Earth science or geoscience includes all fields of natural science related to the planet Earth.

This
is a branch of science dealing with the physical constitution of the Earth and its atmosphere. Earth
science is the study of our planet's physical characteristics, from earthquakes to raindrops, and
floods to fossils.

Environmental science is an interdisciplinary academic field that integrates physical, biological

and information sciences (including ecology, biology, physics, chemistry, plant
science, zoology, mineralogy, oceanography, limnology, soil science, geology and physical
geography (geodesy), and atmospheric science) to the study of the environment, and the solution of
environmental problems.

The scientific method is an empirical method of acquiring knowledge that has characterized the
development of science since at least the 17th century. It involves careful observation, applying
rigorous skepticism about what is observed, given that cognitive assumptions can distort how one
interprets the observation. It involves formulating hypotheses, via induction, based on such
observations; experimental and measurement-based testing of deductions drawn from the
hypotheses; and refinement (or elimination) of the hypotheses based on the experimental findings.

Earth science – all-embracing term for the sciences related to the planet Earth.[1] It is also known as
geoscience, the geosciences or the Earth sciences, and is arguably a special case in planetary
science, the Earth being the only known life-bearing planet.
Earth science is a branch of the physical sciences which is a part of the natural sciences. It in turn
has many branches.

Atmospheric science[edit]
Atmospheric sciences – The study of the atmosphere, its processes, and interactions with other
systems

 Climatology – The scientific study of climate, defined as weather conditions averaged over a
period of time
 Paleoclimatology – The study of changes in climate taken on the scale of the entire history of
Earth
 Atmospheric chemistry – The branch of atmospheric science in which the chemistry of the
atmosphere is studied
 Atmospheric physics – The application of physics to the study of the atmosphere
 Paleotempestology – The study of past tropical cyclone activity using geological proxies and
historical documents
Geology[edit]
 Geology – The study of the composition, structure, physical properties, and history of Earth's
components, and the processes by which they are shaped.
o Environmental geology – Science of the practical application of geology in environmental
problems.
o Quaternary geology – The branch of geology that studies developments more recent than
2.6 million years ago
o Planetary geology – The geology of astronomical objects apparently in orbit around stellar
objects
o Petroleum geology – The study of the origin, occurrence, movement, accumulation, and
exploration of hydrocarbon fuels
 o Historical geology – The study of the geological history of Earth
o Hydrogeology – The study of the distribution and movement of groundwater
o Structural geology – The science of the description and interpretation of deformation in the
earth's crust independent of extent
 Geochemistry – Science that applies chemistry to analyse geological systems
 Geochronology – Science of determining the age of rocks, sediments and fossils
 Geodesy – The science of the geometric shape, orientation in space, and gravitational field of
the Earth
 Geomagnetics – Study of the Earth's magnetic field
 Geomicrobiology – Science of the interactions between microbiology and geology
 Glaciology – Scientific study of ice and natural phenomena involving ice
 Geophysics – The physics of the Earth and its environment in space, and the study of the Earth
using quantitative physical methods
 Micropaleontology – The branch of paleontology that studies microfossils
 Mineralogy – Scientific study of minerals and mineralised artifacts
o Gemology – Science dealing with natural and artificial gemstone materials
o Mineral physics – The science of materials that compose the interior of planets
 Paleontology – Scientific study of prehistoric life
 Palynology – The study of dust
 Petrology – The branch of geology that studies the origin, composition, distribution and structure
of rocks
 Physical geodesy – The study of the physical properties of the Earth's gravity field
 Sedimentology – The study of natural sediments and of the processes by which they are formed
 Seismology – The scientific study of earthquakes and propagation of elastic waves through a
planet
o Paleoseismology – The study of earthquakes that happened in the past
 Stratigraphy – The study of rock layers and their formation
 Volcanology – The study of volcanoes, lava, magma and associated phenomena
Geography[edit]
Geography – The science that studies the terrestrial surface, the societies that inhabit it and the
territories, landscapes, places or regions that form it.

