Environmental Science

Environmental Science IIHMCA BCT CA/BHM I Yr
Unit – I
ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
The environmental (from the French environed, to encircle or surround) Can be defined as.
The circumstances or conditions that surround an organism or group of organisms The complex
of social or cultural conditions that affect an individual or community. Since. humans inhaled
the nature world as well as the built or technological social and cultural world, all constitute
important parts of our environment.
Environmental science is the systematic study of our environment and our proper place in it a
relatively new field. environmental science is highly interdisciplinary, integrating natural
science, social sciences and humanities in a broad_ holistic study of the world around us in
contrast to more theoretical disciplines, environmental science is mission-oriented that is it seeks
new, valid, contextual knowledge about the natural world and our impacts on it but obtaining
this information creates a responsibility to bet involved in trying to do something about the
problems we have created.
SCOPE OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE :-
Environmental is the science closest to nature and takes into account its sustainable
development. It may he defined as a very large field encompassing issues of pollution, waste
treatment. Fife, study of the atmosphere_ among other things_
Studies of environmental science are receiving lot of attention through out the world not only in
the field of controlling the pollution but also to sustain the life and the nature, it has socio-
economical, political, scientific, historical, agricultural and man` more fields to work upon.
Every problem near by our surrounding has less or mere concern with environment the scope of
environmental science and management has frown tremendously rwht from manufacturing
pollution control equipment. sewage and effluent treatment plants, biomedical waste treatment
to fly ash management, there is increasing demand fir all these areas.
Environment means all of the conditions, circumstances. and influences surrounding livin-
things_ plants, annuals and human beings. I job means anything W
ne
has to do by agreement for pay and career means ones progress through life or in a particular
vocation, a profession or occupation that one trains for and pursues for a lifetime.
Ecologists were among the first professional to want to be called environmentalist_ Research
and awareness are the two different paths of environment science basically without scientific
approach we cannot understand nature and without awareness among the people we cannot
sustain nature_
Main scope of environment scientists is to understand nature and its components then after
understanding of the disturbing factors and than to eliminate those factors, which are pressuring
sustainability and natural living, environmental science provide job
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Opportunities as environmental engineer. consultant, teacher, activist, scientist, natural

Resource conservator. analyst, eco tourist guide, historian pollution control off
Procure forest officer, zoo-in-charge, lawyer etc., though government and private organizations
are crating new jobs for environmentalist sufficient effort have not been made.
Today environmentalist can play their role in direct descendants of various

environment movements, the issue may be divided into four broad categories:
1. Single-issue campaigning organizations. such as friends of the earth, Greenpeace or the world
vide fund for nature.
2. Advocates for environmental protection within other organization and institution

such as the church, education_ business or professional bodies.
3. Developers of relevant theories and parties for environmental protection, such as ecological
economics, organic farming renewal energy technology.
Green political parties.
ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIESHELP TOSOLVE BIGGEST:-

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS:
1 . Global Warming: To tackle it we need to reduce our consumption of fossil fuels, viz. coal, oil
and natural gas burning fossil fuel gives off carbon-dioxide and the build up of that green house
gas causes half of global warming processes to cut back on fossil fuel we should build more
efficient cars, insulate our buildings letter and use advanced light bulbs.
2. Wind power energy :- It helps to solve the growing demand of energy due to industrial
revolution the natural solar energy and human and animal energy is not sufficient to meet the
needs_
3. Business sense: Environmental friendly practices making good business sense are
increasing
. Population problems :- Human population have grown at alarming rates in the last few
centuries more than 5.5 billion people occupy the earth, and we are adding about 100 million
more each year, the major question is whether there are sufficient resources to support been 5
billion human on sustainable basis, vital resources are stressed by the dual demand of increasing
population and increasing consumption per person.
NATURAL RESOURCE, - The sum of all physical. chemical, biological factors ~ Izich
compose the surroundings of man is referred to as surroundings of man each element of these
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surroundings constitute a resource on which man draws in order to (hi vclop a better life. Thus,
any part of our natural environment - such as land, water. air +-ninerals_ forest, range lands,
wildlife_ fish or even human population - that man can utilize to promote his xvelfare may he
regarded as a natural resource.
Classification of Natural Resources :- The classic sub-division of resource include renewable

and non-renewable resources. Renewal resources are those which are r<~prc;ducihle and are
obtained from the biomass of living organisms, e_g., forest and fish. resources are not
reproducible and are obtained from the finite non-living reserves are
called non-renewable resources, e.g. coal metals some authors prefer to classify resource into
biotic (or living) and biotic (or non-living) resources, forest, agriculture. fish and wild life
falling in the first category and land, water, minerals in second.
broader classification of resources, as proposed by Owen (1971)_ quantity, mutability and
reusability are the attributes on which this classification is based Inexhaustible and exhaustible
are the main categories of resources based on their stock in nature. Inexhaustible resources are
further divided into two groups, immutable and
mutable resources, depending upon the possibility of their qualitative degradation as a result of
man's activity on the other hand, exhaustible resources, being limited in occurrence, are
vulnerable to both quantitative and qualitative degradation. Thus, their availability depends upon
the method of use. so these are classed into maintainable and non-maintainable resources,
supply of maintainable resources could be made to last for long through wise use, however,
some of them have capacity to reproduce called renewal while others cannot reproduce called
non-renewable resources.
Uses and Abuses of Resources:- The resources whether renewable or non-renewable should be
used wisely for the greatest good. for the greatest number, for the longest time if the renewable
resources are misused or used in excess beyond the renewable time they become non renewable
for eg.. Forest resources when forest trees are cut down it takes more than 10 to 20 years to grow
more than use. we abuse resources. _
Abuses of resources:- Scanty attention to resources conservation, to this time, has created the
abuses of resources on the following lines.
. Fictitious needs like brewery products cosmetics, unnecessary phan-naceuticals, luxury, and
fancy foods, pesticides, detergents etc are invading the market economy during the consumers
with false propaganda and glamour, the tangible (visible to the eye) and intangible resources
(which cannot be seen) which could have been utilized to meet the real needs of mankind are
being -.vested. Energy consumption in producing the unwanted fancy goods, and the
environmental pollution released by these manufactures are added abuses to the society.
2. The process design of industrial manufacturing were hitherto concentrating oil the cost benefit
analysis from the manufacturer’s point of view only, hence the possibility of recycling of-
wastes. use of renewable resources in preference to the non-renewal ones, complete utilization
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of the resources without throwing away the less useful components and other possible resources
conservation measures were not explored.
3. Priorities in the usages of precious resources were not tickle up. l 1111S, land is used to raise
commercial or useless crops like tobacco, instead of coating tile more needful but less profitable
food crops he monopoly of natural resources by private individuals. institutions and state
governments prevent the optimum utilization of the resources in national interests similarly(, a
rich man may be using precious tap water for while poor man has no drinking water.
Tech Civilization Glarrourises wasteful consumption Thus meChaill"l_at1011 spending fossil

fuel power is a sign of development compared to mail power riding a scooter where bicycle can
serve the purpose carries more glamour such glamorous attitude of the so called modern
development squander away tile resources posing a threat to the survival ofthe future
generations
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5. Insufficient planning an maintenance are also responsible for the wastage of resources oil
spills, gas leaks, spoilage during storage unauthorized usages of lesser utility and wasteful
transport can be decreased with proper planning.
Accidents and hazards resulting in the destruction of property, saluetages, riots and wars that
destroy property and numerous behavioral aberrations of human beings are wasting the
resources.
6. Intangible Resources like intelligence, entrepreneurship, enthusiasm and knowledge are not
mobilized to enhance productivity due to poor planning and inefficient leadership
Conservation measures:-
Unusually high tide induced by severe winds over ocean surfaces or by tidal waves caused by
under sea earthquakes.
Effects of floods:- Floods not only damage property and endanger the lives of humans and
animals_ but have other effects as well rapid runoff causes soil erosion as well as sediment
deposition problems down stream spawning ground for fish and other wild life halite’s are often
destroyed high velocity currents increase flood damage; prolonged high floods delay traffic and
interfere with drainage-and economic use of lands, bridge abutments, bank lines. Serve out falls
and other structures within floodways are damaged and navigation and hydroelectric power are
often impaired financial losses due to floods commonly amount to millions of pounds each
year_
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Control of Floods:- -The basic method of flood control have been practiced since ancient times.
These methods include deforestation and the construction of levees, dams, reservoirs and flood
ways (artificially channels that divert flood water).
The ancient Chinese built levees to raise the banks of Huang He on the supposition that the
confined river would then deepen its channel to contain the maximum flour the result was
however. was a raising of the river bed because the sedimentary deposit of alluvial soil
previously distributed over the entire flood plain during annual flooding was confined to the
river bottom.
Floods in the Mississippi valley have demonstrated that leues alone do not provide sufficient
protection aginst flooding on a large river-and other methods of flood control including dams
and flood are no", in use on the Mississippi river.
Although darns hale been used for many centuries, their primary purposes were to build up
water reservoir for irrigation and other domestics uses and to create power, on],, recently have
they been constructed specifically for flood control. An effective method of controlling flood
waters and water supply is to construct coordinated groups of darns and reservoir on the
headwaters of the streams that lead into the main rivers so that water can be stored during
periods of hear N- run off and released gradually during dry
season. The dams nearest to the origin of the tributaries restrain the flood water while the dams
farthest down slowly release their normal reservoirs and are drained. Then the flood waters are
released to each succeeding- dam and are finally emptied Into the main river the capacity of
which has been increased by straightening and deepening.
Through the centuries people have created a flood problem by cutting, down trees and digging
up the vegetable cover of' the soiso-1. thus inheres increasing spoilers erosion.Cultivat
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decreases the ability of the soil to retain water and increase sun-off. Vast land areas along the
headwaters of river through out the world have been laid waste by intensive cultivation and
subsequent erosion, flood control in these areas has been directed to restoring "vegetation and
instituting efficient methods of soil management and consent~ n such as crop rotation and
contour sloughing_ Another method of flood control is t construction of' floods on the lower
reaches of rivers to divert flood
DROUGHT
:Brought is defined in three ways: an extended period of below normal rainfall, a long arm
depletion of ground water or the stunting of vegetative growth due to lack of water Floods and
droughts are two catastrophes that mankind has lived with and struggled throughout history.
'They fun opposite extreme ends of the hydrologic cycle, exhausting mankind different
characteristics. When compared to floods droughts are of creeping type disasters developing
over some period of time heavy rain over short period of-time on saturated soils almost foretells
a flood on the contrary a few weeks or months of reduced rainfall suggest the onset of drought
the most striking effect of drought is that it is both local and global causing regional imbalances,
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which severely affect the economic growth of the nation_ drought increases pressure on the
environment in terms of falling groundwater tables and reduced tree cover. Industry would have
to contend with a power crisis, due to the expected shortfall in hydel-power generation similarly
even the irrigated regions would be but by a fall in dam reservoir levels.
Exploitation of water resources:- Water is one of the major limiting factors of the
environment especially for the human communities growing population places greater '
demands for fresh water supplies, the reasons for long lasting water shortages are:
1. Increased demand
2. Unequal distribution of fresh water.
Increasing pollution of existing fresh water sources to make up the increased pressure for water
humans began to overdraw available water
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1•;pfoiKation of Surface Water:- Availability of surface waters always depend on :airdate
distribution in an area_ hydrological predictions suggest that not more than 30% of average flow
in the river can be taken out each year without risking a short fall every 20 years_ This rule is
not always adhered to leading to inevitable shortages to overcome these shortages rivers are
dammed and its flow is store to meet the requirements during ion flows, the down stream of the
dam is deprived of usual flow and hence, the impact on fish and other aquatic organisms is
obvious_ The secondary impacts of such ecological imbalances are generally felt by the wild life
which depend on the water or on food chains involving the aquatic organisms reduced flow
affects several species of fish the problem extend to estuaries (a day or downed valley where
river empties into the sea), which are bavs in which freeloader tromp a river mixes with sea
water.
Exploitation of Ground W:1iCI':- Flotillas have started to depend on ground water as it is

considered to be fresh water v, itch the advances in drilling and pumping technology. the
dependency on ground water has become convenient and economical too. Flyover, as this
resource too is limited. sustainable practices need to be balance between rate of withdrawals and
rate of recharge. In some dry regions as the global observation of Falling water table indicates
the ground water withdrawals are exceeding recharge and ultimately resulting in orotund water
depletion_ Over use or exploitation of this resources leads to several kinds of problems
including depletion. Subsidence (collapse, settling of pork>us k3rmation)_ saltwater intrusion,
etc availability of water in streams, rivers, lakes,
springs etc., also diminishes as the water tables drop, removal of water from cavities in the earth
results loss of support to the over laying rock and soil hence there can be gradual settling of the
land this phenomena of settling of the land surface above due to withdrawal large amount of
groundwater or falling of water table is known as land subsidence over the world, many cities
(especially coastal cities) are experiencing subsidence.
Salt water intrusion is another serious consequence of aquifer depletion especially in coastal
regions, ground water sources yield freshwater, when the water table is high. However, falling
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water table or rapid rate of ground water removal reduces the pressure in the aquifer permitting
saltwater to flow back into the aquifer and hence, the wells.
Water Dams
Dam is the barrier constructed across a stream or river to impound water and raise its level, the
most common reason for building dams are to concentrate the natural fall of a river at a given
site. Thus_ making it possible to generate electricity to direct water from rivers into canals and
irrigation and water supply system-, to increase river depths for navigational purposes, to control
water flow during times of flood and drought and to create artificial lakes for recreational use.
Many dams fulfils several of these functions.
Controlling and using water by means of dams profoundly affects the economic prospects of
vast areas. - One of the first stages in the progress of developing countries usually involves
gaining the ability to use dams for power generation, agriculture and flood protection.
Design Considerations of Dam:- A dam must he impervious to water leaka_,?e through or under
a darn must he prevented to avoid excessive water loss and to prevent undermining of the
structure a darn must also be constructed in such a way as to with stand the forces exerted upon
it some forces that engineers must consider while designing a dam are gravity (which tends to
full the darn down), hydrostatic pressure (torm water behind the dam), uplift (vertical forces
tending to reduce the weight of the dam) caused by hydrostatic pressure on the foundatiun, ice
pressure, and earth stresses and tensions, including the effects of earthquakes.
When a site is being considered for construction of a dam, earthquake hazard must be taken into
account as part of a thorough geologic analysis. In addition geologist must determine whethur
the natural foundations are subject to seepage and whether they have the strength to support tile
weight of tile dam and the water than will back up l) cried
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TYPES OF DAMS:- Dams are classified on the basis of structural form and material
used.
1. Gravity dams:- Gravity dams are solid concrete structures with triangular cross
sections. The darn is thick at its base and thinner towards its tops, when viewed
' form above. They are either straight or only slightly curved, the upstream face; is
nearly vertical, such darn depend primarily on their own weight for stability.
2. Arch dams:- This type of dam employs the same structural principles as the arch bridge the
arch curves towards the flow of water and the main water load is distributed along the dam to
the side walls of the narrow valley or canyon in which such dams are built under favorable
conditions, the arch dam contains less concrete than the gravity dam.
.~, Buttress dam:- A buttress dam has an upstream face of deck to support the impounded water
and a series of buttresses or triangular- vertical walls built to support the deck and transmit the
water load to the foundation_ These dams are sometimes called hollow gravity dams because
they require only 35 to 50 percent of the concrete used in a solid gravity- dam of comparable
sign limbankment dam:- Earth and rock fill dams, levees and are the structures most commonly
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used to impound water_ Everything from clay to large stones is used in their construction earth
and rock dams use natural materials with minimum of processing_ Therefore availability of
usable material near the site influences the choice of this type of dam.
DAM PROBLEMS
L vc:r 48,000 large dams are operation world wide, they provide drinking water, irrigate the
land, produce hydro-electricity and prevent floods_
Yet, today over one billion people do not have access to safe drinking water more
[; double that number lack basic sanitation_ _Two billion people have no access to
:. t is itv and those numbers are set to rise.
With the world's population growing faster than ever, by 2050 at least I in ~~- people will be
living in a country affected by water shortages and in the most Using scenario, by that time up
to seven billion people in 60 countries area expected to face water scarcity to meet the demand
for water, more large dams are proposed as a key solution_ But will they really bring benefits to
those whose needs are largest? Too often, the benefits they bring have come at a great
environmental avoid social cost, as dams destroy ecosystems and cause people to lose their
homes and livelihood.
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A new WWF report warms that indiscriminate dam building is threatening the world's largest
and most important rivers with the Yangtze in china, the La Platy in South America and the
Tigris and Euphrates in the middle east likely_ to suffer most from dams_
The WWF report, rivers at risk, identifies the top 21 river at risk from dams being need or under
construction it shows that over 60% of the world's 227 largest rivers have been fragmented by
dams_ which has led to the destruction of wetlands a decline in fresh water species - including
rig-er dolphins and birds and the forced :displacement of tens of millions of people.
The report highlights the Yangtze as the river at most risk with 46 large dams planned or under
constriction.
Getting the balance right is crucial the world commission on dams provided recommendations
and guidelines that allow us to do just that however, the report concludes that governments are
not applying these recomfrzendatrons to there dam projects as a result the benefits that dams
and flood control services are often overtaken by negative environmental and social impacts for
example, much of the water provided by dams is lost, mainly due to inefficient agriculture
irrigation system, which globally waste up to 1,500 trillion liters of water annually. This is
equivalent to 10 times the annual water consumption of the entire African continent.
According to the report, downstream communities suffer most from dams, with river running
dry and fish stocks decimated dams disrupt the ecological balance of rivers by depleting them of
oxygen and nutrients and affecting the migration and reproduction of fish and other freshwater
species for example, china the country with the most number of dams planned or under
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construction in the world may lose endangered species such as the Yangtze river Dolphin and
many water birds if indiscriminate dam, building continues to destroy their halite’s
MINERAL RESOURCES
Mineral is a chemical element, specific inorganic compound or a specific complex aggregation

of elements and compounds more than 3,000 minerals species are known, most of which are
characterized by definite chemical composition, crystalline structure and physical properties,
mineral species also a rule limited to solid substances the only liquids being metallic mercury
and water all the rocks forming the crust of the earth consist of minerals.
USES OF MINERALS:- Some metals and minerals used for in modern society are:
Copper:- About 13 millions tons of copper are currently used annually, copper is used for
electrical conductors motors- appliances. piping and in metal alloys
Gold:- Gold has many high tech applications including computers and scientific instruments, is
used in electrical conductors- is used in the face shields of lire fighters to reflect the heat of a
fire is used in building windows for reflecting the heat from the sun Medical and dental
equipment and Jewelry
Zinc:- Zno is used to prevent sun burn, zinc is used for protective coating for steel, casting
alloys and extensively in medicines.
Nickel:- Nickel is primarily used to manufacture stainless steel
Silver:- Silver is used in electrical conductors, photography, chemical manufacturing, dental an

medical uses.
Aluminum:- Aluminum is should in electrical conductors, ships, aero planes, doors, windows,
roofing, insulation, packaging food processing, domestic latencies_
Iron:- Iron is used in steel manufacturing magnets, medicines, 11-10 medical research, paints,
printing inks. plastics, cosmetics dyes. Iron is used in volume, about 20 times more than anv
other metal in our society.
Borax:- Borax is used to make fiber glass. high temperature glass , cleaning agents, ceramics,
wood preservatives, corrosion inhibitors and fertilizers.
1` strlasuna:- Titanium is used in paint manufacture as pigments and in plastic manucature v= ll

as many high strength, low weight metal alloys.
Tale- Talc is used in paper manufacture, in paint manufacture and in plastics and the cosmetic
industry.
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Clay:- Clay is used to make cement and concrete, which is used to build roads, buildings,
housing foundations.
Coal:- Used in steel making and to provide the lowest cost electricity in the world (except for
hydro generated)_ Coal costs '/z of oil fuel power plants (pound of fuel per million BTU
produced) slag (the residue lift when coal is burned) from coal power plant i_e used for paving
additives, for abrasive in sand blasting and to manufacture roofing material.
Phosphate:- Phosphate is used to produce phosphoric acid for fertilizers, feed additives for Itaic
stock, chemicals and used in consumer home products.
Carbonate of potassium, is used in fertilizers, medicines and the chemical
~:oath elements:- Tantalum, cerium praseodiurn, neodymium, europium etc are in petroleum
refining computers, television, magnetic industry metallurgical glaciations ceramics and
lighting.
Freestones:- Include diamonds_ rubies supplies and emeralds are used in gold and silver jewelry.
Exploitation of Minerals and Environmental Problems:

Mining always involves the physical removal of materials from the crust of the earth frequently
in huge amounts for the recovery of only small amounts of the desired product most mining
accidents are related to human error_ It is therefore essential that there be extensive training of
all people who work in mines in addition, much research is under way into the hazard of minim
and in to design thC1rr (Alt of mines for °anal~, the support system briefly described above for
the long wall system of mining have had great success in reducing he accident due to fall of
ground in British coal mines. Today's mining graduates are trained in the latest technology to
reduce accidents.
The thing is done on the surface or buried deep under the ground in some of the deep South
African gold mines, mining starts at depth of well over 1,500 m 001)0 ft) and goes down to
more than 3,500 in (12,000 ft) mines may recover loose unconsolidated material this causes
accidents_
The mining starts with drilling and blasting the rock so broken is then loaded into trucks by huge
electric power shovels, hydraulic shovels, or front end loaders and
removed from the pit. the labors work below several meters of earth crust. They work at the cost
of their health
All mines have safety problems but underground mines tend to be thought of as especially
dangerous the danger stems from the nature of the mine a construction in natural rock, which is
not a good engineered material. Underground mines are statistically more hazardous than
surface mines and generally soft rock mines are more hazardous than hard rock mines, the major
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cause of accidents in most mines are fall off ground that is large rocks falling off sidewalls of the
openings, include in this category of accidents are those caused by falling rocks from other
sources, such as transport mechanism the second most frequent cause of accidents in mines is
moving machinery other hazards are exposures, water in rushes and explosions due to gasses
such as methane, which can be given off by the rocks in all mines but which are most common
in coal mines.
The depth of the mine may create hazards as the stresses placed on the working by the weight of
the overlying rocks may exceed the strength of the rock, resulting in the rock falling explosively
a condition known as a rock burst_ Research has been under way for many years to improve
design to eliminate or reduce the dangers of such occurrences.
In addition to the hazard of accidents there are a number of workplace. related mines all may be
contracted by miners- This is of course particularly true of under ground mines all mines
produce dust and this may be inhaled to cause a number of lung diseases, such as black lung in
coal mines, silicosis, asbestoses and others the fumes of explosures, which contain oxides of
nitrogen, are extremely toxic. In- addition, other toxic gases such as hydrogen supplied and
carbon monoxide may be encountered in mines many mines and particularly those for uranium,
may have radiation problems radioactive radon gas is given off by the rock.
Because of- the hazardous nature of the work all major mining counties have extremely tight
legislation and regulations governing mine safety. These cover the quality of the air the support
of mine workings, explosives lighting, noise and all other hazards that may be encountered in
the mines. in most counties there is a requirement that mine managers must have passed
examination in mining safety and law.
FOOD RESOURCES
,Anything eaten to satisfy appetite and to meet physiological needs for growth, to maintain all
body processes and to supply energy to maintain body temperature and activity is called food
because food differ markedly in the amount of the nutrients the contain- they are classified on
the basis of their composition .1ncl the source 110111 V.hich they are derived.
/Food Problems:- World food supplies are rising at an unprecedented rate and many times they
have grown faster than population in man} continents (except Africa) there is enough food to
supply every one in the world with more than the minimum daily trod requirements, but food is
Inadequately distributed problems in distribution leave many people hungry, even in the rich
nations estimates report that 1>% of the total world population have less than the minimum
calorific intake and nutritional requirements needed to sustain a healthy productive working life
about half of those who are
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chronically under led are children, ~,ho softer stunted growth and uevclup1nCnt retardation as a
result of malnutrition, human physiological system requires constant supply of energy and raw
materials to maintain vital functions and to rebuild cellular structures and tissues worn out in the
daily life_ major nutrients required by humans to remain strong and healthy are to be made
available in the food. Nutritional deficiencies result when the nutritional deficiencies
requirements are not properly satisfied some of the effects of malnutrition are:
Deficiency effect
Protein and energy Stunted growth, impaired lives.
Iron Anemia
Iodine goiter
Vitamin A Blindness
In addition to the energy provided by food specific nutrients are requirement by the human body
nutrients such as proteins_ vitamins and minerals are generally available in the dirt however,
many times it is possible to have excess food and still suffer from malnutrition malnutrition is a
case of nutritional imbalance caused by the lack of specific dietary components or inability to
absorb or utilize essential nutrients
Food Guide Pyramid
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Unit – II
ECOSYSTEMS
CONCEPT OF AN ECOSYSTEM
Ecosystem is the basic functional unit in ecology, since it includes both biotic and environment,
influencing each other for maintenance of life. A.G. Tinsley (1935) first proposed the term
ecosystem. He defined it as the system resulting from the integration of all the living and non-
living factors of the environment. An ecosystem may in its simplest form, be defined as a self-
sustained community of plants and animals existing in its own environment.
Various ecologists have added much on this concept (Lineman, 1942; Odium, 1963 and 1971;
Billings, 1964; Mira, 1969; Mac Fad yen, 1964)_ Different terminology have been used to
explain the term ecosystem to explain the idea like, biosensors, microcosm, biosensors or
geobiocoenosis, Holocene, bios stem, bonier body and exorcism. However, the term ecosystem
is most preferred. where eco = environment, and system = an interacting and interdependent
complex. Barrett (1978)rt explained the term ecosystem for its structural and functional aspects.
He proposed a new term no system to define a basic unit of study encompassing biological,
physical, social, economic and cultural influences on the total system. The organisms ui any
community besides interacting among themselves, always have functional relationship with the
environment. This structural and functional system of communities and environment is called
ecological system or ecosystem.
The complete ecological system of an area,• including the plants, animals and the environmental
factors is known as ecosystem. The ecosystem as that approach, in which habitat, plants and
animals are all considered as one interacting unit; materials and energies of one passing in and
out of the others. Various definitions proposed by different ecologists are:
Odom (1971). Ecosystem is also defined as any unit that includes all of the organisms in a
.given area interacting with the physical environment, so that a flow of energy leads to
clearly defined tropic structure biotic diversity and material cycles within the system.
Michael Allay (1983). It is a community of interdependent organisms together with the
environment is known as ecosystem.
An ecosystem may in its simplest form, be defined as a self-sustained community of plants and
animals existing in its own environment
An ecosystem is thus an overall integration of white mosaic of interacting organisms and
their environment.
it is thus a basic functional unit of variable size, consisting of both biotic and biotic components
interacting with each other to sustain the life upon earth.
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Ordered Fen dance is the important basis of ecology. Ecosystem includes interacting and
interdependent components!-',,at are open and linked to each other. An ecosystern may be as
small as a drop of pond :%-ate: (microccosystem) or as large as ocean. It can be of temporary
nature, e.g., a fresh pool or field of cultivated crops, or permanent e_g., a forest or an ocean- A
Ecosystems.
balanced aquarium may be thought of as an artificially established self-sustained ecosystem. It

must be noted that a completely self-sufficient ecosystem like aquarium is rarely found in
nature, rather, all these unit ecosystems are simply separated from each other with time and
space, but functionally they all are, linked forming as integrated whole. It shows that earth itself
is t~ vast ecosystem (biosphere) where abiotic and biotic components are constantly acting and
reaching upon each other. The biosphere has various smaller ecosystems, e.g., forest, desert,
grassland, cropland, freshwater, marine, etc.
Ecosystem is usually an open system with a continuous, but variable influx and loss of materials
and energy. An ecosystem represents the highest level of ecological intergration, which is energy
based and capable of energy transformation, accumulation and circulation. Its main function in
ecological sense is to emphasize obligatory relationship, interdependence and casual
relationships, i.e. coupling of components to form functional units. Ecosystem may also he
regarded as energy processing unit, vchich is restrained or limited by the amount of nutrients
and water available to it_
. KINDS OF ECOSYSTEM
system can be natural or artificial.

Natural Ecosystems: These operate under natural conditions without any major interference by
man. On the basis of the type of habitat these may be further divided as:
Terrestrial: Forest, grassland, desert etc.
Flow of Energy
Autotrophic plant has ability to change radiant energy to chemical energy by photosynthesis.
Part of this energy is consumed by atrophy during their respiration, growth and other metabolic
reaction_ The remaining chemical energy is called net primary production, which is used in
body building of autotrophic plants_ Other living organisms obtain organic compounds and
energy from atrophy organic compounds are used in body building whereas, energy is used in
growth and maintenance. The flow of energy in ecosystem is un indirection i.e. it goes from
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producers to other living organism and lost at energy step of its transfer from one organism to
another.
Inter Relation ship :-
No ecosystem behaves as an isolated system. Different ecosystems change optic and biotic
materials. In an ecosystem, different components linked together by a web of there dimensional
and highly complex interrelation. The plants provide O.., food and shelter to animals and
animals supply CO, to plants and helps in dispersal and pollination_ Different animals are
further inter-related in the food .) to becoming the food of another. When plant and animals (lies
their bodies are broken down by a number of scavengers and decomposers due to which raw
material releases into soil and reused by autotrophic plants_
Cybernetics
Ecosystem maintains a functional balance between various components. This phenomenon is

called homoeostasis. It is achieved by a number of limitations, which is called cybernetics_ For
example generally no species increases its number beyond the limit thus it controls own growth
in response to scarcity of resources and overcrowding. Environment has ability to recycle
wastes_ These phenomenon’s are called self regulation. One living component can
control other through feed back system for e.g., phytoplankton’s (autotrophy exert positive feed
back on zooplankton) (Feed on autotrophy) exert negative feed back. When number of
zooplankton increases it decreases the number of phytoplankton ultimately number of
zooplankton will also reduce. Photo plankton will again multiply rapidly and ultimately
increases the number of zooplankton to a suitable level. Sometimes large-scale disturbance in
one component of the ecosystem upsets homeostasis- This phenomenon is called ecocatastrophe.
In such conditions, a new structural and functional balance is developed often by replacement of
one type of component organism with another.`
/
CHARACTERISTICS OF AN ECOSYSTEM :-
1. It is a major structural and functional unit of ecology- Its structure is related to its species
diversity; the more complex ecosystems have high species diversity and vice versa.
2. Its function is related to energy • flow and material cycling through and within the system.
3. The relative amount of energy needed to maintain an ecosystem depends on its structure. The
more complex the structure, the lesser the energy it needs to maintain itself.
4. It matures by passing from less complex to more complex states. Early stages of each
succession have an excess of potential energy and a relatively high energy flow per unit
15
biomass. Later (mature) stages have less energy accumulation and its flow through more diverse
components.
5. Both the environment and the energy fixation in any given ecosystem are limited and cannot
be exceeded without causing serious undesirable effects.
Alternations in the environment represent selective pressures upon the population to which it
must adjust. Organisms, which are unable to adjust to the changed environment, must be
vanished.
PRODUCERS, CONSUMERS AND DECOMPOSERS
All ecosystems, whether terrestrial, freshwater, marine or man-engineered, consist of two major
components: biotic and biotic.
(Biotic (Living) Components

This comprises of all the living organisms. They amount of living material present in an ecosystem at
any time is called standing crop. On the nourishment (or tropic) standpoint, they may be divided into
two groups:
The autotrophy (autotrophic = self nourishing) or Producers

These are green plants and certain photosynthetic or chemosynthetic bacteria, which can convert
the light energy of sun into potential chemical- energy in the form of organic compounds,
needed by plants for their own growth and development. Oxygen is produced as a by-product of
photosynthesis, needed by all living organisms for respiration. These green plants are also
known as producers because fhey produce food for all the other organisms. They are also known
as converters or transducers because they change radiant energy into chemical form. About 99
per cent of living mantle of earth is made of producers, the rest being consumers, parasitic,
scavengers. Producers other than bacteria a!so help in maintaining CO,/O, balance of
atmosphere. They obtain CO, (released during respiration and hurning) from the atmosphere and
release O, instead.
The heterotrophy (heterotrophic = other nourishing)

They are dependent directly or indirectly upon the autotrophs for their food. The organisms
involved are also known as consumers because they consume the materials built up by
producers. These may be subdivided into two groups:
1. Macro consumers Photographs or Bo phages-. They are animals which ingest other organisms
their particulate organic matter. They are of two types: herbivorous and carnivorous.
2. herbivorous are known as primary consumers as they directly feed on plant matter. They may
be large (e.g., rabbits, deer_ cattle, goats, horses etc). Depending upon the nature of plant part
eaten by them, the herbivores can be of different types (eaters, forgivers, bark feeders, root
feeders, sucking animals etc). Carnivores feed on flesh of other animals. The animals which feed
on herbivores are known as secondary consumers or primary carnivores. The carnivores which
feed on secondary consumers are known as tertiary consumers and so on. The carnivores, which
are not further preyed upon, are called top carnivores e.g. lion, tiger, leopard, For example,
16
insects like grass hoppers, chew up stems and leaves, animals like goat, cow, deer, rabbit eat up
entire aerial portion of green plants, and man eats up plant products, are all primary consumers_
Frog, a carnivore, is a secondary consumer as it eats the herbivores, the snake that eats the frog
is a tertiary consumer.
Fig_ 11. 7: The ecological role of microorganisms.
It includes parasites, deservers and decomposers.

