SLAB

Slabs are used to furnish a flat and useful surface in reinforced concrete construction.
It is broad, flat plate, usually horizontal, with top and bottom surfaces parallel or nearly so. It
may be supported by reinforced concrete beams, by masonry or reinforced concrete walls, by
structural steel members, by directly by columns or continuously by the ground.

Slabs in which the deflected surface is predominantly cylindrical is called one-way

slabs spanning in the direction of curvature. This condition arises when slabs are supported
on two opposite sides, and those supported on all four sides with the longer span greater than
twice the shorter span and also in cantilever slabs. In many cases, rectangular slabs are of
such proportions and are supported in such a way that two-way action results. when loaded,
such slabs bend into a dished surface i.e., an any point the slab is curved in both principal
directions, and since bending moments are proportional to curvature, moments also in both
directions.

Concrete slabs may in some cases be carried directly by columns, without the use of
beams or girders. Such slabs are called flat plates. In some cases, to reduce the stresses due to
shear and negative bending around columns, a thickened slab region in the vicinity of column
and flared column tops are incorporated. Such construction is called flat- slab construction.

The function of slabs:

a) To prepare a plane surface.

b) To support loads.
c) Operate as a sound, fire and heat insulator or resistance.
d) As a ceiling to the beneath floor.
e) The space between the floor and ceiling can be used to placed building
equipment and materials.

Type of Slabs

One way slab with beams

One Way Slab

Flat plate
Flat Slab
Two Way Slab Beam supported slab
waffle slab
One Way Slab

One way slab is a slab which is supported by beams on the two opposite sides to carry the
load along one direction. In one way slab, the ratio of longer span (l) to shorter span (b) is
equal or greater than 2, i.e Longer span (l)/Shorter span (b) ≥ 2

Verandah slab is a type of one way slab, where the slab is spanning in the shorter direction
with main reinforcement and the distribution of reinforcement in the transverse direction.

Two Way Slab

When a reinforced concrete slab is supported by beams on all the four sides and the loads are
carried by the supports along both directions, it is known as two way slab. In two way slab,
the ratio of longer span (l) to shorter span (b) is less than 2 i.e Longer span (l)/Shorter span
(b) < 2

This types of slabs are mostly used in the floor of multi-storey buildings.

1. Flat Plate Slab

These are solid concrete slabs of uniform depths that transfer loads directly to the
supporting columns without the aid of beams or capitals or drop panels.
2. Flat Slabs

Flat slabs include two-way reinforced concrete slabs with capitals, drop panels, or both.
These slabs are very satisfactory for heavy loads and long spans. Although the formwork
is more expensive than for flat plates, flat slabs will require less concrete and reinforcing
than would be required for flat plates with the same loads and spans. They are particularly
economical for warehouses, parking and industrial buildings, and similar structures where
exposed drop panels or capitals are acceptable.

3. Beam supported slab

A two-way slab with beams is a type of floor system is obviously used where its cost is
less than the costs of flat plates or flat slabs. In other words, when the loads or spans or
both become quite large, the slab thickness and column sizes required for flat plates or
flat slabs are of such magnitude that it is more economical to use two-way slabs with
beams, despite the higher form work costs.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ONE WAY AND TWO WAY SLABS

ONE WAY SLAB TWO WAY SLAB

One way slab is supported by beams in only Two way slab is supported by beams in all
2 sides. four sides.
The ratio of longer span panel (L) to shorter The ratio of longer span panel (L) to shorter
span panel (B) is equal or greater than 2. span panel (B) is less than 2. Thus, L/B < 2.
Thus, L/B >= 2
Main reinforcement is provided in only one Main reinforcement is provided in both the
direction for one way slabs. direction for two way slabs.
Total load is carried in the direction In two way slabs, load will be carried in
perpendicular to the supporting beam. both the directions.

DESIGN OF ONE-WAY SLABS

The structural action of a one-way slab may be visualized in terms of the deformed
shape of the loaded surface. Figure 1 shows a rectangular slab, simply supported along its
two opposite long edges and free of any support along the two opposite short edges. If a
uniformly distributed load is applied to the surface, the deflected shape will be as shown by
the solid lines. Curvatures and consequently bending moments, are the same in all strips s
spanning in the short direction between supported edges, whereas there is no curvature, hence
no bending moment, in the long strips l parallel to the supported edges. The surface is
cylindrical.

Figure1. Deflected Shape of Uniformly

Loaded One-Way Slab.

Figure 2. Deflected Shape of Uniformly

Loaded One-Way Slab.