 Human geography – The study of cultures, communities and activities of peoples of the world
 Geostatistics – A branch of statistics focusing on spatial data sets
 Environmental chemistry – The scientific study of the chemical and biochemical phenomena that
occur in natural places
 Environmental soil science – The study of the interaction of humans with the pedosphere as well
as critical aspects of the biosphere, the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, and the atmosphere.
 Environmental geology – An applied science concerned with the practical application of the
principles of geology in the solving of environmental problems.
 Geographic information systems – System to capture, manage and present geographic data
 Edaphology – The science concerned with the influence of soils on living things
 Pedology – The study of soils in their natural environment
 Geomorphology – The scientific study of landforms and the processes that shape them
 Spatial decision support systems – Computerised aid to land use decisions
 Global Positioning System (GPS) – American satellite navigation system
 Economic geology – Science concerned with earth materials of economic value
 Engineering geology – The application of the geology to engineering practice
 Hydrology – The science of applying engineering techniques to the properties of the earth's
water, especially its movement in relation to land.
 Meteorology – Interdisciplinary scientific study of the atmosphere focusing on weather
forecasting
 Satellite navigation – Any system that uses satellite radio signals to provide autonomous geo-
spatial positioning
 Remote sensing – Acquisition of information at a significant distance from the subject
 Photogrammetry – The science of making measurements using photography
Oceanography[edit]
Oceanography – The study of the physical and biological aspects of the ocean

 Biological oceanography – The study of how organisms affect and are affected by the physics,
chemistry, and geology of the oceanographic system.
 Physical oceanography – The study of physical conditions and physical processes within the
ocean
 Chemical oceanography – The study of ocean chemistry
 Paleoceanography – The study of the history of the oceans in the geologic past
 Limnology – The science of inland aquatic ecosystems
 Marine geology – The study of the history and structure of the ocean floor
Planetary Science[edit]
Planetary science – The study of planets (including Earth), moons, and planetary systems (in
particular those of the Solar System) and the processes that form them.

 Planetary geology - study of the geology of astronomical objects apparently in orbit around
stellar objects
 Selenography - study of the surface and physical features of the Moon
 Theoretical planetology - the theoretical study of the internal structure of planets by making
assumptions about their chemical composition and the state of their materials, then calculating
the radial distribution of various properties such as temperature, pressure, or density of material
across the planet's internals.

Scientific laws summarize the results of experiments or observations, usually within a certain range
of application. In general, the accuracy of a law does not change when a new theory of the relevant
phenomenon is worked out, but rather the scope of the law's application, since the mathematics or
statement representing the law does not change.

A scientific theory is an explanation of an aspect of the natural world that can be repeatedly
tested and verified in accordance with the scientific method, using
accepted protocols of observation, measurement, and evaluation of results. Where possible,
theories are tested under controlled conditions in an experiment.

Scientific fact is an objective and verifiable observation, in contrast with a hypothesis or theory,
which is intended to explain or interpret facts.
 Earth science can be considered to be a branch of planetary science, but with a much older history.
Earth science encompasses four main branches of study, the lithosphere, the hydrosphere,
the atmosphere, and the biosphere, each of which is further broken down into more specialized
fields.

Environmental science emerged from the fields of natural history and medicineduring
the Enlightenment.[1] Today it provides an integrated, quantitative, and interdisciplinary approach to
the study of environmental systems.[2]

The scientific method is an empirical method of acquiring knowledge that has characterized the
development of science since at least the 17th century. It involves careful observation, applying
rigorous skepticism about what is observed, given that cognitive assumptions can distort how one
interprets the observation. It involves formulating hypotheses, via induction, based on such
observations; experimental and measurement-based testing of deductions drawn from the
hypotheses; and refinement (or elimination) of the hypotheses based on the experimental findings.

Earth science – all-embracing term for the sciences related to the planet Earth.[1] It is also known as
geoscience, the geosciences or the Earth sciences, and is arguably a special case in planetary
science, the Earth being the only known life-bearing planet.
Earth science is a branch of the physical sciences which is a part of the natural sciences. It in turn
has many branches.
Laws of science or scientific laws are statements that describe or predict a range of natural
phenomena.[1] A scientific law is a statement based on repeated experiments or observations that
describe some aspect of the natural world. The term law has diverse usage in many cases
(approximate, accurate, broad, or narrow) across all fields of natural
science (physics, chemistry, biology, geology, astronomy, etc.). Laws are developed from data and
can be further developed through mathematics; in all cases they are directly or indirectly based
on empirical evidence. It is generally understood that they implicitly reflect, though they do not
explicitly assert, causal relationships fundamental to reality, and are discovered rather than
invented.[2]

Scientific theory (often contracted to theory for brevity) as used in the disciplines of science is
significantly different from the common vernacular usage of theory.[4][Note 1] In everyday
speech, theory can imply an explanation that represents an unsubstantiated and
speculative guess,[4] whereas in science it describes an explanation that has been tested and widely
accepted as valid.

Scientific fact is a thing that is known to be consistent with objective reality and can be proven to be
true with evidence. For example, "this sentence contains words" is a linguistic fact, and "the sun is a
star" is a cosmological fact. Further, "Abraham Lincoln was the 16th President of the United States"
and "Abraham Lincoln was assassinated" are also both facts, of the historical type.