Hair coloring

A hairdresser colors a client's hair.

Hair coloring, or hair dying, is the practice

of changing the hair color. The main
reasons for this are cosmetic: to cover
gray or white hair, to change to a color
regarded as more fashionable or desirable,
or to restore the original hair color after it
has been discolored by hairdressing
processes or sun bleaching.

Hair coloring can be done professionally

by a hairdresser or independently at home.
Today, hair coloring is very popular, with
75% of women[1] and 18% of men living in
Copenhagen having reported using hair
dye according to a study by the University
of Copenhagen. At-home coloring in the
United States reached $1.9 billion in 2011
and is expected to rise to $2.2 billion by
2016.

History
Diodorus Siculus, a Greek historian,
described in detail how Celtic people dyed
their hair blonde: "Their aspect is
terrifying... They are very tall in stature,
with rippling muscles under clear white
skin. Their hair is blond, but not naturally
so: they bleach it, to this day, artificially,
washing it in lime and combing it back
from their foreheads. They look like wood-
demons, their hair thick and shaggy like a
horse's mane. Some of them are clean-
shaven, but others—especially those of
high rank—shave their cheeks but leave a
moustache that covers the whole
mouth...".[2][3] This practice continued in
some parts of Britain long after the Fall of
the Western Roman Empire, particularly in
Wales, where Llywelyn Ap Gruffudd was
described in an elegy by Gruffudd ab yr
Ynad Coch to have blonde hair: "...Not
since Camlann has there been such
weeping, Gone is our mainstay, his golden
hair, stained with a death blow...".[4]

Portrait of Lafayette in 1830, aged 73, with pitch-black

hair.
The dyeing of hair is an ancient art that
involves treatment of the hair with various
chemical compounds. In ancient times,
the dyes were obtained from plants.[5]
Some of the most well known are henna
(Lawsonia inermis), indigo, Cassia obovata,
senna, turmeric and amla. Others include
katam (buxus dioica), black walnut hulls,
red ochre and leeks.[6] In the 1661 book
Eighteen Books of the Secrets of Art &
Nature, various methods of coloring hair
black, gold, green, red, yellow, and white
are explained.[7] The development of
synthetic dyes for hair is traced to the
1860s discovery of the reactivity of para-
phenylenediamine (PPD) with air.[8] Eugène
Schueller, the founder of L'Oréal, is
recognized for creating the first synthetic
hair dye in 1907.[9] In 1947 the German
cosmetics firm Schwarzkopf launched the
first home color product, "Poly Color".[10]
Hair dyeing is now a multibillion-dollar
industry that involves the use of both
plant-derived and synthetic dyes.[11]

Application techniques
Off-scalp
Hair with blonde highlights

Hair color was traditionally applied to the

hair as one overall color. The modern trend
is to use several colors to produce streaks
or gradations, but not all work on top of a
single base color. These are referred to as:

Highlighting, where sections of hair are

treated with lighteners
Lowlighting, where sections of hair are
treated with darker hair colors
 Splashlighting a horizontal band of
bleached hair from ear to ear

There are also newer coloring techniques

such as ombré, in which hair is dark on the
crown and bit by bit becomes lighter
toward the ends.

These are off-the-scalp techniques, and

can be applied by the following methods:

Foiling, where pieces of foil or plastic

film are used to separate the hair to be
colored, especially when applying more
than one color (This insures the color is
applied only to the desired strands of
hair, and protects the strands of hair not
intended to be dyed.)
Cap, when a plastic cap is placed tightly
on the head and strands are pulled
through with a hook (This method is not
frequently practiced, with the exception
of highlighting short hair.)
Balayage, where hair color is painted
directly onto sections of the hair with no
foils used to keep the color contained
(This method is growing in popularity
because of its ability to look more
natural.)
Dipping or tip dyeing, similar to balayage
in that the color is painted directly on
 the hair (This results in a more solid
level of coverage on the ends of the
hair.)[12]

All coloring techniques can be used with

any type of color. For lightening, the hair
sometimes has to be bleached before
coloring.

