eVh

1 FkeZy vksoj yksM 49 ,y- ,- ¼ ¼IDMT½ ,y- ,- ¼IDMT½
F.L.A.½ ¼F.L.A½

10 x ,Q- 0.0 lsdaM 8-0 x ,Q- 0.0 lsdaM

50ih1ih
2 Qst vksoj djaV ,y- ,- ¼F- ,y- ,- ¼F-
¼50P1P½
L-A-½ L-A-½

vFkZ Q‚YV 0.0 lsdaM 7.5A 0.0 lsdaM

3 51N 10A
¼lhchlhVh½

varj /kkjk ¼fMQjsaf'k;y 0.0Sec. miyC/k miyC/k

4 87 10%
djaV½ ugha ugha
 5 vaMj oksYVst 27 70% 2.0 lsdaM 80% 2.0 lsdaM

5.0 lsdaM 2.5 x ,Q- 5.0 lsdaM

,ytsVhih;w
6 vVdk gqvk jksVj 2.5xF.L.A ,y- ,-
¼LJTPU½
¼F.L.A½

/kkjk vlarqyu ¼djaV 46 ;wVhch 5.0 lsdaM 10% 5.0 lsdaM

7 10%
vucSyal½ ¼UBT½

vf/kdre - 3 -
8 vf/kdre 'kq#vkr/?kaVk 3
'kq#vkr

Vhch,lMh,yok; 40 fefuV - 30 fefuV

9 'kq:vkr ds chp le; -
¼TBSDLY½

Squirrel-cage Induction Motor Advantages:

 Squirrel-cage Induction motors are simple and rugged in construction. Advantage of

induction motors are that they are robust and can operate in any environmental condition
 Squirrel-cage Induction motors are cheaper in cost due to the absence of brushes,
commutators , and slip rings
 They are maintenance free motors unlike dc motors due to the absence of brushes,
commutators and slip rings.
 Squirrel-cage Induction motors can be operated in polluted and explosive environments as
they do not have brushes which can cause spark

HT LT Motors:

Sl.no Kilo watt Voltage in kV Module Starting

1 <30kW 0.43 SFU DOL
2 30-110kW 0.43 SFU DOL
3 110-160kW 3.3 Breaker DOL
4 160-1000kW 3.3 VCB DOL
5 Above 1000kW 11 VCB DOL

Recommended Protection settings for HT Motor:

Settings for 11kV Motors Settings for 3.3 kV

Protection Motors
Sl.no Type of protection
code
Trip Delay Trip Delay

1 Thermal over load 49 1.01xF.L.A IDMT 1.01xF.L.A IDMT

2 Phase over current 50P1P 10x F.L.A 0.0Sec. 8.0x F.L.A 0.0Sec.
 3 Earth fault (CBCT) 51N 10A 0.0Sec. 7.5A 0.0Sec.

4 Differential current 87 10% 0.0Sec. NA NA

5 Under voltage 27 70% 2.0Sec. 80% 2.0Sec.

6 Jammed rotor LJTPU 2.5xF.L.A 5.0Sec. 2.5xF.L.A 5.0Sec.

7 Current unbalance 46 UBT 10% 5.0Sec. 10% 5.0Sec.

8 Max starts/hour Maxstart 3 - 3 -

9 Time between starts TBSDLY - 40 Min. - 30 Min.

,yVh eksVj ds fy, vuq'kaflr lqj{kk lsfVax%

eksVj
lqj{kk lqj{kk midj.k lsfVax le; dh nsjh
dsMCY;w

ckbZeSVsfyd 100% djaV jsV dk IDMT ¼vks,yvkj

30 fdyksokV ls vksojyksM vfèkHkkj fjys (1*In) xzkQ½
de 'k‚VZ lfdZV @ ,pvkjlh ¶;wt
vFkZ QkYV ikoj ¶;wt 2-5 xquk djaV jsV o.kZØe ds vuqlkj

100% djaV jsV dk IDMT ¼vks,yvkj

vksojyksM f}ferh; vfèkHkkj (1*In) xzkQ½
30 fdyksokV &
,pvkjlh ¶;wt
110 fdyksokV
'k‚VZ lfdZV ikoj ¶;wt 2-5 xquk djaV jsV o.kZØe ds vuqlkj

vFkZ QkYV CBCT vkèkkfjr E/F djaV jsV dk 10% 2 lsdaM

,yVh eksVj ¼110&160 fdyksokV½ ds fy, vuq'kaflr lqj{kk lsfVax

Øe 11 dsoh eksVlZ ds fy, lsfVax

lqj{kk dk çdkj lqj{kk dksM
la[;k fVªi foyac

1 FkeZy vfèkHkkj 49 100% IDMT

2 djaV Qst vksoj 50P1P 6.0-13 xFLA 0.0Sec.

 3 vFkZ QkYV ¼lhchlhVh½ 51N 20% 1 lsdaM

4 foHksnd djaV 87 10% 0.0lsdaM

5 oksYVst ds rgr 27 70% 5.0lsdaM

6 tke jksVj LJTPU 2.0xF.L.A 3.0-6.0lsdaM

7 djaV vlarqyu 46 UBT 40% 0.50lsdaM.

