Introduction:

No one in this world can deny that concrete technology has achieved a lot since being discovered
and developed.
The Nabataea traders or Bedouins who had the control of number of oases constructed concrete
like structures in the regions of southern Syria and northern Jordan in around 6500 BC. They made
efforts to discover the benefits of using hydraulic lime defined as the cement that develops
hardness underwater.
Around 3000 BC, ancient Egyptians used mud mixed with straw to form bricks. Mud with straw
looks more like adobe than concrete. However, they also used plaster and lime mortar to build the
pyramids, although most of us think that mortar and concrete are two different materials. The Great
Pyramid of Giza required about 500,000 tons of mortar, which was used as a primer for facing
stones forming the visible surface of the completed pyramid. About this same time, the northern
Chinese used a form of cement in boat-building and in building the Great Wall. Spectrometer
testing has confirmed that a key ingredient in the mortar used in the Great Wall and other ancient
Chinese structures was glutenous, sticky rice. Some of these structures have withstood the test of
time and have resisted even modern efforts at demolition.
By 600 BC, the Greeks discovered a natural pozzolan that had hydraulic properties when properly
mixed with lime, but the Greeks discoveries didn’t have the impact as the Romans have. By 200
BC, the Romans built structures successfully using concrete, But the concrete they used was way
different of the todays concrete. It had the properties similar to cemented rubble. The Romans used
stacking stones of various sizes and filled the spaces between the stones with the use of mortar.
Above ground, walls were clad both inside and out with clay bricks that also served as forms for
the concrete.
The Pantheon has the largest un-reinforced concrete dome ever built. It was Built by Rome's
Emperor Hadrian and completed in 125 AD,
In the Middle Ages, concrete technology declined. After the fall of the Roman Empire in 476, the
techniques of manufacturing pozzolanic cement were lost until the discovery, in 1414, of
manuscripts describing these techniques that rekindled interest in concrete construction. It was not
until 1793 that the technology took a big step forward when John Smeaton discovered a more
modern method to produce hydraulic lime for cement. He used clay that contained limestone that
was cooked until it became clinker and then ground into powder. He used this material during the
historic reconstruction of the Eddystone lighthouse in Cornwall, England.
Finally, in 1824, an Englishman named Joseph Aspdin invented Portland cement by burning finely
ground chalk and clay in a kiln until the carbon dioxide was removed. It was named “Portland”
cement because it resembled the high-quality building stones found in Portland, England. In 1891,
George Bartholomew poured the first concrete street in the U.S., and it still exists today.Pioneering
attempts to produce cement in this country began in 1882, following early uses of imported cement
from England, but it was not until 1889-1892, when cement kilns and works were initially
established in New South Wales, Victoria and South Australia, that Portland cement manufacture
showed signs of becoming a successful venture enterprise. Today there are ten major cement
companies, serving all States in Australia with Portland cements of normal, high-early strength,
low-heat and sulphate-resisting classification and composition; and there are Australian-
established pre-mixed concrete companies successfully operating abroad. By 1935 Australian pre-
mixed concrete companies were established to become placed amongst the most advanced in the
world. High quality concrete masonry manufacture was established at Adelaide in 1954, using a
high-speed Besser Vibrapac machine. This installation is followed by other fully or semi-automatic
plants during the next decade or so throughout Australia. Industrialized versatility is exemplified
by high-pressure steam autoclave curing or burner curing, and in facilities for producing color-
toned, split-ribbed blocks, split-faced bricks, and interlocking paving units.
Sources of Ingredients:
Concrete is a composite material with changeable properties. The ingredients mixing ratio of
concrete is variable and depends on the properties of ingredients and mix design. A popular
measuring method of concrete ingredients during mixing is by volume. But the weight measuring
method is more accurate. However, concrete is prepared by mixing three basic ingredients.
cement,
Aggregate
Water.
Binding material: Most commonly used binding material for concrete is Portland cement. Other
binding materials used for this purpose, are lime, fly ash, silica fume etc. The selection of cement
for concrete depends on the “cement properties“.
Aggregate: Two types of aggregates are used in concrete. Coarse aggregate and Fine aggregate.
Coarse aggregate: Big sizes aggregates in concrete are coarse aggregates. The size of it varies
between 1/2″ to 1.5″ depending on concrete mix design. Generally, crushed stone or brick chips
are used as coarse aggregate.

Fine aggregate: The smaller size aggregates in concrete are Fine aggregates. The FM (Fineness
Modulus) of fine aggregates can be between 1.2 to 2.5 depending on mix design. We use sand as
fine aggregate in concrete.

Water: The most important concrete ingredient is water. Water can decrease and increase the
concrete strength. Water just starts and continues the chemical reaction of cement. The high water
content in the concrete mix increases the workability of concrete but decreases the strength. On
the contrary, low water content increases the concrete strength but makes concrete less workable.

Other than these, there are some other ingredients used in the concrete mix such as Admixture.
Those are secondary ingredients and added to give concrete a certain property.