I. Parasites: They obtain food directly from other organism of all tropic levels. Parasites rob the hosts of
their food_ The may also cause disease.
2. Deter ores and Scavengers: Deservers (e.g., termites, earth worms, wood lice, millipede etc) feed on
organic fragments whereas; scavengers (e.g., vulture, carrion beetle) feed on
dead bodies. Scavengers and deservers seem to be essential for quick breakdown of dead bodies of
organisms.
3. Decomposers: They are mostly parasitic and saprophytic bacteria, actinomycetes and fungi.
Decomposers break doom the complex compounds of dead or living protoplasm, absorb some of the
decomposition products and release inorganic nutrients which are cycled back to the soil and the
atmosphere from where they are once again made available to the primary producers
/
Such a division of organisms based on the type of nutrition gives rise to the tropic structure of the
ecosystem_ and the energy source used which is one kind of producer-consumer arrangement, where
each food level is known as tropic level. The amount of living material in different tropic levels or in a
component population is known as the standing crop, a term applicable to both, plants as well as
animals. The standing crop may be expressed in terms of organisms mass, which can be measured as
living weight, dry weight, ash-free dry weight or carbon weight or calories or any other convenient unit
suitable for comparative purposes.
Biotic Components
Structurally biotic components includes:
1. Physical factors: Light, temperature, precipitation, humidity, wind, soil, topography, etc.
2. Inorganic substances: They include water, minerals and gases_ The inorganic substances required for
the synthesis of organic substances are called biogenetic substances. The amount of biogenetic nutrient
present in the environment at any time is called standing. The minerals and atmospheric gases keep on
cycling_ They enter into biotic systems and after the death and decay of organisms return to the soil and
atmosphere. This is known as biogeochemical cycle. This circulation of materials involves trapping of
the solar energy by
the green plants which is ultimately lost by the organisms in several ways.
Organic substances: Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and humid substances that link the biotic
components with the biotic components. 1 -
ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS AND ENERGY FLOW

The concept of ecological pyramids was developed by Charles Elton (1927), the pioneer British
Ecologist. If-we arrange the organisms in a food chain according to trophic levels, they often form a
pyramid with a broad base representing primary producers and only a few individuals in the highest
17
tropic levels. This pyramid arrangement is especially true if one looks at the energy content of an
ecosystem_
True to the second principle of thermodynamics, less food energy is available to the top trophic level
than is available to preceding levels. For example, it takes a huge number of plants to support a modest
colony of grazers such as prairie dogs. Several colonies of prairie dogs, in turn, might be required to
feed a single coyote.
Why is their so much less energy in each successive level in this figure? In the first place, some of the
food that organisms eat is undigested and doesn't provide usable energy. Much of the energy that is
absorbed is used in the daily processes of living or lost as heat when it is transformed from one form to
another and thus isn't stored as biomass that can be eaten_
Furthermore, predators do not operate at 100 per cent efficiency. If there were enough foxes to catch all
the rabbits available in the summer when the supply is abundant, there would be too many foxes in the
middle of the winter when rabbits are scarce. A general rule of thumb is that only about 10 per cent of
the energy in one consumer level is represented in the next higher level. The amount of energy available
is often expressed in biomass. For example, it generally takes about 100 kg of clover to make 10 kg of
rabbit and 10 kg of rabbit to make 1 kg of fox.
The total number of organisms and the total amount of biomass in each successive trophic level of an
ecosystem also may form pyramids similar to those describing energy content. The relationship between
biomass and numbers is not as dependable as energy, however. The biomass pyramid, for instance, can
be inverted by periodic fluctuations in producer populations (for example, low plant and algal biomass
present during winter in temperate pragmatic ecosystems)_ The number pyramid a!so can be inverted.
One coyote can support numerous tapeworms for example- Numbers inversion also occurs at the lower
tropic levels (for example, one large tree can support thousands of
2. Pyramid of biomass, showing the total dry weight or any other suitable measure of the total
amount of living matter (g m-2).
3. Pyramid of energy, showing the amount of energy flow and/or productivity at successive tropic levels
(calories m-' year').
If we arrange the organisms in a food chain according to tropic levels, they often form a pyramid with a
broad base representing primary producers and only a(we individuals in the highest tropic levels. This
pyramid arrangement is especially true if we look at the energy content of an ecosystem.
At the first place, some of the food that organizing eat is undigested and doesn't provide usable energy.
Much of the energy that is absorbed is used in the daily processes of living or lost as heat when it is
transformed from one form to another and thus is not stored as biomass that can be eaten.
Furthermore, predators do not operate at 100 per cent efficiency_ If there were enough foxes to catch all
the rabbits available in the summer when the supply is abundant, there would be too many foxes in the
middle of the winter when rabbits are scarce. A general rule of thumb is that only about 10 per cent of
the energy in one consumer level is represented in the next higher level_ The amount of energy available
is often expressed in biomass. For example, it generally takes about 100 kg of clover to make 10 kg of
rabbit and 10 kg of rabbit to make 1 kg of fox.
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The total number of organisms and the total amount of biomass in each successive tropic level of an
ecosystem also may form pyramids similar to those describing energy content. The relationship between
biomass and numbers is not as dependable as energy, however. The biomass pyramid, for instance, can
be inverted by periodic fluctuations in producer populations (for example, low plant and algal biomass
present during winter in temperate aquatic ecosystems). The number pyramid also can be inverted. One
coyote can support numerous tapeworms for example. Number~_ inversion also occurs at the lower
tropic levels (for example, one large tree can support thousands of caterpillars)_
PYRAMID OF NUMBERS
It is the graphic representation of the number of individuals at successive trophic levels of a food chain
per unit area at any time. The form of the pyramid ot numbers will vary widely with different
communities, depending on whether producers are small (phytoplanktons, grass) or large (oak trees)_
Sometimes, number of individuals vary so widely that it is difficult to represent the entire ecosystem on
the same numerical scale. Such data could best be presented in a tabular form
Grassland Ecosystem
In a grassland, the producers which are mainly grasses, are always maximum in number. This number
then shows a successive decrease towards apex, as the primary consumers (herbivores), which are
rabbits, mice, etc., are lesser in number than the grasses; the secondary consumers, the snakes and
lizards are lesser in number than the rabbits and mice. Finally, the top (tertiary) consumers, the hawks
and birds, are least in number. Thus, the pyramid becomes upright.
,( Pond Ecosystem
In a Pond ecosystem producers, which are mainly phytoplanktons as algae, bacteria, etc. are maximum
in number; the herbivores which are very small fish, rotifers, etc., are lesser in number than the
producers; and the secondary consumers (carnivores), such as water beetles and small fish, etc., are
lesser in number than the herbivores. Finally, the top (tertiary, consumers), the bigger fish and birds are
least in number. Thus, the pyramid becomes upright.
Forest Ecosystem
G
In a forest ecosystem the producers, which are mainly large-sized trees are lesser in number, and form
the base of the pyramid. The herbivores, which are the fruit eating birds, deers, etc., are more in number
than the producers. Then, there is a gradual decrease in the number of successive carnivores, thus
pyramid becomes spindle shaped.
In a parasitic food chain the pyramids are always inverted. This is due to the fact that a single plant may
support the growth of many herbivore birds and each one of these, in turn, may provide nutrition to
several hyperparasites like bugs and lice. Thus from the producers towards consumers, the number of
organisms successively shows an increase, making the pyramid inverted one. In crop ecosystem, the
pyramid is upright one where primary consumers, viz., grasshoppers are lesser in number than the crops;
frogs, snakes, and eagle-. the primary, the secondary and the top consumers respectively are present in
decreasing number.
Draw backs of Pyramid of number
1. The pyramid does not take into consideration the size of individuals. An ant, aphid, caterpillar,
plankton, rat, cow, whale and elephant are all considered to be equal.
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2. The number of individuals of a trophic level depends upon their biomass. For example, a tree supports
numerous insects and birds while several trees will support an elephant.
Pyramid of number not convey the actual functional aspects of an ecosystem.
Pyramids of Biomass
The amount of living material present in an organism is called baroness. It is measured both, as fresh or
dry weight. In pyramids of biomass the relationship between different tropic levels is presented in terms
of weight of organisms (biomes,;). In grassland and forest, there is generally a gradual decrease in mass
of organisms at successive levels front the producers to the top consumers. Thus, pyramids are upright.
In a aquatic ecosystem as the producers are small organisms, their biomass is least, and this value
gradually shown an increase towards the apex of pyramid, thus making the pyramid inverted in shape.
3- In aquatic ecosystem purred of biomass is often inverted in unfavorable period (winter) and upright in
favorable period (spring).
4. Biomass may differ in its energy content in different organism. Pyramid of Energy
The primary producers of an ecosystem trap the radiant energy of the sun and convert it into potential
chemical energy: This trapped energy flows in the food chain from the producers to the top carnivores,
decreasing a; successive tropic levels. If the relationship of total quantity of energy utilized in unit area
over a particular period of time by different tropic levels is diagrammatically represented, an upright
pyramid is invariably formed called pyramid of energy. It is always upright since it takes into
consideration the total energy trapped by -a tropic level in a unit area and time. The energy content is
expressed in kJ cams/yr. In a grass land the green plants (primary producers) trap the maximum light
energy in a particular area over a fixed period of time. Similarly in a pond ecosystem, the
phytoplankton’s, in a particular area, trap and accumulate much more energy than the herbivore fishes in
the course of year because of their large numbers and quicker rate of multiplication. Comparatively, the
amount of energy utilized in year by the top carnivores is much less than that of herbivore fishes.
Of the three types of pyramids as discussed above, the energy pyramid gives by far the best overall
picture of the functional role of communities in an ecosystem. This is because of the following fact that:
1. Pyramid of energy takes into consideration the actual amount of energy received at a trophic level; the
amounts of energy waste during intake, used in metabolism, lost in waste products and the amount
actually stared in body tissues.
2. It is based on the rate of productivity instead of standing crop, i.e- energy flowing through each
trn»tfic level per unit area or volume per unit time.
3. Its shape is invariably an upright one, and not affected by variation in the size and metabolic state of
individuals, if all the sources of energy in the ecosystem are considered.
In the earth's atmosphere about 15 x 108 calories in in-' yr'' of solar energy is present. Out of which is
reflected back into space by clouds and the suspended dust particles in the atmosphere; 9 per cent is
further held bvozone, water vapor and other atmospheric gases. Remaining 47 per cent reaches the
earth's surface. Only 1 to 5 per cent of the energy reaching the ,round is being converted by green plants
to chemical energy, and 42 to 46 per cent is absorbed as heat by ground, vegetation or water. The
quantity of solar radiation received at any place not only depends upon the clarity of the atmosphere, but
also on the latitude of the area. The equatorial region receives maximum solar radiation than other
20
regions of the troth’s. The quantity of energy decreases with increase in latitude both in the northern and
southern hemispheres.
There is a unidirectional (one ova}-) energy transformation in ecosystem so behaviour of energy in
ecosystem can be conveniently termed the energy flow. Energy enters the ecosystem from the solar
radiations and it is converted into chemical energy by producers, from then energy passes on lower
trophic level to higher one.
The flow is never reversed i.e., it is not possible for energy to pass from 3rd tropic level to 2nd tropic
level and 2"d to 1" tropic level. Organisms at higher tropic level always depend upon organism of lower
tropic level for their energy requirements. Entrance of energy and its retention within the ecosystem and
dissipation into space, are regulated by two laws of thermodynamics.
Enthalpy, Free Energy and Entropy: The total energy present within a molecule is its internal energy or
the intrinsic energy. It includes both the kinetic energy and the potential energy of the electrons, nuclear
components and the molecules. The kinetic energy of the electrons is responsible for the movement of
electrons about the nuclei.
First Law or The Law of Conservation of Energy: According to this law in a closed system, no energy
comes in or escapes out and not created or-destroyed but may be changed from one form tc another.
Light, for example, is a form of energy, or it can be transformed into work, heat, or potential energy of
food, depending upon the condition, but none of it is destroyed.
The Second Law of Thermodynamics, the Law of Entropy: According to this law there is always a
tendency for increase in entropy or degradation from a concentrated (nonrandom) to a dispersed
(random) form leading to of heat, i.e. no process involving an energy transformation will spontaneously
occur unless there is a degradation of the energy from a concentrated form into a dispersed form. Thus
no energy transformations 100 per cent efficient, it is always accompanied by some dispersion or los-s
of energy in the form of heat, etc- Heat energy is not used biological system and ultimately lost from the
body. Therefore, biological systems including ecosystem, must be supplied with energy on a continuous
basis.
From energetic point of view it becomes necessary to understand in any ecosystem. 1. The efficiency of
the producers in absorption and fixation of solar energy The use of fixed energy by consumers.
3. The total input of energy in the form of food and its efficiency of assimilation. 4. The loss through
respiration.
5. The loss through excretion.
6_ The gross and net production.
that communities should be classified according to the principles of systematic, while others feel that a
community represents simply an assemblage of species with similar environmental conditions, and thus
it cannot be classified. Various classifications have been suggested on the basis of on habitat, growth-
form (physiognomy), species dominance and succession etc (phytosociology).
Succession is a progressive transformation or origination of a biological community as new plant and
animal species come into an area and alter the environmental conditions- The complete process of
succession may take hundreds or thousands of years and entails a number of intermediate communities,
each called a serial community_ The replacement of one seral community by another in most cases leads
to the eventual for
Fig. 11_19: A field devastated by fire or cleared for industrial or agricultural use will recover its
vegetation relatively quickly in the absence of erosion. In the first years of recovery, tare earth becomes
grassland, populated by oppo,'.unistic species that can tolerate the bleak environmental conditions_
21
Seen, shrubs ar.d other more competitive plants intermingle and dominate. Tree seedlings crop up, and
by the end of the first century a coniferous forest occupies what was an overgrazed or blackened stretch
of earth. The shady forest forms a new environment in which, altar another half-century, the seedlings of
ot~:er kinds of trees may out-compete the initial residents. In this example, , the climax community is
dominated by deciduous trees_ Ecological succession, driven by major environmental change, is an
endless and recursive process.
There are two types of succession: primary and secondary.
~ Primary succession
\ It takes place when plants and anima'_ colonize a previously desolate area, such as a sand dune, new
volcanic island, bare rocr. or recently glaciated ground- In these situations.
everything including the soil bacteria, insects, plants, and animals must come from nearby habitats.
, Secondary succession
,.`
' It occurs in areas where communities have become established before an event such as a f'ue, landslide,
flood, hurricane, field-clearing, or tree-cutting disturbs them.
Primary succession can As decaying organic matter collects on the bottom, the lake becomes shallower
and reed mace and rushes appear. Their height eventually shades out the smaller aquatic plants. After a
while vegetation grows throughout the lake, which has become a marsh, another seral community. The
marsh gradually fills in and willow trees crop up along the borders. Over time a birch forest may replace
the willow community, followed by a pine forest, an oak forest, and finally a climax forest dominated by
beech trees
Deer browse where fish once swam.
Succession Process
This succession process is self-propelled because each serial community changes the physical factors of
the area so that the community cannot renew itself in its current form. As a pine forest, for example,
grows its canopy shades the formerly sunny forest floor. New pine seedlings cannot germinate in this
shade but shade-tolerant oak and hickory seedlings can, and they start to sprout.
Over the long term, climate change can also launch succession. Small variations in temperature or
rainfall ranges can modify community structure for decades or centuries. Though still hotly debated,
some scientists are concerned about the effects of climate change they fear will come as a result of
global warming. This warming may be caused by the greenhouse effect, an increase in temperatures
worldwide from pollution of the lower be pictured (above) in the following example, beginning with an
biotic (non-living) lake left behind by a retreating glacier. Sediment from tributaries and heavy rains
slowly settles into the lake. Wind-borne spores of bacteria, algae, fungi-and protozoa drift into the water
and germinate in the new sediment. These so-called pioneer species can survive under low-nutrient
conditions and are quick to grow. As nutrients build up in the lake from these microorganisms living and
dying, water lilies, quillwort, and other plants root along the shoreline. Insects, frogs, and fish take up
residence and augment the soil on the lake floor with their waste material and decaying bodies.
ECOSYSTEMS:
TYPES, CHARACTERISTICS,
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
22
Nevertheless, the ecosystem concept has proved very useful in ecology_ One way in which it is applied
is to describe the world's major different habitat types.
1_ Terrestrial ecosystems: Include Arctic and alpine ecosystems, dominated by cold areas and lacking
trees; forest ecosystems, which can be subdivided into a whole range of types including tropical
rainforests, Mediterranean evergreen forests,- temperate and boreal forests, and temperate deciduous
forests; grasslands and savannahs; and deserts and semiarid ecosystems.
2_ Freshwater ecosystems: Include lakes, rivers, and marshland_ "Hyfiricr' terrestrial and freshwater
systems include swamp forests and seasonal floodplains_
hairline ecosystems: Include an enormous range, from coral reefs, mangroves, sea-grass beds, and other
coastal and shallow water ecosystems to open-water ecosystems and the mysterious, little-known
systems of the abyssal plains and trenches of the world's oceans.
In brief, organization pattern of some of the major ecosystems is described here. FOREST
ECOSYSTEM
Forests are natural plant communities with dominance of phanerophytes and occupy nearly 40 per cent
of the land_ In India, the forest occupies roughly 19 per cent of the total land area Indian forests are of
11 types and are classified on the basis of physiography, physiognomy, floristic, habitat etc_
Table 12.1: Components of forest Ecosystems
Biotic The Biotic components are inorganic and organic substances

Components found in the soil and atmosphere_ The climate (temperature, light rainfall, etc.) and soil
(minerals). Apart from minerals the occurrence of litter is characteristic feature of majority of forests
(for -interaction among the various components of the forest ecosystem.
Biotic Producers These are plants, which grow around the world. They capture sun
Components energy and produce food via photosynthetic activity. They grow in diverse habitat, e.g.,
tropical moist deciduous forests (dominant
tree species are Tectonic grandees, Butte Fronds, Shore Robusta and Larqestroemia parvillora), and
temperate coniferous
forests, temperate deciduous forests (dominant trees and species of Quercus, Acer, Bet via, Thuja, Picea,
Abides, Piece, Pinups.
Cadres, Junipers, Rhododendron, etc.).
Consumers
Primary These are the herbivores which feed on tree leaves as ants, files,
consumers beetles, leaf-hoppers, bugs, spiders, etc_, and larger animals
grazing on shoots and/or fruits of producers as elephants, neelgai,
deer, moles, squirrels, shrews, flying foxes; mongooses etc
Secondary These are carnivores and feed on herbivores, e_g., snakes, birds, consumers lizards,
fox etc.
Tertiary These are the top carnivores, e.g., ;ion, tiger, etc_ They eat upon
consumers camivores of secondary consumers level.
23
Decomposers These are wide variety of microorganisms like fungi (Aspergillus, Polyporus, Altemaria,
Fusarium, Trichoderma, etc.), bacteria (Bacillus, Pseudo-monas, Clostridium, etc.), and actionmycetes
(Streptomyces)_ Rate of decomposition in tropical and subtropical forests is more rapid than in the
temperate ones_
HE GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM
Grasslands occupy about 24 per cent of the earth's surface. Grassland ecosystem in which grasses,
sedges, and other forage plants are the dominant vegetation. Although temperate grasslands may have
more than 50 species of vascular plants, and tropical grasslands more than 200, two or three species of
grasses usually dominate upward of 60 percent of the biomass above ground.
Grasslands are natural, semi natural, and: cultivated. Natural -grasslands occupy, or once occupied, large
areas of continental landmasses, including the- prairies and plains. Natural grasslands develop in regions
characterized by an annual rainfall between 250 and 750 mm (10 and 30 in), a high rate of evaporation,
and seasonal and annual droughts. Tropical grasslands develop in regions with marked wet and dry
seasons. On the periphery of these climatic regions, fire is important in maintaining grasslands by
preventing the encroachment of forests in moist regions and desert shrubs in semiarid regions
Semi natural grassland occupies areas where moisture is sufficient to support forests_ Also called
succession grassland, these areas resulted from deforestation and will return to trees unless maintained
by burning, motivating or grazing_ Cultivated grasslands, such as hayfields and pastures, are artificially
planted and maintained. They usually consist of one or taco species of grass and a legume such as clover
or alfalfa.
Native grasslands of the world support, or once supported, a diverse fauna. Associated with such
mammals are herbivorous rodents, including prairie dogs and mice; seed-eating birds; hawks; snakes;
and insects, especially grasshoppers.
Grassland soils are inherently fertile. Due to low rainfall, the soluble nutrients in the soil have not
washed away, and due to the absence of a tree canopy, the flourishing -razzes have built up organically
rich topsoil_ As a result o' this, the native grasslands of the north te^rperate regions have been converted
to grain crops such as corn and wheat. The native grazing herbivores hak e been replaced by domestic
cattle and sheep, and the large predators have been destroyed. Grassland are of 8 types classified on the
basis of their floral characteristics.
Table 12.2: Components of Grassland Ecosystems

Abiotic These include nutrients present in soil and the atmosphere like
components elements (C, H, 0, N, P, S, etc.), which are supplied by carbon dioxide, water, nitrate,
phosphates and sulphates.
Biotic Producers These are grasses (Dichanthium, Cynodon, Desmodium,
components Dactyloctenium, Digitaria, Selaria, Sporobolus, etc.), few iorbs and shrubs.
Consumers
Primary These are herbivores which feed on grasses (grazing of animals
consumers like cows, buffaloes, deer, sheep, rabbit, mouse, etc_), insects
(Leptocorisa, Dysdercus, oxyrhachis, Cicindella, Coccinella),
termites and millipedes which feed on the leaves of grasses.
Secondary These are Snakes, lizards, birds, jackals, fox, etc. and feed on
24
consumers herbivore `
Tertiary These are hawks and feed on secondary consumers. consumers
Decomposers are fungi (Mucor, Aspergillus, Penicillium, Cladosporium, Rhizopus, Fusarium, etc.),
actinomycetes and bacteria_ They decompose the decay the dead organic matter. They help to bring
minerals back to the soil, thus making them available to the producers.
ESEFiT ECOSYSTEM -
he- areas with an annual rainfall of less than 25 cm come in deserts. They occupy about 17 per
cent of land. Due to extremes of both, water and temperature factors the biota is much mole
'J;:yic-d <.Wi is poorly represented.
Table 1E.3: Components of Desert Ecosystems

Sabiotic~ In desert ecosystem temperature is found to be very high
components and rainfall is very low
Biotic Producers These are shrubs (especially bushes) a few species of
components grasses, trees, and succulents plants (cacti) Some lower
plants like lichens and xerophytic mosses may also be
present.
Consumers Insects, reptiles, nocultural rodents, birds, camels, etc. are the main consumers
Decomposers Desert has poor vegetation with a very low amount of dead organic matter_ The
decomposers are few species of fungi and bacteria. They are thermophilic.
QUATIC ECOSYSTEM
Varying quantities of nutrients are carried from terrestrial ecosystems by the movement of water
and deposited in aquatic ecosvstems.
Vertical stratification of life in aquatic communities, by contrast, is influenced mostly by
phvsical conditions: depth, light, temperature, pressure, salinity, oxygen, and carbon dioxide. in
aquatic habitats, successional changes of this kind result largely from changes in the physical
environment, such as the buildup of silt at the bottom of a pond. As the pond becomes
ecosystems; salt water evaporates and turns to rain, which falls on the land regions, while most
of the oxygen in our atmosphere is generated by algae. Algae are also responsible for the
absorption of large amounts of carbon dioxide from our atmosphere.
The ocean connects to the land via what is called the inter-tidal zone. Because of rising and
falling tides, coastal areas are constantly changing, with various animals and marine plants
living at the bottom, and on the seashore. Rocky coastal areas are host to fewer species due to
the fact that only the highest of tides -will reach the top of the cliffs.
In the warm shallow waters, which line the continents and surrounding islands lie barriers called
coral reefs. Coral is a living organism consisting of animal and algae tissues. Corais feed like
plants through the process of photosynthesis, and like animals, they also use their tentacles to
catch microorganisms_ The coral reef is also host to other species such as starfish, octopi, and
other mollusks.
Table 12.5: Components of Marine Ecosystems
25
Abiotic it is a more stable in chemical composition due to being

components saline (35 parts of salts by weight per 1000 parts of water, while salinity of fresh
water is less than 0.5 per cent), and moreover other physical -chemical factors such as dissolved
oxygen content, light and temperature are also different. Marine water contains Nice, Ca, Mg,
and K salts- Water is strongly buffered. The concentration of dissolved nutrients remains low,
which constitutes an important limiting factor to determine the size of marine populations.
Ocean shows distinct zonations and waves of different kinds and tides preail there.
Biotic Producers Phytoplanktons (diatom sand dinoflagillates) and largercomponents marine

plants (sea weeds - mainly algae – ch (orophyceae, phaeophyceae and rhodophyceae,
angiosperms - Ropier,Zostera, Posidonia, Flalophila, Enhalus, etc.; and mangrove - Rhizophora,
avicennia, Sonneratia, Carapa, Aegiceros,Out in the open ocean is what is called the pelagic
zone, which is host to many species of fish and marine mammals, plankton, and some floating
seaweed. The area underneath the pelagic zone is called the benthic zone, or deep-sea, and is
host to silt, sand, and slowly decomposin.organisms_ This area is very cold due to its depth,
which is untouched by the light of the sun. There are few plants at this level, and the animals
include mostly bottom feeding organisms such as stL -fish, anemones, sponges, amongst others,
as well as various microorganismsThe deepest part of the ocean is called the abyssal zone_ It is
host to many species of invertebrates and fish including such oddities as the coelacanth, a
prehistoric fish once thought extinct and found in the depths of the Indian Ocean, and other fish
that glow in the dark via a
26
BIODIVERSITY AND ITS CONSERVATION
Unit – III
Similarly, the biological diversity is not the same as biological resource although mutually, they
form part of each other- The conservation of biological diversity is distinct but related to
biological resources. It is difficult to discretely distinguish the value of biodiversity- as a distinct
characteristic of biological resources (1UCN et al. 1990)_
BIODIVERSITY AND ITS CONSERVATION
Definition. Biodiversity is the degree of variety in nature and not nature itself
TYPES OF BIODIVERSITY
Genetic Diversity
I
Bit refers to the variation of genes within population or varieties within a species. Differences
between individual organisms have two causes= variation in the genetic material which all
organisms possess and which is passed on from generation to generation_ and variation caused
by environmental influence on each individual organism. Heritable variation is the raw matenal
both of evolution and of artificial selection and is ultimately therefore the basis for all
observable present-day biodiversity. It is principally a function of sequence variation in the four
base-pairs making up nucleic acids including DNA, the basis of the genetic code in the vast
majority of organisms. New genetic variation arises by gene and chromosome mutation in
individuals, and in sexually reproducing organisms is spread in the population by recombination
of genetic material during cell division preceding sexual reproduction.
"(he populations that make tip a species share a pool of genetic diversity, but the genetic heritage
of some populations may differ significantly from others, especially between distant populations
of widespread species. If populations that hold a large part of this genetic variation become
extinct, even though the species itself persists, natural selection has a reduced spectrum of
genetic variation to act upon, and opportrurities for evolutionary change may be correspondingly
reduced. Loss of genetic diversity within a species is termed genetic erosion, and many scientists
are increasingly concerned about the need to counter this phenomenon
Genetic diversity is particularly important for agricultural productivity and development-

Agriculture has for centuries been based cm a modest number of plant and animal species, but in
the case of plants especially, an extraordinary range of local varieties has been developed. This
diversity of plant genetic resources often has real practical benefits; if a subsistence fanner
plants several varieties of a crop plant, she or he obtains a loon f insurance against harvest
failure, because unusual weather conditions or an attack by pests are unlikely to affect all
27
varieties in the same way. As natural habitats have become converted to other uses, thereby
destroying wild relatives of crop plants that might be needed for plant breeding, and as intensive
modern cropping systems have come to rely on a very small number commercial varieties, the
need to identify and conserve plant and animal genetic resources has become increasingly
urgent. Although, in this particular context, it is possible to
locate and measure aspects of genetic diversity, exists at some given site, even less so
globally, and the question has no meaning at these levels_
Species Diversity
It refers to the variety of species within a region. Such diversity could be measured on the basis
of number of species in a region_
The species is in many ways the basic currency of biological science, and the species :~s - the
focus of much of the research carried out by ecologist and conservation biologists_ It is possible
to count the number of species at any given sample site, particularly if attention is restricted to
well-known organisms (such as mammals or birds); it is also possible to estimate this number in
a region or country (but with increasing error as the area considered -increases). This measure,
known as species richness, provides ones possible measure of how much biodiversity a site has,
and a basis for comparing sites_ It is most straightforward and in many ways the most useful
general measure of biodiversity.
Species richness varies geographically= warmer areas tend to support more species than colder
ones; wetter areas more species than drier ones; less seasonal areas more than strongly seasonal
ones; areas with varied topography and climate support more species than uniform ones.
Despite the importance of the species, there is still no one unequivocal defmition of the term_
Different criteria are used to classify species in different groups of organisms (e-g- Defining
species of bacteria and species of bird are very different processes) and, often, different
taxonomists will use different criteria for the same group of organisms and therefore recognize
different numbers of species. However, ~hese differences should not be over-emphasized; there
is sufficient agreement for
purposes on how many species exist in well-studied groups such as marnmals; `;>axds, reptiles,
amphibians
species;
number of richness, although a simple concept and practical to assess, is still an incomplete
measure of diversity and has limitations when it comes to comparing the diversity of two
different sites, areas or countries
Species Endemism
Definition: Endemism can also be defined in terms of national boundaries_ This is of immense
importance to the conservation of biological diversity because, almost without exception,
28
conservation and management actions are applied and maintained in a national political contest_
This is so regardless of the source of scientific advice or of financial support for the actions
undertaken_
Any given area continues to overall global diversity both ihron-h the number of species present,
and through the proportion of those species which are unique to that area_ These latter are called
endemic species_ A species is endemic to some defined area if it is confined entirely to it (the
term is derived from medical science, where a disease is described as endemic if confined to a
certain area, and epidermis if widespread). For example, islands typically have fewer species
overall than equivalent sized continental areas, but also usually have a higher percentage of
species found nowhere else_ In other words, other things being equal, they have lower species
richness but higher species endemism_ Assessing the relative importance of
these two factors and therefore comparing toe importance and continental areas is not
straightforward.
Areas rich in endemic species might be sites of active speciation, or of refuge for relict species
but whatever the theoretical interest, it is important for practical biodiversity management to be
able to identify such discrete areas of high endemism_ By definition, species endemic to a given
site occur nowhere else. The smaller the area of endemism, the more at risk the endemic species
will be through deterministic or chance population events. Whilst all may be vulnerable to the
same episode of habitat modification, by the same token, all might benefit from the same
conserv2tion action. It is desirable to . identify any such opportunities for cost effective
conservation actuate. .
Other Aspects of Species Diversity
In addition to species richness and species endemism, a measure of biodiversity could attempt to
assess the magnitude of differences between species. One way of achieving this relies on the
information content of the classification or taxonomic system. Similar species are grouped
together in genera, similar genera in families, families in orders, and so on until the highest
level, the kingdom_ This taxonomic organization is an attempt to represent genuine relationships
between organisms, that is to reflect evolutionary history, so that species in the same genera are
believed more closely related than species in different genera, and so on. Some higher taxa have
thousands of species (or millions in the beetles or Order Coleoptera), some only one. Species
that are very different from each other (placed in different families or orders) by definition
contribute more to overall diversity than species which are similar to each other (placed in the
same genus)_ So, using this improved measure of biodiversity, if there were a choice of
conserving two sites with the same number of species, it would be better to choose "the site with
more fundamentally different kinds of species than the one with many closely related species.
Some scientists would take this argument further and suggest that diversity is better measured at
higher taxonomic levels (for example, genera or fanilies) than in terms of species.
29
Ecological Significance of Species