8 Hkkj dk uqdlku 15-25% 5 lsdaM

,pVh eksVlZ ds fy, csvfjax vkSj okbafMax rkieku lsfVaXl%

eksVj dks rkieku lsfVax ds lkFk lapkfyr fd;k tk ldrk gS] tSlk fd vkjVhvkbZ }kjk uhps fn, x,
VScysV ds vuqlkj n'kkZ;k x;k gSA

Recommended Protection settings for LT Motor:

Protection
Motor KW Protection Setting Time delay
equipment

Bimetalic over load 100% of rated current

LESS THEN 30 Over load relay (1*In) IDMT (OLR graph)
KW Short circuit /Earth 2.5 times of rated as per HRC fuse
fault Power fuse current characterstics

100% of rated current

Over load Bimetalic over load (1*In) IDMT (OLR graph)

30 KW- 110 KW 2.5 times of rated as per HRC fuse

Short circuit Power fuse current characterstics

Earth fault CBCT based E/F 10% of rated current 2 sec

Recommended Protection settings for LT Motor (110-160kw)

Sl.no Type of protection Protection code Settings for 11kV Motors

 Trip Delay

1 Thermal over load 49 100% IDMT

2 Phase over current 50P1P 6.0-13 xFLA 0.0Sec.

3 Earth fault (CBCT) 51N 20% 1 Sec.

4 Differential current 87 10% 0.0Sec.

5 Under voltage 27 70% 5.0Sec.

6 Jammed rotor LJTPU 2.0xF.L.A 3.0-6.0Sec.

7 Current unbalance 46 UBT 40% 0.5Sec.

8 Loss of load 15-25% 5 Sec

Bearing and winding temperature settings for HT motors:

Motor may be operated with temperature settings, as indicated by RTD as tabulated below.

eksVj dks rkieku lsfVax ds lkFk lapkfyr fd;k tk ldrk gS] tSlk fd vkjVhvkbZ }kjk uhps fn, x,
VScysV ds vuqlkj n'kkZ;k x;k gSA

Øe lanHkZ rkieku ,aVhfÝD'ku Lyho LVsVj

la[;k csvfjax csvfjax okbafMax

1 vfèkdre v‚ijsfVax rkieku 90°C 80°C 125°C

2 vykeZ 95°C 85°C 130°C

3 fVªi 100°C 90°C 135°C

,pVh eksVj daiu lsfVaXl%

vfèkdre daiu dh lhek,a ¼vkbZbZlh &60034½

'kk¶V ÅapkbZ 'kk¶V ÅapkbZ H >280

e‚mafVax foLFkkiu, µm osx, mm/sec ,Dlsysjs'ku , m/s2

eq¶r fuyacu 45 2.8 4.4

 dBksj fuyacu 37 2.3 3.6

j[kj[kko çfØ;k%

,pVh eksVj ij pkj ¼4½ çdkj dk j[kj[kko fd;k tkrk gS] vFkkZr%

1½ lqj{kkRed j[k&j[kko

2½ j[kj[kko dks rksM+ fn;k

3½ INSITUokf"kZd j[kj[kko

4½ eksVj ds vksojgkfyax

5½ Lis;j eksVj dk laj{k.k

,pVh eksVj j[kj[kko vuqlwph

Sl.no Reference temperature Antifriction Sleeve Stator Winding

bearing bearing

1 Max operating temperature 90°C 80°C 125°C

2 Alarm 95°C 85°C 130°C

3 Trip 100°C 90°C 135°C

HT Motor Vibration settings:

Limits of maximum vibration (IEC -60034)

Shaft height shaft height H >280

Mounting displacement, µm velocity, mm/sec Acceleration , m/s2

Free suspension 45 2.8 4.4

 Rigid suspension 37 2.3 3.6

Maintenance Procedure:

Four (4) type of maintenance is done on HT motor, viz.

1) Preventive maintenance

2) Break down maintenance

3) INSITU Annual Maintenance

4) Overhauling of motor

5) Preservation of Spare motor

HT Motor Maintenance schedule

• fganqLrku eksVlZ dh vksojgkfyax ifjoh{kk fuxjkuh fjiksVZ ds vuqlkj dh tkuh pkfg,A

• feyksa ;k lh,pih tSls èkwy okys {ks= esa eksVlZ dh vksojgkfyax vkerkSj ij 2 o"kZ
esa ,d ckj ;k ijhoh{kk fuxjkuh fjiksVZ ds vuqlkj vk;ksftr dh tkrh gSA

• vU; {ks=ksa esa vksojgkfyax vkerkSj ij 3 lky esa ,d ckj ;k ijhoh{kk fuxjkuh fjiksVZ
ds vuqlkj dh tk,xhA

Øe xfrfofèk dk fooj.k ,pVh eksVj ,yVh eksVj

la[;k

rkieku canwd }kjk lHkh ,pVh eksVlZ ds ekfld ekfld

1. rkieku dh fuxjkuh

2. lqj{kkRed j[k&j[kko vèkZokf"kZd ekfld

INSITU okf"kZd j[kj[kko okf"kZd okf"kZd

3.
eksVj c‚Mh] dwfyax ia[ks vkSj VfeZuy c‚Dl okf"kZd okf"kZd
4. dk fujh{k.k o lQkbZ

fctyh dscyksa vkSj vfFkZax dusD'ku ds okf"kZd ekfld

5. VkbVusl dh tkap

6. ch;fjax dk yqczhds'ku] ;fn vko';d gks okf"kZd vèkZokf"kZd

7. VfeZuy c‚Dl lhfyax okf"kZd okf"kZd

Lisl ghVj dh tkap okf"kZd okf"kZd

8.

eksVj dks iwjk [kksyuk] LVsVj o jksVj dk dSfiVy vks @ ,p dSfiVy vks @ ,p
9. fujh{k.k vkSj lQkbZ

lq[kkus ds ckn LVsVj dh okbafMax vkSj dSfiVy vks @ ,p dSfiVy vks @ ,p

10. okfuZf'kax

11. lQkbZ ds ckn ch;fjax dh tkap djuk dSfiVy vks @ ,p dSfiVy vks @ ,p

12. ch;fjax gkmflax dk fujh{k.k dSfiVy vks @ ,p dSfiVy vks @ ,p

13. rkieku laosnu rRoksa dk fujh{k.k dSfiVy vks @ ,p dSfiVy vks @ ,p

14. ok;q @ ikuh dwyj dk fujh{k.k vkSj lQkbZ dSfiVy vks @ ,p dSfiVy vks @ ,p
  Overhauling of HT motors to be carried out as per condition monitoring report.
 For motors situated in dust prone area like mills or CHP overhauling shall generally be carried
out once in 2 Years or as per condition monitoring report.
 For other areas overhauling shall generally be carried out once in 3 Years or as per condition
monitoring report.

