Structural Steel

• Steel is the most useful industrial metal

• Steel sections
• Steel reinforcing bars (plain and deformed)

(Mamlouk & Zaniewski 1999)

 Mechanical Properties

(Mamlouk & Zaniewski 1999)

• Elastic deformation
• Uniform plastic deformation
• Localized plastic deformation (necking)
Stress-Strain Diagram
ultimate
tensile
strength
 UTS 3 necking

Strain
yield Fracture
strength Hardening
y 5
2
Elastic region
Plastic slope =Young’s (elastic) modulus
Region yield strength
Plastic region
ultimate tensile strength
Elastic strain hardening
Region fracture
4
σ 1
E
ε E
σy
Strain (  ) (DL/Lo)
ε 2  ε1
Properties of selected structural steels
(Young et al. 1998)
 Structural Steel
• Steel is an alloy of iron (Fe) and carbon (C)
– Structural steels normally contain < 0.3 % C
– C content in steel affects microstructure and
mechanical properties

(Young et al. 1998)

ferrite Fe3C

pearlite pearlite
BCC

FCC

BCC

C < ~0.8% (Young et al.

1998)
 Features in the Steel Phase Diagram
• Iron goes through two allotropic transformations
during heating or cooling. On continued cooling from
a liquid melt, it forms
1. delta iron () - body-centered cubic (BCC) structure
2. austenite () - face-centered cubic (FCC) structure
3. ferrite () - BCC structure
• Allotropic – materials that can have more than one crystal
structures
• Delta iron (), austenite (), and ferrite () are solid
solutions with carbon
• Solid solution - a solid phase that contains a mixture of more than
one element, with the elements combining to give a uniform
composition everywhere.
 Features in the Steel Phase Diagram (cont’d)
• The maximum solubility of carbon
– in delta iron () = 0.10% (BCC)
– in austenite () = 2.0% (FCC)
– In ferrite () = 0.025% (BCC)

• A greater number of C atoms can be accommodated in

the austenite than in the other two phases, since the
interstitial holes in the FCC lattice are somewhat larger
than those in the BCC lattices.

• These solid solutions are relatively ductile, but

stronger than pure iron due to solid solution
strengthening by the carbon atoms.
 Features in the Steel Phase Diagram (cont’d)
• Cementite (Fe3C)
– intermetallic compound formed when the solubility of
carbon in solid solution is exceeded
– contains 6.7% C
– extremely hard and brittle
– present in all steels

• Intermetallic compound – formed by 2 or more metallic atoms,

bonding is typically a combination of metallic and ionic bonds

• Properties of steel are controlled by the amount,

size, and shape of the Fe3C phase.
 Microstructure
• A eutectoid reaction occurs as the austenite () cools
below 727 oC
   + Fe3C
Since the two phases that formed have different
compositions, atoms must diffuse during the reaction
– most of the C in the austenite () diffuse to the Fe3C
– most of the Fe diffuse to the ferrite ()

Since this redistribution of pearlite

atoms is the easiest if the
diffusion distances are short,
the  and Fe3C grow as thin
plates, forming a structure
called pearlite

(D. R. Askeland 1996)

 Microstructure
• When a hypoeutectoid steel cools under equilibrium
conditions from some temperatures above, e.g. 900 oC, the
following occurs

• The final structure of a hypoeutectoid steel

– contains two phases – ferrite and Fe3C
– arranged as two micro-constituents - primary ferrite and
pearlite (The pearlite exists as “islands” surrounded by
ferrite)
– ductile, due to the continuous primary ferrite,
– strong, due to the discontinuous, dispersed pearlite
 A3 A1
A1 (D. R. Askeland 1996)

• Just below A3 temperature, ferrite  precipitates and grows,

usually at the austenite  grain boundaries; primary  continues
to grow until the temperature falls to A1
• At A1 temperature, the  is surrounded by  and its
composition has changed to eutectoid composition (0.77% C)
• Subsequent cooling causes all of this  to transform to pearlite
by the eutectoid reaction
 Weldability of Steel
• In welding process, heat affected zone (HAZ)
– part of the parent metal of each piece being joined is
heated to high temperature, and solidified to form a joint
– the metal nearest the weld heats above 727 oC and
austenite  forms
(D. R. Askeland
1996)

– during cooling, the austenite  in the heat affected zone

transforms to a new structure, depending on the cooling
rate, composition, and properties of the metal

Plain low C steel

Alloy steel Martensite –

hard, brittle
 Weldability of Steel
• Weldability  as the carbon and alloy content of steel 

CE = %C+(1/6)(%Mn)+(1/5)(%Cr+%Mo+%V)+(1/15)(%Cu+%Ni)

Carbon Equivalent

– CE < ~0.25 for structural steels, weldable

– CE > 0.25, controlled cooling of the weld is necessary,
or use post-heating to temper any martensite formed