The ecological importance of a species can also be significant in so far as some keystone species
have an important role in maintaining the diversity of a whole community of other species.
Keystone species would include decomposer organisms, top predators, pollinators, and so forth_
In general, large trees greatly increase local biodiversity because they provide a range of
specialist resources for other species (including nestling birds, epiphytes parasites, fruit-eating
herbivores, and a great many other organisms). However, as yet there is no way to quantify this
kind of support role and compare its map-'intrude across different groups_
cossets Diversity
In an ecosystr..n, there may exist different lardoons, each of which supports difl--rent and
specific vegetation. Ecosystem diversity is difficult to measure since the boundaries of the
communities, Much constitute the various sub ecosystems arc elusive. Ecosystem diversity
could best be understood if one studies the communities, in various ecological niches within the
given ecosystem; each community is associated with definite species complexes. These
complexes are related to composition and structure of biodiversity.
these two factors and therefore comparing tne importance wt Vamivc,,..y ~_ and continental
areas is not straightforward_
Areas rich in endemic species might be sites of active speciation, or of refuge for relict species
but whatever the theoretical interest, it is important for practical biodiversity management to be
able to identify such discrete areas of high endemism_ 13y definition, species endemic to a
given site occur nowhere else_ The smaller the area of endemism, the more at risk the endemic
species will be through deterministic or chance population events. Whilst all may be vulnerable
to the same episode of habitat modification, by the same token, all might benefit from the same
conservation action. It is desirable to _ identify any such opportunities for cost effective
conservation act oil. .
Other Aspects of Species Diversity

In addition to species richness and species endemism, a measure of biodiversity could attempt to
assess the magnitude of differences between species. One way of achieving this relies on the
information content of the classification or taxonomic system_ Similar species are grouped
together in genera, similar genera in families, families in orders, and so on until the highest
level, the kingdom- This taxonomic organization is an attempt to represent genuine relationships
between organisms, that is to reflect evolutionary history, so that species in the same genera are
believed more closely related than species in different genera, and so on_ Some higher taxa have
thousands of species (or millions in the beetles or Order Coleoptera), some only one_ Species
that are very different from each other (placed in different families or orders) by definition
contribute more to overall diversity than species which are similar to each other (placed in the
same genus). So, using this improved measure of biodiversity, if there were a choice of
conserving two sites with the same number of species, it would be better to choose the site with
more fundamentally different kinds of species than the one with many closely related species.
30
Some scientists would take this argurnent further and suggest that diversity is better measured at
higher taxonomic levels (for example, genera or faiailies) than in terms of species.
Ecological Significance of Species

The ecological importance of a species can also be significant in so far as some keystone species
have an Important role in maintaining the diversity of a whole community of other species.
Keystone species would include decomposer organisms, top predators, pollinators, and so forth.
In general, large trees greatly increase local biodiversity because they provide a range of
specialist resources for other species (including nestling birds, epiphytes parasites, fruit-eating
herbivores, and a great many other organisms)_ However, as yet there is no way to quantify this
kind of support role and compare its magnitude across different groups.
University
in an coziest there may exist different lardoons, each of which supports and specific vegetation.
Ecosystem diversity is difficult to measure since the boundaries of the communities, which
constitute the various sub ecosystems are elusive. Ecosystem diversity could best be understood
if one studies the communities-. in various ecological niches within the given ecosystem; each
community is associated with definite species complexes. These complexes are related to
composition and structure of biodiversity.
This is certainly the most ill defined of the subjects covered by the term biodiversity_
Evaluation of ecosystem diversity, or diversity at the habitat or community level remains
problematic- There is no single way to classify ecosystems and habitats- The main units that can
be recognized actually represent different parts of a highly variable natural continuum.
Ecosystem diversity may be assessed in terms of the global or continental distribution of broadly
defined ecosystem types, or in ternis of the diversity of species within ecosystems_ Several
global classification schemes exist, variously emphasizing climate, vegetation biogeography,
potential vegetation, or human-modified vegetation_ These schemes can provide a general view
of the global diversity of kinds of ecosystem, but yield relatively little information about
comparative diversity within and between ecosystems. Diversity of ecosystems is often assessed
in terms of the diversity of species. This may include evaluation of their relative abundance,
such that a system where the component species are present in more nearly equal abundance is
regarded as more diverse than one demonstrating extremes of high and low abundance.
Agro-biodiversity
71-he agricultural biological diversity more commonly referred to as the agro biodiversity has
been fast emerging as a strong, evolutionary divergent line from the biodiversity, which deals
with the life forms at large_ It has been specifically recognized to differentiate between concern
for ecosystems versus agro-ecosystems, wild forest flora and fauna versus agriculture related
plants, reptiles, insects, avian and microbes; in situ conservation of wild forms -versus on farm
31
conservation of laid; raves and traditional/primitive cultivars or ex situ conservation of plant

genetic resources, etc_
The world is inhabited by myriads of life forms, animal and plants_ These life
forms are of great diversity, living in diverse habitats and possessing diverse qualities, which in
themselves make very interesting studies_ Moreover, these life forms are vital to human survival
as they provide food and materials for shelter, clothing, tools and medicine
VALUE OF BIODIVERSITY
In tile present day world, many species of plant and animals are bemg destroyed at a rapid rate.
The classic example is indiscriminate logging, which destroys not only trees but also other
forms of life, as forests harbor many animals and plants that depend on the environment for
survival_ In the past we placed great importance on the selection of species, protecting and
promoting the varieties with high yields and ignoring other "inferior" varieties_ "I-he result is a
great loss in biological diversities with unlocked for disastrous effects_
The dangers from the loss of biodiversity> especially the threat to agriculture, are given in
details in the document being distributed to you today_ This loss is all the more regrettable as
we posses nowadays modern technologies which can utilize the different genetic qualities in a
variety of ways. Some species of a plant may have high yield but are unappetizing; some are
both low yielding and tasteless, but these
species are hardy and can grow in saline soil_ Through modem biotechnologies, wild diversity
can also be incorporated into crops and contribute to world agriculture development. We can
now extract chemical substance not known to use before from various plants for use in medicine
or industry.
Such being the case, the problem before us today is how to conserve what remains of natural
biodiversity for future generations?
Variation is the law of nature_ It covers everywhere and every moment_ The variations take
place at micro levels at short space and big a time gap. The variations may be linear or cyclic_
The variety and variability of organisms and ecosystems is referred to as biological diversity or
biodiversity. Similarly, the biological variations initiate at the micro level (bio-molecular level or
genes) and become apparent at species and ecosystem level. The biological variations in nature
over time and space form the basis of evolutionary processes. Thus, biodiversity is the degree of
variety in nature and not nature itself Similarly, the biological diversity is not the same as
biological resource although mutually, they form part of each other. The conservation of
biological diversity is distinct but related to biological resources_ It is difficult to discretely
distinguish the value of biodiversity as a distinct characteristic of biological resources_
Competitive relationships between plant species alter because of increased vitality or dieback of
sensitive plant species_ Intraspecific competition was suggested to be a major factor
determining relative abundance of sensitive and aspen clones ir clean and polluted areas_ More
32
and more use of fertilizers, pesticides etc_, will influence the agro-biodiversity and ultimately
effect the productivity of the plants. Our agriculture system depends on microbial activities and
there appears to be a tremendous potential for making use of microorganisms in increasing crops
production_ [f biodiversity of microbial flora is disturbs it will effect productivity and directly
influence national economy.
Plant diversity loss is implicated in altered host-parasite relationships, plant pollination

relationships, plant-pathogen relationships, etc_ A high degree of association between attach by
bark beetles and prior oxidant damage was noted for ponderosa pine in Southern California- The
alterations of resource allocation to various organs due to air pollution may Influence the ability
of the Plant to resist diseases. The damage to coniferous forests in Norway by an insect,
Cafeteria codicillary, was linked to the acid rain problem (Hutton)_ A similar case of insects
damage to spruce was reported in middle Europe. Alterations in honeybee (Apes milliner L.)
populations s due to SO2 and fluoride pollutants have been linked with detrimental effect on
fruit yield. Reduction in vigor of my corrival loblolly pine due to acid rain may have adverse
effect on nutrient and water uptake and growth potential_
The change in species composition of a natural ecosystem can affect the nutrient cycling
adversely by changing the nutrient reserve in various parts of soil profile_ -i-he rate of
decomposition also differ among plant species_ Erosion of soil due to tree
modality in forested area may accelerate. The hydrological function of forests is airi;i}ier area of
concern related to plant diversity loss.
It is assumed that these genetic resources shall play a positive and unique role in the
development of new cultivars, including restructuring the existing ones that are ;-~ --,A-capped
due to poor expression or lack of one or the other attribute. The most ;sr~pcrrtartt characters
derived from the wild relatives have been the resistances to biotic and biotic stresses. Such
resistance has been mostly observed to be invariably simply inherited,. easily transferable and
clearly expressed_ Ever since the successful translocation by Sears; of resistance factors in
wheat against -yellow stripe rust (Puccini stsriiforrrus), this approach has been followed in
several crops against different diseases, using various techniques and degrees of manipulation_
Nevertheless, for certain crops with unique biological cycle and narrow genetic variability in
their cultivated types, such as potato and groundnut, breeders and more like to turn increasingly
to the wild relatives of the crops for useful characters.
Social Value
Loss in diversity has many unfavorable implications related to ecosystem functions such as
energy flow and biogeochemical cycles_ These will directly influence the social life of the
country_ Human activities are critical to the relationship between biological diversity and
ecological processes_ The current problems of air pollution and global climate change have
clearly emphasized the need to understand the biodiversity response to these anthropogenic
33
stress fact ors- Living things exist with specific ecological processes, and an unfavorable
alteration in any of these has serious repair. acaroids for the existence-of each other. The values
placed on biodiversity are :auonp4y linked to the human influences on it and their underlying
social and economic driving forces.
Ethical Value
The ethics of biodiversity loss is now a major consideration for saving biodiversity. This
particularly, so because such loss is forever and there is no way to recreate lost biodiversity.
A few things stand out very clearly-

I _ Realism demands that in the area of biodiversity there will always be tremendous
interdependence between gene-rich technology-poor and gene poor/technology rich countries_
With the global climate changes on the horizon, there are likely to be newer challenges,
candidate genes will have to be identified to evolve new cultivars resistant to(errant to such
ch,mgcs_ Such cooperation between North and South must increase if human race has to
succeed_ No nation can be self-sufficient in biodiversity. There would always be newer
demands_
Realistic national policy on conservation and utilization of biodiversity have to be evolved by a
National 13iodiversity Conservation Board in the best interest of each country.
In situ and ex situ forms of conservation are both important and mutually reinforcing and
supportive. It is high time that FAO gets involved in IYl .Sill conservation particularly through
genetic reserves_
Equally important is to support and build biotech capability in the South by biotech-rich North.
This would be to the mutual benefits of all countries. Bridg°_s need to be built with NGOs and
women's groups regarding on-farm conservation and utilization by involving communities.
-here is considerable interdependence between industrial (genepoor/technology rich) and
developing (genE-rich/technology poor) countries_ Biodiversity is a fit case for North-South
cooperation-particularly skills, knowledge and trainings -should- be imparted by North to South
as far as biotic}urology is concerned.
The spectrum of biodiversity ranges from DNA to individual, to population of a species, to

community to ecosystems and the whole thing is a continuum.
6. There has been narrowing of species base: from a large number of species, that early human
beings used, to wheat, rice, maize and potato accounts for over 60 per cent of calories and
protein intake by the human race. Furthermore, there has also been a narrowing of genetic base
in each species resulting in a few cultivars being cultivated on a large scale.
Bridges have to be built between scientific and technical groups working in the area of
conservation and utilization of biodiversity and the local communities and women's groups. The
latter have considerable local technical knowledge and wisdom that need to be utilized by the
fanner_
Aesthetic Value
34
/Aesthetics is a branch of philosophy concerned with the essence -and perception of beauty and
ugliness_ Biodiversity has aesthetic value_ Efforts are being made to develop attraction for
animals and plants by keeling then in gardens.
Wildlife is important from the viewpoint of its aesthetic and recreational value for man.
Recreation and enjoyment are essential to man's health. Aesthetic values such as the taste of wild
bums, softness of moss bed and refreshing fragrance of wild flowers compel us to preserve
them. A world without melodies birds, graceful beasts and thick forest would be poorer place for
humans to live in_ People feel pleasure and happiness in the presence of wildlife.
Zoological gardens, institutions, known popularly as zoos, in which live animals are kept for
public recreation, education, and conservation purposes. Collections of captive annuals have
been kept since ancient times by rulers of countries as diverse as Egypt and China, but the
concept of a zoological garden or park, in which animals may be given a practicable freedom of
movement, is a recent development_ In zoological gardens animals of different species are
exhibited in a common encloAue, sometimes Including nearly all the animals of a region. Many
modem zoos incorporate aquariums and aviaries for the purpose of accommodating and
displaying exotic fish and birds, and frequently include a special children's zoo for very young
visitors to play in and to ride on animals such as elephants and camels_
Thousands of plants are being conserved in gardens_ Gardening is a science and art of growing
fruits, vegetables, flowers, shrubs, and trees on public places_ Gardens are the means of
biodiversity conservation and are of aesthetic value_
An estimate shows that about 200 species of Pteridophyta and about 4950 species of
Angiosperms are endemic in India_ In India, about 1,15,000 speci8es of plants and animals have
been identified and described_ For example_ the following crops arose in the country and spread
throughout the world: rice, sugarcane, Asiatic vegans, jute, mango, citrus, banana, several
species of millets, several cucurbits, some ornamental orchids, several medicinal and aromatics_
lnfact, the country has been recognized as one of the world's top 12 mega diversity nations_ This
region is also a secondary center of diversity for grain amaranths, maize; red pepper, soybean,
potatoes and rubber plant.
In flora, the country can boast of 45,000 species which accounts for I S per cent of the known
world- plants. Of the 15,000 species of flowering plants, 35 per cent are endemic and located in
26 endemic centers. Among the monocotyledons, out of'S88 genera occurring in the country, 22
are strictly endemic_
The North Eastern region boast of being unique treasure house of orchids in the country_ The
important Indian orchids are Paphiopedilum fQlrleyQnum, Cymbidirrm a1oiJlium, Aeries
crisper etc_
35
Information regarding other flora and fauna are patchy, Hundreds of new species may be present
in the country awaiting discovery_ The Western Gnats in Peninsular India, which extend in the
southern states, are a treasure house of species diversity and has about 5,000 species_ It is
estimated that almost one-third of the animal varieties found in India have taken refuge in
Western Gnats of Karalla alone_
The Indian Gene Centre is among the twelve regna diversity regions of the world. Lore than 20
crop species were domesticated here_ It is known to have more than 49,000 species of plants
18,000 species of higher plants, including major and 1uinor crop (166) and their wild relatives
(326)_ Around 1,000 wild edible plant species were widely exploited by native tribes_ These
include 145 species of roots and tubers, -521 of leafy vegetables/greens, 101 of buds and
flowers, 647 of fruits and 118 of
seeds and nuts_ In addition, nearly 9,500 plant species of ethnobotanical uses have
been reported from the country of which around 7,500 are the etl-momedicmal
Importance and 3,900 are multipurpose, edible species_
INDIA AS MEGA-Diversity NATION
In India, about 1,15,000 species of plants and animals have been identified and described. For
example, the following crops arose in the country and spread throughout the world: rice,
sugarcane, Asiatic vegans, jute, mango citrus, banana, several species of millets, several
cucurbits, some ornamental orchids, several indicia and aromatics_ Infect, the country has been
recognized as one of the world's top 12 mega diversity nations. This region is also a secondary
center of diversity for grain amaranths, maize red pepper, soybean, potatoes and rubber plant
In flora, the country can boast of 45,000 species which accounts for 1 S per cent of the known
world plants. Of the 15;000 species of flowering plants, 35 per cent are
ricer=( ::ad located in 26 endemic centers. Among the monocotyledons, obit of 588
Z. raring in the country, 22 are strictly endemic.
The North Eastern region on boast of being unique treasure house of orchids in the; Me
important India orchids are Paphiopedilum faineyanum, Cyrnbidiurn loitliu.:r; tl.erides crisper
etc.
In animals, the rate of tenderness in reptiles is 33% and in amphibians 62%. Further there is
wide diversity in domestic animals, such as buffaloes, goats, sheep’s, pigs, poultry, horses
camels and yaks. Domesticated animals too have come from the same cradles of civilization as
the major crops_
]here are no clear estimates about the maritime biota though the coastline is long with a she!0
zone of 4,S2,460 sq kin and extended economic zone of 20,13,410 sq kin. There is an abundance
of seaweeds, fish, crustaceans, mollusks, corals, reptiles and nlilnlln8lS
36
Information regarding other flora and fauna are patchy- Hundreds of new species may be present
in the country awaiting discovery. The Western Ghats in Peninsular India, which extend in the
southern states are a treasure house of species diversity and has about 5,000 species. It is
estimated that almost one-third of the animal varieties found in India have taken refuge in
Western Gnats of Karalla alone_
Tie Indian Gene Centre is among the twelve mega diversity regions of the world.
Immure than 20 crop species were domesticated here. It is known to have more than
species of plants 18,000 species of higher plants, including major and minor
crop (166) and their wild relatives (326), Around 1,000 wild edible plant species are
widely exploited by native tribes. These include_ 145 species of roots and tubers, 521 of leafy
vegetables/greens, I01 of buds and flowers, 647 of fruits and 118 of seeds and nuts. In add-Itian,
nearly 9,500 plant species of ethno botanical uses have been reported from the country of which
around 7,500 are the ethno medicinal importance and 3,900 are multipurpose, edible species.
Wild Plant Wealth
More than 75 per cent of Indian diversity kiin the number of species in genera such as
Dendrobium, Bulbophyllwn, Liparis, Coelogyne, Paphiopedilum, Vitis, Citnrs, Musa,
Rhododendron, Hedychiurn, Elaeacarpus, and Elaeagnus occurs in tilis region Over 30 species
of legumes and 45 of grasses mainly occur in the temperate belt of the northeast Himalayan
region_ The legume flora is represented by species of Astragalus, Caragana, Medicago,
Melilotus, Parochetus, Trifolium, Trigonella and Vicia. Among grasses, a large diversity is
noticed in genera such as Agrostis, Alopecurus, Bromus, Calamogrostis, Dactylis, Festuca,
Glyceria, Lolium, Muehlenbergia, Phleum, Poa, Stipa and Tnsetum.
Local inhabitants gather a wide range of plants from wild habitats, which provide edible tubers,
green leafy vegetables, edible fruits and nuts etc. The more promising of these have been
domesticated and/or protected under homestead management
,,POT SPOTS OF BIODIVERSITY
'A number of species hot spots can be found where species diversity is much higher than the
surrounding areas. It is believed that these may have arisen as a result of disturbance- during the
ice age of the Pleistocene epoch. Worldwide climate fluctuated, and cooler conditions occurred
37
in the tropics, causing the rainforests to contract in size. It is thought that they were restricted to
areas of milder climate mainly in the sheltered lowlands. The species that now form the
rainforests were therefore able to survive in such areas even though they were lost elsewhere.
Geographical isolation also led to the evolution of new species in these areas. Thus today, not
only do we find that these former refuges have higher species diversity, they also show high
levels of endemism.
The reduction of the forest was greater in Africa than the other areas due to a colder, drier
climate in the Pleistocene epoch. As a result, more species were lost so this realm has a lower
species number today_
"T REATS "f0 BIODIVERSITY

(median region is a treasure house of wild genetic resource_ Wild species and relatives of crop
plants contain valuable genes that are of u7uaense genetic value in cIop Improvement
programmed. 'The important wild related species and types III various crop groups, prevailing
under different photo geographic zones of the country needs particular attention in the agro
biodiversity management System for a sustainable use to help maintain food, nutritional and
agricultural economic security.
I3iodiversity is the variety and variations occurring in nature, which has sustained the
harmonious existence of life on earth. The components of this diversity are so
interdependent that any change in the system leads to a major imbalance and threatens the
normal ecological cycle_
lxtfliction, in biology, the loss of populations of interbreeding organisms, caused by 1>ioss,

predation, and inability to adapt to changing environments_ The term is also applied to the loss
of higher taxonomic groups, such as families or orders
Another period of rapid extinction. 65 million years ago, is famous for the disappearance of the
dinosaurs. One-third of the plant and animal species in the world went extinct at this time.
Many modem extinctions have taken place on oceanic islands, where species have become
specialized in the absence of natural enemies_ For example, nearly two-thirds of all the native
bird species and one-tenth of the native plants originally found on the Hawaiian Islands have
recently become extinct. Most of these losses have been of species unique to the Hawaiian
archipelago_ Predators, competitors, or diseases introduced by humans from continental areas
are responsible for many of the extinctions. Many remaining species on oceanic islands are
threatened or endangered_
Extinction of species in continental areas has been less common, but most welldoctunented
cases are again due to human actions_ Fragmentation and loss of habitats can reduce populations
so greatly that chance events, such as poor weather, can cause extinction_ While rare organisms
are more likely to go extinct, extreme abundance of a species is no guarantee of safety from
38
extinction=- The passenger pigeon bred in colonies of many millions in the deciduous forests of
eastern North America in the early 1800s_ However, uncontrolled hunting, trapping, and forest
clearing rapidly reduced it to extinction in the wild by 1894.
Mass extinctions are of widespread interest because current habitat destruction worldwide may
be generating a modem mass extinction_ Rates of habitat loss are highest in tropical countries
where the diversity of species is also high_ Lists of endangered species are growing rapidly in
much of the world, and rates of extinction are likely to rise sharply as the human population
increases_
Poaching means a wild game_ One has to reduce poaching and without concerted efforts to save
habitats and reduce poaching and the illegal wildlife trade, many wildlife species will become
extinct. In spite of our knowledge of how to reduce soil erosion_ It continues to be a worldwide
problem, largely because too many agriculturalists and developers show little interest in
controlling it_ The destruction of wild lands, in both temperate and tropical- regions, could
result in massive extinctions of animal and plant life_
Poaching of Wildlife
During the Middle Ages the feudal lords of Europe imposed extensive restrictions on hunting
with draconian laws against poaching, effectively hunting the taking of game to the ruling
classes_ Stag hunting With hounds and horses and the pursuit of game birds with trained falcons
(see Falconry) were popular pastimes of the nobility.
Today; game laws also protect wild animals by limiting how and when they can or cannot be
hunted-during the close season, for example, hunting is forbidden-and by regulating against the
killing of certain endangered species.
The bear family is highly endangered_ Human destruction of their habitat, hunting and
poaching, and the natural aggression of bears when cornered are the main factors in the massive
reduction in the numbers of the various species of bear. The elephants in African national parks,
for example, were in serious danger from poaching during the 1970s and 1980s- Poaching is
encouraged due to the high price these animals- In India, poaching of wildlife is common lead to
loss of animal biodiversity_
/vlanagement clearly implies the influence and application of human manipulation. In other
words, to achieve specified objectives_ Wildlife management holds as a premise the concept of
conquering nature and suggested that attempts at dominating nature contradict the ethic of
resource conservation_ Wildlife management is changing, but its past remains relevant to the
present and future_ The practice of wildlife management is rooted in the intermingling of human
ethics, culture, perceptions, and legal concepts.
Management Wildlife Conflicts
There is a conflicts between biodiversity conservators and general public because the public is
not taking interest in wildlife management_ Human activities like hunting, poaching,
eutrophication of lakes, development pressure, encroachment, exploitation, human induced
disasters, management of human resources, political and policy issues, etc_ There is a conflicts
39
between them. Therefore, a general_ awareness has to be developed in public for wildlife
management.
ENDANGERED AND ENDEMIC SPECIES OF INDIA
Endangered Species (plant and animal species) are in immediate danger of extinction_ The
following degrees of endangerment have been defined_ Critically endangered species, such as
the California condor, are those that probably cannot survive without direct human intervention.
Threatened species are abundant but are declining in total numbers. Rare species exist in
relatively low number over their ranges but are not necessarily in immediate danger of
extinction
Aft
Ift
Table 13-5-, Endemic species in India Group No- ol- --- Spec-~es
Pteridophyta - -- ~0
Plants Angiosperms 4950
Animals Protozoa
Mollusk Pisces
Parasitic 500 Free living 90 Lepidoptera t 9
Land & Freshwater f 967 Freshwater

Marine Amphibian
64 14 123
Reptilian 182 Aves 60 Mammalian 44
I:eQdnnric Species
Endemism of Indian biodiversity is significant. About 4,900 species of flowering plants are 33%
of the recorded floras are endemic to the country. Thee are. distributed over 141 genera
belonging to 47 families. These are concentrated in the floristically rich area of North East India,
the Western Gnats, North West Himalayas and the Andaman and NICO bar Islands.
The Western Gnats and the Eastern 1 Himalayas are reported to have 1,600 and 3,500 endemic
species of flowering plants, respectively. These constitute two of 18 hot spots identified in the
world. It is estimated that 62% of the known amphibian species are endemic to India of which a
majority occur in Western occur in Western Gnats.
40
Endemic species are the plants, which are limited in their distribution i_e- they are restricted to a
small area and are not found elsewhere in the world_ It may be due to=
2. Poor adaptability of a species in a wide range of ecological
3. Presence of some geographical barrier, e_g. Sea, Mountains etc_
4. Failure of dispersal of reproductive organs (propagules, seeds, runners etc.).
5. The species might haye been comparatively young and not have enough time
to spread.
6 . Some examples of endemics include Metasequoia living gymnosperm endemic in coastal
valleys of California, USA, Pnmulla and Potentilla, at high altitudes of Himalayas, Ginkgo
biloba endemic in Japan and China.
CONSERVATION OF BIODIVESRSITY CONSERVATION
The strategy of conservation depend on the nature of the material and on the objective and scope
of the activity. The nature of the material is defined by the length of the life cycle, the mode of
reproduction, the size of tile individuals and its ecological status, whether wild, weedy of
domesticated (1=rankei_ 1970). The purpose to which the material is put will determine the
degree of integrity %vhich is essential or desirable to mamtam. Conservation strategy must take
into consideration the time dimension; wlrether it be for short-nicdium-or long-terni storage and
where the storage will be located. The genetic make-up of the material and tile type of sample
collected will reflect the breeding systein of the material and how it wi8ll be regenerated.
There are two basic approaches to gennplasm conservation namely in situ and ex situ
conservation_
In Situ Conservation
This is an approach, which is applied mainly to wild species related to crop plant, to forest and
pasture species. It is often recommended that these species should be preserved; maintaining the
genetic integrity of their nature state, as communities in stable environments. Most nature
conservation programmes are aimed at the level of ecosystems or multi species communities.
The application of in situ conservation of landraces is not, therefore, a feasible option, and
because of the rapid loss of genetic variation through cultivar replacement, ex situ conservation
in one form or another is the most practical and safe approach for such material.
Ex Situ Conservation
This type of conservation includes the use of botanic gardens and arboreta on the one hand and
genetic gardens and arboreta represent the oldest forms of conservation in Europe data back to
the 15 a` and 16a' centuries. Little material has survived since then however apart from a few
trees, so that most are in fact of later origin. Guldager ( 197 5) suggested four alternative
objectives for ex situ conservation:
I To establish and maintain conservation stands characterized as far as possible
by the same genotype frequencies as the original populations (provenance)
41
static conservation of genotypes).

2. To establish and maintain conservation stands characterized as far as possible by same gene
frequencies as the original populations, thus avoiding total loss of any allele static conservation
of gene pools
To establish conservation stand in which gene frequencies are allowed to change freely
according to natural selective forces evolutionary conservation To establish conservation stands
in which gene frequencies are deliberately chanted by man in order to conserve characteristics-
selective conservation.
All perishable foods should be stored above 63°C or below S~C, i.e- outside the danger zone,
during display and service_ Routine procedures in food preparation include, cleaning, washing,
thawing, cooking, cooling, hot - holding and storage and use of leftover food Storage
temperatures are crucial in determining the shelf life of foods and should be checked often.
Surplus food must be handled carefully as such food has already been handled once. Meat and
fish are highly perishable and are often responsible for cross-contamination. Vegetables carry
spore-bearing soil bacteria and need special cleaning_ If the common faults in food preparation
are overcome, food will be much - safer to consume_
The number of species globally may be 5 to 50 millions. A conservative figure is 13.6 millions-
Of these, only 1.76 m is discovered and so lot of search and research is yet to taken up_ But
even -mean while there are several extinctions. 20% of all species might be lost in 30 years, and
50% by the end of 21" century. Biodiversity is as precious as a genetic library. For eg_ Genes in
bacteria may be around 1000, and in flowering plants 400,000 and also in some animals. In fact
the human gene mapping has been successfully done taking assistance of a large number of
engineers as well.
Fhe Coastal Region
The natural vegetation consists of mangroves_ Animal species include dugong, dolphins,
crocodiles and avifauna These are 26 species of fresh water turtles and tortoises in India and 5
species of marine turtles, which inhabit and feed in coastal waters and lay their eggs on suitable
beaches. Tortoise live and breed mainly on the land.
Over 200,000 Olive Ridley turtles come to Orison to nest in the space of three or four nights_
The highest tiger population is found in the Sunder bans along the east coast adjoining the Bay
of Bengal_
Lakshadweep consists of 36 major islands-12 atolls, 3 reefs and 5 submerged coral banks-make
up this group of islands more than three hundred kilometers to the west of the Kerala coast_ The
geographical area is 32 sq_ km- and the usually area us 26.32 sq_ km_ The fauna consists
mainly of four species of turtles, 36 species of crabs 12 bivalves, 41 species of sponges
including typical coral, ornamental fishes and dugongs. A total of 104 scleractiniam corals
belonging to 37 genera are reported_
42
'Che North-East
Biological resources are rich in this zone_ The tropical vegetation of northeast India is rich in
evergreen and semi evergreen rain forest, moist deciduous monsoon forests, swamps and
grasslands
Mammalian fauna includes 390 species of which 63% are found in Assign. The area is rich in
smaller carnivores_ The countr_y7s highest population of elephants are found here.
The Indian Islands
It is ~-,coup of 325 islands_ Andaman to the north and NICO bar to the south_ The two are
separated bv about 160 kames, by the Ten Degree Channel of the sea__ The rainfall Is heav`,
with both Northeast and Southwest monsoons- At present, 21 of the 325 island in the
Andaman& Nieobar Islands are inhabited. Many unique plants and animals are found here,
about 2,200 species of higher plants are found here uf which 200 are endemic_ The Andaman &
Nicobar Islands have tropical evergreen forests and tropical semi evergreen forests as well as
moist deciduous forests, littoral and mangrove forests
I 12 endemic species of avifauna, the Andaman water monitor, giant robber crab, 4 species
turtles, wild boar, Andaman day gecko and the harmless Andaman water snake are found only in
these islands. The Narcondam hornbill found only in Anaconda is a lar,!e forest bird with a big
beak. Coral reefs are stretched over an area of 11,000 sq_ km_ in the Andamans and 2,700 sq_
kni_ in Nicobar_
liot-epots of 13iodiversitv
"f lot-stops are biologically rich areas high di4~ersity and a large percentage of endemic Species
For example, 2U°-'o of the world's plants are found on 05% of the earth's surface Biological hot-
spots include the Western Amazon (Colombia, Ecuador, Peru), Madagascar, North and eastern
Borneo Northeasterrl Australia West Africa, and the
Brazilian Atlantic forest- All of these areas have high diversity and many are threatened lzy
human activities.
Global Biodiversity Hotspots
The Tropical Andes (Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, and Bolivia) , Madagascar