Sl.no Description of Activity HT Motor LT Motor

Temperature monitoring of all the HT motors Monthly Monthly

1. by temperature gun.

Preventive Maintenance 6 Monthly Monthly

2.
INSITU Annual Maintenance Yearly Yearly
3.
Inspection & cleaning of motor body, cooling Yearly Yearly
4. fan & terminal box.

Tightness checking of power cables &earthing - Yearly Monthly

5. connections.

Lubrication of bearings, if required. Yearly 6 Monthly

6.
Terminal box sealing. Yearly Yearly
7.
Space heater checking yearly yearly
8.
Complete dismantling of motor, Inspection & Capital O/H Capital O/H
9. Cleaning of Stator and rotor.

Stator winding varnishing after dry out. Capital O/H Capital O/H
10.
Bearing checking after cleaning. Capital O/H Capital O/H
11.
Inspection of bearing housing. Capital O/H Capital O/H
12.
Inspection of Temperature sensing elements. Capital O/H Capital O/H
13.
Inspection & cleaning of Air/water cooler. Capital O/H Capital O/H
14.
lqj{kkRed j[kj[kko çfØ;k%

Ø-la- xfrfofèk
1- ihVhMCY;w çkIr djsa vkSj vkiwfrZ dk iw.kZ vyxko lqfuf'pr djsa
2- eksVj c‚Mh] dwylZ dks Cyksvj] rkj cz'k] diM+s vkSj twV vadu ds lkFk dwyj
dks lkQ djsa
3- dscy VfeZuy [kksysa vkSj dscy ds dlko dh tkap djsaA fdlh Hkh ghfVax
ekDlZ dh tkap djsa
4- lgk;rk bUlqysVj vkfn dh fLFkfr dh tkap djsa
5- vxj t:jh gks rks 'ksM;wy ds vuqlkj eksVj ch;fjax dks xzht djsaA
6- vkbZvkj tkap vkSj eksVj ds ?kqekonkj çfrjksèk vxj vkbZvkj eku de ik;k tkrk
gS] rks ewY;ksa esa lqèkkj djsa
7- Lisl ghVj LoLFkrk vkSj eki çfrjksèk dks tkapsa
8- VfeZuy vkSj rVLFk VfeZuy c‚Dl dks can djsa vkSj lhfyax lqfuf'pr djsaA
9- eksVj ds vfFkZax dks tkap ysa fd ;s Bhd vkSj VkbV gS
10- lHkh lhVh rkj VkbV gS dks tkapsa
11- yksdy iq'k cVu LVs'ku dks lkQ djsa vkSj lgh v‚ijs'ku ds fy, tkap djsaA
12- eksVj ls tqM+s lhek fLop vkSj fu;a=.k dscy] çfrjksèk cDls vkfn dh tkap
djsaA

IN-SITU okf"kZd j[kj[kko

Ø-la- xfrfofèk

fuEufyf[kr psd fd, tk,axs%

1- e'khu Bhd ls larks"ktud py jgh gS
2- Vksyjsalsl ds Hkhrj jksVj ,ykbuesaV] igys i<+us ds lkFk bldh rqyuk djsaA
3- uhao esa dksbZ njkj rks ughaA
4- ;kaf=d vkSj fo|qr tksM+ksa ds lHkh fQfDlax cksYV VkbV gSa A
5- difyax] difyax fuekZrk ds funZs'k dks ns[ksa
6- fQYVj vkSj dwyj dh lQkbZ xUnxh dh ek=k ds vuqlkj varjky fuèkkZfjr djsaA
7- eksVj c‚Mh vkSj VfeZuy cDls dh mfpr vfFkZax dks lqfuf'pr djukA
Preventive Maintenance Procedure:

Sl. No Activity
1. Obtain PTW and ensure complete isolation of supply
2. Clean the motor body, coolers with blower, wire brush, marking cloth and jute
3. Open Cable Terminal box and check cable tightness. Check for any heating marks.
4. Check the condition of support insulators etc
5. Grease the motor bearings if required as per schedule
6. Check IR and Winding resistance of motor. If IR value is found low, improve the values
7. Check Space heater healthiness and measure resistance
8. Close the terminal & neutral terminal box cover and ensure the sealing.
9. Check that Earthing of motor is proper and tight.
10. Check all the CT wires are tight
11. Clean local push button station and check for correct operation.
12. Check the associated limit switches and control cables, resistance boxes etc associated
with the motor.