In Australia, Holcim operates hard rock, sand and gravel quarries. These quarry materials are used
as key ingredients in the manufacturer of products like concrete and asphalt, which are essential
construction materials. Both coarse aggregates (stone fractions) and fine aggregates (sand
fractions) are quarried and/or dredged for use in concrete. This use makes up only a small portion
of the total extractive industry output, most of which is used in asphalt, road base, civil works and
site works.

Aggregates are obtained by a variety of means, including ripping, blasting and dredging. The raw
materials are processed by crushing, screening, washing, blending and grading. Since aggregates
are a naturally-occurring resource that requires only simple extraction techniques and no
fundamental alteration, the quarrying operation has an extremely low environmental impact.
The CCAA, Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia, is the peak body for the heavy construction
materials industry in Australia.

The most commonly recognized sources of sand and gravel aggregate are the deposits of coastal,
fluvial and glacial sedimentary processes. It is not commonly recognized that weathered bedrock
is also an important source of sand and gravel aggregate. In the case of weathered sedimentary
bedrock the product may be indistinguishable from modern sedimentary materials and deposits
may be misidentified. Batson's quarry is a major sand and gravel aggregate resource for the
rapidly developing region of north-eastern New South Wales. The deposit has previously been
assumed to be a young sedimentary deposit, but detailed field examination and comparison with
surrounding rock types indicates that it has formed from weathered Mesozoic sandstone bedrock.
The extraction of weathered bedrock aggregate deposits has distinctive environmental
implications because, unlike sedimentary aggregates, they are not restricted by the geometry of
sedimentary environments and do not necessarily interfere with surface drainage systems.

Manufacturing Process of Concrete:

The first and most important step in the process is to determine the ingredients that will make up
the concrete and their proportions. As should be apparent from the previous section, there are
many variables to consider including cement type, aggregate size and type, amount of water, and
mineral and chemical admixtures. While a good mix design can still result in inadequate or poor
quality concrete if it is not executed correctly, a bad mix design will of course always give poor
results. Most concrete is batched and mixed in a central location called a ready-mix plant and then
trucked to the desired location
Concrete shall be produced either by:
the batch-production process, in accordance with Clause 4.2 or
the continuous production process, in accordance with Clause 4.3
In both batch and continuous production processes, the quantities of ingredients to be used, other
than liquid ingredients, shall be measured by mass, except that where the required28 day
characteristic compressive strength is 15 MPa or less, the quantities of ingredients to be used may
be measured by volume. The quantities of liquid ingredients may be measured by mass or by
volume. Cumulative batching in one weighing device is permissible only if the required mass of
each ingredient is consecutively introduced to the weighing device
Mixing
Mixing of concrete is a very important step for achieving good final properties, and one that
can be quite difficult without the right equipment. This is one of the best reasons for using ready-
mixed concrete. Mixing distributes the aggregate evenly throughout the cement paste, ensures that
all of the cement has been fully saturated in water, and removes large air voids.
Batch mixing shall be carried out by one of the following methods:
Central mixing, in accordance with Clause 4.2.2.2.(b)

Mobile mixing, in accordance with Clause 4.2.2.3.(c)

Staged mixing, in accordance with Clause 4.2.2.4

Admixtures or other materials may be added to a mixed batch only by the supplier (unless
otherwise specified) at any time prior to the completion of discharge of the batch, provided all
relevant conditions are satisfied.
Placing
Once the concrete has been adequately mixed, it must be placed into the formwork that defines
its final position and shape. If the concrete is to be reinforced, the rebar must already be in place
so the concrete can flow around it.
Consolidation
Once the concrete is in place, it should be consolidated to remove large air voids developed
during placement and to make sure that the concrete has flowed into all of the corners and nooks
of the formwork. This process is also called compacting. Over consolidation can lead to
segregation and bleeding, but under consolidation is more common, resulting in less-than optimal
properties. The two most common methods of consolidation is are vibration and roller
compacting. Vibration is a mechanical process that transfers pulses of shear energy to the
concrete, usually by a probe that is inserted several inches into the concrete. Each pulse of shear
energy momentarily liquefies the concrete, allowing it to flow very freely.
Finishing
For concrete floors and pavements, the appearance, smoothness, and durability of the surface
is particularly important. Finishing refers to any final treatment of the concrete surface after it has
been consolidated to achieve the desired properties. This can be as simple as pushing a wide blade
over the fresh concrete surface to make it flat (screening). Floating and troweling is a process of
compacting and smoothing the surface which is performed as the concrete is starting to harden.
Curing:
Once concrete has been placed and consolidated it must be allowed to cure properly to develop
good final properties. As the concrete hardens and gains strength it becomes less and less
vulnerable, so the critical time period is the first hours and days after it is placed. Proper curing
of concrete generally comes down to two factors, keeping it moist and keeping it
supported. Hydration of cement, as the word itself implies, involves reaction with water. To cure
properly, the cement paste must be fully saturated with water. If the relative humidity level inside
the concrete drops to near 90% the hydration reactions will slow, and by 80% they will stop
altogether.
Properties of Concrete:
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH:
Compressive strength or compression strength is the capacity of a material or structure to withstand
loads tending to reduce size, as opposed to tensile strength, which withstands loads tending to
elongate. Concrete compressive strength requirements can vary from 2500 psi (17 MPa) for
residential concrete to 4000 psi (28 MPa) and higher in commercial structures. Higher strengths up
to and exceeding 10,000 psi (70 MPa) are specified for certain applications.
Tensile strength:
The ability of the concrete withstands in pulling force (Tensile Stress) without broke is
called Tensile Strength of concrete. The tensile strength of concrete is measured by the units of
Force per Cross Sectional area (N/Sqmm or Mpa). The concrete is good in compression force and
weak in tension force.
Modulus of Elasticity of Concrete:
Modulus of elasticity (also known as elastic modulus, the coefficient of elasticity) of a material is
a number which is defined by the ratio of the applied stress to the corresponding strain within
the elastic limit. Physically it indicates a material's resistance to being deformed when a stress is
applied to it.
According to ACI 318-08 section 8.5,
Modulus of elasticity for concrete
Ec=4700*√fc’

Shrinkage of Concrete:
Drying shrinkage is defined as the contracting of a hardened concrete mixture due to the loss of
capillary water. This shrinkage causes an increase in tensile stress, which may lead to cracking,
internal warping, and external deflection, before the concrete is subjected to any kind of loading.
Creep of Concrete:
Concrete creep is defined as: deformation of structure under sustained load. Basically, long term
pressure or stress on concrete can make it change shape. This deformation usually occurs in the
direction the force is being applied. Like a concrete column getting more compressed, or a beam
bending.
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion:
The coefficient of thermal expansion describes how the size of an object changes with a change in
temperature. Specifically, it measures the fractional change in size per degree change in
temperature at a constant pressure. An average value for the coefficient of thermal expansion of
concrete is about 10 millionths per degree Celsius (10x10-6/C), although values ranging from 7 to
12 millionths per degree Celsius have been observed.
physical properties are discussed in details in the following segment
Durability of concrete
Durability of concrete is its ability to resist its disintegration and decay. One of the chief
characteristics influencing durability of concrete is its permeability to increase of water and other
potentially deleterious materials.

Unit weight of concrete

The unit weight of concrete depends on percentage of reinforcement, type of aggregate, amount of
voids and varies from 23 to 26 kN/m2

Workability:
Workability of concrete is the property of freshly mixed concrete which determines the ease and
homogeneity with which it can be mixed, placed, consolidated and finished' as defined by ACI
Standard 116R-90 (ACI 1990b).
Application and Uses of Concrete:
Some utilization of concrete are given below:

1. It’s an important building product. Concrete is chosen over wood as a construction

material.
2. It is a durable and cost-effective material which is a necessity for underground use.
3. Concrete is a sustainable choice for residential and commercial projects.
4. The strength of concrete increases over time.
5. Concrete can hold up against weather condition and is easy to maintain.
6. It is budget friendly to use everywhere. It is easy to repair & energy efficient.
7. Concrete is safe for building occupants.
8. Concrete is an inert material which doesn’t burn, mildew or feed rot.
9. Its superior structural integrity provides added degree of protection from the severe weather
as well as an earthquake.
10. Concrete walls and floors make a home quite place of rest, relaxation and rejuvenation.
11. Concrete is produced from locally available materials and leaves a small environmental
footprint while still providing high-level durability.
12. It is used as aggregate in roadbeds or as granular materials while making new concrete.
13. Concrete is fire resistant. It can resist extreme level of flames and heat which is a good
choice of the ceiling in a storage room.
14. Concrete can be shaped in various forms when freshly mixed.
15. Concrete isn’t sensitive to moisture.
16. It doesn’t release any volatile organic compounds into the air which is environment-
friendly.
17. Concrete gives a longer service life.
18. It keeps home safe from insects. It doesn’t attract insect pest and rodents. That’s why small
animals cannot burrow through the concrete to make a home.
19. Concrete has multiple design possibilities.
20. Concrete can be used to achieve optimum environmental performance.
21. As it is recyclable, it is possible to use it for addition.
22. High-performance concrete is used to build bridges.
 23. Concrete is able to accommodate steel reinforcements in gates, tunnel lines, electrical
controls.
24. A concrete floor can be stamped to create an attractive surface. It can admit natural light
during the day and transmit artificial light after work.
25. Concrete is used in driveways and patios.

Concrete Recycling and impacts:

hen structures made of concrete are demolished or renovated, concrete recycling is an increasingly
common method of utilizing the rubble. Concrete was once routinely trucked to landfills for
disposal, but recycling has a number of benefits that have made it a more attractive option in this
age of greater environmental awareness, more environmental loss, and the desire to
keep construction costs down.

There is a range of environmental and economic benefits in recycling concrete rather than dumping
it or burying it in a landfill. These advantages include:

 Reduced tippage and related freight charges

 Cheaper source of aggregate than newly mined
 Reduction of landfill space required for concrete debris
 Using recycled material as gravel reduces the need for gravel mining
 Increasingly, high-grade aggregate for road construction is available only at greater
distances, increasing the associated economic and environmental cost impacts associated
with the longer haulage distances versus using recycled aggregate