_ Brazil's Atlantic Forest Region 4 The Philipines
5 Meso-American forests
6: Wallacea (eastern Indonesia)
43
7 Western Sunda (in Indonesia Malaysia, and Brunei) 9 South Africa's Cape floristic region4
The Antilles
l Q Brazil,s Cerrado
I 1 The Darien and Choco of Panama, Colombia, and Western Ecuador 12 - Polynesia and
Micronesian Island complex, including Hawaii 13. Southwestern Australia
14- The Eastern Mediterranean region
15 - The Western Ghats of India and the island of Sri Lanka 16 The Guinean forests of West
Africa 17- New Caledonia
18- Eastern Himalayas
(9. Southeastern Australia and Tasmania
Hot spots in India
Hot spots are areas that are extremely rich in species, have high endemism, and are under
constant threat. Among the 25 hot spots of the world, two are found in India extending rnirr
neighbouring countries the Western (;hatsiSri Lanka and the Indo-Burma region !c:(<vc.ring the
1=.aslcrn I hrnalayas) These arca's are particularly rich in flora) wealth and cnrlcmitim, not only
in }lowcring plants but also tit rcptrlcs, :rmphihi:rn~. swallow-lailcd huttcrtlres, and some
mammals
li.astcrn Himalayas
PhN tog eographically, the Eastern Himalayas form a distinct floral region- The area comprises
Nepal, Bhutan, and neighbouring states of northern India, along with a continuous sector of the
Yunnan province in southwest China- Although all t}irnalavan forests lie well north of the
Tropic of Cancer, and some pf the, are at altitudes of 1780 to 3500 metres (rather akin to
temperate forests in physiognomy and structure), they can be considered tropical forests since
they occur largely within the climatic tropics
The Eastern Himalayas display an ultra-varied topography, a factor that fostcrs species diversity
and endemism- Many deep and semi-isolated valleys are exceptionally rich in endemic plant
species- In Sikkim, in an area, of 7298 krn'2, of' the -1-150 plant species, 2550 (60%) are
endemic- In India's sector of the arel<_a, there are about 5;i00 plant species, of which roughly
2000 (36%) are endemic
In Nepal, there are around 7000 plants species, many of which overlap with those or trrdia,
Bhutan, and even Hunan Of these species, at least 500 (almost S°'0) are }7c};t-red to the
endemic to Nepal.
Bhutan possesses an estimated 5000 species, of which as many as 750 (15",,'o) are considered to
be endemic to the Eastern }-{inhales
Reasons for Loss of t3iodiversitv
44
A summary of the reasons for loss of biodiversity arc its under: L Destruction of forests
we exploitation of bio-resources
Shifting cultivation
5_ Urbanization
6_ industrialization 7. Illegal trade
8. Smuggling & bio-piracy
9_ Soil degradation and erosion 10. Diminishing green cover
11 - Mining for ores, roads, river valley 12. Exploitation of timber resources
13n exploitation of NTFP (No timber Forest Produce) 14. Loss of land fertility
15. De-vegetation
16. Drought and famine 17. Desertification 18. Tourism business
19. unequal globalization 20. Greed rather than need
45
Unit – IV
ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION CAUSES

EFFECTS AND CONTROL
WHAT IS POLLUTION?
definition: Pollution is a contamination of the environment by. man-made substances or energy

that have adverse effects on living or non-living matter_ This contamination of air, water, or soil
materials interferes with human health thee quality of life, or the natural functioning of
ecosystems.. In simple terms, pollution can be seen as the wrong substance in the wrong place in
the wrong quantities at the wrong time. This implies that harm is caused to the environment, and
if the same substance is present at levels too low to cause harm, then it can be considered as
contamination_ Many substances that can be pollutants also occur naturally, in which case they
are not classified as pollution. However, other pollutants result entirely from human activity,
such as most toxic organic compounds and artificial forms of radioactivity, particularly from
nuclear waste_
CAUSES OF POLLUTION
Air pollution can result in adverse effects on health, crops, natural ecosystems, materials, and
visibility_ The major concern over air pollution are acidification of soils and waters with its
detrimental affects on animal and plant life, and the impact of traffic-derived pollutants on
health in cities (see traffic pollution)_ On a global scale air pollution probably represents the
greatest problem of all, with greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide) resulting in global
warming and synthetic chlorine compounds (chlorofluorocarbons) depleting the stratospheric
ozone layer_ Nuclear waste is a further modern environmental concern, which poses a problem
not just for the present generation, but for future generations as the waste remains radio active
for thousands of years.
Water pollution arises from the discharge of industrial, agricultural, and human wastes into
freshwaters, estuaries, and seas_ This may result in the poisoning of aquatic organisms or the
depletion of oxygen owing to excessive growth of microorganisms (anthropogenic
eutophication), which makes less of the water habitable for fish_ Metal pollution and toxic
organic compounds of concern for human and environmental health as a result of discharges to
water, air, and the terrestrial environment.
46
EFFECTS OF POLLUTION
The impact pollution can be short-term if the Biosphere possesses enough capacity to absorb and
transform pollutants. sometimes humans assist in this process. Sewage treatment facilities
sometimes make use of artificial marshes to purify wastewater, remove most pollutants, re
oxygenate water, and destroy disease organisms. More often we simply dilute pollutant wastes
in rivers or lakes, or hide them in landfills, from which they slowly leach out into nearby
Pollutants increasingly overwhelm the biosphere's capacity to deal with them, and often have
long-term consequences. Fish in the Great Lakes, in about 20 percent of all our other lakes. and
in 5 percent of America's rivers, contain too many pollutants to be safety eaten. Widespread lead,
from decades of using gasoline whose lead content was dispersed through exhausts, remains
distributed over our soil. Lead is dangerous, especially for children, because it reduces brain
development when it gets into the blood_ Persistent residues of pesticides, plastics, and other
materials accumulate in body fat and disturb human's and other animals' hormone systems.
Some radioactive wastes from nuclear bomb testing. Power plants, and other sources will remain
dangerous for tens of thousands of years. Long-continued pollution even affects Evolution: it
will eliminate organisms who cannot tolerance certain pollutants and favor others who can eat,
use or tolerance them.
Public pressure has led to regulations limiting certain industrial pollutant emissions_ However,
new unregulated polluting substances are constantly being developed, and the government
agencies responsible for policing pollution regulations are weak and under funded. Companies
often save money by continuing illegal pollution and paying minor, tax-deductible fines:
responsible go unpunished_ Such economics harm thousands of people, not to mention their dire
effects on other species, but because individual victims can seldom be identified with certainty,
existing law does not threaten corporate economically with prison. Recently, green taxes on
pollution as well as energy use have been proposed as a more workable means of reducing
emissions. If citizens want a less polluted world, we must use political pressure to bring about
such changes.
3.polution of oceans: The oceans are the ultimate sink into which all wasters in rivers and much
of that in the air are likely to find their way. Presently the attitude has been changed because of
the fact that pollutants are added in such a high concentrations in local areas that environment of
the ocean is highly affected. There are six types of major pollutants which can pollute ocean:
(1)Sewage and fertilizers, II) chlorinated hydrocarbons and pesticides, including DDT iii) Heavy
metals, iv) Oil_ and petroleum products, v) Radioactive substances, and Vi)Plastics.
Fate of pollutants in Aquatic Systems:

There are three categories under this: a) Degradable b) Non-degradable (conservative) and c)
biologically accumulative (persistent)- Degradable pollutants are complex organic substances,
which can undergo biological decay by microorganisms. Radioactive isotopes can also be
classified in this category. Non degradable substances are referred to as conservative substances.
All salts and metals can be categorized in this group.
47
Signs of Polluted Water:

Bad taste of drinking water, 2) Offensive odours from takes, rivers and ocean beaches, 3)
Unchecked growth of aquatic weeds in water bodies, 4) Decrease in number of fish in fresh
water, and seawater 5) Oil and grease floating on surface of the water, etc. Such water canot be
used for public supply, recreation and aesthetics, fish other aquatic life and wild life, agriculture
and industry. The physical characteristics of unacceptable stream water include temperature,
taste and odor, colour, suspended solids and floating matter etc.
Major pollutants:
1. Sewage and ether oxygen-demanding wastes (largely carbonaceous organic material, the
decomposition of which leads to oxygen depletion). 2. Infectious agents.
3. Plant nutrients that can stimulate the growth of aquatic plants, which tehn interfere with water
uses and, when decaying, deplete the dissolved oxygen and produce disagreeable odours.
4. Exotic organic chemicals, including pesticides, various industrial products, surface-active
substances in detergents, and the decomposition products of other organic compounds
5. Petroleum, especially from oil spills,
6. Inorganic minerals and chemical compounds.
7. Sediments consisting of soil and mineral particles washed by storms and flood water from
croplands, unprotected soils, mine workings, roads, and bulldozed urban areas.
8. Radioactive substances from the wastes of uranium and thorium mining and refining, from
nuclear power plants, and from the industrial, medical, and scientific use of radioactive
materials.
9- Heat may also be considered a pollutant when increased temperatures in bodies of water
result from the discharge of cooling water by factories and power plants.
Pollutants classification on the basis of physical nature:

1. Suspended particles: These particles have diameters of more than 1 micrometer_ And are the
largest in polluted water, They are large enough to settle out of water quickly and may be
retained by filters.
2.Collodial particles: These particles are so small that their setting rate is insignificant removed
from water by setting method or by ordinary filters. 3.Dissolved Matter: The dissolved matter of
water does not make it cloudy, even when viewed at right angles to a beam of light, such matter
does not out, and is not retained on filters.
Major Water Pollutants:
1.Pesticide and Biocides: Pesticides cause water pollution, Pesticides means any substance
intended for preventing, destroying, attracting, repelling or controlling any pest including
unwanted species of plants or animals during production, storage transport, distribution and
processing of food, agricultural commodities or animal feeds or which may be administered to
the animals for the control of ectoparasites. -
48
2, `chlorinated Hydrocarbons and Pesticides, -Including DDT: Chlorinated hydrocarbons or

pesticides are the chemical substances, which are often referred to as biocides, insecticides, or
simply as pollutants, Most of these substances are non degradable
3.DDT:lt is a while amorphous powder with a mild, but not unpleasant smell. It is insoluble in
water but dissolves in most organic solvents_ DDT taken into body may eventually be broken
down and eliminated, but the process is slow, and if intake of DDT goes on regularly, a level
may be reached at which the concentration in the fat remains relatively stable_ Through the river
DDT reached the sea water in fairly high concentration to effect the marine lives which
accumulate a very high concentration of this chemical in their body fat.
4. Heavy Metals: Heavy metals are present in all phases of the environment-air, water, and land_
When these substances are released in the wear phase of the environment, they are transported
by the fluid motion, are transferred to the atmosphere and bed, are subject to various
physicochemical and biochemical reactions, and are assimilated Ly all levels of the aquatic food
chains. They are also transmitted by direct ingestion through the food chain to higher organisms
and ultimately to humans
5-Mercury: Among the naturally occurring and the industrial pollutants, mercury is one of the
worst offenders as a dangerous pollutant, The element is poisonous, both in the from of
inorganic and organic compounds_ Methyl mercury is highly persistent kind of pollutant that
accumulates in the food chain. Methyl mercury gives off vapors_
6.Chaliyar river: In Karalla (India) indiscriminate use of mercury in gold extraction and rayon
manufacture has polluted the chiliad river
7_Illlinamata in Japan: The first major disaster of mercury poisoning occurred in 1953 at mina
Mata in Japan, with at least 43 deaths due to eating of contaminated fish. The mercury came in
the bay from the nearby chemical plant producing vinyl chloride. There, mercury chloride was
used as a catalyst.
8.Cadmium: Cadmium is among the metallic elements, environmental contamination from

which has received considerable attention from the standpoint of human health. Cadmium a
crystalline, silver white malleable metal is obtained as a by-product in the refining of zinc and
other metals. Although cadmium has been recognized for a relatively short period of time. He
environment has been polluted with cadmium for several thousand years. It is present in fresh
water (0.0001), municipal water waste (0.010), Industrial
Effluents (1,000), River water polluted with industrial waste (0_0015)
Fluoride: Sources of fluorine compounds in nature and from man's activities, and the air borne
fluoride toxicity has already been dealt under Air Pollution. Fluorine is universally present in
varying amounts in soil, water, atmosphere. Vegetation and animal tissues. Because of its
chemical reactivity, It is found in nature in a combined form_
49
10. Petroleum: Petroleum consists of hydrocarbons, which are stable in the absence of oxygen,
Under natural conditions a stable state exists between the input from oil from natural seeps and
removal mechanism_ Oil is the most conspicuous pollutant for sea when a large tanker runs
aground and spills from cargo unintentionally, or when off shore oil source discharges in an
uncontrolled way
11. crude Oil: It is crude in real sense that it consists of several thousands of components of
widely differing molecular weights and is usually dark brown, smelly liquid, about as thick as
engine oil_ It is mainly composed of hydrocarbons, but there is an appreciable proportion_ of
sulphur, and there are trace concentrations of metals like vanadium and Nickel. Oil pollution in
sea have caused serious damages.
12. Radioactive Substances: There has been and continuous to be contamination of the
environment by fission products of heavy elements as a result of the nuclear weapon tests.
Radioactive substances are short-lived products which are gradually excluded from the natural
cycle, the long lived products (including strontium-90, cesium-137 and cerium-144) remain and
will continue to participate in the cycle of matter in the atmosphere, the soil and waters for some
long timer, which will mainly depend on the half-life of each nuclide.
13. Plastics: Plastics are usually less biodegradable than oil. Oloystyrene breaks down into
microscopic globules. It has been observed that water samples from Antarctic and the arctic
oceans contain polystyrene particles, and found every where in the oceans.
14. Plastic Bags : The flimsy plastic carry bag has come to symbolize an environmental hazard
that is an offshoot of growing and reckless consumption_ Plastic bags are non biodegradable_
They harm to marine life. Poly bags pollution in the mountains can reduce the vegetation and
hence soil binding, increasing the risk of landslides.
15. Industrial Waste: Most of the rivers and fresh water streams, which pass near the major cities
are polluted by industrial wastes or effluents. Effluents from these contain a wide variety of both
inorganic and organic pollutants such as oils, greases, plastics, plasticizers, metallic wastes,
suspended solids, phenols, toxins and other chemical substances, many of which are not readily
susceptible to degradation and cause very serious pollution problems_
16. Agricultural Waste: It is well know that agriculture is the single largest user of fresh water
resources, using a global average of 70 percent of all surface water supplies_ Except for water
lost through evapotranspiration, Agricultural water is recycled back to surface water and/or
ground floor water. However, agriculture is both cause and victim of water pollution. It is a
cause through its discharge of pollutants and sediment to surface and/or ground water, through
net loss of soil by poor agricultural practices, and through Stalinization and water logging or
irrigated land. It is a victim through use of waste water and polluted surface and ground water
which contaminate crops and transmit disease to consumers and farm workers. Agricultural
practices like, tillage/sloughing, fertilizing, manure spreading pesticides, feedlots/animal corrals,
50
irrigation, clear cutting, silviculture and aquaculture have impact on surface and ground water
quality.
17. Fertilizers: Excessive and indiscriminate use of chemical fertilizers and synthetic feed
for livestock often leads to accumulation of nitrates in water.
18. Organic Pesticides: Organ chlorine compounds differ from inorganiccations in several
fundaments ways, One is that they are very insoluble in water, but are soluble in fats. A result
that is that before the can be excreted by an animal they have to be converted into more water-
soluble compounds_ So that ability to excrete a particular compound depends on the animal
having a suitable enzyme. Some examples of organic pesticides are DDT and diedrin.
19.Agrofood Processing Industry: The associated agro food-processing industry is also a
significant source of organic pollution in most coUmtries. Aquaculture is now recognized as a
major problem in freso water, estuarine and coastal environments, leading to eutrophication and
ecosystem damage.
20. Thermal Pollution: Chemical industries, fossil fuel and nuclear power plants use lot of water
for cooling purposes and return this water to stream at a higher temperature cause water
pollution.
. . .
EFFECTS OF WATER POLLUTION
Notable effects of water pollution include those involved in human health. Nitrates (the salts of
nitric acid) in drinking water can cause a disease in infants that sometimes results in death.
Cadmium in sludge-derived fertilizes can be absorbed by crops; if ingested in sufficient
amounts, the metal can cause an acute diarrhea disorder and liver and kidney damage. The
hazardous nature of inorganic substances such as mercury, arsenic, and lead has long been
known or strongly suspected.
Effects on Human Diseases

On a worldwide scaie, the pollution of water supplies is probably responsible for more human
illness than any other environment influence. The disease so transmitted are chiefly due to
microorganisms and parasites. One example, will illustrate the dimensions of the problem.
Cholera, an illness caused by ingestion of the bacterium Vibrio cholerae, is characterized by
intense diarrhea, which results rapidly in massive fluid depletion and death in a very large
percentage of untreated patients_
Water Quality and Health

The main consideration in ensuring the safety of public water supplies is the elimination of the
agents of water borne infectious disease_
Concern about possible health effects of chemicals in drinking water stemmed from the
application of sophisticated analytical techniques, which revealed the presence of traces of many
potentially harmful chemicals.
Acute health effects of chemical constituents of drinking water are very unlikely but effects due
to exposure to low concentrations over a lifetime are just feasible_ Such evidence as there is,
51
suggests that any such effects are extremely small and difficult to measure, but this is still the
subject of much research_
Organic compounds can adversely affect the of water at concentration well below any likely to
give rise to toxic effects_ This is marked with chlorophenols and certain petroleum products but
this natural defense mechanism cannot be depended on. The taste, smell, appearance, 'feel'
(hardness/softness) is markedly affected by chemical composition, as is its corrosiveness to
materials including toxic metals.
Water is recognized as an important factor in transmission of many diseases (water transmitted
diseases)_ It is, therefore, of great importance to remove from drinking or polluted water all the
pathogenic organisms or parasites it may contain: this is called desinfection_
The polluted water may create a variety of dreaded types of diseases besides diseases caused due
to poor water supply and sanitation_ Most of the disease- causing bacteria enter the body of
animals and those of human beings through water and develop serious diseases. Polluted waters,
especially those polluted by domestic sewage and discharges from hospitals and slaughterhouses
etc., are potent source of infections diseases- They carry variety of pathogens in the form of
protazoans, bacteria, ~ind ,Aruses, and parasites like flukes tapeNvorms and roundworms.
Diseases caused by water pollution Source Diseases
Action
Water borne
Water which is contaminated Cholera, typhoid, infection Improve sanitation, and water by poor
sanitation acts as hepatitis quality, water -washed vehicle for infecting agents
Insufficient available water Scadies, yaws, leprosy, Provide more water and
(specially in desert) to allow trachoma improve personal cleanliness people to wash regularly;
infection develop
Water-based
Essential part of life-cycle of Schistosomiasis, guinea worm Avoid infected water and
infecting agent takes place in form water releted vectors and provide piped water
aquatic animals, person drinks breed in water and bite near
and walks in water specially when, stagnant, infection is carried by insects
Classification of infectious diseases in relation to water suppliers
Category Examples Relevant water improvement I Water-borne infections
(a) Classical Typhoid, cholera Microbiological sterility
(b) Non-classical Infective hepatitis Microbiological improvement I1-Water-washed
infections L
Skin and eyes Scabies, trachoma Greater volume available -(b)-Diarrhoeal diseases
Bacillary dysentery Greater volume available ill Water-based infections
(a) Penetrating skin Schistosomiasis Protection of user
(b) Ingested Guinea wormProtection of source 1V Infections with water
releted insect vectors
(a) Biting near waterSleeping sickness Water piped from source
(b) Breeding in water Yellow fever Water piped to site of use
V Infections primarily defective sanitation Hookworm
~ Sanitary faecal disposal
52
human Pathogenic Protozoa

I'he protozoa are ubiquitous and cosmopolitan, a few occurring throuphout the world- They
grow in a variety of moist habitats because it is necessary for their existence_ Several terrestrial
protozoa are found in decaying organic matter, in soil, and even in beach sonic are parasitic in
plants or animals. The important protozoa which cause diseases are Entarnoeba histolytica,
Entarnoeba xoli, 13alnrrticlium eolf, Gicrrdia larnbia intestinalis, Trichomoncrs vaginalis,
Plasmodium, Leishmania tropica, Leishnrania brasiliensis, 1_eishnrania donovani,
7ryparlosorna gambiense, and Tryl)crnosorrrcr cru% i_,
Fluoride Pollution and human and Animal Health

`>~'~.rces of fluorine compounds in nature and form man's activities, and the air-horric fluoride
<:tv has already been dealt under Air pollution. Fluorine is universally
present in varying
amounts in soil, water,- atmosphere, vegetation -and animal tissues. Because of its chemical
reactivity, it is found in nature in a combined (fluoride) form. Many cases have been reported to
cause endemic fluorosis in human beings_ It is caused by the ingestion of high-fluoride well
water in Haryana and Punjab. Many cases have been reported in Andhra Pradesh due to fluoride
content of water.it is estimated that 20-25 million Indian are afflicated by fluorosis and if timely
remedial measures are not taken, this figure may double in near future.
Toxic effects of heavy metals on human health

Metal Effects on human health
Mercury Minarriata epidemic, the first major disaster of mercury poisoning occurred in 1953 at
Minamata in Japan; the victims developed numbness of the limbs, lips and tongue and lost
muscle control_ Also caused deafness, blurring of vision, clumsiness, apathy and mental
deterioration
Lead Lead pollution causes liver and kidney damage, reduction in hemoglobin formation,
mental retardation, and abnormalities of fertility and pregnancy; children may suffer from
macrocephaly or convulsions or both.
Cause mental disturbance, liver cirrhosis, hyperkeratosis, lung cancer, ulcers in gastrointestinal
tract, kidney damage
Bone deformation, kidney damage, testicular atrophy, anaemia, injury of central nervous system
and liver, hypertension; the itai-itai first reported from Japan was shown
to be used to cadmium toxicity. _Copper Hypertension, uremia, coma, sporadic fever
Zinc Vomiting, renal damage, cramps
Chromium Nephiritis, gastro-intestinal ulceration, cancer
(hexavalent)
Lead Pollution and Human and Animal Health
Lead poisoning is common in adults_ Lead and processing industries constitute the major
sources of serious lead pollution- Though the lead paints are greater hazards to children, who are
prone to ingest and chew on painted articles as lead toys, painters also may run a risk from
continual use and exposure_ The lead used as stabilizer in some plastic pipe is extracted by
water polluting the drinking water_ Lead in glazing putty may be another source of pollution,
53
especially for children. Lead used in insecticides, food beverages, ointments and various
medicinal concoctions flavouring and sweeting is also an important source of lead poisoning-
Lead pollution causes liver and kidney damage, reduction in hemoglobin formation, mental
retardation, and abnormalities of fertility and pregnancy.
Arsenic
Cadmium
Control of water pollution
It is not always true that biodegradable pollutants alone cause the major pollution load; several
kinds of ingredients such as heavy metals, refractory chemical compounds and mineral oil also
exist, which cannot be decomposed by mechanical or biological means add to this. Inorganic
fertilizers and various biocides are too responsible for contributing to this load. Efforts of
control :;hold, therefore, include the reduction in the amounts of waste by reutilizing or
recycling of their components. Control of water bodies and of organisms serving the purpose of
water protection should be reinforced and carried out by all available means including legal
enforcement under the provisions laid down in water (prevention and control of pollution) Act,
} 974 and the Environmental (protection) Act, 1986. The various ways/techniques suggested for
prevention and control of water pollution are: stabilization of ecosystem, reutilization and
recycling of waste, removal of pollutants,
Control of groundwater pollution requires accurate information on the distance between aquifer
and the ground, the volume of the ground water body and the structure of the underlying
stratum, and also on the physico-chemical and biological characteristics of the pollutants.
Appropriate control measures could be suggested after monitoring the samples of underground
water at different depths of the suspected areas.
Freshwater blooms and their Control
The best way to prevent blooms of cyanobacteria is to prevent the input of excessive amounts of
nitrate, phosphate, and organic matter into the water bodies concerned. If this is impossible,
treatment with copper sulphate to give a concentration in the water of about 9.2 mg L~ is
effective in preventing the development of blooms without causing damage to higher plants or
fish. If there is a large amount -of dissolved organic matter in the waterr, then the treatment may
t be effective because copper complexes with the organic matter. I Jse of copper sulphate should
be regarded as a temporary measure only; the wisdom of repeatedly adding a permanently
poisonous substance to a lake or reservoir is questionable. Organic substances, such as 2,3-
dichloro-l, 4-naphihoquinone, have selective toxic action against the members of cyanobacteria.
Sewage Disposal and Treatment

Sewage is defined as the water supply of the used water of community. It contains dilute w-ater-
borne wastes from residence, business houses, and industries. The chemical composition of
sewage varies from day to day or even from hour. It also varies considerably between different
cities. because they produce the wastes of different characters. Sewage water contains inorganic
wastes, which create a problem of disposal, but a part from inorganic waste, undesirable organic
matters, which are offensive and dangerous, are also present. Inorganic compounds of sewage
water support the growth of harmful bacteria and other microorganisms, which, sometimes lead
54
to the epidemics among the human beings. Health standards are dependent upon efficient waste
disposal- It has been observed that number of the serious diseases are throu,0i sewage e.g._
gastrointestinal, typhoid fever, paratyphoid fever, cholera, dysentery certain nematode
infections, etc.
There are various methods, which are used to treat sewage water. The suitability of the method
is mainly dependent on the area to be served and by the density of the pollution_ The sewage
water is treated by physical, chemical or biological processes for removal organic matter.
Physical Treatment
Using mechanical devices, various suspended and floating solids from sewage can be removed
Different types of screening devices are used. After screening, the sewage is passed through grit
chambers to allow to the solid matter to settle. 'I hen it is passed through sedimentation tanks.
The polluted water is kept in these tanks for few hours_ The supernatant ; or effluent is drawn
off_ Chlorine is passed through it and finally discharged into a body of
o: into porous soil.
•
Biological treatment
The method is widely used for sewage treatment. The water from toilet, bath-tubes, kitchen
sinks etc. (sanitary sewage) is processed in septic tank, which can handle at the most a few
hundred gallons per day to municipal plants which handle of gallons.
Septic tanks: This type of tank is commonly used in rural areas where public sewers are not
available. It is constructed below the ground level near the house or within the house. It is about
3'*5'*5' in area and about 750 gallon of sewage water may be filled in it. The domestic waste
entering the tank is retained long enough to permit sufficient decomposition and sedimentation.
Due to activity of anaerobic bacteria. most of the organic matter is hydrolyzed and get
fermented_
Trickling filters: In this process sewage water, from city sewers is first carried to soil
compartments where it undergoes physiochemical changes with the soil, it than gradually
trickles down the soil to a depth of nearly 2 meters. Such filtration procedure leads to the
separation of suspending particles and organic matter from it. These are then decomposed by
purifying bacteria. The filtered water, then, drained out and reaches the natural purewater-
reservoirs like well. This is the most simple and cheap system of water purification where the
sewage water is purified by both mechanical and biological property of soil.
S IL DEGRADATION
. oil Degradation is the decline in quality and quantity of a soil_ This may be brought about by
various processes: erosion, Stalinization, contamination, drainage, acidification, laterization and
loss of soil structure, or a combination of these. The most important process of degradation is
accelerated erosion. This is the loss of soil by water, wind, and mass movements or, more
locally, .he action of vehicles and trampling feet of humans and animals. While only serious in
some areas, its cumulative and long term effects offer considerable cause for concern. The loss
55
of the upper horizons containing organic matter and nutrients and the thinning of soil profiles
reduces crop yields on degraded soils.
Stalinizations is the concentration of abnollually high levels of salts, for example, sodium, in
soils due to evaporation. It frequently occurs in association with irrigation and leads to the death
of plants and loss of structure of soils.
Frequent causes of contamination are farmyard waste and sewage sludge, which may contain
high levels of heavy metals. Soils have also been contaminated by radioactive isotopes from
nuclear weapons testing and, on a restricted but locally serious scale, from the Chernobyl
nuclear power station accident in 1986. Contamination may also result from other chemical
wastes or byproducts of industrial processes_
Degradation of peat lands is brought about by drainage resulting in soil-loss due to oxidation
and wind erosion.
Some soils are naturally acidic but may become more acidic due to acid rain or dry deposition of
acid gases and particles. Acid rain has a pH of less than 5_6. The main sources of acidity in the
atmosphere are the increasing quantities of sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides emitted by the
combustion of fossil fuel_
The loss of organic matter due to erosion and oxidation degrades the soil and in particular its
value as a crop-growing medium_ The loss of organic matter also decreases the stability of soil
aggregates which under the impact of soil crusts which reduce Infiltration of waiter into the soil
and increase the likelihood of run-off and water erosion occurring_ Soil crusts also inhibit the
germination of seedsLoss of soil structure may occur due to loss organic matter, compaction
brought about by agricultural machinery and cultivation in %Vet weather, or dispersion of soil
materials in the subsoil (seduction)_
CAUSES OF SOIL POLLUTION
A wide range of agrocherilicals is currently used by farmers to sustain food production. Global
fertilizer use has skyrocketed from 14 million to 125 million tunes--, an increase of almost 900
.. ..
percent over the last 30 to 40 years. In addition to increased fertilizers use, modern agriculture
practices have also relied on increasing pesticide use. With the introduction of DDT in the earl`
40'`, non chemical methods of pest control dwindled. Today, over 100,000 chemicals including
insecticides, fungicides, herbicides, acaroids and rodenticidies are in use throughout the world
for pest weed control- In the united stated alone pesticides usage more than tripled in the last 30
years and on average framers use about 2_8 kg ha -1 planted.
_S_ome commonly used agrochemicals (fertilizers) in agriculture production Nutrient
Fertilizers
Nitrogen Ammonium chloride, Ammonium soleplate, Ammonium nitrate_
Urea, Calcium-cyan amide, Sculpture coated slow release fertilizer_
aminonica gas, Anhydrous ammonia gas _
Phosphorus Single super phosphate, Triple super phosphate_
Monoammonium phosphate, Diammonium phosphate, Basic
56
slag, Rock phosphate

Potassium Muriate of potash, Sulphate of potash, Potassium nitrate
Some commonly used agrochemical (pesticides) in agriculture production Pesticide group
Common Pesticide types
Quaternary N pesticides Diquat, paraquat
Basic pesticides Ametryn, amitrole, atrazine, benomyl, cyanazine, metribuzin_ prometeryn
and simazine
Carboxylic acid herbicides 2,4-D, dalapon, dicambe, dichlorprop, endothal, MCPA_ picloram
Hydroxy acid pesticides Bromacil, b romoxynil, dinoseb, terbacil
; Ammonosulfonyl acid Asulam, chlorimuron, chlorsulfuron, metsulfuron, triasfuron
i herbicides
~ Organic As and P acid DSMA, gluphosate, MSMA
pesticides
_
Organometallic fungicides Mancozeb, maneb. metiram, zineb, ziram
Amide and anilide herbicides Alachlor, metachlor, napropamide, propachlor, porpanil
Carbomate pesticide _Aldicarb, carbaryl, carbofuron, chloroprogharn
Chlorinated hydrocarbon Chlorothalonil, endosulfan, lindane, metoxychlor pesticides
Phenylurea pesticides Pyrethroid pesticides L;lhiocarbomate
Organochlorine pesticide Aldrin, chlordane, DDT, heptachlor
Organ ophosphate pesticides Chlorpyriphos, diazinon, denamiphos, malathion
monocrotphos,
paathion, phosmet, terbufos
_ ~Diuron, fltmleturon, linuron
I3ifeenthrin, cyperniethrin, fenvalerate, permethrin
I EPTC molinate , trillate
Soil Pollution in Asian Countries
Asian countries have lead to an astronomical increase in pesticide in the agricultural
environment. For example, following local production in 1981, pesticide consumption in
Pakistan increased from 5OOg a_i. ha- I in 1982 to 1000g a.i_ ha-' in 1990. India is the large~,t
manufacturer as well as consumer of pesticides in southern Asia_ The production of technical
grade pesticide in the country during 1991-1992 was approximately 74,000 t, whereas total
consumption was 72,000 I_ On average approximately 500g ha-I is used in India. Pesticide
usage in India and Pakistan and other Asian countries is quite low compared to many European
countries, Japan and USA_ This, however, does not imply that the problem of pestieidc:~~
cc:•ritalilir7atio~~ does not exist in these developing countries
on
percent over the last 30 to. 40 years_ In addition to increased fertilizers use, modern agriculture
practices have also relied on increasing pesticide use. With the introduction of DDT in the early
40'S, non chemical methods of pest control dwindled. Today, over 100,000 chemicals including
insecticides, fungicides, herbicides, acaricides and rodenticidies are in use throughout the world
for pest weed control. In the united stated alone pesticides usage more than tripled in the last 30
years and on average framers use about 2.8 kg ha I planted.
57
--Some commonly used_agrochemicals (fertilizers) in agriculture production Nutrient