IN-SITU Annual Maintenance

Sl. No Activity

The following checks should be carried out :

1. Running smoothness of machine satisfactory.
2. Rotor alignment within tolerances, also compare with initial reading.
3. No cracks in the foundation.
4. All fixing bolts of mechanical and electrical joints tight.
5. Coupling, refer instructions of coupling manufacturer.
6. Cleanliness of filters and coolers. Set intervals according to degree of contamination.
7. Proper earthing of motor body and terminal boxes to be ensured.
j[kj[kko dh çfØ;k dks rksMuk%
;fn eksVj rd ikoj tkus ds ckn Hkh ,pVh eksVj LVkVZ gksus esa foQy gks tkrk gS rks bl
n'kk esa%

Ø-la- xfrfofèk
1- pkfyr midj.k ls Mh&tksM+h eksVj
2- vksiu fctyh vkSj fu;a=.k dscy
3- ;fn leL;k csvfjax @csvfjax g‚mftax @dwyj QSu bR;kfn esa lansg gksrk gS
rks eksVj dks j[kj[kko {ks= esa u"V fd;k tkrk gSA
4- fc;fjaXl @ csvfjax g‚mftax @ QSu @ jksVj cklZ @LVsVj okbafMax dh tkap
djsaA
5- ;fn nks"kiw.kZ ik,a rks ch;fjax dks cnysa
6- vkbZvkj ewY; vkSj ?kqekonkj çfrjksèk ds fy, eksVj dk ijh{k.k djsa
7- uqdlku dk vkdyu djsa] ;fn eksVj okbafMax {kfrxzLr @ tyk gqvk gS vkSj
jhokbafMax ;k vksojgky dh vko';drk gS
8- ;fn vksojgky dh vko';drk gS] rks fQj pj.k 4-5 esa fn, x, fooj.kksa dk ikyu djsa
9- ;fn eksVj {kfrxzLr gks] rks muds dk;ksZa dks ejEer djus ds fy, OEM/ OEM
vfèk—r ,tsalh ij ys tk,¡A dsl Vw dsl csfll ij dk;Z dk o.kZu gksuk pkfg,A

,pVh eksVj vksoj gkmfyax %

Ø-la- xfrfofèk

eksVj dks [kRe djus ls igys] i;kZIr {kerk] i;kZIr LFkku vkSj midj.k&Vdjkyksa dh
Øsu lqfoèkk dh miyCèkrk lqfuf'pr djsaA
• lHkh mBkus okys midj.k vkSj vuqyXudksa dks vPNh fLFkfr esa] ijh{k.k fd;k
tkuk pkfg, vkSj Bhd ls p;fur gksuk pkfg,A
• Hkkj mBkus ls igys yksM djus dk otu lqfuf'pr djsa vkSj ml ij iM+h lHkh <hys
oLrqvksa dks gVk nsaA
• eksVj vkSj vU; fgLlksa dks mBkus dh lyk[kksa ds Åij mBkus ij] us= cksYVksa
ds gqd] bUgsa è;ku ls tkap djuh pkfg,A
• fcuk fdlh >Vds ds lHkh gsjQsj fd;k tkuk pkfg,A
• jfLl;ksa dks jksVj 'kk¶V dh tuZy lrg dks Nwus u nsaA
• jksVj vksojgk¡x vkSj QSu ij eksVj dk leFkZu u djsaA
• fdlh Hkh ekeys esa jksVj ds fdlh Hkh fgLls dks okbafMax vksojgk¡x dks
jksdus ;k jksèkd ls gVkus ds nkSjku LVsVj dk dksbZ Hkh fgLlk ugha gksxkA

1- eksVj vkSj lajs[k.k dh tkap ds fy, Mh difyaxA

2- fctyh vkSj baLVªqesaVs'ku dscy vyxko
3- LFkkuh; midj.kksa dk gVk;k tkuk
4- eksVlZ dh j[kj[kko cs esa ;fn vko';d gks rks LFkkukarj.k ¼vyx&vyx isMsLVy
vlj okys tuZy okys eksVlZ ds lkFk] eatwjh dh tkap ds ckn èoLr fd;k tk ldrk
gS½
5- ;qXeu gVkus ¼iqyj }kjk fd;k tkuk½
6- eksVj c‚Mh lfgr eksVj dh fMLeSaVfyax vkSj lQkbZ
7- ,afVfÝD'ku csvfjax gVkus ¼iqyj }kjk fd;k tkuk½
8- fo'ks"k :i ls fdlh Hkh nks"k ds fy, 'kk¶V dk 'kkjhfjd fujh{k.k( , ½ ,d ;qXeu
cSBus dh txg ch ½ csvfjax cSBus dk {ks=] lh½ jksVj dksj ls 'kk¶V ds ckgj
fudyus ds fcanq ij
9- fdlh Hkh {kfrxzLr eqækadu] vksojghfVax] jksVj ckj dh <hykiu vkSj jksVj ckj
esa njkj ds fy, jksVj dksj dk fujh{k.k
10- 'k‚fVZax fjax dk fujh{k.k vkSj jksVj ckj vkSj 'k‚fVZax vaxwBh ds chp ns[kus es
vkSj Mhih ijh{k.k ds ekè;e ls la;qä
11- fdlh Hkh {kfr] <hys] fotqvy :i ls xje djus ds fy, dksj eqækadu dk fujh{k.k
12- dhy dh VkbVusl dh tkap vkSj {kfrxzLr dhy ds çfrLFkkiu
13- {kfrxzLr bUlqys'ku] vksojghfVax ds fy, ?kqeko dh vfèkdrk dk fujh{k.kA Ly‚V
ckgj fudyus ij okbafMax dh tkap djus vkSj fdlh Hkh nks"k ds fy, usr`Ro ds
tksM+ dks tksM+uk fo'ks"k ns[kHkky dh vko';drk gSA
14- <hys daMDVj ds <Ddu dk fujh{k.k vkSj mlh ds lqèkkj ds fy,
15- fojksèk dks ekius ds }kjk vkjVhvkbZ ?kqeko dh tkap
16- nks"kiw.kZ QSu] nks"kiw.kZ osfYMax vkSj fjosV~l ds fy, dwfyax QSu dk
fujh{k.k
17- dwyj dh lQkbZ] fujh{k.k vkSj gkbMªksfyd ijh{k.k ¼ikuh BaMk eksVlZ ds fy,½
18- nks"kiw.kZ cfCcV ds fy, if=dk dk fujh{k.k] vlj cSBus dh lrg ij fu'kku
19- MhihVh] ;wVh dk tuZy csvfjax vkSj MhihVh dk ;qXeu
20- tuZy csvfjax vkSj ,aVhfÝD'ku csvfjax ds fy, gLr{ksi djus ds fy, eatwjh nsus dh
tkap djuk
21- dwyj xSldhV ds çfrLFkkiu] VfeZuy c‚Dl esa xSldhV vkfn 'kkfey gSaA
22- t+:jr iM+us ij vlj cnyus dh txg ¼,M+h djaV ghVj }kjk fd;k tkus okyk
,aVhfÝD'ku csvfjax ghfVax if=dk ds fy, 'kk¶V ds lkFk csvfjax vkSj blds lhus
ds lkFk csvfjax ds fy, feyku djuk½
23- eksVj dh tkap
24- rki vkSj okfuZf'kax
25- eksVj ds Åij c‚fDlax
26- isMLVy bUlqys'ku dk ekiu ¼tgka dHkh ykxw gksrk gS½
27- ;qXeu ds lfEeyu ¼,M+h djaV ghVj }kjk ;qXeu ds fy, rki½
28- uhao esa LFkkukarj.k
29- lajs[k.k ¼lajs[k.k ds ckn fd;k tkus okyk vyx vlj okys isMLVy ,;j varj lek;kstu ds
lkFk eksVj ds fy, blds vykok csl ds lkFk eSustesaV dh tkap gksuh pkfg,½
30- xkLdsV ds çfrLFkkiu ds ckn rsy vkSj ikuh dh ikbi ykbu dusD'ku
31- dscy xzafFk fQfDlax vkSj dusD'ku ¼dscy dusD'ku ls igys dscy bUlqys'ku]
Y;wXl vkSj xzafFk;ksa dh fLFkfr dh tk¡p djsaA½
32- baLVªwesaV fQfDlax] vkjVhMh dusD'ku] Lisl ghVj dusD'ku
33- baVjy‚d vkSj lqj{kk tkap vkSj fjd‚fMZax
34- 8 ?kaVksa ds fy, ijh{k.k pykus] fn'kk tkap] daiu eki] ?kqekonkj rkieku] vlj
rkieku vkSj vU; iSjkehVj fjd‚fMZax vkSj fuxjkuh çfr ?kaVk varjky ij
35- difyax
Break down Maintenance Procedure:

In case the HT motor fails start even after power is extended to the Motor

Sl. No Activity
1. De-couple motor from the driven Equipment.
2. Open power and control cables.
3. If problem is suspected in bearing /bearing housing/cooler fan etc. the motor is to be
dismantled in maintenance area.
4. Check bearings/ bearing housing/ fan / rotor bars/stator winding.
5. Replace bearings if found defective.
6. Test the motor for IR value and winding resistance
7. Assess the damage, In case the motor winding is damaged / burnt and requires
rewinding OR overhaul
8. If overhaul is required, then follow the steps detailed in 4.5
9. If motor is damaged, take up the OEM/ OEM authorized agency to get the repair done at
their works. Separate scope work to be detailed case to case basis.
HT Motor over hauling:

Sl. No Activity
Before dismantling the motor, ensure the availability of crane facility of adequate capacity,
sufficient space and tools-tackles.

 All lifting equipment and attachments should be in good condition, tested and properly
selected.
 Ascertain the weight of the load prior to lifting it and remove all loose items lying on it.
 When lifting the motor and other parts by the lifting bars, hooks of eye bolts, these
 should be carefully examined.
 All manipulation should be done carefully without jerks.
 Do not let the ropes touch the journal surface of the rotor shaft.
 Do not support the motor on rotor overhang and fans.
 In no case shall any part of rotor touch the winding overhang during insertion or
removal of rotor from stator.

1. Decoupling of motor and alignment checking.

2. Power and instrumentation cable disconnection
3. Removal of local instruments
4. Shifting of motors to maintenance bay if required. (For motors with journal bearing in
separate pedestal bearing may be dismantled after checking clearances.)
5. Removal of coupling (to be done by puller)
6. Dismantling and cleaning of motors including motor body
7. Removal of antifriction bearing ( to be done by puller)
8. Physical inspection of shaft for any defect specially in a) coupling seating area b)
bearing seating area, c) at the exit point of the shaft from rotor core
9. Inspection of rotor core for any damaged stamping, overheating, looseness of rotor bar
and for crack in rotor bar
10. Inspection of shorting ring and joint between rotor bar and shorting ring visually and by
DP test
11. Inspection of core stamping for any damage, looseness, overheating visually
12. Wedge tightness checking and replacement of damaged wedge
13. Inspection of overhang winding for damaged insulation, overheating. Special care is
required to check the winding at slot exit and brazing joint of lead for any defect.
14. Inspection of lacing of overhang conductor for looseness and rectification of the same
15. Checking of winding RTD by measuring resistance
16. Inspection of cooling fans for defective fins, defective welding and rivets.
17. Cleaning, inspection and hydraulic testing (for water cooled motors) of coolers
18. Inspection of journal bearing for defective babbit, marks on bearing seating surface
19. DPT, UT of journal bearing and DPT of coupling
20. Checking of bearing clearances for journal bearing and interference for antifriction
bearing
21. Replacement of cooler gaskets, terminal box covers gaskets etc.
22. Replacement of bearing if required. (for antifriction bearing heating to be done by eddy
current heater. For journal bearing matching of bearing with shaft and bearing with its
saddle to be done )
23. Testing of motor
24. Heating and varnishing
25. Boxing up of motor
26. Measurement of pedestal insulation (where ever applicable)
27. Insertion of coupling (heating of coupling to be done by eddy current heater)
28. Shifting to foundation
 29. Alignment (For motor with separate bearing pedestal air gap adjustment to be done
after alignment. Also pedestal matching with base to be checked )
30. Oil and water pipeline connection after replacement of gaskets
31. Cable gland fixing and connection. (Before cable connection pl. check condition of cable
insulation, lugs and glands)
32. Instrument fixing, RTD connection, space heater connection
33. Interlock and protection checking and recording
34. Decouple trial run for 8hrs., direction checking, vibration measurement, winding
temperature, bearing temperature and other parameters recording and monitoring at
hourly interval
35. Coupling

