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University of Bordj Bou Arreridj, ADVANCED POWER ELECTRONICS

Algeria V1: 20-Aug-2018

Chapter01 -Introduction to Power Electronics-

Chapter 01
1. Introduction to Power Electronics
1.1. What is Power Electronics?
Power electronics (PE) is electrical power processing; it is an application of power
electronic circuits to control a power converter in order to change the input
voltage/current magnitude and/or frequency suitable for different loads.
The main aims in modern power electronic system are to deliver the power with
maximum efficiency, minimum cost and weight in an integrated circuit.
PE has a significant role in different industries when power processing is required,
such as in computers, telecommunication, motor drives, cars and alternative energy
systems.
1.2. Why power conversion?
 There are three main available sources of electrical power, for example:
 Mains voltage, (1Phase/230V/50Hz, 1or3 Phase/400V/50Hz,
1phase/110V/60Hz…);
 Stored energy in batteries, (12/24VDC…);
 Alternative energy sources, (PV, Wind, FC…).
 On the other hand, power supply requirements of loads (examples) are:
 1/3 phases AC loads (regulation against voltage sag and swell);
 DC motors (rectification, variable speed in robot legs);
 Integrated circuits, microprocessors (15/12/5/3.3/1.5 VDC);
 X-ray and scanning machines (Power drawn in pulses)
 The raison for power conversion is that, there is a mismatch between power supply
availability and requirement of loads.
 Need for rectification and inversion;
 No DC transformers!
 No AC batteries!.
1.3. Types of Power Conversion
 PE system may process input power based on these following types:
 DC-DC buck Conversion (Step-down);
 DC-DC boost conversion (Step-up);
 DC-AC conversion (voltage source and current source inverters);
 AC-DC conversion (uncontrolled rectifiers, phase controlled thyristors
rectifiers, active PWM rectifiers…).
 Power flow is unidirectional or bidirectional.
1.4. Power Electronics Elements
 PE can be split into power circuit and electronic circuit (Fig.1.1):

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University of Bordj Bou Arreridj, ADVANCED POWER ELECTRONICS
Algeria V1: 20-Aug-2018

Chapter01 -Introduction to Power Electronics-

Power Circuit
i/ o ports
vout Electrical
Electrical vin A C or
AC
DC
source iin or DC iout sink (load)

Cont rol
port

Cont roller

Power Circuit
Fig.1. 1. Main parts of power electronic system.
Power circuit – converts the input power and delivers it into the output;
Electronic circuit- controls the converter by measuring the input/output variables.
 In general, circuit elements in most electrical systems are,
 Linear elements, (Resistors, capacitors, magnetic elements)
 Nonlinear elements (Electronic switches).
 In power converters, when the efficiency is the main concern, resistors and power
switches in linear mode are not used due to significant losses and thermal
problems.
1.4.1. Capacitors
 Capacitors are energy storage elements; they store energy in an electric field.
There are many applications for capacitors:
 Switch protection element in switching aid networks;
 They limit dV/dt rate (Eq.1.1);
dQ d (CV ) dV
I = = =C (1.1)
dt dt dt
v

i
Fig.1. 2. Capacitor symbol.
 They smoothen the power flow in switching circuits.
 Capacitors accumulate electric charge to store energy,
D Q (t ) = C D v(t ) (1.2)
 In periodic AC application, net charge accumulation per cycle is zero.
Q (t + T ) Q (t )
v(t + T ) - v(t ) = - = 0 (1.3)
C C
 Capacitor current is proportional to dv/dt (Fig.1.3)

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Chapter01 -Introduction to Power Electronics-

v(t)

i(t)

+ +
t
- -
Fig.1. 3. V-I relationship in an ideal capacitor.
 The stored energy in a capacitor is given by the relationship,
t t
WC = ò 0
p( t )d t = ò v( t )i ( t )d t
0
tdv t 1 1
= ò v( t )C d t = C ò v( t )dv = Cv( t )2 - Cv(0)2 (1.4)
0 dt 0 2 2
1 1 2
W C = Cv 2 - W C (0) = Q
2 2C
 Capacitors are selected from manufacturer’s catalogue (datasheet).
1.4.1.1. Capacitor Construction
The construction of a capacitor consists of two terminals and in between, a
dielectric material is placed, this configuration is capable of storing charge and
energy.
T erminal
+++ ++++ ++ +++
d Dielectric material
- - - - - - - - - - - -
A : Cross-section area of
the dielectric
Fig.1. 4. Construction of a capacitor.
The electric flux density in the dielectric is given by,
DE = eE (1.5)
Where,
e : Electric permeability; E : Electric field.
Q Q V Q
DE = Þ eE = Þ e =
A A d A (1.6)
Q A
Þ = e = Const = C
V d
1 1æ Aö 1
W C = Cv 2 = çççe ÷
2
÷
÷(Ed ) = e A {d E
2

2 2è d ÷ ø 2 V olume (1.7)
1 2
W C = eE ´ V olume
2
 The energy density in a capacitor is given by,

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Chapter01 -Introduction to Power Electronics-

DW = 0.5eE 2 [Joules / m 3 ] (1.8)


Example 1. 1 – Energy density in air based capacitor

ìï e = 8.854 ´ 10- 12 F / m
ï a
í Þ DW = 0.5 ´ 8.854 ´ 10- 12 ´ 9 ´ 1012
ïï E a max = 3 ´ 10 V / m
6
ïî
» 40[J / m 3 ] = 10Cal / m 3
10 Cal is capable to rise 10g of water by 1°C (small energy for 1m3 capacitor).
Example 1. 2 – Energy density in Polyester based capacitor
ìï e = 4 ´ 8.854 ´ 10- 12 F / m
ï p
í Þ DW = 1.34 ´ 106[J / m 3 ]
ïï E p max = 275 ´ 106V / m
ïî
 The energy density of commercially available bipolar capacitors (MKV) is
approximately 1kJ/m3 due to thermal limits.
 The energy density of commercially available Electrolytic capacitors (one
polarity) is approximately 6.1kJ/m3.
1.4.1.2. Capacitor Specifications
Their voltage rating and capacitance value specify the capacitors. The unit for
capacitance is farad, when one coulomb of charge gives rise to a voltage difference
between the terminals of 1 volt, that capacitance is defined as having a value of 1 farad.
1.4.1.3. Capacitor Life
Unlike inductors or many other electronic elements, the capacitors many times
suffer from limited life; especially, electrolytic capacitors have limited life typically, it
could be about 8000 hours at 105°C and if the temperature is reduced, it is possible to
have more number of hours of life.

Fig.1.5. Life characteristic of a specific capacitor.


For example, Fig.1.5 is a data sheet for capacitors, when the specifications are as
given in the data sheet. One is 1.0 normalized specification at a temperature of 105°C,
gives a life of 10000h. Therefore, if you operate at 60 °C or 40 °C it is possible to get
higher lives.
1.4.1.4. Types of Capacitors
There are several types of capacitors in the market; the simplest classification is
between DC and AC, bipolar and unipolar, electrolytic and non-electrolytic. There
are also some modern capacitors, which are going by the name of ultra-capacitors
or super-capacitors; they follow a different mechanism of storing energy. Fig. 1.6
shows some pictures of commercially available caps.
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Chapter01 -Introduction to Power Electronics-

Energy Density

Super-capacitor Electrolytic capacitor Film capacitors (MK V )


Fig.1. 6. Photos of some commercially available capacitors.
1.4.1.5. Capacitor Non-idealities
In a real capacitor, more parameters other than the voltage rating and the
capacitance value are included to select the suitable capacitor for a specific application.
Three non-idealities associated with capacitors are listed,
 Equivalent series resistance (ESR) - every conductor (terminals) has an associated
equivalent resistance.
 Equivalent series inductance (ESL) - every current path has an associated magnetic
field and will have an associated equivalent inductance.
 Leakage current (Ilk) - the current through a capacitor for DC has to be zero.
However, in a real capacitor because of the ohmic leakage paths between the
electrodes through the dielectric or through the surface of the dielectric, there is
some small leakage current flowing and that is one of the non-idealities in the
capacitor.
Undesirable effects
The AC current or the ripple current that flows into the capacitor through the
ESR produce a power loss, which is RESRi2 (Fig.1.7)
R ESR L ESL C
i
R ESR i2

Heat I lkR esonant

Fig.1. 7. Real capacitor under operation


The ESL has a different consequence in the capacitor because of the self-
inductance; the capacitor “C” and the inductance “LESL” can form a resonant circuit,
and this resonant frequency is 1/2𝜋√𝐿𝐶 (Fig.1.8). Therefore,

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Chapter01 -Introduction to Power Electronics-

20Log10(|Z|)
Useful frequency r ange

Log10(W )
Fig.1. 8. Impedance plot in dB ohm vs log(W)
 If you go to higher frequencies, there is a resonance in the circuit which can give
rise to damage to the capacitor;
 If you go beyond the resonant frequency, the complete element will behave only
like an inductance;
 ESL will not allow the capacitor to operate purely as a capacitance and it will
have a number of side effects, which are not very advantageous.
Note that,

æP ö æ 2 ö
÷ æI ö
çç ÷ ÷ çI ÷ ç ÷
÷
dB = 10
{ log10 çç ÷ ÷ º 10 log10 çç 2 ÷
÷ = 20 log10 çç ÷
÷ (1.9)
÷
Pref ø ççèI ÷ èçI ref ÷
144442è444 ø ø
d ref
43
Bell
æ1 ö
Z = 20 log10 ( Z ) = 20 log10 ççç ÷ ÷
÷ = - 20 log10 (C w)
dB W ÷
èC w ø (1.10)
ydB W = - 20 log10 (C ) - 20 log10 (w)
If we choose a logarithmic scale for the x-axis, then the equation Eq.1.10 becomes a
straight line with a slope of -20dB/dec,
ydB W = - 20 log10 (C ) - 20 log10 (w)
1444442 444443 14442 4443
y0 x (1.11)
ydB W = y 0 - 20x

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Chapter01 -Introduction to Power Electronics-

1.4.2. Inductors
Inductors are energy storage elements; they f
store energy in a magnetic field.
i N
v
Fig.1. 9. Core based Inductor symbol.
Inductors are used in several applications;
 Smoothen power flow in switching power converters;
 Switch protection elements in snubber circuits, by limiting di/dt rate.
1.4.2.1. Relationships in an Inductor
From faraday’s law,
dy
v= (1.12)
dt
y = N f = NAC B = NAC mH (1.13)
Where,
y : Magnetic flux linkage in the inductor
N : Number of turns of the copper coil;
AC : Cross-section area of the magnetic core;
m : Magnetic permeability of the core.
H : Magnetic field intensity.
From Ampere’s law,
N
HlW = Ni Þ H = i (1.14)
lW
Substituting eq.1.14 in eq.1.13,
N N 2AC m
y = NAC mH = NAC m i = i (1.15)
lW lW
1442 443
L
Hence, the flux linkage in the inductance is expressed by,
y = Li (1.16)
Where L is the self-inductance of the inductor.
Substituting eq.1.16 in eq.1.12,
dy d (Li ) dL di
v= = = i+L (1.17)
dt dt dt dt
For our purpose (Power Electronics), the inductance variation is neglected, and
eq.1.17 becomes
di
v= L (1.18)
dt
1.4.2.2. Ohm’s Law at a point
æ ö
çç r lW ÷÷
v = R i = çç
ççè AW ÷
÷ ( )
÷ J AW = r lW J
÷
ø (1.19)
1 v
Þ J =
r lW
Where,

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Chapter01 -Introduction to Power Electronics-

AW : Cross-section area of the copper coil;


r : Resistivity of the conductor; AW
l

lW : Wire length; i
J : Current density in the conductor.
v
Fig.1. 10. Conductor cross-section.
A uniform electric field throw a conductor of length “lW” is expressed by,
v
E = (1.20)
lW
Substituting eq.1.20 in eq.1.19
1
J = E = sE (1.21)
r
Eq.1.21 represents ohm’s law at a point.
Where s is the conductor conductivity.
1.4.2.3. Magnetic Ohm’s Law
From eq.1.15, the flux f in the magnetic core can be AC
lC
expressed as,
f

mmf

y A m
f = = C Ni{
N lW m .m . f (1.22)
{
L
f = L ´ m .m .f
Where L is the magnetic permeance of the core, which is related to reluctance by,
1
Â= (1.23)
L
Hence, eq. (1.22) gives the magnetic ohm’s law,
m .m .f
f = (1.24)
Â
Where,
Nf m .m .f
N f = Li Þ L = = N
i Âi (1.25)
N2
L=
Â
1.4.3. Non-linear Elements
In steady state, if the relationship between voltage across and current through an
element is nonlinear, then, it is nonlinear element.
1.4.3.1. Ideal Switches
A switch is a bi-stable circuit element, which has two terminals and two stable
states: (OFF state and ON state).
Switches do not dissipate energy, because when they are ON the voltage across
them is zero and when they are OFF, the current through the switches is zero.
Fig.1.11 represents the ideal switch characteristic in the i-v plane.

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Chapter01 -Introduction to Power Electronics-

v
i i v
T P i T P
i= 0 v= 0
OFF St at e ON St at e
v: Ext ernally imposed i : Ext ernally imposed

T : T hrough
P: Pole v

Fig.1. 11. i-v characteristic of an ideal switch.


 Power Losses in an ideal switch,
ìï P
ï OFF = vOFF iOFF = vOFF ´ 0 = 0W (1.26)
í
ïï PON = vON iON = 0 ´ iON = 0W
î
In either case, power loss in the switch is zero.
The conduction loss is zero because the vON is zero. No matter what current is
flowing through the switch, the product, which represents the power loss, is zero.
In the blocking state, the current through the switch is always zero. No matter
how much voltage the device is blocking?-the product of VOFF and IOFF is zero. In
fact, this is the raison why we are using switches in power conversion.
 Performances of an ideal switch,
A switch has several operating features, for example,
1. How much time does it take to switch from ON to OFF or from OFF to ON?
- tON = tOFF = 0
2. What is the energy involved in moving from one state to the other state?
- EON = EOFF = 0
3. How various characteristics of the switch are dependent on the environment
conditions, like temperature, pressure, altitude and so on?
- Ideal characteristics are independent of the ambient conditions.
1.4.3.2. Real Switches
Real switches are electronic switches, made up of semiconductors, which has
functions of turning ON or OFF where the control functions are integrated into the
switch function.
 Power Losses in Real Switch
ìï i
ï OFF ¹ 0 Þ POFF = vOFF iOFF ¹ 0W (1.27)
í
ïï iON ¹ 0 Þ PON = vON ´ iON ¹ 0W
î
Fig.1.12 represents the real switch characteristic in the i-v plane.
When a real switch is ON, there is a small amount of Voltage drop when the
current is flowing through the switch. Similarly, when the switch is OFF state and it
is blocking large amount of Voltage, a very small current is flowing (leakage current).

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Chapter01 -Introduction to Power Electronics-

OFF State ON State

Fig.1. 12. Characteristic of a bipolar voltage and current switch (four quadrant)

1.4.3.3. Power Diode (a Sample Real Switch)


Tab.1. 1. Symbols and Their Meanings.
Symbol Meaning
iD, vD Instantaneous diode current and voltage, respectively
i(t), iS(t) Instantaneous current and supply current, respectively
ID, VD DC diode current and voltage, respectively
IS Leakage (or reverse saturation) current
I0 Steady-state output current
IS1, IS2 Leakage (or reverse saturation) currents of diodes D1 and D2,
respectively
IRR Reverse recovery current
trr Reverse recovery time
VT Thermal voltage
VD1, VD2 Voltage drops across diodes D1 and D2, respectively
VBR, VRM Reverse breakdown and maximum repetitive voltages, respectively
vR, vC, vL Instantaneous voltages across a resistor, a capacitor, and an inductor,
respectively
VCO, vs, VS Initial capacitor, instantaneous supply, and dc supply voltages,
respectively
QRR Reverse storage charge
T Time constant of a circuit
n Empirical emission constant
A diode acts as a switch to perform various functions, such as switches in rectifiers,
freewheeling in switching regulators, charge reversal of capacitor and energy transfer
between components, voltage isolation….
Power diodes can be assumed as ideal switches for most applications but practical
diodes differ from the ideal characteristics and have certain limitations.
a. Semiconductor Basics (see an.1.1)
Power semiconductor devices are based on high-purity, single-crystal silicon. The
most commonly used semiconductors are silicon and germanium (Group IV in the
periodic table as shown in Table 1.1) and gallium arsenide (Group V). Silicon
materials cost less than germanium materials and allow diodes to operate at higher
temperatures. For this reason, germanium diodes are rarely used.
Silicon is a member of Group IV of the periodic table of elements, that is, having
four electrons per atom in its outer orbit. A pure silicon material is known as an
intrinsic semiconductor with resistivity that is too low to be an insulator and too high
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Chapter01 -Introduction to Power Electronics-

to be a conductor. The resistivity of an intrinsic semiconductor and its charge carriers


that are available for conduction can be changed, shaped in layers, and graded by
implantation of specific impurities. The process of adding impurities is called doping,
which involves a single atom of the added impurity per over a million silicon atoms.
With different impurities, levels and shapes of doping, high technology, the finished
power devices are produced from various structures of n-type and p-type
semiconductor layers.
Tab.1. 2. A Portion of the Periodic Table Showing Elements Used in Semiconductor Materials.

n-type material: If pure silicon is doped with a small amount of a Group V element,
each atom of the dopant forms a covalent bond within the silicon lattice, leaving a
loose electron. These loose electrons greatly increase the conductivity of the material.
The doping is denoted as n-doping and the resultant material is referred to as n-type
semiconductor. When it is heavily doped, it is denoted as n+ doping and the material
is referred to as n+ type semiconductor.
p-type material: If pure silicon is doped with a small amount of a Group III element,
a vacant location called a hole is introduced into the silicon lattice. Analogous to an
electron, a hole can be considered a mobile charge carrier as it can be filled by an
adjacent electron, which in this way leaves a hole behind. These holes greatly increase
the conductivity of the material. When the silicon is lightly doped with an impurity
such as boron, the doping is denoted as p-doping and the resultant material is referred
to as p-type semiconductor. When it is heavily doped, it is denoted as p+ doping and
the material is referred to as p+type semiconductor.
Therefore, there are free electrons available in an n-type material and free holes
available in a p-type material. In a p-type material, the holes are called the majority
carriers and electrons are called the minority carriers. In the n-type material, the
electrons are called the majority carriers and holes are called the minority carriers.
These carriers are continuously generated by thermal agitations, they combine and
recombine in accordance to their lifetime, and they achieve an equilibrium density of
carriers from about 1010 to 1013/cm3 over a range of about 0°C to 1000°C. Thus, an
applied electric field can cause a current flow in an n-type or p-type material.
Key Points
Free electrons or holes are made available by adding impurities to the pure silicon
or germanium through a doping process. The electrons are the majority carriers in
the n-type material whereas the holes are the majority carriers in a p-type material.
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Chapter01 -Introduction to Power Electronics-

Thus, the application of electric field can cause a current flow in an n-type or a p-type
material.
b. Diode Characteristics
A power diode is a two-terminal pn-junction device. Figure 1.13 shows the
sectional view of a pn-junction and diode symbol.
A node Cathode A K
p n
iD iD

vD vD

a: pn-junction b: Diode symbol


Fig.1. 13. pn-junction and diode symbol.
When the anode potential is positive with respect to the cathode, the diode is said
to be forward biased and the diode conducts. A conducting diode has a relatively small
forward voltage drop (VD) across it; the magnitude of this drop depends on the
manufacturing process and junction temperature. When the cathode potential is
positive with respect to the anode, the diode is said to be reverse biased. Under
reverse-biased conditions, a small reverse current (IS)(also known as leakage current) in
the range of micro- or milliampere flows and this leakage current increases slowly in
magnitude with the reverse voltage until the avalanche or zener voltage is reached.
Figure 2.2a shows the steady-state v-i characteristics of a diode. For most practical
purposes, a diode can be regarded as an ideal switch, whose characteristics are shown
in Fig.1.14.b.
The v-i characteristics shown in Fig.1.14.a can be expressed by an equation
known as Schockley diode equation, and it is given under dc steady-state operation
by
V / ( nV )
I D = I S (e D T - 1) (1.28)
Where,
ID: Current through the diode [A];
VD: Diode voltage with anode positive with respect to cathode [V];
IS: Leakage current, typically in the range 10-6 to 10-15 [A];
n: Empirical constant known as emission coefficient, or ideality factor, whose value
varies from 1 to 2.

(a) Practical (b) Ideal


Fig.1. 14. v-i characteristics of a diode.

VT in Eq.1.28 is a constant called thermal voltage and it is given by

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kT
VT = (1.29)
q
Where,
q: Electron charge: 1.6022*10-19 coulomb [C];
T: Absolute temperature in Kelvin (K = 273 + °C);
k: Boltzmann>s constant: 1.3806 * 10-23 J/K.
At a junction temperature of 25°C, Eq. (2.2) gives
kT 1.3806 ´ 10- 23 ´ (273 + 25)
VT = = » 25.7[mV]
q 1.6022 ´ 10- 19
At a specified temperature, the leakage current IS is a constant for a given diode.
The diode characteristic of Fig.1.14.a can be divided into three regions:
Forward-biased region, where VD > 0
Reverse-biased region, where VD < 0
Breakdown region, where VD < -VBR
Example 1. 3 – Finding the Saturation Current
The forward voltage drop of a power diode is VD = 1.2 V at ID = 300 A.
Assuming that n = 2 and VT = 25.7 mV, find the reverse saturation current IS.
Solution
Applying Eq.1.28, we can find the leakage (or saturation) current IS from
300 = IS[exp(1.2/(2*25.7*10-3)) - 1]
which gives IS = 2.17746 * 10-8 A.
Key Points
A diode exhibits a nonlinear v-i characteristic, consisting of three regions: forward
biased, reverse-biased, and breakdown. In the forward condition the diode drop is
small, typically 0.7 V. If the reverse voltage exceeds the breakdown voltage, the diode
may be damaged.
c. . Reverse Recovery Characteristics
The current in a forward-biased junction diode is due to the net effect of majority
and minority carriers. Once a diode is in a forward conduction mode and then its
forward current is reduced to zero (due to the natural behavior of the diode circuit or
application of a reverse voltage), the diode continues to conduct due to minority
carriers that remain stored in the pn-junction and the bulk semiconductor material.
The minority carriers require a certain time to recombine with opposite charges and
to be neutralized. This time is called the reverse recovery time of the diode. Fig.1.15
shows two reverse recovery characteristics of junction diodes. in reality ta >tb. The
recovery process starts at t = t0 when the diode current starts to fall from the on-state
current IF at a rate of di/dt = -IF/(t1 - t0). The diode is still conducting with a forward
voltage drop of VF. The forward current IF falls to zero at t = t1 and then continues to
flow in the reverse direction because the diode is inactive and not capable of blocking
the reverse current flow. At t = t2, the reverse current reaches a value of IRR and the
diode voltage starts to reverse. After the recovery process is completed at t = t3, the
reverse diode voltage reaches a peak of VRMS. The diode voltage passes through a
transient oscillation period to complete the stored charge recovery until it falls to its
normal reverse operating voltage. The complete process is nonlinear, and Fig.1.15 is
used only to illustrate the process.

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(a) Soft r ecover y (a) Hard r ecovery


Fig.1. 15. Reverse recovery characteristics.

There are two types of recovery: soft and hard. The soft-recovery type is more
common. The reverse recovery time is denoted as trr and is measured from the initial
zero crossing of the diode current to 25% of maximum (or peak) reverse current IRR.
The trr consists of two components, ta and tb. Variable ta is due to charge storage in the
depletion region of the junction and represents the time between the zero crossing
and the peak reverse current IRR. The tb is due to charge storage in the bulk
semiconductor material. The ratio tb/ta is known as the softness factor (SF). For practical
purposes, one needs be concerned with the total recovery time trr and the peak value
of the reverse current IRR.
t rr = ta + tb (1.30)

The peak reverse current can be expressed in reverse di/dt as


di
I R R = ta (1.31)
dt
Reverse recovery time trr may be defined as the time interval between the instant the
current passes through zero during the changeover from forward conduction to
reverse blocking condition and the moment the reverse current has decayed to 25%
of its peak reverse value IRR. Variable trr is dependent on the junction temperature, rate
of fall of forward current, and forward current prior to commutation, IF.

Reverse recovery charge QRR is the amount of charge carriers that flows across the diode
in the reverse direction due to changeover from forward conduction to reverse
blocking condition. Its value is determined from the area enclosed by the curve of the
reverse recovery current. That is, QRR = Q1 + Q2.
The storage charge, which is the area enclosed by the curve of the recovery
current, is approximately

1 1 1
QR R = Q1 + Q2 @ I R R ta + I R R tb = I R R t rr (1.32)
2 2 2
Or

2QR R
I RR @ (1.33)
t rr
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Equating IRR in Eq.1.31 to IRR in Eq.1.33 gives

2QR R
t rr t a = (1.34)
di / dt

If tb is negligible as compared to ta, which is usually the case, trr ≈ta, and Eq.1.34 becomes

2QR R
t rr = (1.35)
di / dt

And

di
I RR = 2Q R R (1.36)
dt
It can be noticed from Eq.1.35 and Eq.1.36 that the reverse recovery time trr and
the peak reverse recovery current IRR depend on the storage charge QRR and the reverse
(or reapplied) di/dt. The storage charge is dependent on the forward diode current IF.
The peak reverse recovery current IRR, reverse charge QRR, and the SF are all of interest
to the circuit designer, and these parameters are commonly included in the
specification sheets of diodes.
If a diode is in a reverse-biased condition, a leakage current flows due to the
minority carriers. Then the application of forward voltage would force the diode to
carry current in the forward direction. However, it requires a certain time known as
forward recovery (or turn-on) time before all the majority carriers over the whole
junction can contribute to the current flow. If the rate of rise of the forward current
is high and the forward current is concentrated to a small area of the junction, the
diode may fail. Thus, the forward recovery time limits the rate of the rise of the
forward current and the switching speed.
Example 1. 4 – Finding the Reverse Recovery Current
The reverse recovery time of a diode is trr = 3µs and the rate of fall of the diode
current is di/dt = 30A/µs. Determine (a) the storage charge QRR, and (b) the peak
reverse current IRR.
Solution
From Eq.1.35,

1 di 2
QR R = t rr = 0.5 ´ 30 ´ (3 ´ 10- 6 )2 = 135mC
2 dt
From Eq.1.36,

di
I RR = 2QR R = 2 ´ 135 ´ 10- 6 ´ 30 ´ 106 = 90A
dt

d. Power Diode Types

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Depending on the switching recovery time and the on-state drop, the power
diodes are of three types: general purpose, fast recovery, and Schottky. Summarized
in Tab.1.3.
Key Points
During the reverse recovery time trr, the diode behaves effectively as a short
circuit and is not capable of blocking reverse voltage, allowing reverse current flow,
and then suddenly disrupting the current. Parameter trr is important for switching
applications.

Tab.1. 3. Comparison between voltage and current ratings of power diodes with some applications.

Type Voltage Current Reverse Applications Remarks


ratings ratings (IF) recovery
(VRRM) time (trr)

General 50-5000 V 1A to ~25µs UPS, battery chargers,


Purpose several welding, traction etc.
Diodes thousand
Amps

Fast 50-3000 V 1A to <5µs SMPS, commutation Doping done using


Recovery several circuits, choppers, platinum or gold
Diode thousand induction heating
Amps

Schottky Up to 100V 1-300 A ~ns Very high frequency Metal-semiconductor


Diodes switching power junction, usually Al-Si(n-
supplies and type), majority carrier
instrumentation device, hence very low turn
off time

e. Spice Model for Diode


The SPICE model of a diode is shown in Fig.1.16. The SPICE model statement of
a diode has the general form,
.MODEL DNAME D (P1= V1 P2= V2 P3= V3 ... PN=VN)
DNAME is the model name and it can begin with any character; however, its word
size is normally limited to eight. D is the type symbol for diodes. P1, P2 . . . and V1,
V2 . . . are the model parameters and their values, respectively.
Among many diode parameters, the important parameters for power switching are:
IS Saturation current A
BV Reverse breakdown voltage
RS
IBV Reverse breakdown current
TT Transit time
CJO Zero-bias pn capacitance +
vD iD CD
-
K
Fig.1. 16. SPICE model.

Example 1. 5. I-V Characteristic of Practical Diode with PSPICE

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* i-v characteristic of a diode


vs 1 0 dc 1
* diode model-------------------
.model dmodel d is=2.22f bv=100
ibv=13m cjo=2p tt=1u
*-------------------------------
d1 2 0 dmodel
r 1 2 1u
.dc vs 0 0.85 0.1m; DC Voltage
Fig.1. 17. i-v characteristic of a diode
sweep from 0 to 0.85V
.probe
.end
Example 1. 6. Diode Reverse Recovery phenomena with PSPICE
* Diode Reverse Recovery 1N4007
.param rval=5
.STEP param rval 5 15 5
vin 1 0 pulse ( 5 -5 0ns 0ns 0ns 25us 50us)
* diode model------------------------------------
.MODEL D_1N4007 D ( IS=76.9p RS=42.0m BV=1.00k IBV=5.00u CJO=26.5p
+M=0.333 N=1.45 TT=4.32u )
*.STEP lin D D_1N4007(RS) 10m 1 250m
*.STEP lin D D_1N4007(CJO) 26.5p 10n 2n
*.STEP lin D D_1N4007(TT) 4.32u 10u 2u
*.STEP lin D D_1N4007(IBV) 5u 20u 4u
*------------------------------------------------
d1 2 0 D_1N4007
r 1 2 {rval}
.tran 0.1n 100u;
.probe
.end

Fig.1. 18. Simulation of reverse recovery phenomenon of a typical diode.

1.4.3.4. Power Transistors


Power transistors have controlled turn-on and turn-off characteristics. They are
operated in the saturation region, resulting in a low on-state voltage drop. The
switching speed of modern transistors is much higher than that of thyristors and they
are extensively employed in dc–dc and dc–ac converters, with inverse parallel-
connected diodes to provide bidirectional current flow. With the development of
power semiconductor technology, the ratings of power transistors are continuously
being improved. IGBTs are being increasingly used in high-power applications.
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Tab.1. 4. Symbols and Their Meanings (Power transistors).


Symbols Meaning
i; v Instantaneous variable current and voltage, respectively
I; V Fixed dc current and voltage, respectively
IG; ID; IS; IDS Gate, drain, source, and saturated drain currents of MOSFETs, respectively
IB; IC; IE; ICE Base, collector, emitter, and saturated collector currents of BJTs, respectively
VGS; VDS Gate–source and drain–source voltages of MOSFETs, respectively
VBE; VCE Base–emitter and collector–emitter voltages of BJTs, respectively
IC; VGE; VCE Collector current, gate–source, and collector–emitter voltages of IGBTs, respectively
TA; TC; TJ; TS Ambient, case, junction, and sink temperatures, respectively
td; tr; tOn; ts; tf; toff Delay, rise, on, storage, fall, and off time of a switching transistor, respectively
βF (= hFE); αF Forward current gain and collector–emitter current ratios of BJTs, respectively
RC; RD; RG Collector, drain, and gate resistances, respectively
1.4.3.4.1. Power Bipolar Junction Transistor
A bipolar transistor is formed by adding a second p- or n-region to a pn-junction
diode. With two n-regions and one p-region, two junctions are formed and it is known
as an NPN-transistor, as shown in Fig.1.19a. With two p-regions and one n-region, it
is known as a PNP-transistor, as shown in Fig.1.19b. The three terminals are named
collector, emitter, and base.

Fig.1. 19. Bipolar transistors.

Fig.1. 20. Cross sections of BJTs.

In order to understand the working mechanism of BJTs a short animation (an.1.2.)


is enough in our case.

A. Steady-State Characteristics
The typical input characteristics of base current IB against base–emitter voltage VBE
are shown in Fig.1.21.b. Fig.1.21.c shows the typical output characteristics of
collector current IC against collector–emitter voltage VCE. For a PNP-transistor, the

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polarities of all Currents and voltages are reversed. There are three operating regions
of a transistor: cutoff, active, and saturation.
In the cutoff region, the transistor is off or the base current is not enough to turn
it on and both junctions are reverse biased.
In the active region, the transistor acts as an amplifier, where the base current is
amplified by a gain and the collector-emitter voltage decreases with the base current.
The CBJ is reverse biased, and the BEJ is forward biased. In the saturation region,
the base current is sufficiently high so that the collector-emitter voltage is low, and
the transistor acts as a switch. Both junctions (CBJ and BEJ) are forward biased.

Fig.1. 21. Steady state characteristics of NPN-transistors.

The transfer characteristic, which is a plot of VCE against IB, is shown in Fig.1.22.
The model of an NPN-transistor is shown in Fig.1.23 under large-signal dc operation.
The equation relating the currents is

I E = IC + I B (1.37)

The base current is effectively the input current and the collector current is the
output current. The ratio of the collector current IC to base current IB is known as the
forward current gain, βF:

IC
b F = hFE = (1.38)
IB

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The collector current has two components: one due to the base current and the
other is the leakage current of the CBJ.

I C = bF I B + I CE 0 (1.39)

0 V BE
0.5 V B E,sat

Fig.1. 22. Transfer characteristics.

where ICEO is the collector-to-emitter leakage current with base open circuit and
can be considered negligible compared to βF IB.
From Eqs. (1.37) and (1.39),

1 + bF
I E = b F I B + I CE 0 + I B » I B (1 + b F ) = I C (1.40)
bF

the collector current can be expressed as

bF
IC = IE = aFIE (1.41)
1 + bF

or

aF
bF = (1.42)
1- aF

Let us consider the circuit of Fig.1.23, where the transistor is operated as a


switch.

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Fig.1. 23. Transistor switch.

V B - V BE
IB = (1.43)
RB

VCE = VCC - RC I C = VCC - RC bF I B


b (1.44)
= VCC - RC F (V B - V BE )
RB

VCE = VCB + V BE
(1.45)
VCB = VCE - V BE

Equation (1.45) indicates that as long as VCE≥VBE, the CBJ is reverse biased and
the transistor is in the active region. The maximum collector current in the active
region, which can be obtained by setting VCB = 0 and VBE = VCE, is

VCC - VCE VCC - V BE


I CM = = (1.46)
RC RC

and the corresponding value of base current

I CM
I BM = (1.47)
bF

If the base current is increased above IBM, VBE increases, the collector current
increases, and the VCE falls below VBE. This continues until the CBJ is forward biased
with VBC of about 0.4 to 0.5 V. The transistor then goes into saturation. The transistor
saturation may be defined as the point above which any increase in the base current
does not increase the collector current significantly. In the saturation, the collector
current remains almost constant. If the collector– emitter saturation voltage is VCE,sat,
the collector current is

V CC - V CE ,SA T
I CS = (1.48)
RC

and the corresponding value of the base current is


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I CS
I BS = (1.49)
bF

Normally, the circuit is designed so that IB is higher than IBS. The ratio of IB to IBS is
called the overdrive factor (ODF):

IB
ODF = (1.50)
I BS

and the ratio of ICS to IB is called as forced β, βforced where

I CS
b forced = (1.51)
IB

The total power loss in the two junctions is

PT = V BE I B + VCE I C (1.52)

A high value of ODF cannot reduce the collector–emitter voltage significantly.


However, VBE increases due to increased base current, resulting in increased power
loss in the BEJ.
Example 1. 7. Finding the saturation parameter of a BJT
The bipolar transistor in Fig.1.23 is specified to have βF in the range of 8 to 40.
The load resistance is RC=11Ω. The dc supply voltage is VCC=200V and the input
voltage to the base circuit is VB=10V. If VCE,SAT=1.0V and VBE,SAT=1.5V, find (a) the
value of RB that results in saturation with an ODF of 5, (b) the βforced, and (c) the power
loss PT in the transistor.
Solution
From Eq.1.48, ICS = (200-1.0)/11=18.1A;
From Eq.1.49, IBS =18.1/βmin=18.1/8=2.2625A;
Eq.1.50 gives the base current for an overdrive factor of 5;

I B = 5 ´ 2.2625 = 11.3125A

a. Eq.1.43 gives the required value of RB,


V - V BE ,SA T 10 - 1.5
RB = B =
IB 11.3125
b. From Eq.1.51, βforced= 18.1/11.3125=1.6.
c. Eq.1.52 yields the total power loss as
PT = 1.5 ´ 11.3125 + 1.0 ´ 18.1 = 16.97 + 18.1 = 35.07W

Note: For an ODF of 10, IB=22.265A and the power loss is


PT=1.5*22.265+18.1=51.5W. Once the transistor is saturated, the collector-emitter
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voltage is not reduced in relation to the increase in base current. However, the power
loss is increased. At a high value of ODF, the transistor may be damaged due to
thermal runaway. On the other hand, if the transistor is underdriven (IB less than ICB),
it may operate in the active region and VCE increases, resulting in increased power loss.
B. Switching Characteristics
A forward-biased pn-junction exhibits two parallel capacitances: a depletion-layer
capacitance and a diffusion capacitance. On the other hand, a reverse-biased pn-
junction has only depletion capacitance. Under steady-state conditions, these
capacitances do not play any role. However, under transient conditions, they influence
the turn-on and turn-off behavior of the transistor.
The model of a transistor under transient conditions is shown in Figure 4.32,
where Ccb and Cbe are the effective capacitances of the CBJ and BEJ, respectively. The
transconductance, gm, of a BJT is defined as the ratio of ΔIC to ΔVBE. These
capacitances are dependent on junction voltages and the physical construction of the
transistor.

(a) Model with current gain (b) Model with transconductance


Fig.1. 24. Transient model of BJT.

CCB affects the input capacitance significantly due to the Miller multiplication effect
[6]. The resistances of collector to emitter and base to emitter are rce and rbe,
respectively.
Due to internal capacitances, the transistor does not turn on instantly. Figure
4.33 illustrates the waveforms and switching times. As the input voltage vB rises
from zero to V1 and the base current rises to IB1, the collector current does not
respond

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