Fertilizers
Nitrogen
Ammonium chloride, Ammonium sulphate, Ammonium nitrate. Urea, Calcium cyanamide,
Sulphur coated slow release fertilizer, ammonica gas, Anhydrous ammonia gas
Phosphorus
Singte super phosphate, Triple super phosphate.. Monoammonium phosphate, Diammonium
phosphate, Basic slag, Rock phosphate
Potassium
Muriate of potash, Sulphate of potash, Potassium nitrate
Some commonly used agrochemical (pesticides) in agriculture production
f Pesticide group Quaternary N pesticides
Common Pesticide types Diquat, paraquat
Basic pesticides
Ametryn, amitrole, atrazrne, benomyl, cyanazine, metribuzin, prometeryn and simazine
Carboxylic acid herbicides 2,4-D, dalapon, dicambe, dichlorprop, endothal, MCPA,
picloram
Hydroxy acid pesticides Bromacil, b romoxynil, dinoseb, terbacil
Ammonosulfonyl acid Asulam, chlorimuron, chlorsulfuron, metsulfiuon, triasfiiron herbicides
_
Organic As and P acid DSMA, gluphosate, MSMA
pesticides _
I Organometallic fungicides Mancozeb, maneb, metiram, zineb, ziram
f Amide and anilide herbicides Alachlor, metachlor, napropamide, propachlor, porpanil
4 Carbomate pesticide Aldicarb, carbaryl, carbofuron, chloropropham
~ Chlorinatedhydrocarbon Chlorothalonil, endosulfan, lindane, metoxychlor
j pesticides __
Organochlorine pesticide ~ Aldrin, chlordane, DDT, heptachlor _ _
Organophosphate pesticides Chlorpyriphos, diazinon, denamiphos, malathion
monocrotphos.
paathion, phosmet, terbufos _
Phenylurea pesticides _Diuron, flumeturon, linuron _
Pyrethroid pesticides Bifeenthrin, cypermethrin, fenvaler<rte, permethrin
"hhiocarbomate [FPZ_C molinate , trillate
Soil Pollution in Asian Countries
Asian countries have lead to an astronomical increase in pesticide in the agricultural
environment. For example, following local production in 1981, pesticide consumption in
Pakistan increased from 5OOg a.i_ ha r in 1982 to 1000g a.i. ha I in 1990. India is the largest
manufacturer as well as consumer of pesticides in southern Asia. The production of technical
grade pesticide in the country during 1991-1992 was approximately 74,000 t. whereas total
consumption ~<<as 72,000 t. On average approximately 500g ha- I is used in India. Pesticide
usage in India and Pakistan and other Asian countries is quite low compared to many European
58
countries, Iapim and 1_tS:A. This, however, does not imply that the problem of pesticides
contarnination does not c xist in these developing countries.
EFFECTS OF SOIL POLLUTION
Effects of Agrochemicals on Soil Quality

There are a number of ways in which agricultural practices can impact on soil quality. Only
some of the important issues are discussed below use of both nitrogenous and phosphate
fertilizers can impact on soil activity_ A large proportion of acidic soils in Australia have arisen
from indiscriminate use of such fertilizers.
In legume-based rotations, nitrogen (N) is derived mainly from the biological fixation of the
atmospheric N. by a group of bacteria (known as Rhizobium) living in the root nodules of
legume plants. A small amount of N fixation is slow. Recently there has been a sudden increase
in the use of N fertilizer in the dairy pasture. The excessive _use of N fertilizer has rekindled the
debate on the acidifying effects of N fertilizers added to soils.
Traditionally, most phosphorus (P) has been applied to agricultural land in the form of water-
soluble fertilizers, such as single super-phosphate and ammonium phosphates. In recent years
there has been renewed interest in the use of slow-release phosphate fertilizers, which include
phosphate rocks (PKs) for direct application and partially acidifying effects of different
phosphate fertilizers in legume based pasture causes soil acidification, whereas the direct
application of reactive phosphate rocks (RPR) as a source of phosphorus decreases the rate of
soil acidification_
It is important to understand the mechanisms involved in the acidifying effects of different
fertilizers before any decision can be made on the choice of fertilizers in relation to their effects
on soil acidification. The effects on soil acidification of various fertilizers used as sources of the
four major nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium (k) and sulphur (S) will be discussed
CONTROL OF SOII, POLLUTION
--friendly farming system is the only approach to control soil pollution. There are several a
i~Iished approaches to ecofriendlv farming systems_ A common thread in all schools is an
emphasis on bioloical system to supply fertility and pest control rather than chemical inputs
t__
Organic Farming
Organic fanning _ is a production, system, which avoids or largely excludes the use of
synthetically compounded fertilizers, pesticides, growth regulators, and livestock feed additives.
To the maximum extent feasible, organic farming systems rely upon crop rotations, crop
residues, animal manures__ legumes, green manures, off-fram organic wastes, mechanical
cultivation, mineral-bearing rocks, and aspects of biological pest control to maintain soil
productivity and tilth, to supply plant nutrients. and to control insects, weeds, and other pests.
Nature Farmill"
59
Nature Framing parallels organic farming in many ways but includes special emphasis on soil
heaiti. through composts rather than organic fertilizer, when possible_ In addition to these
methods-based approaches to sustainable farming, regenerative agriculture and perrnaculture are
widely recognized. However, these latter systems, like sustainable agriculture, are more
conceptually oriented than methods
based-Regenerative
Agriculture
In regenerative agriculture bunds on nature's own inherent capacity to cope with pests, enhance
soil fertility, and increase productivity. It implies a continuing ability to re-create the resources
that the system requires. In practice, regenerative agriculture uses low-input and organic farming
systems as a framework to achieve these goals_
EFFECTS OF SOIL POLLUTION
Effects of Agrochemicals on Soil Quality

There are a number of ways in which agricultural practices can impact on soil quality. Only
some of the important issues are discussed below use of both nitrogenous and phosphate
fertilizers can impact on soil activity_ A large proportion of acidic soils in Australia have arisen
from indiscriminate use of such fertilizers.
In legume-based rotations, nitrogen (N) is derived mainly from the biological fixation of the
atmospheric N. by a group of bacteria (known as Rhizobium) living in the root nodules of
legume plants. A small amount of N fixation is slow. Recently there has been a sudden increase
in the use of N fertilizer in the dairy pasture. The excessive _use of N fertilizer has rekindled the
debate on the acidifying effects of N fertilizers added to soils.
Traditionally, most phosphorus (P) has been applied to agricultural land in the form of water-
soluble fertilizers, such as single super-phosphate and ammonium phosphates. In recent years
there has been renewed interest in the use of slow-release phosphate fertilizers, which include
phosphate rocks (PKs) for direct application and partially acidifying effects of different
phosphate fertilizers in legume based pasture causes soil acidification, whereas the direct
application of reactive phosphate rocks (RPR) as a source of phosphorus decreases the rate of
soil acidification_
It is important to understand the mechanisms involved in the acidifying effects of different

fertilizers before any decision can be made on the choice of fertilizers in relation to their effects
on soil acidification. The effects on soil acidification of various fertilizers used as sources of the
four major nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium (k) and sulphur (S) will be discussed
CONTROL OF SOII, POLLUTION

--friendly farming system is the only approach to control soil pollution. There are several a
i~Iished approaches to ecofriendlv farming systems_ A common thread in all schools is an
emphasis on bioloical system to supply fertility and pest control rather than chemical inputs
60
t__
Organic Farming
Organic fanning _ is a production, system, which avoids or largely excludes the use of
synthetically compounded fertilizers, pesticides, growth regulators, and livestock feed additives.
To the maximum extent feasible, organic farming systems rely upon crop rotations, crop
residues, animal manures__ legumes, green manures, off-fram organic wastes, mechanical
cultivation, mineral-bearing rocks, and aspects of biological pest control to maintain soil
productivity and tilth, to supply plant nutrients. and to control insects, weeds, and other pests.
Nature Farmill"
Nature Framing parallels organic farming in many ways but includes special emphasis on soil
heaiti. through composts rather than organic fertilizer, when possible_ In addition to these
methods-based approaches to sustainable farming, regenerative agriculture and perrnaculture are
widely recognized. However, these latter systems, like sustainable agriculture, are more
conceptually oriented than methods
based-Regenerative
Agriculture
In regenerative agriculture bunds on nature's own inherent capacity to cope with pests, enhance
soil fertility, and increase productivity. It implies a continuing ability to re-create the resources
that the system requires. In practice, regenerative agriculture uses low-input and organic farming
systems as a framework to achieve these goals_
Permaculture
Permaculture is a contraction of permanent agriculture. Permaculture is concerned with
designing ecological human habitats and food production systems, and follows specific
guidelines and principles in the design of these systems.
Alternate Agriculture
Plant growth and crop production are complex processes that depend on many interactions
between organisms. The trend of modern agriculture has been; (1) To substitute monoculture and
continuous culture for crop rotation and diversified agriculture, (2) To use genetically. more
uniform plants, that have a narrow genetic base, (3) To use inorganic fertilizers, rather than the
more difficult-to-use organic manures, in combination with green manures, (4) To use herbicides
and pesticides to combat weeds and pests, rather than more complex biological control
mechanisms. (5) To make bigger fields by eliminating all vegetation between them.
Ecological Agriculture
The growing concern about environmental degradation, dwindling natural resources and urgency
to meet the food needs of the increasing population are compelling farm scientists and policy
makers to seriously examine alternatives to chemical agriculture. A sustainable agriculture
backed-up by green technologies in an integrated farming system has been considered a
promising and potential pathway_ The gravity of the environmental degradation arising from
faulty practices, has set several experts in the field to focus attention on ecologically sound,
viable and sustainable farming systems. Though there has been a series of scientific and policy
61
conferences on this issue, the sustainable farming methods are yet to get the approval of most
agricultural scientists_
Ecological Farming Systems

The shift form chemical to ecological agriculture should, however, be gradual. A sudden
switchover can spell disaster and discourage farmers form taking to this course. At least two to
three seasons will be needed for the transition, and during the interim years the farmers could
build up a sufficient organic base to fertilize the fields and improve the pi-oductivity of the soil.
Once a state of ecological balance is attained and there are a good number of beneficial
organisms to check the explosion of pets and pathagens, crop yields of a high order can be
ensured. The cost of cultivation can be brought down substantially as many farm-grown inputs
can be integrated efficiently in the farming system. Ecological farming is sustainable and
profitable too.
Integrated Intensive Farming System (IIFS)
}
The Integrated Intensive Farming Systems (IIFS) methodolo-y involves intensive use of farm
resources. To be ecologically sustainable, such Intensification ation should be based on
techniques which are knowledge-Intensive rather than capital-intensive. and which replace, to
the ~ztcnt possible, market-purchased chemical inputs with farm-gro«~n biological inputs.
Low External Input Supply Agriculture (LEISA)

Lo`N-Input Agriculture: The term lo«--input agriculture has been defined as a production
activity that uses synthetic fertilizers or pesticides below rates commonly recommended by the
Extension service_ It does not mean elimination of these materials- Yields are maintained
through greater emphasis on cultural practices, IPM, and utilization of on-fram resources and
management_ _
The LESIA concept seeks to optimize the use of locally available resources by inaxinrizing thc
complementary and synergistic effects components of the farming systems. External inputs arc
used in a complcmentary way.
Remediation of Chemically Degraded Soil

Mandated soil remediation must attain action levels of the soil contaminant that were
determined
,~ by risk assessment, by policy (no net degradation), or best available technology_ The action
level may r-,7F<<en in terms of a total or mobile soil concentration, or by a biologically
available
-~ fr'w;,.... t4rf ie-rs1-fioed by bioassay.
a
TPERMAL POLLUTION: CAUSES, EFFECTS AND CONTROL
The concept of temperature stems from the idea of measuring relative hotness and c dness from
the observation that the addition of heat to a body leads to an increase in temperature as long as
no melting or boiling occurs_ In the case of two bodies at different temperatures, heat will flow
62
from the hotter to the colder until their temperatures are identical and thermal equilibrium is
reached. Thus, the terms
temperature and heat, being an energy flow to or from a body by virtue of a temperature
difference.
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE
Temperature plays an important part in determining the conditions in which living things can
survive. Thus, birds and mammals demand a very narrow range of body temperatures for
survival and must be protected against extreme heat or cold_ Aquatic species can exist only
within a narrow temperature range of the water, which differs for various species. The properties
of all materials are also markedly affected by temperature changes.
WHAT IS THERMAL POLLUTION
Thermal pollution is however on the increase because of the era of "globalistion" _

Thermal pollution is somewhat difficult to explain and define with precision. Discharge of
heated water from industrial processes can kill or injure human and aquatic life organisms.
WHAT IS GLOBAL WARMING?
Scientists have discovered that concentrations of minor greenhouse gases in the

atmosphere, particularly carbon dioxide (co2), are rising. Theoretically, these gases
could trap more heat in the atmosphere, leading to a gradual warming of the earth's atmosphere
and, again theoretically, global warming could be harmful to the environment and to human
health.
Global warming has emerged as the most-serious environmental threat of the 21s'
century. Most countries on earth are discussing environmental problems and how to limit them.
Environmental problems on a global scale can originate from any corner of the world and affect
ail ecosystems on earth- Such problems directly can affect human beings.
Important Aspects of Global Warming:
(1) Most scientists do not believe human activities threaten to disrupt the earth's climate. (2) The
most reliable temperature data show no global warming trends. (3) Global computer models are
too predict future climate charges. (4) The IPCC did not prove that human activities are causing
global warming. (5) A modest amount of global warming, should it occur, would be beneficial to
the natural world and to human civilization. (6) Quickly reducing our greenhouse gas emission
would be costly and Would not stop global warming- (7) The best strategy to pursue is one of no
regrets.
.
CAUSES OF THERMAL POLLUTION
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Temperature is important to water quality because it affects biological and chemical activity.
Water temperature influences how organisms function, including regulating reproduction and
migration. The temperature at which an organism can grow and reproduce most efficiently is its
optimum temperature. The maximum temperature is the temperature at which organisms die or
are severely affected_ Typically, organisms are
able to acclimate_ to slow changes in temperature caused by natural shifts and are stressed by
rapid changes.
Thermal pollution heats the environment to temperatures that are harmful to its living
inhabitants. Thermal pollution occurs when water is returned to rivers and lakes at much higher
temperatures than when it was taken in_ thermal pollution can be avoided with cooling ponds or
towers, which allow water to cool before being returned to the river.
Causes of Global Warming
The main cause of global warming is green houses gases. These are carbon dioxide, methane,
nitrous oxide, chlorofluorocarbon (CFC's) and ozone. Generally, these gases are present in rather
small amounts but play the major role in the heat balance of atmosphere due to their capacity to
absorb infrared radiations. By preventing long wave thermal radiation from radiating out of the
atmosphere, the temperature of the atmosphere thus increases considerably. The naturally
occurring green house gases keep the earth warm enough to be habitable. Prior to the industrial
revolution, the amounts of these gases remained constant over thousands of years. But amount
of these gases is their longevity in the atmosphere- Once they are emitted into
_ atmosphere, they will persist for several decades. In case of CFC's and nitrous oxides it
-- takes over a century for them to degrade
Another main cause of global warming is ozone depletion in outer atmosphere. Ozone layer
protects biosphere from life-damaging high energy ultraviolet radiation_ Ozone layer is
depleting by gases such as CFCS. CFCS are commonly used in spray cans, refrigerators, air
conditioners, foam producing equipment, etc. Deforestation is also major problem. The major
causes of deforestation are shifting cultivation, changing pattc,rrfs of land use by conversien of
forest areas to cash crops, building of infrastructure and land settlement.
EFFECTS OF THERMAL POLLUTION
Effects on Fishes
Fish and other organisms adapted to a particular temperature range can also be killed from
thermal shock, while some scientists call the addition of excess heat to aquatic systems thermal
pollution; others talk about using heated water for beneficial purposes, calling it thermal
enrichment. They point out that heated water results in longer commercial fishing seasons and
reduction of winter ice cover in cold areas. When there is thermal pollution, the warmer water
increases the metabolic rate of fish and other animals in the sea. This decreases the life
64
expectancy of aquatic animals, increase in the water temperature also affect many other aspects
of the ecosystem. Mostly, the amount of oxygen dissolved in the water is decreased and also
affects the expectancy of the aquatic animals.
The effects of thermal pollution is of two types

Thermal shock
The sudden change in temperature due to hot wastewater can be of harm to fish and other
aquatic animals that have been used to a particular level of water temperature, this invariably
can cause fish to migrate to a more suitable environment. Thermal enrichment
This is when heated water from power plants may be used for irrigation purpose to extend plant
growing seasons, speed the growth of fish and other aquatic animals for cornmercial purposes,
however, ot has been noted that the harmful effects of thermal oollution outweighs the benefits.
Effects of Global Changes Due to Thermal Pollution
Climatic Effects
Work done with different climatic models shows there is scientific uncertainty about the effects
of global change. However, work on these simulation models has agreed on many common
things, including: (1) There will be warming of the earth's surface and lower atmosphere and a
cooling of stratosphere. (2) The warming trend over the earth's surface is varied_ (3)
Precipitation patterns will be changed. Some areas will become wetter and some areas dryer_ (4)
Seasonal patters will change due to the changing of temperature and precipitation patterns. (5)
Soil moisture regimes will be changed due to changes in evaporation and precipitation. (6) With
the decrease in could cover over Eurasia in summer, which will enhance the solar heating of the
surface and the increase the land-sea temperature contrast, tropical monsoons will be driven with
more severity and intensity. (7) Wind direction and wind stress over the sea surface will be
changed, which will alter ocean currents and cause change in nutrient mixing zones and
productivity of the oceans_
Rise in Sea Level

In the absence of the efforts to cut the greenhouse-gas emissions, sea levels will rise by between
10 and 30 cm by the year 2030 and 30 to 100 cm by the end of next century. The direct effects
are: (1) Recession of shorelines and wetlands_ (2) increased tidal range and estuarine salt-front
intrusion, (3) an increase in salt-water contamination of coastal fresh-water acquifers.
Impacts on Forests
The intergovernmental panel on climate change, or IPCC (a group of more than 2,500 of the
world's leading scientists) has concluded that forests are highly sensitive to climate change and
that up to one third of currently forested areas could be affected in some way. Conservation of
forest habitats in a rapidly warming world will present us with new challenges, and is likely to
be hardest in the places where these ecosystems are fragmented, polluted or under development
pressure. Rapidly rising emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases, such as
methane, are having a dramatic impact on climate, both by raising average temperatures and by
increasing extreme events such as droughts, floods and storms.
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Biotic Effects
The most important effect has been assumed to be the stimulation of the fixation and storage of
carbon by terrestrial plants through the increase in carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. The
hypothesis is that the C02 in the atmosphere speeds photosynthesis The data show that
increasing concentrations of carbon dioxide often, but not always, increase the rate of growth of
young plants. The most important consideration of biotic feedbacks is the ratio of grass
production to total respiration globally. The effect of such transitions is to reduce the capacity of
the earth for supporting life, including people. The species favoured in such transition are, first,
those that are normally recognized as success ional, those that occur following disturbance_ As
the disturbance continues, these species are replaced by smaller-bodied, rapidly reproducing
species of wide distribution.
Effects on Human Settlements and Society

Worldwide, hundreds of millions of people would be displaced by theinundation of lowlying
coastal plains, deltas, and islands in the next century if effects to reduce greenhouse-gas
accumulation in the atmosphere were unsuccessful. These would be
jointed by countless millions displaced from . the land as aridity and biotic impoverishments
spread.
Effects of Human health

Temperature-change may have an impact on several major categories of diseases,
, including cardiovascular, cerebrovascular, and respiratory diseases. Climate may affect the
respiratory tract in following three ways (1) Seasonal effects. (2) Direct effects of specific
weather-conditions, such a thunder storms and cold fronts. (3) Combined effects of weather with
other environmental or topographical factors. The other diseases
C in tropics are malaria, trypanosomiasis, leishmaniasis, ainoebiasis, ilariasis,
'J onchocerciasis, schistosomiasis, and various worm infestations. The potential impact of
-~. climatic change on communicable disease is not likely to be limited to Third world. Even in
an affluent country such as Australia, mosquito-borne disease may pose considerable threats to
health, which will probably increase as a result of the greenhouse effects. Ultraviolet radiation is
known to have effects on the immune system.
Other disasters
In 1972, for instance, a dam collapsed in the USA leading to the deaths of 125 people
= and causing 4,000 to be homeless. Traumatic neurotic reactions were found in 80 percent of
the survivors, and there was persistent evidence of unresolved grief, survivor shame, and
feelings of impotent rage and hopelessness. Disabling psychiatric symptoms included anxiety,
depression and changes in character and life-style. Over 90 percent of the children who were
interviewed had developmental problems more than two years after the disaster.
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CONTROL MEASURES
Waste Heat
A pollutant as dangerous to waters as more tangible of forms of waste Human activity can
change normal temperature:
1. By altering environment of watercourse: Road building, logging, poundments, diverting flows
of irrigation.
2. Adding or removing heat.
On national scale, industrial-cooling waters is a first-order source of heat. Electro power
generation uses 80% of cooling waters. Best single index of thermal pollution lies in projecting
future electric power generation. Past experience has indicated that thermal pollution has not
multiplied as fast as power generation because of improvements in thermal plant efficiency and
development of hydropower.
Nuclear plants
1. Waste even higher proportion of heat than fossil-fuel plants
2. Heat rejection is expected to increase nine fold by the year 2000.
3. Problem is one of the managing tremendous amounts of waste heat in a manner
that will maintain or enhance, physical, chemical and biological nature of our
water resources.
4. During past half-century power generation has virtually doubled every 10 years. This trend is
expected to continue or perhaps increase. Power generation has been either for hydropower or
team-electric. Latter requires cooling water.
6. Remaining sites for hydropower are limited
/ Thermal plants continue to gain a larger portion of market for power.
•
open cooling water systems
Open cooling water systems attract a lot of suspended solids and availability of ample sunlight
and higher temperature prevailing in cooling water systems often give rise to growth of algae
and smile which in turn clog the spray nozzles- This cause uneven water distribution over the
fill, resulting in disturbed air flow/water distribution through the fill and reduced heat transfer
area. This problem can be solved by using side stream filters and regular dosage of an
appropriate biocide.
Other mechanical problems such as poor pump performance and improper fan can also affect the
performance of the cooling tower. _
Conventional scale inhibitors

Conventional scale inhibitors are based on phosphonate chemistry and have limitations on the
extent of scale inhibitions and the allowable cycles of concentrations, which are directly related
to the reuse of water into the system. However, with efforts of research and development,
leading water treatment companies have come up with polymerbased products free of
phosphonate to work effectively even in alkaline waters_ These products are being used in many
67
thermal power generation plants abroad, where the environmental emission norms are quite
stringent_
Use of Chlorine
As far as biocides are concerned, chlorine is being used in most of the installations. But it is not
effective in alkaline waters and often corrodes the auxiliary equipment. As such chlorine is listed
as a hazardous chemical. Biocides based on bromine-based chemistry like- bromo-
chlorodimethyl-hydantoin (BCDMH) and sodium bromide can be used. Hence, it is possible to
prevent thermal pollution by above cited methods.
ROLE.OF AN INDIVIDUAL IN CONTROLLING POLLUTION
Nature has gifted us clean envirinment, we must sustain it. 1

Environmentalism, approach to economic and ecological questions stressing that factors of
environmental impact (such as pollution or loss of biodiversity), whether local or global, must
be taken into account and properly weighted in assessing the acceptability of human actions. By
campaigning and other actions environmentalists, usually as members of a like-minded group,
seek to raise awareness of specific environmental concerns. These activities may take the form
of work by pressure groups or looser associat4ons of campaigners, or the parliamentary
processes of the various parties involved in green politics.
Urban environment, the physical environment in urban areas with its complex mix of built and
natural elements. Some interpretations of the term include social and cultural aspects-for
inslance the values, behaviours, and traditions of the urban population-and these can have a
r)roioiiud influence on the quality of life and environment in urban areas. An increasing
proportion of the world's population is living in urban areas. The urban environment might be
considered the opposite of the natural environment, since it concentrates so many people,
buildings, and economic activities and their supporting infrastructure such as roads, water
pipes, drains, and electricity and telephone systems_ In larger cities, central business districts,
downtown areas, and industrial estates may have little visible that can be associated with the
natural environment. Human interver:ions have so radically shaped their environment that they
seem far removed from natural processes and resources. Other parts of cities, however, seem
less removed-for instance parks, green belts, rivers, coastlines, or residential areas with
large gardens and plenty of open space_ However, all urban centres remain dependent on
natural resources and on natural processes for disposing of their wastes.
Each professional discipline brings its own concerns to addressing environmental problems in
urban areas.
Environmental health specialists
r
Environmental health specialists are particularly concerned about the diminution of
environmental hazards; in most urban areas in Africa and many in Asia and Latin America, tln;
centres on the control of infectious and parasitic diseases whose incidence and transmission is
often increased by overcrowding, poor-quality housing, and inadequate provision for water
supply, sanitation, and drainage.
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F~:cologists tend to focus on the massive disruption that large urban centres and the materials
they need usually bring to flora and fauna and the wider ecosystems of «•hich they are part.
Political scientists may focus on environmental justice, highlighting the ways in which the
Role of An Individual in Prevertion of Pollution 299 wealthy and powerful can obtain high-
quality living environments within cities while the poor and non-powerful face numerous
environmental hazards. The different disciplinary
perspectives are much needed to make sense of the complex interweaving of natural and built
elements within urban centres and of the climatic, social, economic, and political factors that
influence them.
Motor Vehicles
Motor vehicles are now a major influence on the environment and spatial form of virtually all
cities. Roads, highways, parks, and garages have reshaped older urban environments and
imposed their logic on new ones, especially where a high proportion of urban households own a
car. Motor vehicles can become a dominant influence, with roads and associated facilities taking
up a third or even half the total city area. Increasing levels of car ownership and use also
encourage an ever-increasing separation between homes and workplaces and a low-density
urban sprawl. Growing vehicle numbers can radically reshape cities even where less than a third
of households own private cars, especially in cities where central districts were developed before
the advent of motorized traffic.
of
ust Town Planning

ns. The quality of the urban environment can also differ greatly between different areas of
any city.
led In many cities, this is partly the result of town planning, with zoning and land-use
regulations
ike
encouraging a concentration of industries, shops, middle-class housing_ and low-income or
ary public housing in particular areas. However, income differentials are often a more potent
cause_
69
Thus there are dramatic contrasts in housing and environmental quality between different md
areas of most cities in India. Even though there is little effective zoning and land-use -for
regulation.
a
ing Housing
be There are also large contrasts in housing and environmental quality between different areas in
ale, most cities in India. Many of their middle- and high-income areas (mostly but not all in the
iter suburbs and beyond) have among the best-quality u=ban environments in the world_
However, cts, these same cities often have particular districts-most but not all in central areas-
where the the quality of the housing and the wider environment has deteriorated as local
employment hat opportunities have declined and as the wealthier and more mobile people have
inoved out. The ver, poorest areas in cities like New York and Glasgow have infant mortality
rates several times rith higher than the wealthier areas of those cities, and average life
expectancies that are many
on years lower. This problem is particularly acute in many of the cities that ~rere the g-reat
centres
of industry several decades ago, and which have been unable to attract new investment to ; iIt,
reverse the rapid decline in industrial production and employment- It is also parti-~ularly
acut,
in cities that are divided into different local government areas with little or no provision for :j
sharing of revenues or of city-wic?e costs between the richer and the poorer areas
Environmental
Problems Within Urban Areas

.:
The tens of thousands of urban centres around the world include among the most healthy and the
most dangerous human environments- At their best, they provide healthy homes and workplaces
combined withcentres of culture, entertainment, and _leisure_ At their worst, urban
environments can underlie infant mortality rates that are so high that one third of children die
hefore their fifth birthday and .vith much of the urban population suffering unnecessarily froin
ill-health or injury from environmental hazards. At least 600 million urban dwellers in Afrir;],
Asia, and Latin America live in homes and neighbourhoods in which housing is of such poor
70
quality-overcrowded, and %•: ith inadequate provision for piped water, salutation, and
drainage-that their lives and health are continuously at risk_
,i
2. High densities housing: It mean much lower costs per household for the provision of
piped, treated water supplies, the collection and disposal oE household and human wastes,
and most forms of health, educational, and emergency services.
-- 3_ Concentration of production and consumption: In cities means a greater range and
possibility for efficient use of resources such as paper, glass, or plastics, through material
reclamation, recycling, and reuse, and for the specialist enterprises that ensure this can
300 Environmental Sciences

1. Problem of slums: In metro cities of India, slum inhabitants is the source of environmental
pollution due to unhygienic conditions. .
happen saely.
4. Concentration of production and households: In cities means .a considerable potential for
reducing fossil-fuel use where homes and workplaces need to be heated-for instance through the
use of waste-process heat from industry or thermal power stations, or through co-generation
(combined heat and power systems).
5. Growing levels of urbanization: They are associated with growing levels of private car
ownership, cities represent a much greater potential for limiting the use of motor vehicles and
the fossil fuels they need through walking, bicycling, or greater use of public transport.
Effects of Health
From a health perspective, environmental problems are best identified if considered in terms of
the nature of the hazard (for instance biological pathogens, chemical pollutants, and physical
hazards) and the physical context in which they occur (for instance the home, workplace,
neighbourhood, or at the city level). The most serious urban environmental problems worldwide
in regard to health are }he biological pathogens (disease-causing agents) in urban water, food,
air, and soil. For instance, diarrhoeal diseases are responsible for the deaths of hundreds of
thousands of infants and children living in urban areas each year and for tens of millions whose
physical and mental development is impaired by repeated attacks of diarrhoea. Tens of millions
of urban dwellers suffer each year from malaria or other diseases spread by insects-including
hundreds of thousands who die (mostly children under five)_ Hundreds of millions of urban
dwellers of all ages suffer from debilitating intestinal parasitic infestations caused by pathogens
in the soil, water, or food, and from respiratory and other diseases caused or exacerbated by
pathogens in the air, both indoors and outdoors_ Cities in Europe and North America suffered
comparable environmental health problems only a century ago and it is a
tribute to much-improved environmental management that this is no longer the case.
71
Chemical pollutants: They are known to cause or contribute to ill health cr premature death.
Exposure takes place in homes, workplaces, or within the ambient environment. Air pollution is
sufficiently serious in many cities to have demonstrable health impacts; industries, motor
vehicles, and, in many cities, domestic cookers and heaters are the main source. There is also a
growing list of chemicals in the urban environment about which there is concern, even if the
precise health impact is not known.
ROLE OF AN INDIVIDUAL Create Sustainable Cities

Cities have an important part in achieving sustainable development-the meeting of human needs
without a level of resource use and waste generation that threatens the local, regional, or global
environment- Moving from a concern for the urban environment to a concern for sustainable
development has resulted in a growing awareness of two new responsibilities of urban citizens
and governments_ The first is a concern for the environmental impact of urbanbased production,
consumption, and wastes on the needs of all people, not just those within the urban jurisdiction.
The second is an understanding of the finite nature of many natural
Role of An Individual in Prevention of Pollution
resources (or the ecosystems from which they are drawn) and of the capacities of ecosystems in
the wider regional and international context to absorb or break down wastes. This means setting
limits on the rights of city enterprises or consumers to use scarce resources and to generate non-
biodegradable wastes. These wastes include greenhouse gases: global warming would bring
many problems for urban centres-especially for the many major cities that are ports or on low-
lying coastal areas-through sea-level rises and an increased instability of weather patterns.
Global Awareness
Global awareness for cities and rural areas is necessary. The role of State Government and local
government including educational institutions and NGOs is required for this purpose.
Environmental Ethics What is Ethics

Ethics (Greek, ethical, from ethos, "character" or "custom"), principles or standards of human
conduct, sometimes called morals (Latin, mores, “customs"), and, by extension, the study of
such principles, sometimes called moral philosophy. Ethics, as a branch of philosophy.
Ethics studies human conduct; it is concerned with questions such as "When is an act right?",
-When is an act wrong?", and -What is the nature, or determining standard, of good and bad?".
In asking these questions, ethical theorists have proposed differing accounts of the nature cf
ethical knowledge, the measure of it, the source of it, the means of knowing it, and how it ought
to be applied.
it is the field of applied ethics concerned with those issues that arise when human beings interact
with the natural environment. It not only seeks to evaluate past and present attitudes and
practices, but aims to offer guidance as to how people ought to think about, and conduct, their
relationship with the natural environment; for example, environmental ethicists debate whether
the natural environment is simply an exploitable resource for human interests, or whether it has
72
significance independent of any use that might be made of it, a value that ought to constrain
certain practices.
Environmental ethicists have sought to show that moral standing is not restricted to human
beings by arguing. It is worth noting that the nature of many of the concerns of environmental
ethics-for example, nuclear energy generation, the consequences of which may extend far into
the future -rereads that the temporal extent of its reasoning goes far beyond that of traditional
concretes, making it necessary to theorize about not only the interests of the present generation
but also those of future generations of both human beings and non-human species. In recent
years environmental ethicists have increasingly recognized the need to combine concern for the
natural environment with concern for economic and social justice, particularly in developin.,;
countries_
,,~minimal and Plant Conservation