,pVh eksVj ds laj{k.k mik;

lHkh vfrfjä ,pVh eksVj dks lajf{kr fd;k tkuk pkfg,] rkfd ;g lqfuf'pr fd;k tk lds fd ;g
LokHkkfodrk gSA

Ø-la- xfrfofèk

1- e'khu e‚bLpj çwQ lhy i‚yhFkhu Qksfy;e esa iSd djsaA

2- doj vkSj eghus ds vkosnu dh vofèk ds vanj vo'kks"kd j[ksaA vo'kks"kd dh
tkap djsa vkSj ;fn vko';d gks rks uohuh—r djsaA
3- fojksèkh la{ksi.k ghfVax ij fLop v‚u djsa
4- ch;fjax ds ckgj lHkh mTToy lrgksa ds fy, fojksèkh tax ,tsaV dk ,d dksV
yxk,aA
5- rsy fpdukbZ okyh vkLrhu fc;fjaXl ds ekeys esa] ch;fjax ls rsy fudkysaA
6- fojksèkh tax ,tsaV ¼tSls VsDVkby 506½ ds lkFk 'kk¶V ds csvfjax okys
Hkkxksa vkSj if=dkvksa dks dksV djsa
7- Lis;j e'khu dks ,d txg ij j[kk tkuk pkfg, ftles daiu ugha gksuk pkfg,A
8- eksVj 'kk¶V dks gj 6 eghus esa 90 fMxzh rd ?kqek,a
QkYV funku pkVZ%

;g pkVZ bysfDVªdy vkSj eSdsfudy dkjdksa ds dkj.k lkekU; nks"kksa dks lwphc) djrk gSA
ch;fjax nks"kksa ds fy, ch;fjax ds iwjd funZs'kksa esa fuiVk;k tkrk gSA

eSdsfudy QkYV

Preservation measures of HT motor

All spare HT motor has to be preserved to ensure the healthiness of the same.

Sl. No Activity
1. Pack machine moisture proof in sealed polyethylene folium.
2. Place desiccant inside cover and month duration of application. Check desiccant and
renew if necessary.
3. Switch on anti-condensation heating
4. Apply a coat of anti-corrosion agent to all bright surfaces outside the bearings.
5. In case of oil lubricated sleeve bearings, drain oil from bearings.
6. Coat the bearing parts and journals of the shaft with anti-corrosion agent (e.g. Tectyl
506).
7. Spare machines must be kept in a place not exposed to vibration.
8. Rotate the motor shaft by 90deg every 6months.
Fault diagnosis chart:

The chart lists general faults due to electrical and mechanical factors. Bearing faults are dealt
with in the supplementary instructions for bearings.

Mechanical faults
 eSdsfudy QkYV laHkkfor dkj.k mik;

vR;fèkd rkieku
jxM+uk 'kksj

jsfM;y daiu

v{kh; daiu

ok;q vkiwfrZ esa ckèkk]

ok;q iFk] ifjorZu QSu dh tkap djsa
jksVs'ku dh xyr fn'kk

?kweus okys Hkkxksa

vudiy jksVj vkSj jhcSysal
esa jxM

jksVj vlarqfyr jhcSysal ;qfXer e'khu

;qfXer e'khu esa vlarqyu QSDVªh ds lkFk ppkZ djsa

Vªw 'kk¶V fo—r ls jksVj

fQj ls lajsf[kr e'khu] ds fy, tk¡p djsa
dks cgkj djsa

fel,ykbuesaV tc xeZ gks] ;qXeu dh tkap

fel,ykbuesaV
djsa

fx;fjax ls gLr{ksi fx;fjax dh tkap djsa

QSDVªh ijke'kZ ds ckn fLVQ+su

uhao ls xwat
QkmaMs'ku

e'khu dk dkj.k lqfuf'pr djsa vkSj e'khu dks

uhao esa cnyko
fQj ls lajsf[kr djsa

;qfXer e'khu ls vkosx ;qfXer e'khu dh tkap djsa

vksojyksM Hkkj de djsa

 Mechanical faults Possible cause Remedy

Excessive temperature

Radial oscillations

Axial oscillations
Rubbing noise

Air supply obstructed, wrong

Check air path, change fan
direction of rotation

Revolving parts rubbing Uncouple rotor and rebalance

Rotor unbalanced Rebalanced coupled machine

Unbalanced in coupled
Discuss with factory
machine

Rotor out of true, shaft

Re-align machine, check for
distorted

Misalignment Misalignment when hot, check coupling

Interference from gearing Check gearing

Resonance from foundation Stiffen foundation after consulting factory

Ascertain cause of machine and eliminate, re-

Change in foundation
align machine

Impulses from coupled

Examine coupled machine
machine

Overload Reduce load

 fo|qr QkYV

fo|qr QkYV laHkkfor dkj.k mik;