On-scalp

Hair coloring can also be applied on the

scalp for a more solid level of coverage

Root touch-up, where color is applied

only to the most recent section of re-
growth (usually the first inch of hair
 nearest the scalp) Root touch-ups are
repeated every 4–6 weeks as the natural
color grows in and becomes apparent.
People who color their hair to disguise
gray often have these root touch-ups.
All-over color, where the person wants all
of their hair to be a different solid color
Block coloring, where the person wants
two or more colors applied to their hair,
resulting in dimension and contrast

All coloring techniques can be used with

any type of color. For lightening, the hair
sometimes has to be bleached before
coloring.
Types
The four most common classifications are
permanent, demi-permanent (sometimes
called deposit only), semi-permanent, and
temporary.[8]

Permanent

Permanent hair color generally contains

ammonia and must be mixed with a
developer or oxidizing agent in order to
permanently change hair color. Ammonia
is used in permanent hair color to open the
cuticle layer so that the developer and
colorants together can penetrate into the
cortex.[13] The developer, or oxidizing
agent, comes in various volumes. The
higher the developer volume, the higher
the "lift" will be of a person's natural hair
pigment. Someone with dark hair wishing
to achieve two or three shades lighter may
need a higher developer whereas someone
with lighter hair wishing to achieve darker
hair will not one as high. Timing may vary
with permanent hair coloring but is
typically 30 minutes or 45 minutes for
those wishing to achieve maximum color
change.

Demi-permanent
Demi-permanent hair color is hair color
that contains an alkaline agent other than
ammonia (e.g. ethanolamine, sodium
carbonate) and, while always employed
with a developer, the concentration of
hydrogen peroxide in that developer may
be lower than used with a permanent hair
color. Since the alkaline agents employed
in demi-permanent colors are less
effective in removing the natural pigment
of hair than ammonia these products
provide no lightening of hair's color during
dyeing. As the result, they cannot color
hair to a lighter shade than it was before
dyeing and are less damaging to hair than
their permanent counterpart.
Demi-permanents are much more effective
at covering gray hair than semi-
permanents, but less so than permanents.

Demi-permanents have several

advantages as compared with permanent
color. Because there is essentially no
lifting (i.e., removal) of natural hair color,
the final color is less
uniform/homogeneous than a permanent
and therefore more natural looking; they
are gentler on hair and therefore safer,
especially for damaged hair; and they
wash out over time (typically 20 to 28
shampoos), so root regrowth is less
noticeable and if a change of color is
desired, it is easier to achieve. Demi-
permanent hair colors are not permanent
but the darker shades in particular may
persist longer than indicated on the
packet.

Semi-permanent

Semi-permanent hair coloring involves

little or no developer, hydrogen peroxide or
ammonia, and is thus less damaging to
hair strands. The reduced amount of
developer, whether peroxide or ammonia,
means that hair previously damaged by
applying permanent color or permanent
reshaping is less likely to be damaged
during the color application process.

Semi-permanent hair color uses

compounds of lower molecular weight
than are found in temporary hair color
dyes. These dyes penetrate the hair shaft
only partially, because of the reduced
amount of developer used. For this reason,
the color will survive repeated washing,
typically 4–5 shampoos or a few weeks,
before undergoing significant fading or
washing out entirely.

Semi-permanents may still contain the

suspected carcinogen p-phenylenediamine
(PPD) or other related colorants. The U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency reported
that in rats and mice chronically exposed
to PPD in their diet, the PPT appears to
simply depress body weight of the
animals, with no other clinical signs of
toxicity observed in several studies.[14]

The final color of each strand of hair will

depend on its original color and porosity.
Because hair's color and porosity across
the head and along the length of a hair
strand, there will be subtle variations in
shade across the entire head. This gives a
more natural-looking result than the solid,
all over color of a permanent color.
Because gray or white hairs have a
different starting color than other hair, they
will not appear as the same shade as the
rest of the hair when treated with semi-
permanent color. If there are only a few
grey/white hairs, the effect will usually be
enough for them to blend in, but as the
gray spreads, there will come a point
where it will not be disguised as well. In
this case, the move to permanent color
can sometimes be delayed by using the
semi-permanent as a base and adding
highlights.

Semi-permanent color cannot lighten the

hair.
Temporary color

Temporary hair color is available in various

forms including rinses, shampoos, gels,
sprays, and foams. Temporary hair color is
typically brighter and more vibrant than
semi-permanent and permanent hair color.
It is most often used to color hair for
special occasions such as costume
parties and Halloween.

The pigments in temporary hair color are

high molecular weight and cannot
penetrate the cuticle layer. The color
particles remain adsorbed (closely
adherent) to the surface of the hair shaft
and are easily removed with a single
shampooing. Temporary hair color can
persist on hair that is excessively dry or
damaged in a way that allows for
migration of the pigment to the interior of
the hair shaft.

Alternative color

Hair and beard colored blue.

Alternative hair coloring products are
designed to create hair colors not typically
found in nature. The available colors are
diverse, such as the colors green and
fuchsia. Permanent alternatives in some
colors are available. Some color shades
are blacklight-reactive, and thus show up
under certain nightclub lighting, for
instance.

The chemical formulae of alternative color

dyes typically contain only tint and have no
developer. This means that they will only
create the bright color of the packet if they
are applied to light blond hair. People with
darker hair (medium brown to black) need
to use a bleaching kit before tint
application. Some people with fair hair
may benefit from prior bleaching as well.
Gold, yellow and orange undertones in hair
that has not been lightened enough can
adversely affect results, especially with
pinks, blues and greens. Although some
alternative colors are semi-permanent,
such as blue and purple, it could take
several months to fully wash the color
from bleached or pre-lightened hair.

Maintaining hair color

There are many ways that people can
maintain their hair color, such as:
 Using color-protecting shampoos and
conditioners
Using sulfate-free shampoo
Using purple shampoos and
conditioners to maintain or enhance the
blond color in their hair
Using leave-in treatments with UV
absorbents
Getting deep-conditioning treatments to
smooth and add luster
Avoiding chlorine
Using heat protecting products before
using styling appliances

Adverse effects
Hair coloring involves the use of
chemicals capable of removing, replacing,
and/or covering up pigments naturally
found inside the hair shaft. Use of these
chemicals can result in a range of adverse
effects, including temporary skin irritation
and allergy, hair breakage, skin
discoloration and unexpected hair color
results. According to the International
Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), in
vitro and in vivo studies (in exposed
human populations) have shown that
some hair dyes and many chemicals used
in the hair dyeing process can be
considered mutagenic and
carcinogenic.[15][16]
Skin irritation and allergy

In certain individuals, the use of hair

coloring can result in allergic reactions
and/or skin irritation. Individuals allergic to
gluten for example, will need to be
cautious when purchasing hair color since
certain hair dye includes gluten. Gluten
does not need to be ingested for it to
cause an allergy. Skin contact with gluten
may cause a reaction; therefore, leading to
an allergy. Symptoms of these reactions
can include redness, sores, itching,
burning sensation and discomfort.
Symptoms will sometimes not be apparent
immediately following the application and
processing of the tint, but can also arise
after hours or even a day later.

To help prevent or limit allergic reactions,

the majority of hair color products
recommend that the client conduct a
patch test before using the product. This
involves mixing a small quantity of tint
preparation and applying it directly to the
skin for a period of 48 hours. If irritation
develops, manufacturers recommend that
the client not use the product.

European dermatologists have, however,

strongly advised against such pre-use
testing, as it entails additional
sensitisation (allergy) risk and the
interpretation by lay people may not be
sufficiently accurate.[17]

Hair breakage

Hair that has been damaged by excessive

exposure to chemicals is considered over-
processed. This results in dry, rough and
fragile hair. In extreme cases, the hair can
be so damaged that it breaks off entirely.
The main cases of hair breakage are: Lack
of moisture and oils, poor diet, stress, over
processing or illness.

Skin discoloration
Skin and fingernails are made of a similar
type of keratinized protein as hair. That
means that drips, slips and extra hair tint
around the hairline can result in patches of
discolored skin. This is more common
with darker hair colors and persons with
dry absorbent skin. That is why it is
recommended that latex or nitrile gloves
be worn to protect the hands.

This discoloration will disappear as the

skin naturally renews itself and the top
layer of skin is removed (typically takes a
few days or at most a week). Ways of
preventing skin discoloration are to wear
latex or nitrile gloves to protect the hands
and also by applying a thin layer of
petroleum jelly or oil-based preparation
around the hairline. Gentle abrasives such
as moist baking soda or a small amount of
toothpaste applied with a toothbrush may
also help remove the uppermost layer of
skin and dye (neither removes just the
dye). Acetone and nail polish remover are
not considered effective; laundry detergent
may sometimes work as may moist
cigarette ash rubbed into the stained
area.[18]

Unintended results
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verification.
Learn more

Several factors influence the final color of

the hair following the coloring process.

For semi-permanent and demi-

permanent color, the final color is a
blend of the natural color of the hair and
the dye color.
Bleached hair will often require pre-
pigmentation before a color application.
Dyeing bleached hair brown can result in
grey or very ashy (grey sheen) hair.
Previously color treated hair can react
unpredictably with subsequent color
treatments.
Previous use of shampoos which
deposit a layer of plastic on the hair can
block the action of the dye.
Presence of minerals, salts, chlorine or
other contaminants in the water used in
the coloring process
Certain prescription drugs can alter hair
chemistry
Coloring dark hair to achieve a desirable
shade of blond requires bleaching,
followed by a secondary color
treatment. Bleached hair can still have a
yellow or coppery shade. A violet-based
color can cancel out yellow tones, and a
 blue-based shade will cancel out
coppery orange.
Porosity of hair can affect the final
shade. Porous hair often absorbs more
color, which sometimes results darker
than expected.

Health concerns

The salt lead acetate (the active

ingredient in gradual darkening products
such as Grecian formula) is
toxic.[19][20][21] Lead acetate trihydrate
has also been shown to cause
reproductive toxicity.[22]
Articles link the development of some
forms of cancer (including leukemia,
non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, bladder
cancer, blood cancer, and multiple
myeloma) with use of hair color.[23][24]
More specifically, prolonged use of
permanent dark hair dyes can double a
person's risk of getting some types of
blood cancer.[25]
In 2004 a known human carcinogen, 4-
aminobiphenyl or 4-ABP, was found in
some commercial hair dyes.[25]
However, evidence is limited and
inconsistent for the link between cancer
from hair dye.[26]
 Phenylenediamine is known to cause
health concerns, such as skin irritation.
Exposure to phenylenediamine can
occur during manufacturing or during
the use of hair dyes. According to the
Product Safety Summary Sheet by
DuPont, Para-Phenyenediamine (PPD) is
labeled as toxic and can cause adverse
effects on aquatic organisms and could
cause long-term effects in aquatic
environments.[27]

In October 2017, the leading breast

surgeon Professor Kefah Mokbel
published a meta-analysis showing that
use of hair dyes might increase the risk of
developing breast cancer by 20% among
users.[28]

Chemistry of permanent hair

coloring
Permanent hair coloring requires three
components: (1) 1,4-diaminobenzene
(historically) or 2,5-diaminotoluene
(currently), (2) a coupling agent, and (3) an
oxidant. The process is typically
performed under basic conditions. The
mechanism of oxidation dyes involves
three steps:[8] 1) Oxidation of 1,4-
diaminobenzene derivative to the quinone
state. 2) Reaction of this diimine with a
coupler compound (more detail below). 3)
Oxidation of the resulting compound to
give the final dye.

The preparation (dye precursors) is in the

leuco (colorless) form. Oxidizing agents
are usually hydrogen peroxide, and the
alkaline environment is usually provided by
ammonia. The combination of hydrogen
peroxide and ammonia causes the natural
hair to be lightened, providing a "blank
canvas" for the dye. Ammonia opens the
hair shaft pores so that the dye can
actually diffuse inside the fiber. These dye
intermediates and coupler compounds can
undergo oxidation and coupling reaction
as shown in the scheme below to form
high molecular weight products, which are
trapped in the hair matrix and cannot be
readily removed through washing.

Various combinations of primary

intermediates and coupler compounds
provide a spectrum of shades of hair
colors. The primary intermediates are
aromatic para compounds, such as 1,4-
diaminobenzene or 4-aminophenol. The
coupler compounds (couplers) are meta-
substituted derivatives of aniline. They
come in three major classes based on the
color that they produce when they react
with the primary intermediate.
Couplers are chemical compounds that define the
color of the hair dye. Shown here are three red
couplers (A, B, C), two yellow-green couplers (D, E)
and a blue coupler (F).

Blue couplers include 1,3-

diaminobenzene and its derivatives.
Red couplers include phenols and
naphthols, such as 3-aminophenol
(CAS#591-27-5), 5-amino-2-
methylphenol (CAS#2835-95-2) and 1-
naphthol (CAS#90-15-3). The
combination of 2,5-diaminotoluene with
the coupler 3-aminophenol gives a
 magenta-brown dye, while the
combination of 2,5-diaminotoluene with
the coupler 1-naphthol gives a purple
dye.
Yellow-green couplers include
resorcinol, 4-chlororesorcinol, and
benzodioxoles. These compounds
produce broad-band absorption when
they react to form dyes, allowing for
more natural-looking hair colors. The
combination of 2,5-diaminotoluene with
the coupler resorcinol gives a greenish
brown dye.

The first step shows the oxidation of p-

phenylenediamine to the quinonediimine
(C6H4(NH)2):

This species exists in equilibrium with the

monoprotonated form (C6H4(NH)(NH2)+)
(not shown). The second step involves the
attack of this quinonediimine on the
coupler. In organic chemistry, this reaction
is called electrophilic aromatic
substitution:

In the third and final step, the product from

the quinonediimine-coupler reaction
oxidizes to the final hair dye.

It was once believed that the dye forms in

the above reaction bonds to hair
permanently.[8] It was later shown that the
main reason that this reaction imparts a
permanent color on hair by producing
larger dye molecules, which is locked
inside the hair.[29]

Plant-based dyes
Henna is an orange dye commonly used
as a deposit-only hair color whose active
component, lawsone, binds to keratin. It is
therefore considered semi-permanent to
permanent, depending on a person's hair
type. Most people will achieve a
permanent color from henna, especially
after the second dye. With repeated use
the orange color builds up into red and
then auburn. While "natural" henna is
generally a red color, variations exist.
These variations usually contain
ingredients from other plants and even
synthetic dyes.

Indigo is natural dye from a plant

(Indigofera tinctoria, suffructicosa, or
arrecta) that can be added to henna or
layered on top of it to create brown to
black colors in the hair. Henna is orange,
and indigo is blue, so as complementaries
on a standard color wheel, the two colors'
combined effect is to create brown tones.
Like henna, indigo may fade after one
application, but it becomes permanent on
the hair with repeated use.

Using a plant-based color such as henna

can cause problems later when trying to
do a perm or permanent hair color. Some
store-bought henna contains metallic salts
which reacts to hydrogen peroxide that is
used in hair lightening. This may lead to
unpredictable results, such as green or
blue tones in the hair. Henna is a healthy
way to color hair, as long as no metallic
salts are used.

Legal restrictions
Hair dyes are cosmetic compounds that
make contact with the skin during
application. Because of this skin contact,
there exists some health risk associated
with use of hair dyes.[30] Thus, hair dyes
are regulated in the commercial
marketplace and, as new toxicity data is
generated for some hair dyes and health
risks are discovered, some of these hair
dyes are being legally restricted from the
cosmetic marketplace.
The European Union is particularly
stringent with regard to health regulations.
To ensure that hair dyes contain only safe
substances, the European Commission
adopted the Directive 2012/21/EU to
restrict the use of around 45 chemicals in
hair dyes.[31] The directive on dyes is part
of a general and comprehensive set of
regulations, the EU Cosmetics Directive
76/768/EC.

See also
Human physical appearance
Hairstyle
Hair highlighting
 Punk fashion
Chapatsu

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