Concern by society has been raised surrounding the issues of whaling, seal culling, the ivory
trade, the use of rhino horn in Chinese medications, the use of animals in contemporary art, and
dolphins caught in tuna fishing -nets; different countries hold various forms of legislation on
these issues and this has led to international discussions on the ethics and legalities involved_
renames considered by society as vermin-for example, sewer rats, house mice, and garden slugs-
are killed_ The ethical eradication of these pests is not questioned although some people prefer
to use a form of humane trap for house mice_ However, people in favour of foxhunting often
cite the fox's destruction of poultry as justification for supporting the activity:
The so-called "Black Death" affected Europe during the mid-14th Century - fatality estimates vary with
some commentators suggesting that up to 50% of Europe's population succumbed to the disease. The
influenza ("Spanish Flu") pandemic of 1918/19 claimed up to 40 million lives worldwide. It is
questionable whether or not this item falls within this category but at least 4,000 people died in London
(England) during December 1952 as a result of smog (smoke-laden fog) - that being said, it is suggested
(per the Met Office) that "but exactly how many people perished as a direct result of the fog will never
be known many who died already suffered from chronic respiratory or cardiovascular complaints
without the fog, they might not have died when they did".
OIL POLLUTION OIL SPILL

Oil released by damage to or discharge from a tanker or oil installation. An oil spill kills all shore life,
clogging up the feathers of birds an-d suffocating other creatures. At sea toxic chemicals leach into the
water below, poisoning sea life. Mixed with dust, the oil forms globules that sink to the seabed,
poisoning sea life there as well. Oil spills are broken up by the use of detergents but such chemicals can
themselves damage wildlife. The annual spillage of oil is 8 million barrels a years. At any given time
tankers are carrying 500 million barrels.
Oil Pollution
The most spectacular cases of oil pollution involve the supertankers used for its transport, but many
other ships also spill oil. and offshore drilling operations contribute a large share of the pollution. One
estimate is hat of every million tonnes of oil shipped, one tonne is spilled. Some of the largest spills thus
far recorded involve the tanker Amoco Cadiz off the French coast in 1978 (:_6 million barrels of crude
73
oil) and the Ixtoc I oil well in the Gulf of Mexico in 1979 (3_3 million barrels). The spill of 7_40,000
barrels by the tanker E;cwn Valdez in Prince William Sound, Gulf of Alaska, in March 19851, caused
within a week a 6,700-sq-km (2,600-sq-mi) slick that endangered wildlife and fisheries in the entire gulf
ar-a_ Ca the other hand, the spill of 680,000 barrels from the Brcer on the coast of tF~ . Snetland Islands
in January 1993 was broken up by the wave action of etceptionallv sr-:~!.re storms and had mostly
dispersed within a few davs.
The oil spills in the Persian Gulf in 1983, during the Iran-Iraq conflict, and in 1991, during the Gulf War,
when up to 8:uilli-_3n barrels were released, resulted in enormous dama~e to the entire area, especially
to the marine life.
LOCUSTS
Per the United Nations, Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) there are a number of species of
locusts - some are identified below:
1. The African Migratory Locust - found in Africa.
2. The Australian Plague Locust - found in Australia.
3. The Bombay Locust - ranging through south-west-to south-east Asia. 4: The Brown Locust - found in
Southern Africa.
5. The Desert Locust = ranging through Africa and Asia.
6. The Moroccan Locust - ranging through north-west Africa to Asia. 7. The Oriental Migratory Locust -
found in south-east Asia. 8. The Red Locust - found in eastern Africa.
9. Tree Locusts - ranging through Africa, the Mediterranean and Near Fast regions.
According to the FAO, the last Desert Locust plague occurred during the period 1986 to 1989. The FAO
identify the following countries as being historically been a source of many locust
outbreaks and plagues: Djibouti, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Oman, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, Sudan and
Yemen.
DISASTER MANAGEMENT
FLOODS, EARTHQUAKE
CYCLONE &LANDSLIDES
Attempts at predicting when and where natural disaster will occur have met with some success
in recent years_ At present, China, Japan, Russia, and the _United States are the countries most
actively supporting such research. In 1975 the Chinese predicted the magnitude 7.3 quake at
Haicheng, evacuating 90,000 residents only two days before the quake destroyed or damaged 90
per cent of the city's buildings. One of the clues that led to this prediction was a chain of low -
magnitude tremors. called foreshocks that had begun about five years earlier in the area. Other
potential clues being investigated are tilting or bulging of the land surface and changes in the
Earth's magnetic field, in the water levels of wells, and even in animal behaviour.
a3oth physical solutions and institutional strategies should be developed to manage natural
disasters. For-flood disaster control the water flow should be done. Institutional strategies do not
rely on physical barriers and include floodplain management, flood- and disaster-warning
systems, education, and preparedness programs.
Natural disasters impart lessons at a very high cost of life and property. But if those lessons do
not lead to learning and knowledge generation then it is a very heavy cost to bear_ This lack of
74
learning from the past hurts most at the recurrence of disasters. The earthquake in Gujarat (26~"
January 2001, an earthquake of 7_9 magnitude on Richter scale struck Gujarat, India, with its
epicentre in Kutch, causing destruction of three towns and death of more than 20,000 people)
and the subsequent chaos was an indicator of how crucial disaster planning is to manage relief
and rehabilitation during disasters.
Structural So,utions
The major physical method used to mitigate water disasters in India are to build river and sea
dykes. Dykes protect crops and other property against floods.
In Viet Nam the Red River Delta in the north, people have built 3,000 k-m of river dykes and
1,500 km of sea and estuary dykes to F-otect against flooding. Many of these dyi:es are old and
built of poor materials using inadequate manual construction technology. This results in the
dykes suffering distress due to local slumping, under-seepage and piping_ Further, the
construction of dykes has gradually reduced overbank areas which used to be available for
excess flood flows, with the result that river levels have become higher and higher. There are
now many areas where the floodv,•ays are as much as five or six metres higher than the land
protected by the dykes.
Along the coastal plains in the central part of Viet Nam, the people have built sea dykes to
protect themselves against extreme events such as typhoons. These dykes are essential for
agriculture in the central provinces. When these dykes are overtopped or breached, the fields are
flooded by saltwater and rendered unproductive for years. If this happens frequently, there are
not sufficient resources in the community to repair or upgrade the dykes, and the people become
impoverished and prone to malnutrition. In some parts, the attacks on coastal lands by the sea
have been aggravated by water-resource structures, particularly dams, have interrupted the
natural supply of sediment to the coast. This has sometimes caused the coastline to recede by as
much as-one kilometre in 20 years. Houses and villageshave been destroyed and people have
been killed.
In Delta area a system of drainage channels and pumping stations should be used to make
agriculture possible. However, drainage and construction work in areas of the Delta with pyrite-
rich marine sediments have produced acid-sulphate soils containing high concentrations of
sulphuric acid. This has limited the development of agriculture in the Delta.
Institutional Arrangements
Strategies for flood-disaster mitigation which do not rely on structural measures are gaining
greater emphasis in India. For example, there has been a problem of population pressure causing
unauthorized settlement in annually inundated floodways and in hazardous coastal areas
Land-management authorities still need to develop the ultimate power to enfcrce appropriate
land-care practices, and to specify matters such as minimum floor levels and structural
requirements for houses in disaster-prone areas.
Flood-warning systems
75
Flood-warning systems could do much to mitigate water disasters in India. What facilities do
exist are oiten unreliable, and the procedures for issuing warnings suffer from a lack of modern
communication technology
Water-disaster mitigation is further complicated by a lack of expertise to assess damage, of
ability to assess requirements for emergency relief, and by the need for improved awareness of
the threat of water disasters at all levels. Apart from those communities living near or having to
care for the dykes, public awareness of the threat of water disasters is low even though the risk
of flooding is very high.
GOVERNMENT OF INDIA EFFORTS

Government of India has constituted various committees to meet out the problems of natural
disasters.
Standing National Crisis rv9anagement Committee

Standing National Crisis Management Committee for effective coordination and implementation
of response and relief measures in the wake of disasters. The chairru2n. of the committee is the
is Cabinet Se~_-rotary and the members are the Secretaries of Ministry of Home Affairs,
Ministry of Defense, Ministry of Health, Ministry of Power, Chairman, Railway Board;
Department of Urban Employee & Poverty Alleviation, Ministry Petroleum & Natural Gas,
Department of Shipping, Department of Roads Transport and Highways, Department of Telecom
Services, Department of Rural Development, Department of Agriculture &' Cooperation,
Department of Drinking Water Supply, Department of Food & Public Distribution, Ministry of
Water Resources and Joint Secretary, Cabinet Secretariat. The Ministry of Home Affairs, Govt.
of India will provide necessary secretariat assistance.
Task Force
The compositions of Task Force on drought management has been constituted under the
chairman-ship of Deputy Prime Minister and the members are the Minister of Finance and
Company Affairs, Minister of Agriculture, Minister of Consumer Affairs, Food & Public
Distribution, Minister of Rural Development, and Dy. Chairman. Planning Commission. The
Task Force will meet as frequently as necessary and initiate appropriate measures for effective
drought management. Whenever necessary, the Task Force may interact with the State
Governments. The Task Force will be serviced by the Ministry of Agriculture.
National Crisis Management Committee (NCMC)

The composition of Standing National Crisis Management Committee for effective coordination
and implementation of response and relief measures in the wake of disasters is constituted. The
Chairman is the Secretary of Cabin ate rank_ The members are Secretary, Ministry of Home
Affairs, Secretary, Ministry of Defense, Secretary, Ministry of Health, Secretary, Ministry of
Power, Chairman, Railway Board, Secretary, Department of Urban Employment & Poverty
Alleviation, Secretary, Ministry Petroleum & Natural Gas, Secretary, Department of Shipping,
Secretary, Department of Roads Transport and Highways, Secretary, Department of Telecom
Services, Secretary, Department of Rural Development, Secretary. Department of Agriculture &
76
Cooperation, Secretary, Department of Drinking Water Supply, Secretary, Department of Food

& Public Distribution, Secretary, Ministry of Water Resources, Joint Secretary, Cabinet
Secretariat.
The Ministry of Home Affairs, Covet- of India will provide necessary secretariat assistance.
-inter-Ministerial Group (IMG)
Composition of the Reconstituted Inter-Ministerial Group (IMG) constituted vide Ministry of
Home Affairs, Government of India OM No.31-2/2002-NDM (T) Dated the 24" July, 2002_ The
Chairman of the group is Secretary, Ministry of Home Affairs and the members are Central
Relief Commissioner (CRC), Secretary, Planning Commission, Secretary, Department of
Expenditure, Ministry of Finance, Secretary, Department of Agriculture & Cooperation,
Secretary, Ministry of Water Resources, Secretary, Department of Rural Development, Secretary,
Ministry of Power, Secretary, Ministry of Petroleum & Natural Gas, Secretary, Department of
Urban Employment & Poverty Alleviat:on, Secretary, Ministry of Road Transport & Highways,
Secretary, Department of Health, Secretary, Department of Food & Public Distribution,
Secretary, Department of Drinking Water Supply, joint Secretary (NDM).
There is no objection to NGO's issuing appeals for donations provided it is clear that the appeals
are not at the instance of the towernfncnt of India_ irn the case of U?~ or "anisatioils and
-iolne agencies (like OCHA) such appeals would imply endorsem. it by member countries and
they
doard: are advised against appeals for international assistance.
Gas,
__,:r,t of Disaster Management Facility
,._ -atron, The mission of the World Bank is to fight poverty. An important part of this
mission is
,rf Home providing assistance to prepare for and recover from natural or man-made disasters
that can result in great human and economic losses. Indeed, developing countries stiffer the
greatest costs when disaster hits: more than 95 percent of all deaths caused by disasters occur in
Policy for acceptance of External Assistance
i "Che present policy of not issuing a formal appeal on behalf of the Government, either directly
or through any other agency, to attract relief will continue. However, relief donated on a
voluntary basis will he accepted and acknowledged as a sign of international solidarity.
!
.
Environmental Sciences
.A.23
developing countries; and losses due to natural disasters are 20 times greater (as a percent of
GDP) in developing countries than in industrial countries.
Moreover, poorly planned development can turn a recurring natural phenomenon into a human
and economic disaster. Allowing dense populations on a floodplain or permitting poor or
uninformed building codes in earthquake zones is as likely as a natural event to cause casualties
and losses. Similarly, allowing the degradation of natural resources increases the risk of disaster.
77
In this connection, the Disaster Management Facility (DMF) aims to reduce human suffering
and economic losses cause by natural and technological disasters. We do this by helping the
World Bank provide a more strategic and rapid response to disasters, and promoting the
integration of disaster prevention and mitigation efforts into the range of development activities.
Table 25_1: Disaster operations
Disaster prevention Flood insurance, hurricane awareness, hazardous weather awareness,

family disaster plan, secure your home, disaster supply kit, pet plan, blueprint for safety,
building codes.
u't Evacuation On-line evacuation & shelter maps, evacuation maps, shelter status, have a
place to go.
`
DISASTER MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEM (DMIS)
The Disaster Management Information System, is a civil society initiative supported by socially
't`.
~ conscious institutions and individuals conies and generations The system was launched ,opal
or. by SRISTI, (Society for Research & Initiatives -for Sustainable Technologies and
Institutions) on the 18t° of January 2002 at Indian Institute of Management, Headband, Gujarat,
India.
SRISTI initiated an effort to build a "Disaster Management Information System". Through
this initiative we are trying to develop a database-driven inforrnation system for Disaster
Management Authorities (DMA) in various states, NGOs and other organisations. We appealed
to NGOs, relief workers, Dams and individuals to share their experiences and volunteer
SRIS"rI participated in the relief and rehabilitation work in Kutch. But the relief work suffered
immensely due to lack of information and proper planning. When we tried to get answers to
irnportant~ questions that were cropping up - for instance, whether there exists a database on the
distribution of available resources and expertise with individuals inst-tutions and
, corporations - all we got in response was a blank. This pointed to the urgent necessity of
building a system for disaster mitigation and for documenting experiences of individuals and
organisations, which might act as a knowledge resource and help in better coordination in case
services and resources to the online database maintained at our website. The database currentlv
contains more than a thousand volunteers who have offered to volunteer their services and
resources in time of Eme: gen cy. About 700 organisations and institutions are also listed on the
site, besides other resources and web links_
The DMIS is a wholly voluntary activity run with contributions in terms of time and services by
SRISTI volunteers, NGOs and above all civil society institutions across the world. All the
information shared with us is accessible to all, except where the volunteer has chosen to limit
accessibility only to the relevant authorities.
\
78
,
A Guideline for Disaster Management
Database
On various resources, skills, and services required for relief at short notice. It will have
information on safety equipments, oxygen cylinders and various other equipments, skills and
other information required to deal with emergency.
Logistics
One of the most difficult problems to be handled is the organization of supply chain for relief.
Several colleagues at IIMA also developed logistics system for Coil turn, to at Shun. This
system could not be integrated with the GIS system so that supplies could be tracked right unto
the village. This needs to be done. Likewise, other elements of logistics need to be put in place.
Technological Needs
Whole range of technical questions regarding buildings, cutting concrete slabs,-,rescue and relief
emerged which needed to be solved on the spot. The best practices have to be put in use. Self
Reliance
The community self-reliance, lot of aid led to excessive inventory at the household level leading
to reduced incentives for work and self-help. Likewise, there were areas where
communities came together to help each other. The lessons of community self-help need to be
~~.ally put together. A database of volunteers who can move at short notice will need to be
dzvelopect_
~nched
Communication Infrastructure
~ lions)
∎ -; This is a serious problem and has to be resolved once for all. It will require network of
ham
Irough radios, use of All India Radio, setting up help lines, etc. We will also have to create
information
aster dissemination system and develop mechanism for capacity building.
ealed Emergency Preparedness

~teer
_ entlyDrills will have to be organized to keep society prepared for dealing with such
emergencies.
es and One will have to learn from the experience of other similar drills. _; the
79
Forecasting
rices Wherever possible, disasters which can be anticipated over time or space need to be
looked
- All the into. For instance, buildings erected on land fill areas which were wet la ds or low
lying areas
_ limit were more likely to get damaged, as was borne out by the recent evidence.
CLIMATIC CHANGES
80
Unit – V
Global Warming
Definition: Global warming is an increase in the Earth's temperature due to the use of fossil
fuels and other industrial processes leading to a build-up of "greenhouse gases" (carbon dioxide,
methane, ni3iiousoxide; and chlorofluorocarbons) in the atmosphere.
It has been known since 1896 that carbon dioxide helps stop the Sun's infrared radiation from
escaping into space and thus functions to maintain the Earth's relatively warm temperature (this
is called the greenhouse effect): The question is whether the measurably increasing levels of
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere over the last century will lead to elevated global temperatures,
which could result in coastal flooding (through a rise in sea level) and major climatic changes,
and have serious implications for agricultural productivity.
Since 1850 there has been a mean rise in global temperature of approximately 1° C(1.8° F), but
this rise could just be part of a natural fluctuation_ Such fluctuations have been recorded for tens
of thousands of years and operate in short-term as well as long-term cycles- The difficulty of
distinguishing human-made causes -of carbon dioxide emissions from natural sources is one
reason why governmental legislation regarding their control has been slow in coming. However,
the potential consequences of global warming-are so great that many of the world's top scientists
have urged action, and have called for international cooperation on the problem.
Causes of Global Warming

The main cause of global warming is green houses gases. These are carbon dioxide, methane,
nitrous oxide, chlorofluorocarbon (CFC's) and ozone_ Generally, these gases are present in
rather small amounts but play the major role in the heat balance of atmosphere due to their
capacity to absorb infrared radiations. By preventing long wave thermal radiation from radiating
out of the atmosphere, the temperature of the atmosphere thus increases considerably. The
naturally occurring green house gases keep the earth warm enough to be habitable- Prior to the
industrial revolution, the amounts of these gases remained constant over thousands of years_ But
amount of these gases is increasing due to increased industry and agriculture. A major factor of
green house gases is their longevity in the atmosphere. Once they are emitted into atmosphere,
they will persist for several decades_ In case of CFC's and nitrous oxides it takes over a century
for them to degrade.
81
Sciences Effects of Global Warming

Climatic Effects
Work done with different climatic models shows there is scientific uncertainty about the effects
of global change. However, work on these simulation models has agreed on many common
tiling, including: (1) There will be a warming of the earth's surface and lower atmosphere and a
cooling of stratosphere. (2) The warming trend over the earth's surface is varied_ Warming in the
tropics is smaller than the global mean by about 2-3° C depending on seasonal changes,
which in other latitudes the average warming might account for 5-10° C increase in .
temperatures. (3) Precipitation patterns will be changed. Some areas will become wetter and
some areas dryer. (4) Seasonal patterns will change due to the changing of temperature and
precipitation patterns. (5) Soil moisture regimes will be changed due to the changes in
evaporation and precipitation_ (6) With the decrease in cloud cover over Eurasia in summer,
which will enhance the solar beating of the surface and increase the land-sea temperature
contrast, tropical monsoons will be driven with more severity and intensity. (7) Wind direction
and wind stress over the sea surface will be changed, which will alter ocean currents and cause
change in nutrient mixing zones and productivity of the oceans.
Rise in Sea Level
In the absence of efforts to cut greenhouse-gas emissions, sea levels will rise by between 10 and
30 cm by the year 2030 and 30 to 100cm by the end of next century. The direct effects are: (1)
Recession of shorelines and wetlands. (2) increased tidal range and estuarine salt-front intrusion,
and (3) an increase in salt-water contamination of coastal fresh-water acquifers All the above
effects have profound implication for human society, especially in the many coastal areas that
are densely populated_ -
Impacts on Forests
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, or IPCC (a group of more than 2,500 of the
world's leading scientists) has concluded that forests are highly sensitive to climate change
and :hat up to one third of currently forested areas could be affected in some way_ Conser-
vation of forest habitats in a rapidly warming world will present us with new challenges, and is
likely to be hardest in the places where these ecosystems are fragmented, polluted or under
development pressure. Rapidly rising emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases,
such as methane, are having a dramatic impact -on climate, both by raising average temperatures
and by increasing extreme events such as droughts, floods and storms.
Biotic Effects
The most important effect has been assumed to be the stimulation of the fixation and storage of
carbon by terrestrial plants through the increase in carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. The
hypothesis is that the CO, in the atmosphere speeds photosynthesis. The data show that
increasing concentrations of carbon dioxide often, but not al -ways, increase the rate of growth
of young plants. The most important consideration of biotic feedbacks is the ratio of grass
82
production to total respiration globally. The effect of such transitions is to reduce the capacity of
the Earth for supporting life, including people. The species favored in such transition are, first,
those that are normally recognized as success ional, those that occur following disturbance. As
the disturbance continues, these species are replaced by snarled-bodied, rapidly reproducing
species of wide distribution_
Effects on Human Settlements and Society

Worldwide, hundreds of millions of people would be displaced by the inundation of low-lying
coastal plains, deltas, and islands in the next century if efforts to reduce greenhouse-gas
accumulation in the atmosphere were unsuccessful. These would be jointed by countless
millions displaced from the land as aridity and biotic impoverishment spread.
Effects of Human health
Temperature-change may have an impact on several major categories of disease, including

cardiovascular, cerebrovascular, and respiratory diseases. Climate may affect the respiratory
tract in following three ways: (1) Seasonal effects. (2) Direct effects of specific weather
conditions, such as thunder-storms and cold fronts- (3) Combined effects of weather with other
environmental or topographical factors_ The other diseases in tropics are malaria,
trypanosomiasis, leishmaniasis, amoebiasis, ilariasis, onchocerciasis, schistosomiasis, and
various worm infestations. The potential impact of climatic change on communicable disease is
not likely to be limited to Third World. Even in an affluent country such as Australia, mosquito-
borne disease may pose considerable threats to health, which will probably increase as a result
of the greenhouse effects. Ultraviolet radiation is known to have effects on the immune system.
Other disasters
In 1972, for instance, a dam collapsed in the USA leading to the deaths of 125 people and
causing 4,000 to be homeless. Traumatic neurotic reactions were found in 80 per cent of the
survivors, and there was persistent evidence of unresolved grief, survivor shame, and feelings of
impotent rage and hopelessness. Disabling psychiatric symptoms included anxiet}-, depression
and changes in character and life-style. Over 90 per cent of the children who were interviewed
had developmental problems more than two years after the disaster_
ACID RAINS
Acid rain is a form of air polI-ltion, currently a subject of great controversy because of the
widespread environmental damage for which it has been blamed. It forms when oxides of
sculpture and nitrogen combine with atmospheric moisture to yield sulphuric and nitric acids,
which may then be carried long distances from their source before they are deposited by rain.
The pollution may also take the form of snow or fog or be precipitated in dry forms. In fact,
although the term "acid rain" has been in use for more than a century-it is derived from
atmospheric studies that were made in the region of Manchester, England-the more accurate
83
scientific term would be "acid deposition". The dry form of such precipitation is just as
damaging to the environment as the liquid form.
The problem of acid rain originated with the Industrial Revolution, and it has been growing ever
since. The severity of its effects has long been recognized in local settings, as exemplified by the
periods of acid smog in heavily industrialized areas. The widespread destructiveness of acid
rain, however, has become evident only in recent decades_ One large area that has been studied
extensively is northern Europe, where acid rain has eroded structures, injured cropS and forests,
and threatened or depleted life in freshwater lakes_ In 1984, for example. environmental reports
indicated that almost half of the trees in Germany's Black Forest hF_d been damaged by acid
rain. The north-eastern United States and eastern Canada have also been particularly affected by
this form of pollution; damage has also been detected in other areas of these countries and other
regions of the world_ In China, rapid industrial growth and an increasing demand for coal in the
1990s has led to a dramatic rise in environmental damage from acid rain_ Nearly 40 per cent of
China's land area is now affected, a figure scientists expect will continue to rise.
Effects of Acid Rains
How acid rain affects aquatic life is not well understood. Acid rain mobilizes heavy metals such
as calcium and mercury in soils, rock and sediments, which are then leached out by rain and
enter the surface water. Acidified lakes have high levels of cadmium, lead, aluminum,
manganese, zinc, copper and nickel_ All these can kill living organ isms if present in sufficient
quantities, and it is thought that it is their presence rather than the actual acidity of the water that
causes the death of fish and other life. Acid rain too is responsible for unsafe levels of various
heavy metals such as copper, zinc and cadmium in drinking water.
OZONE LAYER . Ozone

Ozone is highly reactive pale-blue gas with a penetrating odour. It is an allotrope of oxygen,
made up of three atoms of oxygen. It is formed when the molecule of the stable form of oxygen
(OZ) is split by ultraviolet radiation or electrical discharge. At ground level, ozone can cause
asthma attacks, stunted growth in plants, and corrosion of certain materials. It is produced by the
action of sunlight on air pollutants, including car exhaust fumes, and is a major air pollutant in
hot summers. In the upper atmosphere ozone has a beneficial effect, shielding life on Earth from
ultraviolet rays, a cause of skin cancer. Ozone is a powerful oxidizing agent and is used
industrially in bleaching and air conditioning.
A continent-sized hole has formed over Antarctica as a result of damage to the ozone layer. This
has been caused in part by chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), but many reactions destroy ozone in the
stratosphere: nitric oxide, chlorine, and bromine atoms are implicated. In 1989 ozone depletion
was 50% over the Antarctic compared with 3% over the Arctic. In April 1991 satellite data from
NASA revealed that the ozone layer had depleted by 4-8% in the N hemisphere and by 6-10% in
the S hemisphere between 1978 and 1990. It is believed that the ozone layer is depleting at a rate
84
of about 5% every 10 years over N Europe, with depletion extending south to the Mediterranean
and southern USA. However ozone depletion over the polar regions is the most dramatic
manifestation of a general global effect. As a pollutant at ground level, ozone is so dangerous
that the US Environment Protection Agency recommends people should not be exposed for
more than one hour a day to ozone levels of 120 parts per billion (ppb). It is known that even at
levels of 60 ppb ozone causes respiratory problems, and may cause the yields of some crops to
fall. In the USA the annual economic loss due to ozone has been estimated at $S_4 billion.
Ozone Layer Depletion
.~.:.size deplete is a chemical that destroys the ozone in the stratosphere. Most ozone depletes 'J-
C' ::-lyrically stable compounds containing chlorine or bromine, which remain unchanged for
long enough to drift up to the upper atmosphere
Fig. 27.4: Effect of industrial development on ozone layer depletion. Industrial gases make
ozone hole.
Neither HCI nor CIONOZ reacts directly with ozone. As more CI and C10- are tied up in these
so-called chlorine 'reservoir'. No further destruction of ozone happened.
The presence of polar stratospheric clouds (Pisces) accelerates the depletion of ozone. This form
of uncommon clouds removes nitrogen dioxide from the atmosphere. This stops the removal of
C10• . The crystalline surfaces of clouds acts as seeds which catalyze the formation of chlorine
(CIZ).
HCI+CION02 PSC )CI2 + HN03
When spring approaches (in September), the chlorine formed is photo dissociated by sunlight
into its free radicals- They begin to attack ozone molecules again. Due to the lack of nitrogen
dioxide in the atmosphere, the CIO- produced is not tied up in the chlorine 'reservoir'. It self
combines te form a molecule of Ciaos. And then it photo dissociates into oxygen (OZ) and free
chlorine radicals.
2CI0• -> C1202
CI202 UV > 2CI •
The cycle of destruction begins anew- The PSCs make the free chlorine radicals more readily to
destroy more ozone molecules. Each single radical may destroy thousands of ozone molecules
before deactivated by a hydrocarbon or nitrogen dioxide.
85
The mass destruction continues into November. The warming temperature and wine currents
break up the clouds. The destruction ends and the ozone-lack air flows out into the soil the: her-
sphere. The overall ozone concentration in these areas decreases
The effect of ozone depletion in Antarctica is severe, however, the ozone in the Arctic region
hold not be neglected. There is a trend showing the concentration of ozone lucre starts
decreasing (over 30 per cent)- Global warming is a problem that our human race must face
I
Ozone layer in the stratosphere filters out 99 per cent of dangerous ultraviolet radiation from the
sun. The thinning of the ozone layer may lead to an increase of skin cancer and eye cataract. The
presence of 'ozone hole' over Antarctica and the southern hemisphere has introduced incidence
of increasing victims of skin cancer. The yield of. crops may also decrease. The expanse in
medical cure and economical loss in food is ur.countable. .
The increase in intensity of sunlight may induce global warming that melt the ice caps at the
poles. If this happenti, the sea level will rise from a few centimeter to a few meter. The low-
lying areas will become underwater_ It is an ecological disaster. However, the economic centers
are always located along the coast_ Hence flooding can lead to great loss.
1
of ozone which the ;a spring. I 30 km). nicely and y destroy ions with
NUCLEAR ACCIDENTS
The growth of nuclear power as a source of electricity poses some problems in the control of
radiation hazards. Fission products from the controlled-fission process used in reactors are
hazardous to the environment if released in large quantities, as they were at Chernobyl in 1986.
When an accident occurs and the fission debris escapes, the area for miles around a nuclear plant
is contaminated at a high level, with lower-level radiation being spread by weather patterns over
millions of square kilometers. To avert this, nuclear engineers design the power system so as to
minimize the chances of accidental release_ In the former Soviet Union especially, where the
situation is complicated by the poor quality of original building materials and the low standard
of maintenar.c2 due to economic constraints, the safety of nuclear power plants will become a
critical issue in the second half of the 7990s.
'his form Nagasaki (Japan) moval of

chlorine Nagasaki, city in Japan on western Kyuslru, capital of Nagasaki Prefecture, at the
head of
Nagasaki Bay_ Nagasaki Bay, about 5 km (3 mi) long and sheltered on all sides, is one of the
best natural harbors in Japan_ The city has important coal-mining and fishing industries,
shipyards, steelworks, and plants manufacturing electrical equipment. It is the site of Nagasaki
86
University (1949). On August S, 7945, three days after Hiroshima was destroyed, a United
sunlight States Army Air Force plane released an atomic bomb on Nagasaki_ About one-third of
the city nitrogen tea’s destroyed, and some 66,000 people were killed or injured. A memorial
marks the location '. It self- over which the bomb exploded_ Population (1990) 444,599_
and free
Chernobyl Accident:-
The Chernobyl nuclear power station was one of the largest in the Soviet Union (earlier name).
Chernobyl accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant in the Ukrainian republic of the Union
of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) produced a plume of radioactive debris that drifted over
parts of the western Soviet Union, Eastern Europe, and Scandinavia. The accident, which took
place on April 26, 1986, was the worst nuclear power accident in history. Large areas of the
Ukrainian, Byelorussian, and Russian republics of the Soviet Union were contaminated,
resulting in the evacuation and resettlement of roughly 2(l0,000 people_ The accident raised
concerns about the safety of the Soviet nuclear power industry, slowing its expansion for a
number of years, while forcing- the Soviet government to become less secretive. The now
independent countries of Ukraine- and Belarus have been burdened with continuing and
substantial costs for decontamination and health care because of the Chernobyl accident.
In the early morning of April 26, 1986, reactor no. 4 was operating at very low capacity (6 to 7
per cent) during a planned shutdown. Plant personnel intended to monitor the perfor:nance of
turbine generators, which supplied electrical power for the plant's own operation, during a
changeover from standard to a back-up source of power- The reactor's design made it unstable
ENVIRONIVIENTAL PROTECTION ACTS :-
The environmental pollution has now become a global problem. An adequate preventive
legislation has, therefore, become essential to control pollution. Following are the acts for
pollution control.
THE AIR (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ACT, 1981 (Act No. 14 of
1981)/ (29th March 1981)
An act to provide for the prevention, control and abetment of air pollution, for the establishment
with a view to carrying out the aforesaid purposes, of Board, for conferring on and assigning to
such Boards powers* and functions relating thereto and for matters connected therewith.
Whereas decisions were taken at the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment
held in Stockholm in June, 1972, in which India, participated, to take appropriate steps for the
preservation of the natural resources of the earth which, among other things, include the
preservation of the quality of air and control of air pollution;
And whereas it is considered necessary to implement the decisions aforesaid in so far as they
relate to the preservation of the quality of air and control of air pollution;
87
Be it enacted by Parliament in the Thirty-second Year of the Republic of India as follows:

Notification 2 (New Delhi, 15th May, 1981)
G.S.K. 351 (E)-In exercise of the powers conferred by sub-section (3) of section 1 of the Air
(Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 (14 of 1981), the Central Government hereby
appoints the lfith day of May 1981, as the day on which the said Act shall come into force.
Prefatory Note: Statement of Objects and Reasons.
1. With the increasing industrialization and the tendency of the majority of industries to
congregate in areas which are already heavily industrialized, the problem of air pollution has be-
in to be felt in the country_ The problem is more acute in those heavily industrialized areas
which are also densely populated. Short-term studies conducted by the National Environmental
Engineering Research Institute, Napery, have confirmed that tile cities of Calcutta, Bomb<iv,
Delhi, etc_, are facing the impact of air pollution on a stealthy increasing level_
The presence in air, beyond certain limits, of various pollutants discharged through industrial
emission and from certain human activities connected with traffic, heating& use of domestic
fuel, refuse incinerations, etc., has a detrimental effect on the health of the people as also on
animal life. vegetation and property.
Environmental Protection Acts 353
3. In the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment held in Stockholm in June
1972, in which India participated, decisions were taken to take appropriate steps for the
preservation of the natural resources of the earth which, among other things, include the
preservation of the quality of air and control of air pollution. The Government has decided to
implement these decisions of the said conference insofar as they relate to the preservation of the
quality of air and control of air pollution.
4. It is felt that there should be an integrated approach for tackling- the environmental problems
relating to pollution. It_ is, therefore, proposed that the Central Board for the Prevention and
Control of Water Pollution constituted under the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution)
Act, 1974, will also perform the functions of the Central Board for the Prevention and Control of
Air Pollution and of a State Board for the and Control of Air Pollution in the Union Territories.
It is also proposed that the State Boards constituted under the said Act will also perform the
functions of State Boards in respect of prevention, control and abatement of air pollution.
However, in those States in which State Boards for the Prevention aad Control of Water
Pollution have not been constituted under that Act, separate State Boards for the Prevention and
Control of Air Pollution are proposed to be constituted
5. The Bill seeks to achieve the above objectives
6. The notes on clauses appended to the Bill explain in detail the various provisions thereof.
Fig. 30.1: Laws provide protection to control environmental pollution
THE AIR (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION) RULES, 1982
88
Notification G_S.K., 172 (E)/ Published in Gazette of India, Extra, Part 113(i) Dated 1£3''`
1992 in exercise of the powers conferred by section 53 of Air (Prevention and Control of
Pollution) Act, 1981 (14 of 1981) the Central Government in consultation with Central Board
for the Prevention and Control of Water Pollution hereby makes the following rules, namely-
Chapter I Preliminary
. These rules may be called the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Rules, 1982. 2. They
shall come into force on the date of their publication in the Official Gazette.
2. Definitions
In these rules unless the context otherwise requires:
1. "Act" means the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981; 2. "Chairman' means
the Chairman of the Central Board; 3. "form" means a form set out in the Schedules;
4_ "meeting" means a meeting of the Central Board or a meeting of Committee constituted
by the Central Board;
5. "member Secretary" means the member Secretary of the Central Board; 6. "Schedule" means
a Schedule appended to these rules; 7. "section" means a section of the Act;
8. "year" means the financial year commencing on the lst day of April;
9. words and expressions not defined in these rules but defined in the Act shall have the
meaning assigned to them in the Act.
Chapter 11
Procedure for Transaction of Business of the Board and its Committees

q 3. Notice of meetings
Meeting of the Central Board shall be held on such date as may be fixed by the Chairman.
L The Chairman shall, upon a written request of not less than five members of the Central Board
or upon a direction of the Central Government, call a special meeting of the Central Board_
2. Fifteen clear days' notice of an ordinary meeting and three days' notice of a special meeting
specifying the time and the place at which such meeting is to be held and an agenda of the
business to be transacted thereat, shall be given by the member secretary or Chairman to the
members or any other officers of the Board.
3. Notice of the meeting may be given to the members by delivering the same by messenger or
sending it by registered post to his last known place of residence or business or in such other
manner as the Chairman may, in the circurnstances of the case, think fit_
4. No member shall be entitled to bring forward for the consideration of a meeting an), matter of
which he has not given ten clear days' notice to the member Secretary unless the Chairrnan, in
his discretion, permits horn to do so.
5. If the Chairman or presiding officer adjourns a meeting from day to day of ant' particular day
he shall give reason thereof and no fresh notice shall be required for such an adjourned meeting.
4. Presiding Officer
Every meeting shall be presided over by the Chairman and in his absence, by a presiding officer
to be elected by the members present from amongst themselves_
5. All questions to be decided by majority
89
1. All questions at a meeting shall be decided by a majority of votes of members present and
voting shall be by raising of hands in favour of the proposal.
In case of an equality of votes, the Chairman or presiding officer shall have a second of casting
vote.
6. Quorum
Five members shall form the quorum for any meeting.

L If at any time fixed for any meeting or during the course of any meeting a quorum is not
present, the Chairman or presiding officer shall adjourn the meeting and if a quorum is not
present after the expiration of fifteen minutes from such adjournment, the presiding officer shall
adjourn the meeting to such time on the following or on such other future date as he may fix_
2. If the meeting is adjourned to some future date due to lack of quorum fresh notice will be
given to the absent members as to the date and time on which the next meeting will be held.
3. No matter which had not been on the agenda of the original meeting shall be discused at such
adjourned meeting.
7. Minutes
1. Record of. the proceedings of every meeting alongwith the names of members who attended
the meeting shall be kept by the member-Secretary in a book maintained by f=`` him
exclusively for7lhe purpose.
2. The minutes of the previous meeting shall be read at the beginning of every succeeding
meeting and shall be confirmed and signed by Chairman or pres'ding officer at such meeting.
3. The proceedings shall be open to inspection by any member at the officer of the Central
Board during officer house.
8. Maintaining order at meeting
The Chairman or presiding officer shall preserve order at a meeting. 9. Business to be transacted
at a meeting
1. No business shall be transacted in the meeting without uorum.
2_ Except with the permission of the Chairman or presiding officer, no business which is not
entered in the agenda or of which notce has not been given by a membei- under sub-rule (5) of
the rule 3, shall be transacted at any meeting
1. At any meeting business shall be transacted in the order in which it is entered n the agenda
circulated to the members under sub-rule (3) of rule 3.
Z- Either at the beginning of the meeting r after the conclusion of the debate on a motion during
the meeting, the Chairman, or presiding officer or a member may suggest a change in the order
of business as entered in the agenda and if the majority of the members present agree, the
Chairman or presiding officer shall agree to such change
il_ Procedure for transacton of business of committee constituted by the Board under subsection
(1) of section 11
90
1. The time and place of the meeting of a committee constituted by the Central Board under sub-
section (1) of section 11, shall be as specified by the Chairman of the committee.
2. Provisions of Chapter 2 of these rules shall as far as practicable, apply to the meeting of the
committees constituted under section 11.
Chapter III
'Temporary Association of Persons with the Central Board

12. A member of a committee other than a member of the Board shall be paid an allowance of
rupees fifty if he is a resident of Delhi and rupees seventy-five (inclusive of daily allowance)
and also travel ing allowance at such rate as is admissible to a grade I officer of the Central
Government in the case of non-resident, for each day of the actual meeting of the committee
which he attends. Provided that in case of a member of Parliament who is also a member of the
Central Board, the said daily and travelling allowances, will be admissible when the Parliament
is not in session and on production of a certificate by the member that he has not drawn any such
allowance for the same journey and halts from any other Government source.
Chapter IV
Temporary Association of Persons with the Central Board

!EI 13. Manner and the purpose of Association of persons with the Central Board under sub-
section (1) of section 12
1. The Central Board may invite any person whose assistance or advice is considered useful in
performing any of its functions, to participate in the deliberations of any of its meeting or the
meeting of a committee formed by i!
14. Fees and allowance to be paid to such temporary association of persons under sub-section
(3) of section 12
1. If the person associated with the Board under rale 13 happens to be a non-official resident in
Delhi, he shall be entitled to get an allowance of rupees fifty per day for each day of actual
meeting of the Central Board in which he is so associated.
2_ If such person is non-resident of Delhi, he shall be entitled to get an allowance of rupees
seventy five per day (inclusive of daily allowance) for each day of actual meeting of the Central
Board when he is so associated and also to travelling allowance at such rates as is admissible to
a grade I officer of the Central Government.
3. Notwithstanding anything in sub-rule (1) and (2) if such person is a Government servent or an
employee in a Government undertaking he shall be entitled to travelling and daily allowances
only at the rates admissible under the relevant rules applicable to him;
4. Provided that in case of a~-timber of Parliament who is also a member of the Central Board,
the said daily and tra•.-ellino allowances will be admissible when the Parliament is not in
session and on production of a certificate by the member that lie has not drawn any such
aiirn:anee for ihtr ;:~nze ;ounne, and halts from any other Goverwnen[ source_
91
Budget of The Central Board
15. Form of budget estimates under section 34

1. The form in which and-t'me within which the budget may be prepared and forwarded to the
Government shall be as provided in forms I, II, III and IV of Schedule I.
2. The estimated receipts and expenditure shall be accompanied by the revised budget estirntes
for the current year.
3. The budget shall, as far as may be, based on the account heads specified in Schedule II.
THE HAZARDOUS WASTE

(MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING) RULES, 1989
The Gazette Of India: Extraordinary
[Part II-Sec, 3(11)1
Ministry Of Environment And Forests, (Department Of Environment, Forests And Wildlife)
Notification
New Delhi, The 28the July, 1989
S.O. 594 (E)- In exercise of the powers conferred by sections 6, 8 and 25 of the
Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 (29 of 1986), the Central Government hereby
makes the following rules, namely1. Short title and commencement
1. These rules may be called the Hazardo`us Wastes ,JManagement and Hancaing) Rules, 1989
-
2. They shall come into force on the date their publication in the Official Gazette.
2. Application
These rules shall apply to hazardous wastes as specified in Schedule and shall not apply
i
to
1. waste water and exhaust gases as covered under the provisions of the Water (Prevention and
Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 (6 of 1974) and the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution)
Act, 1981 (14 of 1981) and the rules made thereunder;
2. wastes arising out of the operation from ships beyond five kilometers as covered under the
provisions of the Merchant Shipping Act, 1958 (44 of 1958) and the rules made thereunder;
3. radio-active wastes as covered under there provisions of the Atomic Energy Act, 1962 (33 of
1962) and rules made thereunder_
3. Definitions
In these rules, unless the context otherwise required_
1. "Act" means the Environment (Protection) ;'tct, 1986 (2'J of 19IIf;);
2. "applicant" means a person or an organisation that applies, in Form 1, for grariling of
authorisation to perform specific activities connected with handling of hazardous wastes;
3. "authorisation" means permission fo- collection, reception, treatment, transport, storage and
disposal of hazardous wastes, granted by the competent authority in Form 2;
92
authorised person" means a person or an organisation authorised by the coinpgtent authority to

collect, treat, transport, store or dispose of hazardous wastes in accordance with the guidelines to
be issued by the competent authority from time to time;
5. "export" with its grammatical variations and cognate expression, means taking out of India to
place outside India;
6. "exporter" means any person under the jurisdication of the exporting country who exports
hazardous wastes and the exporting country itself, who exporty hazardous wastes;
7. "facility" means any location wherein the processes incidental to the waste generation,
collection, reception, treatment, storage and disposal are carried out;
8. "Form" means Form appended to these rules;
9. "hazardous wastes" means categories on wastes specified in the schedule;
10. "hazardous wastes site" means a place for collection, reception, treatment, storage and
disposal of hazardous wastes which has been duly approved by the competent authority;
11. "import", with its grammatical variations and cognate expression, means bringing into India
from a place outside India;
12. "importer" means an occupier or any person who imports hazardous wastes;
13. "operator of facility" means a person who owns or operates a facility for coHection,
reception, treatment, storage and disposal of hazardous wastes;
14. "Schedule" means Schedule appended to these rules:
15. "State Pollution Control Board" means the Board appointed under Sub-section (1) of Section
4 of the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 (6 of 1974); and under Section 4
of the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 (14 of 1981);
_16. "transponder movement" means any movement of hazardous wastes from an area under the
national jurisdiction of one country to or through an area under the national jurisdiction of
another country or to or through an area not under the jurisdiction of - any country, provided at
least two countries are involved in the movement;
17, the words and expressions used in these rules and not defined but defined in the Act, shall
have the meanings respectively assigned to them in the Act.
4. Responsibility of the occupier for handling of wastes
1. The occupier generating hazardous wastes listed in column (2) of the Schedule in quantities
equal to or exceeding the limits given in column (3) of the said Schedule, shall take all practical
steps to ensure that such wastes are properly handled and disposed of without any adverse
effects which may result from such wastes and the occupier shall also be responsible for proper
collection, reception, treatment, storage and disposal of these wastes either himself or through
the operator of a facility.
2. The occupier or any other persons acting on his behalf who intends to get his hazardous waste
treated by the operator of a facility tinder sub-rule (1), shall give, to the operator of a facility,
such information as may be specified by the State Pollution Control Board.
93
5. Grant of authorization for handling hazardous wastes

i- Hazardous wastes shall be collected, treated, stored and disposed of only in such facilities as
may be authorized for this purpose.
2- Every occupier generating hazardous wastes and having a facility for collection, reception,
treatment. transport, storage and disposal of such wastes shall make all
8. Inventory of disposal sites
1. The State Government or a person authorized by it shall undertake a continuing of disposal
sites within the State for the disposal of hazardous wastes.
2. The State Government or a person authorized by it shall undertake an environmental impact
study before identifying a site as waste disposal site in the State.
3. The State Government or a person authorised by it shall undertake a continuing programme to

compile and publish and inventory of sites within the State at which hazardous wastes have at
any time been stored or.disposed of and such inventory shall contain, besides the location and
description;-information relating to the amount, nature and toxicity of hazardous wastes at each
such site as may be associated with such site.
9. Records and returns
1. The occupier generating hazardous waste and operator of a facility for collection, reception,
treatment, transport`, storage and disposal of hazardous waste shall maintain records of such
operations in Form 3.
2. The occupier and operator of a facility shall send annual returns to the State Pollution Control
Board in Form 4
10. Accident reporting and follow-up
1. Where an accident occurs at the facility or on a hazardous waste site or during transportation
of hazardous wastes, the occupier or operator of a facility shall report immediately to the State
Pollution Control Board about the accident in Form 5.
11. Import of hazardous wastes •
1. Import of hazardous wastes from any country of India shall' not be pennitted for dumping and
disposal of such wastes. However, import of such wastes may be allowed for processing or reuse
as raw material, after. examining each case on merit by the State Pollution Control Board or by
an officer authorised in this behalf.
_ The exporting country or the exporter as the case may be, of; hazardous wastes shall
communicate in Form 6 to the Central Government (the Ministry of Environment and Forests)
of the proposed trans-boundary movements of hazardous. wastes.
3. The Central Government shall, after examining the communication received under sub-rule
(2) and on being satisfied that the import of such hazardous wastes is to be used for processing
or reuse as raw material, grant permission for the import of such wastes subject to such
conditions as the Central Government may specify in this behalf and if, however, the Central
Government is not satisfied with the Communication received under sub-rule (2), may refuse
permission to import such hazardous wastes.
94
4. Anv importer importing hazardous wastes shall provide necessary information as to the type
of hazardous wastes he is to import, in Form 6, to the concerned State Pollution Control
Board:'the Central Pollution Control Board in the case of Union Territories.
5_ The State Pollution Control Board shall exa:rine the information received under suurule (4)
and issue such instructions to the importer as it considers necessary
6. The central Government or the State Pollution Control Luard, as the case may be
sh<<1[ inform the concerned Port Authority to take appropriate steps regarding the safe
handling of the hazardous wastes at the time of off-loadino the same.
7_ Anv person importing hazardous wastes shall maintain the records of the hazardous wastes
imported as specified in Form 7 and the records so maintained shall be open for inspection by
the State Pollution Control Board/the Ministry of Environment and
8. Inventory of disposal sites

1. The State Government or a person authorised by it shall undertake a continuing of disposal
sites within the State for the disposal of hazardous wastes.
2. The State Government or a person authorised by it shall undertake an environmental impact
study before identifying a site as waste disposal site in the State.
3. The State Government or a person authorised by it shall undertake a continuing programme to
compile and publish and inventory of sites within the State at which hazardous wastes have at
any time been stored or.disposed of and such inventory shall contain, besides the location and
description;-information relating to the amount, nature and toxicity of hazardous wastes at each
such site as may be associated with such site.
9. Records and returns
1. The occupier generating hazardous waste and operator of a facility for collection, reception,
treatment, transport`, storage and disposal of hazardous waste shall maintain records of such
operations in Form 3.
2. The occupier and operator of a facility shall send annual returns to the State Pollution Control
Board in Form 4
10. Accident reporting and follow-up
1. Where an accident occurs at the facility or on a hazardous waste site or during transportation
of hazardous wastes, the occupier or operator of a facility shall report immediately to the State
Pollution Control Board about the accident in Form 5.
11. Import of hazardous wastes •
1. Import of hazardous wastes from any country of India shall' not be pennitted for dumping and
disposal of such wastes. However, import of such wastes may be allowed for processing or reuse
as raw material, after. examining each case on merit by the State Pollution Control Board or by
an officer authorised in this behalf.
_ The exporting country or the exporter as the case may be, of; hazardous wastes shall
communicate in Form 6 to the Central Government (the Ministry of Environment and Forests)
of the proposed trans-boundary movements of hazardous. wastes.
3. The Central Government shall, after examining the communication received under sub-rule
(2) and on being satisfied that the import of such hazardous wastes is to be used for processing
95
or reuse as raw material, grant permission for the import of such wastes subject to such
conditions as the Central Government may specify in this behalf and if, however, the Central
Government is not satisfied with the Communication received under sub-rule (2), may refuse
permission to import such hazardous wastes.
4. Anv importer importing hazardous wastes shall provide necessary information as to the type
of hazardous wastes he is to import, in Form 6, to the concerned State Pollution Control
Board:'the Central Pollution Control Board in the case of Union Territories.
5_ The State Pollution Control Board shall exa:rine the information received under suurule (4)
and issue such instructions to the importer as it considers necessary
6. The central Government or the State Pollution Control Luard, as the case may be
sh<<1[ inform the concerned Port Authority to take appropriate steps regarding the safe
handling of the hazardous wastes at the time of off-loadino the same.
7_ Anv person importing hazardous wastes shall maintain the records of the hazardous wastes
imported as specified in Form 7 and the records so maintained shall be open for inspection by
the State Pollution Control Board/the Ministry of Environment and
Farests/the Central Pollution Control Board in the case of Union Territories or an officer
appointed by them in this behalf.
12. Appeal
1. An appeal shall lie, against any other order of suspension or cancellation or refusal of an
authorisation by the State Pollution Control Board to the State Government and to the Ministry
of Environment and Forests in the case of the Central Pollution Control Board.
Every appeal shall be in writing and shall be accompanied by a copy-of the order appealed
against and shall be presented within thirty days of the order passed.
ATER (PREVENTION AND CONTROL) ACT
1
The term water pollution has been used variously in various Indian Acts_ Some described it as
'nuisance', while others as 'neoligence'. 3 'Fouling' of water was also the way of describing water
pollution. In some enactments water pollution was described as 'poisoning' of water. Some Acts
described as rendering water less fit oe not fit for consumption by human beings and animals.
Interference with or alteration in flow of water to carry away rubbish or 'causing water to be
corrupted in any waterway so as to endanger, damage or render it less useful, was another mode
of explanation of water pollution. Discharge of oil, use of dynamite and casting of blast carries
the same meaning_
Almost all the statutes before the enactment of Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act,
1974, stressed upon the mode of causing pollution rather than explaining -pollution' itself. In a
simple sense, water pollution is the adding to water of any substance, or the changing of water's
physical and chemical characteristics in any way which interferes with its use for legitimate
purposes. It is also defined as introduction into water oft substances of such character and
quantity that its natural quality is so altered as to impair its usefulness or render it offensive to
the senses of sight, taste or smell. According to Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act,
1974 water pollution means such contamination of water or such alteration of the physical,
96
chemical or biological properties of water or such discharge of any sewage or trade effluent or
of any other liquid, gaseous or solid substance into water (whether directly or indirectly as may,
or is likely to create a nuisance or render such water harmful or injurious to public health or
safety; or to domestic, commercial, industrial, agricultural or other legitimate_ uses, or to the life
and health of animals or plants or of aquatic organisms.
The various inorganic and organic compounds that cause pollution include fertilizers, pesticides,
biocides, detergents, phenolic substances, and carboxylic acids. When these compounds
negligently or inadvertently are thrown into the sea or a river, water resources get contaminated
resulting into threat to aquatic animal and human life. Excess of chemical nutrients also
stimulates the ]u_-;zrriant growth of algae and other plant life to such an extent as to choke
waterways and is terme,. as eutrophication.
All the 14 major rivers of the con_^_tr_v, including Cooum, Ganga, Gomti, Cauvery, Damodar
and Mini- Mahi, have become polli_w:ed. The waters of Ganga which were once considered to
be pure and sacred are no longer so becausc of the discharge of sewage and industrial effluents.
The industria! effluents are cor.~:e ~_ed more danoercus than the house-hold wastes.
Many of our lakes, notably the -L_~at lake, have l,~~com~^. darkened, smelly and choked with
e~ce;sive growth of 2,.Sae- OccaSi,:nally certain water bodies become so heavily polluted with
oil that they have been seen to cl-t~7i: fire.
Normally water is never pure in a chemical sense_ It contains impurities of various kinds - both
dissolved and suspended. These comprise dissolved gases (e.g-, HZS. CO, NH„ NZ), dissolved
minerals (e_a. salts of calcium, magnesium, sodium), suspended impurities (e.g. clay, silt, sand
and mud) and microscopic organisms. These are natural impurities derived from the atmosphere,
catchment area and the soil but are in such a low concentration that they do not pollute the water
normally, rather their presence is sometimes essential for maintaining the potable and other
useful properties of water. Polluted waters are turbid, not pleasant for drinking, sometimes smell
bad, and are not suitable for bathing, washing or other human activities. They are generally
harmful and diseases like typhoid, dysentery, and cholera spread through polluted water.
Environmental Pollution Control and Law

The environmental pollution has now become a global problem. An adequate preventive
legislation has, therefore, -become quite essential to control pollution, more particularly
industrial pollution which is posing a great danger not only for the workers but also for the
people in the vicinity. Unfortunately the Indian law, dealing with environmental protection, is
largely statutory, made a priori, is an abstract law and not a living law. It-is scattered and is
contained in about 200 various enactments.
In addition, there are some more provisions for protection of the environment under LP.C_
1860,-Sections 268, 269, 270, 272. 277, 278 and 284-290 (Chapter on 'Offences Affecting
Public Health ') and Sections 425, 426 and 430 (Chapter on 'Mischief); under Cr. P.C.
18982, Sections 133 and 144 (Chapter on Public Nuisances); under Police Act, 1861 (Prevention
of noise); and under various Municipal Acts, viz. Sections 220 and 222 of Rajasthan Municipal
Act, 1959; Sections 190, 200, 278, 301 and 303 of Kerala Municipal Corporation Act, 1961; and
Sections 241, 242, 250, 350, 354 and 357 of Delhi Municipal Corporation Act, 1957.
97
Many other countries, too, have some provisions under criminal laws or have enacted special
criminal laws or amended the existing ones in order to prosecute the offenders through criminal
prosecution system. The Japanese 'law was the first such step for the punishment of crimes
relating to environmental pollution: Penal codes of the Federal Republic of Germany, German
Democratic Republic, Hungary, Portugal, Spain and Brazil, soon followed. Canada and the U.S.
have created new regulations related to crimes dealing with notorious violations and provided
stiff punishment with fines and imprisonment to violators.
The UN. Conference at Stockholm on Environment in 19723 focussed the attention of the
international community on environment issues_ India, and particularly late Prime Minister
Indira Gandhi played a historical role in preparations for the conference and in the conference
itself. India's role drew the support of the developing nations to the environmental issues. The
United Nations Environmental Programme provided, for the first time, a global information and
action set up on environmental matters. In December 1972, the General Assembly sponsored the
U.S. Environmental Programme with global jurisdiction with headquarters at Nairobi. At the
international level the assessment function is being performed through the GEMS and
INFOTERA as well as through the annual reports on the global environment published by the
UNEP. The UNEP has also set up a IRPTC_ The management and regulatory function at the
international level is reflected in International Conventions regarding marine pollution.
exploitation of marine resources and right of the coastal states to enforce their own regulations
within 12 nautical miles fro:n shore. Aci~y-i?ic legislative and supportive or-anizatir-.11!
measures at the National level were emphasised both at this conference and at r~!z cuatere;t(-C
on VJC> (1980)?. Thus, the 1972 was the ~,•.•atershed in the history of eavirorrtlc':'!
mZ:na1'etr"eni_ Since then, the c::cline in the environment quality has become th;_ concern of
the
world community.
Acts for protection of Indian environment since 1857

1. The Orient Gas Company Act, 1857
The Serais Act, 1867
The Northern India Canal and Drainage Act, 1873
The Obstruction in Airways Act, 1881
3. The Indian Fisheries Act, 1897
The Indian Ports Act, 1901
3. . The Bengal Smoke Nuisance Act, 1905 4. The Explosives-Act, 1908
5. The Bombay Smoke Nuisance Act, 1912
6. The Inland Stream Vessel Act, 1917
7. The Mysore Destructive Insects & Pests Act. 1917 8. The Poison Act, 1919
9. The Andhra Pradesh Agricultural, Pest & Diseases Act, 1919
10. The Indian Boilers Act, 1923
11. The Workmen's Compensation Act, 1923
12. The Indian Forest Act, 1927
13. The Motor Vehicles Act, 1939
14. The Bihar Wastelands (Reclamation, Cultivation & Improvement) Act, 1946
98
15. The Mines and Minerals (Regulation and Development) Act, 1947
16. The Damodar Valley Corporation (Prevention of Pollution of Water) Regulation Act, 1948
17. The Factories (Pollufion and Pesticides) Act, 1948
18- The Employees State Insurance Act, 1948
a 9. The Andhra Pradesh Improvement Schemes (Land utilisation) Act, 1949 20. The Industries
(Development and Regulationj Act, 1951 21. The Calcutta Municipal A-t 1,151 22. The Madhya
Pradesh Cont to of Music and Noises Act, 1951 23. The Maharashtra Prevention of Water
Pollution Act, 1953 24. The Shore Nuisance (Bomba}- and Colaba) Act, 1953 25. The Orissa
River Pollution &- Prevention Act, 1953 26. The Assam Agricultural rests and Disease Act,
1954 27_ The Prevention of Food Adulteration Act, 1954 'l8_ The U.P. Agricultural Pests S
Disease Act, 1954
29. The Acquisition of Land for Flood Control and Prevention of Erosion Act, 1955 30. The
Bihar Control of the U-se and play of Loudspeakers Act, 1955 31- The River Boards Act, 1956
32_ The Ancient Monuments and nrcheolooical Sites and Remains Act, 1958 33. The Kerala
Agricultural Pests s Disease Act, 1958 34. The Atomic Energy Act, 1962
35. The Major Port Trusts Act, 1963
36. The Gujarat Smoke Nuisance Act, 1963 37_ The Rajasthan Noise Control Act, 1963
38. The Delhi Restriction of Land Uses Act, 1964

39. The Beedi and Cigar Works Act, 1966
40. The Insecticides Act. 1968
41. The Maharashtra Water Pollution Prevention Act, 1969
42. Tamil Nadu Water Supply and Drainage (Prevention & Control of Water Pollution) Act,
1970
43. The Merchant Shipping (Amendment) Act (Harbour and Costal Water Dumping of Oil, "
etc.). 1970
44. The Cattle Trespass Act, 1971
45. The wild life (Protection) Act, 1972
46. The Water (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act, 1974
47. The Urban Land Act (Ceilino and Regulation), 1976
48. The Madhya Pradesh Gandhi Basti Kshetra (Sudhar Tatha Nirmulan) Adhiniyam, 1976
49. The Territorial Waters, continental shelf, exclusive Economic Zone and other Maritime Zone
Act, 1976
50. The Water (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977
51. The Water (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Amendment Act, 1978 52. The Coast Guard
Act, 1978
53. The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980
54. The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 55_ The Fairways Act, 1981
56. The Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act, 1985 57. The Environment
(Protection) Act, 1986 58. Motor Vehicles Act, 1988
WATER POLLUTION AND JUDICIARY
99
The Holy river Ganga has been turned into an open sewer at many places and its water has
ne~
been found to be unfit for drinking, bathing as well as for irrigation purposes. Highly toxic h,
effluents from more than 1,500 industries, from Hardwar to West Bangal, comprising tanneries,
i'~
distilleries, sugar and chemical industries are discharged into the river_ e,.
.N"
A writ petition was filed in ihe Supreme Court for seeking appropriate order or direction
restraining municipalities and industries from discharging effluents into the river. A large
number of parties were involved in the petition. The first judgement was delivered on September
22, 1987 against the industries tannin.- at Jamau near Kanpur on the bank of the river Gan-a
(M.C. Mehta vs Union of India). In the instant case, the court ordered the closure of 29 ianneries
for failing to provide primary treatment t)]ants. The court also observed that the financial
capacity-of 'the tanneries should be considered as irrelevant while reF4uiring them to establish
primary treatment plants; a tannery, which cannot set =_,p a primary cannot be permitted to
continue to ce in existence. Later on, in another writ petition 110 3727/1985, M.C. Mehta vs.
Union o: India, Kanpur Naoar ivIahapalika Supreme Court by its judgement dated January 12,
1988 made comprehensive observation giving direction to the local bodies in general and the
Union Government for minimising the pollution of the river Ganga in particular and at other
places in general.
CONSTITUTIONAL ADVICE
The Constitution of India of 1950 does not have any specific provision to deal with the problems
of environmental pollution. However, there seems to be an indirect mention of environmental
concern in a few Articles, viz., Articles 21 and 47.
The Article 21 deals with protection of life and personal liberty. It says: No person shall be
deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to procedure established by law. It
assures every person right to life and personal liberty. Its deprivation shall only be as per
procedure prescribed in law, but the procedure has to be fair, just and reasonable.. The ambi; and
scope of -right to life' embodied in Article 21 is wide and far reaching. Any person who is
deprived of his 'right to life' except according to just and fair procedure established.by law, can
challenge the deprivation as offending the 'right to life' conferred by Article 21.
100
In T. Damodhar Rao v. Municipal Corporation, Hyderabad case, the Court held that the
enjoyment of life and its attainment and fulfilment guaranteed by Art_ 21 of the Constitution
embraces the protection and preservation of nature's gift without which life cannot be enjoyed.
The anti-dam petitions also showed that while courts were even willing to go so far as to
interpret Article 21, 'right to life', has to include a right to environmentally meaningful life, the
courts are reluctant to issue orders- even stay orders- to prevent development projects which are
likely to disturb ecological balance, and, so the human life. The most conspicuous case in point
is the petitions before the Supreme Court against the Tehri Dam. The world's largest rock-filled
dam located in a fault-area in the Tehri region of Garhwal Himalayas in U.P. has been
considered unsafe in major respects by seismologists_
For the improvement of public health, it is necessary that the State should be able to provide
pollution free environment. In this regard, a clear-cut provision could find a place in the
Consti.ution only in the year 1976 through the 42nd Amendment by inserting Article 48-A9, a
new Directive principle of the State Policy, and creating a fundamental duty of every citizen
uz.dr!r Article 51-A (g)10. In this respect, India was the first country to impose a constitutional
obligation on the state and citizens to protect,and improve the environment as one of the prime
duties.
The Article 51-A (g) reads: It shall be the duty of every citizen of India to protect and improve
the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wildlife and to have compassion for
living creatures_ The Article specifically deals with the-fundamental duty of the citizens with
respect to environment. This also provides for the protection and improvement of the
environment as it specifically puts stress on the water pollution by including matters like lakes,
WILD LIFE PROTECTION ACT
The wildlife laws in india may be traced out sincec 3`d century B.C. when King Ashoka of
Madhadha imposed certain laws for preservation and management of wildlife. Government of
India has made various laws for such protection and maaagement. The important one are
mentioned hereunder.
THE WILDLIFE PROTECTION ACT, 1972 (Act 53 of 1972)
(9ib September, 1972]

An Act of provide for the protection of [wild animals, birds and plants] and for matters
connected therewith or ancillary or incidental thereto
'Z[=I
Be it enacted by Parliament in the Twenty-third Year of the Republic of India as follows:
Chapter 1
PRELIMINARY
101
1. Short title, extent commencement.

1_ This Act may be called the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.
'[It extends to whole of India except the State of Jammu and Kashmir]
2_ It shall come into force in a State or Union territory to which it extends, '[XXX] on such date
as the Central Government may, by notification, appoint, and different dates may be appointed
for different provisions of this Act of for different States or Union territories.
2. Definitions. In this Act, unless the context otherwise requires,
a6 1. "animal" includes amphibians, birds, mammals and reptiles and their young, and
also includes, inthe cases of birds and reptiles eggs;
"animal article" means an article made from any captive animal or wild animal, other than
vermin, and includes an article or object in which the whole or any part of such
animal 1[has been used and ivory imported into India and an article made therefrom]; '[=] -
t
3_ "Board" means the Wildiife Advisory Board constituted under sub-section (1) of 6;
4. "captive animal" means any animal, specified in Schedule I, Schedule II, Schedule III or
Schedule IV, which is captured or kept or bred in captivity;
1(6) [xXX]
(7) "Chief Wildlife Warden" means the person appointed as such under clause (a) of subsection
(1) of Section 4;
?{7-A} "circus" means an establishment whether stationary or mobile, where animals are
kept or used wholly or mainly for the purpose of performing tricks or manoeuvres;
(8) "closed area" means the area which is declared under sub-section (1) of Section 37 to be
closed to hunting;
(9) "Coll~ctor" means the Chiei- Officer-in-charge of the revenue administration of a district;
(10) "c:-mimencement of this Ac: ', in relation to(a) a State, means commencement of this Act in
that State.
(b) any provision of this Act means the commencement of that provision in the concerned State;
o-!
' Preamble omitted by Act No. - of 1991, Section 3
1
THE WILDLIFE PROTECTION ACT, 1972

(Act 53 of 1972)
19th September, 1972]
An Act of provide for the protection of [wild animals, birds and plants] and for matters
connected therewith or ancillary or incidental thereto
[)M]
Be it enacted by Parliament in the Twenty-third Year of the-Republic of India as follows:

Chapter 1
PRELIMINARY
102
1. Short title, extent commencement.

1_ This Act may be called the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.
'[It extends to whole of India except the State of Jammu and Kashmir]
2- It shall come into force in a State or Union territory to which it extends, '[XXX] on such date
as the Central Government may, by notification, appoint, and different dates may be appointed
for different provisions of this .Act of for different States or Union territories.
2. Definitions. In this Act, unless the context otherwise requires,
1. "animal" includes amphibians, birds, mammals and reptiles and their young, and also
includes, in the cases of birds and reptiles eggs;
2. "animal article" means an article made from any captive animal or wild animal, other than
vermin, and includes an article or object in which the whole or any part of such animal 1[has
been used and ivory imported into India and an article made therefrom];
3[AvVV]
3_ "Board" means the Wildlife Advisory Board constituted under sub-section (1) of 6;
4. "captive animal" means any animal, specified in Schedule I, Schedule II, Schedule III or
Schedule IV, which is captured or kept or bred in captivity;
1(6) [XXXI
(7) "Chief Wildlife Warden" means the person appointed as such under clause (a) of subsection
(1) of Section 4;
?(7-A) "circus" means an establishment whether stationary or mobile, where animals are
kept or used wholly or mainly for the purpose of performing tricks or manoeuvres;
(8) "closed area" means the area which is declared under sub-section (1) of Section 37 to 6e
closed to hunting;
(9) "Colt~,,ctor" means the Chief Officer-in-charge of the revenue administration of a district;
(10) "commencent2nt of this Ac; , in relation to(a) a State, means comnIe_.cetnent of this Act in
that State.
(b) any provision of this Act means the commencement of that provision in the concerned State;
5
`
' Preamble ometted by Act No_ _-1 of 1991, Section 3
, -latters
0-1
(11) "dealer" means any person who Carries on the business of buying and selling any captive
animal, animal article, uncured trophy '[meat or specified plant];
(12) "Director" means the person appointed as director of Wildlife Preservation under
clause (a) of sub-section (1) of sub-section 3;
"i(12-A) -Forest officer" means the Forest officer appointed under clause (2) of Section 2 of
the Indian forest Act, 1927 (16 of 1927);j
(13) 2[XXX} . .
103
(14) "Government propert}W' means any property referred to in Section 39 [or Section 17H]; .
(15) "habitat" includes land, water or vegetation which is the natural home of any wild
animal;
(16) "hunting", with its grammatical variations and cognate expressions, includes
(a) capturing, killing, poisoning, snaring and trapping of any wild animal and every attempt to
do so,
(b) driving any wild animal for any of the purposes specified in sub-clause (a),
(c) injuring or destroying or taking any part of the body of any such animal or, in the case of
wild birds or reptiles, damaging the eggs of such birds or reptiles, or distribing the eggs or nests
of such birds or reptiles;
(17) "land" includes canals, creeks and other water channels, reservoirs, rivers, streams and
lakes, whether artification or natural, and 3[marsbes and wetlands and also includes boulders
and rocks];
(18) "licence", means a licence granted under this Act;
11(18-A) "livestock" includes buffaloes, bulls, bullocks, camels, cows, donkeys, goats, horses,
mules, pigs, sheep, yark and also includes their young];
(19) "manufacturer" means a manufacturer of animal articles;
(20) "meat" includes blood, bones, sinew, eggs, fat and flesh, whether raw or cooked, of any
wild animal, other than vermin;
(21) "National Park" means an area declared, whether Section 35 or Section 38, or deemed
under sub-section (3) of Section 66, to be declared, as a National Park;
(22) "Notification" means a notification published in the official Gazette;
(23) "permit" means a permit granted under this Act, or any rule made thereunder; (24) "person"
includes a firm;
(25) "prescribed" means prescribed by rules made undpr this Act;
Z[(25-A) "recognised zoo" means prescribed by rules made under this Act;
(25-B) "reserve forest" means the forest declared to be reserved by the State Government under
Section 20 of the Indian Forest Act, 1927 (16 of 1927);]
(26) "sanctuary" means an area declared, whether under Section '[26-A] or Section 38. or
deemed, under sub-section (3) of Section 66, to be declared, as a wildlife sanctuary;
'[(27)" specified plant" means plant specified in Schedule VI;] (28) special game" means any
animals specified in Schedule il;
(29) "State Government", ir, relation to a Union territory, means the Administrator of that Union
territory appointed bv the President under Article 239 of the Constitution.
(30) "taxidermy", with its c,~ranimatical variations and cognate expressions, means the curing,
preparation or pre_ercafion of trophies;
'[(30-A) "territorial waters" shall have the same meaning as in Section 3 of the Territorial
Waters, Continental Shelf Exclusive Economic Zone and other Maritir{le Zones Act, 1976 (80
of 1976)1;
104
(31) "trophy" means the whole or any part of any captive animal or wild animal, other than
vermin, which has been kept or preserved by any means, whether artificial or natural and
includes
(a) rugs, skins and specimens of such animal mounted in whole or in part through a process of
taxidermy, and
(b) antler, horn, rhinoceros horn, hair, feather, nail;tooth, musk, eggs and nests;
(32) "uncured trophy" means the whole or any part of any captive animal or wild animal, other
than vermin, which has not undergone a process of taxidermy, and includes a 2[freshly killed
wild animal, ambergris, musk and other animal product};
(33) "vehicle" means any conveyance used for movement on land, water or air and includes
buffalo, bull, bullok, camel, elephant, horse and mule;

(34) "vermin" means any wild animal specified in Schedule V;
(35) "weapon" includes ammunition,bows and arrows, explosives, firearms, hooks, knives,
3. nets, poisons, snares, traps and any instrument or apparatus capable of anaesthetizing
decoying, destroying, injuring or killing an animal; 4.
(36} "wild animal" means any animal found wild in nature and includes any animal specified in
Schedule I, Schedule II, Schedule III, Schedule IV or Schedule V, wherever found;
#
(37) 'wildlife" includes any animal, bees, butterflies, crustacean, fish and months; and
aquatic or land vegetation which forms part of any habitat.
(38) "wildlife Warden" means the person appointed as such under clause (b) of sub-section
a (1) of Section 4
1[(39) "zoo" means an establishment, whether stationary or mobile, where captive animals are
kept for exhibition to the public but does not include a circus and an establishment of a licensed
dealer in captive animals.]
The art has been made applicable in various States and Union Territories as under:
1. Andaman and Nicobar, w.e.f. Ist July 1973, vide G.S.R. 332 (E), dated Ist July, 1973. 2.
Andhra Pradesh, w.e_f. Ist July 1973, vide G.S.R. 371 (E), dated Ist August, 1973. 3. Arunachal
Pradesh, w.e.f. 15`" May 1973.
4. Assam w.e.f. 25'h January 1977, vide G.S.R 33 (E), dated 25'" January,1977.
5. Bihar, w.e.f. Ist February 1973, vide G.S.R. 410 (E), dated Ist January, 1973.
6. Dadra and Nagar Haveli, w.e.f. Ist September 1973, vide G.S.R. 441 (E), dated Ist
September, '1973
7. Delhi, w.e.f. Ist June 1973.
8. Goa, Daman and Diu, w.e_f. 16 July 1973, vide G.S.R. 629 (E), dated 16`" July, 1973.
9. Gujarat, «•.e.f_ Ist February 1973, vide G.S.R. 62 (E), dated Ist February, q97310. Haryana,
12"' March 1973, vide G_S.R.63 (E), dated 12"' iVlarch, 1973.
11., Himachal Pradesh, w.e.f. Z"`1 April 1973, vide G.S.R. 190 (£), dated 2"d April. 197312.
Kerala, w.e_f. Ist June 1973 vide G.S.R293 (E), dated Ist June, 1973
13. Lakshadweep, w.e.f_ Ist November 1973, vide G.S.R. 481 (E), dated-Ist November, 197314.
Madhya Pradesh, w_e.f. 25 January 1973, vide G.S.R. 28 (E), dated 25 January,
105
NATIONAL FOREST POLICY AND INDIAN FOREST ACT

Ethan ""w--atural
..~.w nugh a
Looking in to the importance of forests for national development The National Forest Policy of
1988 was framed. It emphasized new strategy of forest conservation in view of non-ending
demand for forest produce_ The main aim is to encourage the rural people to preserve,
maintainn sustainable utilization, restoration and enhancement of natural forest environment.
~-.*The National Forest Policy, 1988

The National Forest Policy of 1-952 was revised in 1988. The revised National Forest Policy of
~ armal, 1988 primarily has a goal of maintaining environmental balance and the ecological
restoration
ades a of disturbed areas. Its basic objectives that should govern the National Forest Policy are:
1. Maintenance of environmental stability through preservation and restoration of ecological
balance.
. Conservation of the natural heritage of the country by preserving the remaining natural forest
sand protecting the vast genetic resources for the benefit of posterity.
3. Checking the extension of sand-dunes in the desert areas of Rajasthan and along the coastal
tracts.
4. Increasing substantially the forest/tree cover in the country through massive afforestation and
social forestry programmes, especially on all denuded, degraded and unproductive lands.
5. Increasing the productivity of forests to meet essential rational needs.
6. Encouraging efficient utilisation of forest produce and maximising substitution of wood
7. Meeting the basic needs of people, particularly the need for fuelwood, fodder, minor forest
ection produce and small timber of the rural and tribal populations.
Maintaining the intrinsic relationship between forests and the tribal and other poor people living
in and around forests by protecting their customary rights and concessions on the forests.
Creating a massive people's movement with the involvement of women, for achieving these
objectives and to minimize pressure on existing forests.
The approach of the policy is outlined as follows:
1. Existing forest-land and forests will be fully protected_ Their productivity will be improved.
Emphasis will be given to enhance forest cover on hill slopes and catchment areas of rivers in
the interest of soil and water conservation and for mitigating floods and draughts.
2. In order to conserve biological diversity, a network of sanctuaries, national parks, biosphere
reserves and other protected areas will be strengthened and extended
adequately.
3- The people will be actively involved in programmes of protection, conservation and
management of forests.
The Policy emphasizes boosting scientific forestry research towards the attainment of the policy
goals. Some priority areas of forestry research indicated in the policy are:
1- Increasing forest productivity.
2. Reveggetation and restoration of barren, marginal, waste and mined lands and watersheds
106
3. Conservation and management of existing forest resources (mainly natural forest

ecosystems).
Social forestry in natural and tribal development
5. Efficient utilization of forest produce and finding substitutes for wood
c
I
6. Research related to wildlife management of national parks and sanctuaries.
Indian Forest Act, 1927 (Act No. 16 of 1927)

The Indian Forest Act, 1927 provides for the preservation of forests and promotion of forest
produce, and collection of Government revenues. It prescribes manners and limits within which
forest reserves could be exposed to industrial and commercial exploitation within 2he
framework of an overall forest management. The Act gives the States jurisdiction over boClt. "_
public and. private forests. In Public forests Governments have proprietary right: These Porests-
~:_ have been categorized into (i) reserve forests, (ii) village forests, and (iii} protected forests.
The Act has provision for taking over the management of private forests. The Act further
provides for protection and compensation for legally recognized individual community rights to
forests
and forest produce.
The Indian Forest Act, 1927 has the following (Sec. 1-86): 1. Preliminary (Sec_ 1-2)
2. Reserved Forests (Sec. 3-27) 3_ Village Forests (Sec: 28)
4. Protected Forests (Sec. 29-34)
5. Control over Forests (Sec. 35-38)
6. Duty livable on Timber and other, Forest Produce (Sec. 39-40)
7. Control of Timber and other Forest produce in Transit (Sec_ 41-44) 8. Collection of Drift and
Stranded Timber (Sec_ 45-51) 9. Penalties and Procedure (Sec. 52-69) 10. Cattle-trespass (Sec.
70-71)
11. Forest officers (Sec. 72-75) 12. Subsidiary Rules (Sec. 76-78) 13. Miscellaneous (Sec_ 79-
86)
Recently in Bales war Singh vs. State of U.P., 1999, the Court under Section 41 of the Act held
valid the restriction imposed to stop uncontrolled cutting of green trees, resulting in disturbing
ecological balance.
Forest Conservation Act, 1980 (69 Act No_ of 1980)

The Forest Conservation Act -,vas passed in 1980 to provide for the conservation of forests and
for matters connected therewith. It came into force on 25" ODecember, 1980. The Act extends to
whole of India except the State of Jammu & Kashmir and is in force from October 25,-1980.
The Act which was subsequently amended in 1988 (69 to 1988) has the following five sections:
1. Extent and commencement
107
2. Restriction on the degeneration of forests or use of forest land for non-forest purpose 3.
Constitution of advisor con-knitted
-1. Power to make rules
5. Repeal and saving
Sections 3-A and 3-B were further added through 1988 amendments which deal with penalty for
contravention of the provisions of the Act and offences by authorities and Government
Department, respectively_
HUMAN POPULATION
The population of India has reached I billion on May 11, 2000 and the country is likely to
become the world's most populous country by 2050.
Are humans the most important species on the Earth? Men certainly have the most power. Men
have the power to destroy the planet or to help it return to a natural paradise_ Our choices have
more impact than the choices of other animals, so in some ways, Homo sapiens is the most
important species on Earth_
Another test of our importance is to ask how well Earth's biosphere would get along without us_
The higher a species is on the food chain, the less important it seems to be to the survival of that
chain_
Biodiversity is being greatly diminiShed by the extinction of carnivorous predators, and their
prey species are affected adversely, but the chain is being shortened more than it is being
broken. Likewise, humans have virtually left the food chain and will not create a missing link
when going extinct.
The over-population is just a human distribution problem: It is true that people are crowded
together in some areas while other areas remain relatively uninhabited, but let's define
inhabited_ Just because we don't see houses and people does not mean the land ;s uninhabited.
Farm land and range land is inhabited, as are military bases and bombing ranges. Second growth
forests are actually managed tree farms for human benefit, many are over-grazed as well. If we
define uninhabited as areas where human influence is ecologically insignificant. It shows that
we will find very little land left to spread out on. It is naive to think that all we have to do is
distribute ourselves better to solve crowding problems_ We need far more than a place to squat.
We need water, food, and warmth, and whether we realize it or not, we need large wilderness
areas, uninhabited bv human beings_ In terms of environmental impact, crowding humans
together in cities preserves natural area better than spreading us evenly over the whole land.
This, like all migration-control attempts, provides only a temporary reprieve. Population centers
send out their tentacles to bring in supplies from rural and natural areas_
and 9.039 billion by 2050. World population size will continue to grow till equilibrium is
achieved, i.e_ number of the births becomes equal of the number of deaths_ Currently, -the
population is increasing by more than 80 millions per year, i.e. after every 12 or 13 years, a
billion people will be added.
Earth can support 15 billion, but it seems unlikely that this number will be reached and countries
whose populations are growing rapidly will have to stop soon_ According to 1999 UN
Population projections, the medium fertility scenario predicts 9.5 billion in 2050, peaking at 11
108
billion in 2200. You can still get scary figures by projecting 1995 fertility rates, ignoring the :
declines in fertility. Though there have been large declines in fertility in many Third World
countries. In June 1999 it was reported that the average Mexican woman had 7 children in the
1970 but has 3 children today. Bangladesh and India have also had large declines in fertility_
"hhe world's most populous country is China. Its rate of increase has declined recently.
In 1992, when population was 4.5 billion and the annual growth rate 1_71 per cent the world
population was projected to double in 41 years. In 1994, when the world's population stood at
5.6 billion and the growth rate 1.6 per cent, the doubling tirne was projected to be 43 years. In
2000, the world's estimated population was 6.067 billion and it will be 7.81 billion by 2025 and
9.04 billion by 2025.
Table 31.1: Annual growth rates of population (per cent and Region-wise)
Region 1950-1955 1960-1965 1975-1980 1990 mid-2000
World 1_77 1.99 1.81 1_80 1.4 Developed countries 1-28 1.19 0.67 0.5. 0.1 Developing
countries 2.0 2.35 221 2.1 1.7
Source: Data from various publications of Population Reference E3ure3u, Ink-, including World
Population Data Sheet of 2000.
Congo, Democratic Republic of (Zaire) (Middle Africa) 182 Mexico (North America) 152
Philippines (South-East Asia) 140 Russia (Europe-Asia) 128 Vietnam (Sough-Eas! Asia) 124
Egypt (Northern Africa) 117 Source: World Population Data Sheet, 2000.
Country Population Country Population Country Population
India 361.0 Ethiopia 50.9 Tanzania 24.5
China 1665- Bangladesh 492 Iran 234 [
.._ Nigeria 81.2 Philippines 37_0 Turkey 22.7
Pakistan 76.4 Mexico 32_9 Afghanistan 21.3
Indonesia 61.2 Vietnam 31.2 Colombia 18.3 Zaire 53.3 Egypt 29.1 Sudan 16.8 Brazil 51.1
Uganda 24.7
Source: World Development Indicators, 1999_
Given India's current population 1002 million and China's 1264 million, their projected growth
rates would yield populations of 1363 and 1431 million, respectively in 2025.
.
Country Population (sq. mile.) GNP (per capita, 1998 US $)
Hong Kong 16,94923,660
Singapore 16,71430,170
Bangladesh 2,305 350
South Korea 1,234 8,600
Lebanon 1,046 8,600
Netherlands 1,010 24,780
Japan 870 32,350
Belgium 869 25,380
India 789 440
Sri Lanka 757 810
Table 31_6: Countries with highest population densities
109
,
CAUSES
Overall population trends in a country do riot take into account differential Iertilit_v oi
subgroups irrespective to religion, ca~t, etc. For example White protest-nts are declining-,, and
may be white catholics also. Jews are declining except for the u[tra-orthodox who are
increasing. Mormons are increasing rapidly. Blacks and Hispanics have higher fertility than
whites. Along a different dimension the eugenics movement claimed that low IQ people increase
while high IQ people decline. Maybe there are recent statistics on this, but the subject is
substantially tabooed among social scientists_ If one projects these differential fertility trenus
over the next century, then we should imagine the Mormons expanding East from Utah to meet
NGOs as its Members_ The merit of this Policy lies in that it is broader based than the policies
framed in the past. It also recognizes that the °empowerment of the poor must be an essential
component of any effort to limit population growth_
The population Policy document of 2000 said that since 33 per cent of elected Pantheist seats are
reserved for women, representative committees of the Pantheist (headed by elected woman
Pantheist members) should be formed "to promote a gender-sensitive, multi-sect oral agenda for
population stabilization, that will think, plan and act locally, and support nationally'.
These committees may identify area-specific unmet needs for reproductive health services, and
prepare socio-demographic plans at identifying and providing basic reproductive and child
health care.
Our officials are experts in formulating good documents and our leaders in propagating great
ideas. The fundamental idea of involving self government institutions like Panchayats and
municipalities in promoting population stabilization was reiterated in the Tenth Plan document,
too.
Colloquium on Population Policy - Development and Human Rights

A two-day 'Colloquium on Population Policy - Development and Human Rights was held in
New Delhi in early January 2003 adopted a Declaration, which called for population policies to
be a part of the overall sustainable development goals. It said that for the successful
implementation of any programmed for population stabilization, a rights-based approach was for
more effective than a coercive approach based on disincentives
Family planning can no longer be promoted in isolation. The success of the programmed very
much depends upon the overall socio-economic development of the country.
Population and Development

In 1994, the world community adopted a plan of action at the International conference on
Population and Development (ICPD) in Cairo, Egypt that would stabilize the population growth.
The plan calls for increased investments in human development, especially for women, during
the next 20 years. At the ICPD, more Chan 180 countries a0-reed that universal access to family
planning and other services to improve women's and children's health, and increased education
opportunities, particularly for women and girls, are key to stabilizing future population gro«<th.
110
Problems of Population Growth

Human population growth, particularly in developing countries, creates several socio-economic
and environmental problems:
1. Increasing demands for food and natural resources, such as minerals, forests and :vater. 2.
Inadequate housing and health services
3_ Loss of agriculture land
4 . Unemployment and socio-political unrest
5. Environments-I pollution
So far family planning programmed i_: the country is concerned, oily 41 per cent of ::~orr.rn
married or in union use eoatracept:en. But, they do not have access to adequate birth con-,r,_):
methods_ Sterilization - tubectoi-n,t• - is the most population form of female birth control- i~ is
interesting to note that women aged 13-19 years know far more about contraceptives but 1_-nnd
to use far less.
Human Population and Environment

ENVIRONMENT AND HUMAN HEALTH
There is a direct correlation between environment and human health. For details please see
chapters on environmental pollution (Air, water, etc.). The impact of environment on growth of
the human population is the result of gap, between nasality or birthrate and mortality or death
rate.
Human rights are basic rights and freedoms to which all human beings are entitled, regardless
of sex, race, religion, creed; class, ethnicity, or nationality. The concept of human rights has
ancient roots, but only in recent decades has it become a cornerstone of international relations_
Each of the world's great religious traditions embodies universal principles of human conduct. as
do the philosophical teachings of theories of Natural Law.
Even while much of the void was convulsed by war, farsighted leaders looked forward to a time
when essential human liberties would stand on a firm and universal foundation.
The Fundamental human rights and worth of the human person, in the equal rights of men and
worsen and of nations large and small is necessary_
The nasality is the number of births per 1,000 people. The mortality is the number of deaths per
1,000 people.
Birthrates currently have di-opped from about 40 to 11 per 1000 since the middle of the
nineteenth century in developed countries while remaining at the 25 births per 1000 level in
developing countries. Birthrate in developing countries, while dropping, has not dropped as
much as those of in developed countries and stand at more than twice as high. The death rate in
developing countries, however, has dropped to 9 per thousand and is now close to that
developed countries on a worldwide scale_ About half of the people alive in the world today
have been borne since 1950. This is not because of a sustained birthrate but a reduction in death
111
rate accomplished through improved application of new medical (drugs, surgery) and
environmental (nutrition, sanitation, hygiene) technology.
For example, life expectancy worldwide increased from 61 for developing countries)_ On the
contrary, an African countries, the life expectancy has been dropping below 60 years. For
example it is 37 in Zambia, 38 in Swaziland, 40 in Zimbabwe and 44 in Botswana. AIDS has
been the potential culprit in these countries.
Infant Mortality
"'he infant mortality rates vary widely between developed and developing countries: In Africa,
from a low of 9 in -Seychelles to a high of 150 iris Western Sahara; in Asia from a low of
3in Singapore to a high s 1980 rate of 212 to 80 (37.74 per cent) by 2000. Given the present high
';~exhilarate' in developing countries, the situation of population size is markedly different from
what it will be as mortality is reduced, especially if there is no downward change in nasality_
Universal Declaration of Human Rights
In 1946 the UN Economic and Social Council established the Commission on Hunan Rights. It
includes universal applicability of human rights. All human beings are born free nod equal m
di-,nity and rights," the first article states. The second article dismisses a ]ono list of
distinction:_ --- including race, color. gender, language, religion, political belief, and economic
and society status - that have traditionally been used by some groups to deny rights to others.
Civil and political rights: The right to life, liberty and security of person.
HUMAN RIGHTS
shall be better able to sift and control information of the natural world, make wise choices and
be creative in our mental processes.
Fig. 31.1: Monthly trips should be conducted by the teachers to teach students about the nature.
They should be sensitive attitude for nature. They should be make aware about of Indian cultural
values. This is value education
--Categories of Values
These are three-universal, cultural or ethnic and individual or personal values.
Universal values reveal the essence of the human condition. These arise out of the fundamental
questions-Who am I? What is my essence? Who am I when I remove myself from my social and
cultural environment? Is there anything in me that cannot be explained by heredity, environment
and society?. Universal values can be experienced as life, joy, brotherhood, love, compassion,
service, bliss, truth and eternity. Universal values must be our foundation if we are to enjoy a
rich, profound and fulfilling life
Cultural Values
Cultural values are the social values of the day. They are specific to time and place and can be
used just as much as misused- These values are concerned with right and wrong, good and bad,
customs and behavior. They are meant to maintain social order_ They are speculative and there
is nothing wrong with speculation- But it becomes wrong when speculation becomes 'truth',
when opinion becomes 'fact' and -,,:hen prejudice becomes the 'cause'. When cultural values are
112
elevated to the status of universal values, there is the risk of intolerance, oppression,
demagoguery, brutality and a-egression. .•1 cultural value may scrve a function in a particular
situation and circwnstance, but in no wav can it be seen as the only or the best way of doing
things. Cultural values have the advantage of becoming a source of insight into a time and
society. Cultural values are reflected in language, ethics, social hierarchy, aesthetics, education,
law, economics, philosophy and social institutions of every kind.
shall be better able to sift and control information of the natural world, make wise choices and
be creative in our mental processes.
Fig. 31.1: Monthly trips should be conducted by the teachers to teach students about the nature.
They should be sensitive attitude for nature. They should be make aware about of Indian cultural
values. This is value education
--Categories of Values
These are three-universal, cultural or ethnic and individual or personal values.
Universal values reveal the essence of the human condition. These arise out of the fundamental
questions-Who am I? What is my essence? Who am I when I remove myself from my social and
cultural environment? Is there anything in me that cannot be explained by heredity, environment
and society?. Universal values can be experienced as life, joy, brotherhood, love, compassion,
service, bliss, truth and eternity. Universal values must be our foundation if we are to enjoy a
rich, profound and fulfilling life
Cultural Values
Cultural values are the social values of the day. They are specific to time and place and can be
used just as much as misused- These values are concerned with right and wrong, good and bad,
customs and behavior. They are meant to maintain social order_ They are speculative and there
is nothing wrong with speculation- But it becomes wrong when speculation becomes 'truth',
when opinion becomes 'fact' and -,,: hen prejudice becomes the 'cause'. When cultural values are
elevated to the status of universal values, there is the risk of intolerance, oppression,
demagoguery, brutality and a-egression. .•1 cultural value may serve a function in a particular
situation and circwnstance, but in no wav can it be seen as the only or the best way of doing
things. Cultural values have the advantage of becoming a source of insight into a time and
society. Cultural values are reflected in language, ethics, social hierarchy, aesthetics, education,
law, economics, philosophy and social institutions of every kind.
individual Values
Individual values are our private principles, the result of individual personality and individual
experiences. Parents, teachers and one's peer group shape individual values_ Personal values
determine the differing reactions of people to similar events. A crisis may dim one person's
enthusiasm and land him in depression, while another may be propelled into greater action
Individual values are reflected in individual goals, vows, relationships, commitments and
personal preferences. These are often colored by memories of the past and therefore there are
113
differences in the meaning attributed to a common experience. To one person children denote
happiness and strength, to another they may denote bondage. Individual values are malleable,
often contained in a time and memory warp. They can transform themselves into universal
values when you practise' awareness and living in the moment.
Efforts
Ministry of HRD. Government of India is interested to "Indianise, nationalise and spiritualise
the education_ India as a nation, it is necessary to feed her youth with old spiritual and moral
values and religion must be made a part of education based on Indian ideals- A revival of Hindu
learning must precede any advancement.
In context with current environmental pollution the role of education needs to be re-defined.
Education should aim for integrated development in the student physical, mental, moral and
spiritual, besides imparting knowledge in various disciplines. It should strive to make himlller
ideal citizens capable of shouldering the responsibilities of national reconstruction.
There is no stress on values education and character building in today's education- The trouble.
in fact, started in 1951 then the government adopted secularism and decide(] to discontinue
religious education in educational institutions. Even morning prayers were dispensed with and
education rendered soulless. With family influence on the wane and little to learn from the
chador of the Chary, there was no motivation left to direct the young to the right course.
The youth of today is increasingly under the influence of western culture being promoted by the
electronic media with as accent on quick acquisition of position and wealth by fair means or
foul.
CHILD WELFARE
Vivien are the backbone of the society and children are the future of the nation. The
relationship between is an important factor for develop healthy community. the impact of i
woman on children that is unparalleled in any other community sector. The history and j
mandate of the child welfare system would seem to indicate that this system would also be one
of the first to recognize the impacts of woman on children and their welfare. Recently, the child
welfare mandate has expanded to include child exposure to environment within the child
welfare programmed. .
114
115

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Environmental Science IIHMCA BCT CA/BHM I Yr

SCOPE OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE :-

Opportunities as environmental engineer. consultant, teacher, activist, scientist, natural

Today environmentalist can play their role in direct descendants of various

2. Advocates for environmental protection within other organization and institution

Green political parties.

ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIESHELP TOSOLVE BIGGEST:-

Classification of Natural Resources :- The classic sub-division of resource include renewable

Tech Civilization Glarrourises wasteful consumption Thus meChaill"l_at1011 spending fossil

Exploitation of Ground W:1iCI':- Flotillas have started to depend on ground water as it is

Mineral is a chemical element, specific inorganic compound or a specific complex aggregation

Nickel:- Nickel is primarily used to manufacture stainless steel

Silver:- Silver is used in electrical conductors, photography, chemical manufacturing, dental an

1` strlasuna:- Titanium is used in paint manufacture as pigments and in plastic manucature v= ll

Carbonate of potassium, is used in fertilizers, medicines and the chemical

Exploitation of Minerals and Environmental Problems:

Food Guide Pyramid

balanced aquarium may be thought of as an artificially established self-sustained ecosystem. It

system can be natural or artificial.

Inter Relation ship :-

Ecosystem maintains a functional balance between various components. This phenomenon is

PRODUCERS, CONSUMERS AND DECOMPOSERS

(Biotic (Living) Components

The autotrophy (autotrophic = self nourishing) or Producers

The heterotrophy (heterotrophic = other nourishing)

It includes parasites, deservers and decomposers.

ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS AND ENERGY FLOW

Table 12.1: Components of forest Ecosystems

Biotic The Biotic components are inorganic and organic substances

Table 12.2: Components of Grassland Ecosystems

Table 1E.3: Components of Desert Ecosystems

Table 12.5: Components of Marine Ecosystems

Abiotic it is a more stable in chemical composition due to being

Biotic Producers Phytoplanktons (diatom sand dinoflagillates) and largercomponents marine

BIODIVERSITY AND ITS CONSERVATION

Genetic diversity is particularly important for agricultural productivity and development-

Other Aspects of Species Diversity

Ecological Significance of Species

Other Aspects of Species Diversity

Ecological Significance of Species

conservation of laid; raves and traditional/primitive cultivars or ex situ conservation of plant

Plant diversity loss is implicated in altered host-parasite relationships, plant pollination

A few things stand out very clearly-

The spectrum of biodiversity ranges from DNA to individual, to population of a species, to

INDIA AS MEGA-Diversity NATION

Wild Plant Wealth

,,POT SPOTS OF BIODIVERSITY

"T REATS "f0 BIODIVERSITY

lxtfliction, in biology, the loss of populations of interbreeding organisms, caused by 1>ioss,

Management Wildlife Conflicts

ENDANGERED AND ENDEMIC SPECIES OF INDIA

Parasitic 500 Free living 90 Lepidoptera t 9

Land & Freshwater f 967 Freshwater

Reptilian 182 Aves 60 Mammalian 44

CONSERVATION OF BIODIVESRSITY CONSERVATION

static conservation of genotypes).

Fhe Coastal Region

The Indian Islands

Global Biodiversity Hotspots

The Tropical Andes (Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, and Bolivia) , Madagascar

Hot spots in India

Reasons for Loss of t3iodiversitv

ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION CAUSES