eksVj pkyw gksus esa

nkSjku vR;fèkd rkieku

eksVj vfuPNk ls Roj.k

Mcy fLyu vko`fÙk ds

y; esa gqafeax 'kksj

yksM ds rgr pyrs le;

vuqHkkx vksojghV
'kq#vkr ds nkSjku

fcuk fdlh yksM ds

v‚ijs'ku ds nkSjku

O;fäxr ?kqekonkj
vR;fèkd rkieku
vpkud 'kq:vkr

gqafeax 'kksj

gqafeax 'kksj
djrk gS

overheat
fcQy

vksojyksM Hkkj de djsa

,d vkiwfrZ pj.k [kqyk

psd
lfdZV

,d vkiwfrZ pj.k [kqyk fLopfx;j vkSj lIykbZ lfdZV

lfdZV dh tkap djsa

nwljs lfdZV esa lfdZV fLopfx;j vkiwfrZ lfdZV

dks [kksyaks vkSj LVkVZj dh tkap djsa

de flLVe oksYVst(
flLVe fLFkfr Bhd djsa
mPp vko`fÙk

de flLVe oksYVst( de
vko`fÙk

LVsVj okbafMax xyr

okbafMax dusD'ku dh
rjhds ls tqM+k gqvk
tkap djsa
gS

lekiu çfrjksèk vkSj

LVsVj okbafMax esa
bUlqys'ku çfrjksèk mik;
baVj&VuZ ;k Qst 'k‚VZ
ijke'kZ dkj[kkus ds ckn
lfdZV
ejEer

LVkVZj xyr tqM+k

dusD'ku tkapsa
gqvk gS

lqj{kk fopkj %

tc eksVj dk lapkyu djrs gSa] rks fuEu cqfu;knh lqj{kk lkoèkkuh cjrh tkuh pkfg,A
 1- eksVj pykus ij dksbZ dke ugha fd;k tk,xk
2- eksVj ;k pkfyr ;wfuV ij fdlh Hkh dke dks pykus ds fy,] eksVj dks nq?kZVuk
ls tqM+k gksuk pkfg, vkSj pkyd dh vksj ls eksVj ;k jksVj ij ?kweus ds
vkdfLed fLofpax dh fdlh Hkh laHkkouk ls cpus ds fy, eksVj dks iw.kZ lqj{kk
çnku fd;k tkuk pkfg,A
3- eksVj ¶+jse] eq[; VfeZuy c‚Dl vkSj dscy ds 'khFk dop dks et+cwrh ls <aduk
pkfg,A

Electrical faults

Electrical faults Possible cause Remedy

Humming noise during start up

Excessive temperature during

Motor Accelerates reluctantly

Excessive temperature when

Humming noise in rhythm of

Individual winding section

Humming noise during

Double slin frequency

running under load

Motor fails to start

no load running
Abrupt start up

operation

overheat

Overload Reduce load

One supply phase open

Check
circuited

One supply phase open Check switchgear and supply

circuited after switching on circuit

Open circuit in secondary Check switchgear supply circuit

circuit and starter

Low system voltage; high

Correct system condition
frequency

Low system voltage; low

frequency

Stator winding incorrectly

Check winding connection
connected

Measure winding resistance and

Inter-turn or phase short
insulation resistance. Repair after
circuit in stator winding
consulting factory

Starter incorrectly connected Check connection

Safety Considerations:

When operating the motor, the following basic safety precautions must be observed.

1. No work shall be carried on running motor.

2. In order to carry out any work on motor or driven unit, the motor must be disconnected
from the mains and fool proof protection is provided to avoid any possibility of accidental
switching on of the motor or of rotor revolving from the driven end side.
3. Motor frame, main terminal box and sheath armor of the cable must be reliably earthed.
4- ?kweus okys Hkkxksa tSls eksVj 'kk¶V ;k ;qXeu ds var esa lfoZflax dfeZ;ksa ;k
yksxksa ds ikl ls xqtjus okys yksxksa dh j{kk ds fy, ,d Hkjkslsean xkMZ ds lkFk çnku fd;k
tkuk pkfg,A

5- vxj QhfMax rkjksa dks eksVj ls fMLdusDV fd;k tkuk gS] rks dscy 'kkVZ lfdZV ij
lekIr gksuk pkfg,A

6- mPp oksYVst 'kq: djus okys midj.kksa ij dke djrs le;] mPp oksYVst LFkkiuk ls
lacafèkr lHkh lqj{kk fu;eksa dks ns[kk tkuk pkfg,A
4. Rotating parts such as driving end of the motor shaft or coupling must be provided with a
trustworthy guard to protect the servicing personnel or people passing close by.
5. If the feeding cables are to be disconnected from the motor, the cables ends must be short
circuited.
6. When working on high voltage starting equipment, all safety rules pertaining to high voltage
installation should be observed.
 vuqyXud & 1

,pVh eksVlZ ds fy, VsLV Q‚eZsV

pkfyr midj.k %

cukuk %

jsVsM ikoj fdyksokV %

djaV ewY;kadu %

xfr¼vkjih,e½ %

eksVj Øa- la- %

1.0 baLVªwesaV fooj.k

baLVªwesaV lhek cukuk Øa- la- dSfyczs'ku fu;r rkjh[k

fMftVy eYVhehVj

bUlqys'ku ijh{kd

okbafMax çfrjksèk eki fdV

eksVj ijh{kd

2.0 ijh{k.kksa dk çdkj

Ø-la- fooj.k ewY; fVIi.kh

1. –'; fujh{k.k

2. esxj ewY; (0-5000 V esxj)

3. 1 dsoh esxj }kjk ihvkbZ ewY;