For purposes of analysis and design, a unit strip of such a slab cut out at right angles
to the supporting beams, as in Figure 2, may be considered as a rectangular beam of unit
width, with a depth h equal to the thickness of the slab and a span la equal to the distance
between supported edges. This strip can then be analyzed by the methods that were used for
rectangular beams, the bending moment being computed for the strip of unit width. The load
per unit area on the slab becomes the load per unit length on the slab strip. Since all the load
on the slab must be transmitted to the two supporting beams, it follows that all the
reinforcement should be placed at right angles to these beams, with the exception of any bars
that may be placed in the other direction to control shrinkage and temperature cracking. A
one-way slab thus consists of a set of rectangular beams side by side.

This simplified analysis, which assumes Poisson’s ratio to be zero, is slightly

conservative. Actually, flexural compression in the concrete in the direction of la will result in
lateral expansion in the direction of lb unless the compressed concrete is restrained. In a one-
way slab, this lateral expansion is resisted by adjacent slab strips, which tend to expand also.
The result is a slight strengthening and stiffening in the span direction, but this effect is small
and can be disregarded.

The ratio of steel in a slab can be determined by dividing the sectional area of one bar
by the area of concrete between two successive bars, the latter area being the product of the
depth to the center of the bars and the distance between them, center to center. The ratio of
steel can also be determined by dividing the average area of steel per foot of width by the
effective area of concrete in a 1 ft. strip. The average area of steel per foot of width is equal to
the area of one bar times the average number of bars in a 1 ft. strip (12 divided by the spacing
in inches), and the effective area of concrete in a 1 ft. (or 12 in.) strip is equal to 12 times the
effective depth d.

https://civil-engg-world.blogspot.my/2011/04/what-is-slab.html

http://www.ce.memphis.edu/6136/PDF_notes/F_slabs.pdf

http://www.dailycivil.com/one-way-slab-vs-two-way-slab/

http://www.iamcivilengineer.com/2014/08/what-is-concrete-slab-classification-of_51.html
COLUMN

Column is a long cylindrical member subjected to axial compression. Column carries

self-weight and load coming on it. Generally, load transfers through its longitudinal
direction. Columns come in various sizes and types and they may be placed almost anywhere
in, on, or around a house. They can be purely decorative, or they can be essential components
of a building’s structure. They hold up our porch roofs, mark our entrances, decorate our
dormers, and march around our perimeters. They can provide privacy and a sense of
enclosure or, conversely, create an ambiance of openness. Beyond their practical virtues,
columns have a way of imposing order on unruly facades. They confer dignity and distinction
on buildings that would otherwise be humble or humdrum. Column is categorized based on
its height. These are short column and long column.

1. Short column
 - If the length of column is 15 times the least dimension of its cross-section then
column will be short column. Slenderness ratio of short column is up to 80.
Slenderness ratio is the ratio between effective length of column and radius of
gyration.
2. Long column
- If the length of column is more than 15 times the least dimension of its cross-section,
then column will be categorized as long column. Slenderness ratio of long column is
more than 80.

TYPES OF COLUMNS
Columns are divided into three types according to the way they are reinforced.

1) Tied Columns

A tied column, shown in Figure 1, is a column in which the longitudinal

reinforcement bars are tied together with separate smaller diameter transverse bars
(ties) spaced at some interval along the column height. These ties help to hold the
longitudinal reinforcement bars in place during construction and ensure stability
of these bars against local buckling. The cross sections of such columns are
usually square, rectangular, or circular in shape. A minimum of four bars is used in
rectangular and circular cross sections.

Figure 1: Tied column

2) Spirally-Reinforced Columns

They are columns in which the longitudinal bars are arranged in a circle
surrounded by a closely spaced continuous spiral, shown in Figure 2. These
columns are usually circular or square in shape. A minimum of six bars is used for
longitudinal reinforcement.
 Figure 2: Spirally-reinforced column

3) Composite Columns

A composite column is a column made of structural steel shapes or pipes

surrounded by or filled by concrete with or without longitudinal reinforcement,
shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3: Composite column

COLUMN FAILURE PATTERNS

Failure pattern of short column is totally different than long column patterns. Short column
directly fails at the maximum value of direct stress it can take. In result of this, column
material fails and get crushed. Long column buckles on the application of load. Bending
stress produces in result of buckling which results in column failure. Short columns of same
material and same cross section will carry more loads as compared to longer column.
 -

COLUMN LOADING PATTERNS

There are two types of column loading patterns. Patterns depend on the location where load is
acting. These are:

 Axially Loaded Column

 Eccentric Loaded Column
1. Axially Loaded Column

Axially loaded columns are the one where load acts at the centroid of column cross-
section. This is also known as concentric loaded column. When the load is central to the
centre of gravity axis, it produces a direct compressive stress within the column. Axially
loaded columns are sometimes referred to as 'concentric columns'. Resistance of axial loaded
column is more against buckling than eccentric loaded column. As shown in figure below;
 2. Eccentric Loaded Column

If load acts away from centroid of column cross-section then such column is known as
eccentric loaded column. This results in bending and compressive stress being applied to the
column. Resistance of eccentric loaded column against buckling is very less than
concentrically loaded column. If both types of loaded columns have same cross-section and
material, then axially loaded column will be considered as stronger.

COMPRESSION MEMBERS

Compression members, such as columns, are mainly subjected to axial forces. The principal
stress in a compression member is therefore the normal stress,

The failure of a short compression member resulting from the compression axial force looks
like,
However, when a compression member becomes longer, the role of the geometry and
stiffness (Young's modulus) becomes more and more important. For a long (slender)
column, buckling occurs way before the normal stress reaches the strength of the column
material. For example, pushing on the ends of a business card or bookmark can easily
reproduce the buckling.

For an intermediate length compression member, kneeling occurs when some areas yield
before buckling, as shown in the figure below.

The failure of a compression member has to do with the strength and stiffness of the material
and the geometry (slenderness ratio) of the member. Whether a compression member is
considered short, intermediate, or long depends on these factors.

BUCKLING

Buckling is a major consideration in designing all compression members. Buckling is

deformation (deflection, bending) at right angles to the direction of the applied load.

Buckling will always occur about the weakest axis unless some form of lateral
(sideways) restraint is used to prevent it. The longer or slenderer the member, the more likely
it is to buckle under compressive forces. Therefore, a long member can carry less load than a
short one of the same cross-section.

The tendency to buckle increases with the strength of the material. As the material
gets stronger, the cross-sectional area required to carry the stress decreases. This produces
slenderer struts which are more likely to buckle.

SLENDERNESS RATIO

The maximum loads a column can be allowed to support depends on the slenderness ratio and
the material from which the column is made. The slenderness ratio involves:

• the height of the column

• the size and shape of its cross-section

• the manner in which the two ends of the columns are supported or fixed.

Slenderness for the cross-sectional area of general shapes is calculated using the following
formula:

slenderness = effective length / least radius of gyration

In the case of a rectangular cross-section where b = breadth and d = depth,

slenderness = effective length / b

COLUMN END CONDITIONS

How much load a column can bear also depends on column end conditions. Column with
fixed end conditions at both ends will be stronger, then the second column of same size,
length and material but having both ends free. Ability to carry load will be different for both
columns. Effective length of a column is calculated after knowing the column end conditions.
Effective length changes with the change in column end conditions. Following are the
column end conditions.

1. Both Ends Hinged

2. Both Ends Fixed

3. One End Fixed and Other Hinged

4. One End Fixed and Other Free

BOTH ENDS HINGED

This is the standard column end condition. Effective length in this condition is equal to the
length of column. Effective length of other end conditions can be found with reference to this
condition. In this condition, both ends of column are either pinned, pivoted or rounded. As
shown in figure below:

Le = L

Where,

Le = Effective length

L = Actual Length

BOTH ENDS FIXED

This is the strongest column end condition. Both ends fixed column carries maximum load
and effective length for this condition is considered as half of total column length. Column
load bearing capacity increases with the decrease in column equivalent length. As shown in
figure below:
 Le = 0.5 L

ONE END FIXED AND OTHER HINGED

In this condition, one end of a column is stronger while the other end is very weak.
Equivalent length for this end is as following:

Le =0.7 L

ONE END FIXED AND OTHER FREE

This end condition makes column to bear the smallest load than all other end conditions.
Column in such condition is very weak. Equivalent length for one end fixed and other free is
as following:

Le = 2L

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

In practice, for a given material, the allowable stress in a compression member depends on
the slenderness ratio Leff / r and can be divided into three regions which are short,
intermediate, and long.

Short columns are dominated by the strength limit of the material. Intermediate columns are
bounded by the inelastic limit of the member. Finally, long columns are bounded by the
elastic limit (i.e. Euler's formula). These three regions are depicted on the stress/slenderness
graph below,
The short/intermediate/long classification of columns depends on both the geometry
(slenderness ratio) and the material properties (Young's modulus and yield strength). Some
common materials used for columns are listed below:

Intermediate Column
Short Column Long Column
(Inelastic Stability
Material (Strength Limit) (Elastic Stability Limit)
Limit)
Slenderness Ratio ( SR = Leff / r)
Structural Steel SR < 40 40 < SR < 150 SR > 150
Aluminum
SR < 9.5 9.5 < SR < 66 SR > 66
Alloy AA 6061 - T6
Aluminum
SR < 12 12 < SR < 55 SR > 55
Alloy AA 2014 - T6
Wood SR < 11 11 < SR < (18 ~ 30) (18 ~ 30) < SR < 50

In the table, Leff is the effective length of the column, and r is the radius of gyration of the

cross-sectional area, defined as .

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