4. okbafMax çfrjksèk

5. vkjVhMh çfrjksèk tkap ¼,lMhMh ewY; ds lkFk rqyuk

djsa½
Annexure-1

Test Format for HT Motors

Driven Equipment :

Make :

Rated Power KW :

Rated Current :

Speed, RPM :

Motor sl.no :

1.0 Instrument details:

Instrument Range Make Sl.no Calibration due date

Digital multi meter

Insulation tester

Winding resistance measurement kit

Motor checker

2.0 Type of tests

Sl.No. Description Value Remarks

6. Visual inspection

7. Megger value (0-5000 V Megger)

8. PI value by 1KV Megger

9. Winding resistance

10. RTD resistance checking (compare with std. value)

3.0 bUlqys'ku çfrjksèk ekiu%

11kV eksVlZ -5kV, for 3.3kV eksVlZ -2.5kv ds fy, ,IykbM oksYVst

15 lsdaM 60 lsdaM 600 lsdaM PI

vkj&pj.k & bZ

okbZ & pj.k&bZ

ch & pj.k & bZ

3.1 ihvkbZ ij vkèkkfjr bUlqys'ku gkyr dk ewY;kadu

ihvkbZij bUlqys'ku gkyr lq[kkuk

vkèkkfjr

<1 [krjukd vfuok;Z

1-1.5 [kjkc vfuok;Z

1.5-2 lafnXèk flQkfj'k

2-3 i;kZIr ugha

3-4 vPNk ugha

>4 vfr mÙke ugha

4.0 okbafMax çfrjksèk eki%

Rkieku%

ewY; ewY;
lanHkZ lanHkZ
fojksèk çsjdRo fojksèk çsjdRo

R-Y R-N
 Y-B Y-N

B-R B-N

3.0 Insulation Resistance measurements:

Applied voltage for 11kV Motors-5kV, for 3.3kV Motors -2.5kv

15 Sec 60 Sec 600 Sec PI

R-Phase-E

Y-Phase-E

B-Phase-E

3.1 Evaluation of insulation condition based on PI

Based on PI Insulation condition Drying

<1 Hazardous Mandatory

1-1.5 Bad Mandatory

1.5-2 Doubtful Recommended

2-3 Adequate No

3-4 Good No

>4 Excellent No

4.0 Winding resistance measurement:

Temperature:

Value Value
Reference Reference
Resistance Inductance Resistance Inductance

R-Y R-N
 Y-B Y-N

B-R B-N

5.0 eksVj uks &yksM Vªsy i<+uk ¼vksojgkfyax ds ckn½

MhMhlh,evkbZ,l ij
QhMj ij oksYVst vkSj djaV eki
le; djaV eki

oksYVst (V) RØ YØ BØ YØ

okbafMax VsEi csvfjax VsEi MhbZth.

daiu feeh @ lsdaM esa
le; MhbZth. C C

DDCMIS DDCMIS Local DE DE

RØ YØ BØ DE NDE DE NDE Hrz Ver. Axi. Hrz. Ver. Axi.

5.0 Motor No-load trail Reading (after overhauling)

Current Measurement at
Voltage and Current measurements at Feeder
Time DDCMIS

Voltage (V) RØ YØ BØ YØ

Winding temp.
Bearing temp. Deg. C Vibration in mm/sec
Time Deg. C

DDCMIS DDCMIS Local DE DE

RØ YØ BØ DE NDE DE NDE Hrz Ver. Axi. Hrz. Ver. Axi.

 vuqyXud&2

a. fuokjd j[kj[kko dh tkap lwph

,pVh eksVlZ vkSj czsdlZ ds fy, psd lwph çk:i la[;k% bZ,ybZ&001

midj.k dk uke%

ijfeV
rkjh[k% midj.k la[;k%
la[;k%

Ø-la- tk¡p&lwph fVIi.kh

eksVj%

pj.k ls tehu ij esxj ewY; ¼dscy

1
dks 'kkfey djuk½

2 dwfyax QSu daMh'ku

3 VfeZuy VkbVusl

4 2 vfFkZax dusD'ku
 Annexure-2

1.0 Preventive maintenance check list

CHECK LIST FOR HT MOTORS & BREAKERS Format Number: ELE-001

Equipment Name:

Permit Equipment
Date:
Number: Number:

Sl. No Check Lists Remarks

Motor:

Megger Value from phase to

1
ground ( Including cable)

2 Cooling Fan Condition

3 Terminal Tightness

4 2 Earthing connections
 5 VfeZuy c‚Dl fLFkfr

6 eksVj c‚Mh gkyr

eksVj xzhft+ax ¼vuqlwph ds

7
vuqlkj½

e‚Mîwy vkSj czsdj%

vkbZvkj oSY;w ¼pj.k ls pj.k

pj.k ls pj.k ls vFkZ
dks vFkZ ls pj.k½ pj.k ls
pj.k% %
8 pj.k%

9 VfeZuy VkbVusl

10 czsdj laidZ çfrjksèk

lekiu Dok;y vkSj vksifuax

11 Dok;y dk çfrjksèk

czsdj dk lekiu le; vkSj [kksyus

12 dk le;

13 fu;a=.k lfdZV VkbVusl

14 lhVh dusD'ku VkbVusl

15 fjys lsfVaXl

tk¡pdrkZ% leh{kk drkZ%

 5 Terminal box condition

6 Motor body condition

7 Motor Greasing (As per schedule)

Module & Breaker:

IR Value ( Phase to Phase & Phase Phase to Phase to

8 to earth) phase: Earth:

9 Terminal tightness

10 Breaker Contact Resistance

Closing coil and opening coil

11 resistance

Closing time and opening time of

12 the breaker

13 Control circuit tightness

14 CT connection tightness

15 Relay settings

Checked By: Reviewed By: