Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association

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Modeling of Solid Particle Flow and Heat Transfer

in Rotary Kiln Calciners

L. Yang & B. Farouk

To cite this article: L. Yang & B. Farouk (1997) Modeling of Solid Particle Flow and Heat Transfer
in Rotary Kiln Calciners, Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association, 47:11, 1189-1196,
DOI: 10.1080/10473289.1997.10464069

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/10473289.1997.10464069

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TECHNICAL PAPER
Modeling of Solid Particle Flow and Heat Transfer in Rotary Kiln
Calciners
L. Yang and B. Farouk
Department of Mechanical Engineering and Mechanics, Drexel University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
ABSTRACT
Contaminated solid wastes exist in many industrial
sites, gas plants, and oil refineries. One method of de-
contaminating the soil is to subject it to high tempera-
tures in a rotary calciner in an anaerobic environment.
Preliminary results from a computational model are
presented in this paper for the flow and heat transfer
from granular solid particles under treatment in a ro-
tary kiln calciner. A fluidization model using kinetic
theory of granular flow has been employed to solve
the particle flow and heat transfer problem. While a
two-dimensional model is used to predict the rotation
induced flow of the solid particles, a pseudo three-di-
mensional model for heat transfer is developed where
the axial bulk temperature gradient is obtained from a
one-dimensional energy balance model. The model
predictions indicate interesting features of the flow and
temperature fields in the bed material. Future tasks
include the development of a devolatilization model to
study the decontamination of waste soil in the rotary
calciner.
INTRODUCTION
Contaminated solid wastes (soil) exist in many industrial
sites, gas plants, and oil refineries. An effective and en-
vironmentally safe decontamination method is ur-
gently needed to arrest this dangerous trend. To date,
IMPLICATIONS
The number of contaminated solid waste sites (soil) within
the perimeters of gas plants, oil refineries, and related in-
dustrial sites, continues to increase. An effective and envi-
ronmentally safe decontamination method is therefore ur-
gently needed to arrest this dangerous trend. Heating and
devolatizing the contaminated solid wastes in rotary kilns
(under anaerobic conditions) has been suggested as an
environmentally acceptable method for decontamination.
This manuscript describes a model that can characterize
the transport processes in the bed material within a rotary
kiln. The mixing and the heat transfer processes within the
kiln are studied as functions of the kiln operating param-
eters.
Volume 47 November 1997
ISSN 1047-3289 J. Air & Waste Yang
Manage.and
Assoc.Farouk
47:1189-1196
Copyright 1997 Air & Waste Management Association
incineration has been the primary means for decon-
taminating such solid wastes. Though the wastes are
decontaminated during incineration, hazardous pol-
lutants are introduced into the atmosphere by the pro-
cess. Heating and devolatilizing the waste soil in ro-
tary calciners (under anaerobic conditions) has been
suggested as an environmentally acceptable method
for decontamination. Inside the calciners the solid
wa st es co nt a i ni ng v o l a t i l e hy dro ca rb o ns a nd
semivolatile organic compounds are subjected to high
temperatures, causing desorption of the contaminants.
The contaminants and moisture are recovered by con-
densing them downstream. The recovered hydrocar-
bons have a commercial value and can be recycled. It
is noted, however, that seals on kilns leak significant
quantities of air, making an anaerobic environment
difficult to achieve unless the calciner is operated above
atmospheric pressure level.
Rotary kilns are widely used by industry to carry
out a wide variety of material processing applications,
including calcination of limestone, petroleum coke
calcination, ore reduction, and reclamation of hydrated
lime and contaminated soils. The reason for the wide-
spread usage is the ability to handle varied feedstock,
long residence times, and, most important, the possi-
bility of maintaining two distinct environments—one
in the freeboard and the other in the bed. The move-
ment of the charge in a rotary calciner can be resolved
into two components: movement in the axial direc-
tion along the calciner, which determines residence
time, and movement in the transverse plane of the kiln,
which influences most of the primary bed processes,
such as particle mixing, heat transfer, and reaction rate,
as well as the axial progress of the material. In fact,
early work in this area determined that axial motion
of bed material is mainly caused by transverse move-
ment, because for every material turn-over in the cross
section there is an axial material advance.1,2 The lit-
erature generally considers these two types of bed
motion as independent phenomena. Recently, an at-
tempt has been made to quantitatively connect the
axial velocity to the transverse motion.3
Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association 1189
Yang and Farouk
Figure 1. Schematic diagram of rotary kiln showing heat and mass
flow paths.
The major objective for most rotary calciner op-
erations is to transfer the maximum amount of heat
to the bed in the processes of drying, chemical reac-
tion, or simple heating. Heat transfer takes place from
the bed to the granular materials through conduction,
convection, and radiation. Sass4 proposed a one-dimen-
sional model to determine the axial gradients of bed
temperature, assuming that the bed and the freeboard
gas are well mixed. No models exist that describe the
redistribution of the boundary energies in the bed it-
self because of the well-mixed assumption. Boateng5
numerically predicted the granular flow and heat trans-
fer within the bed, considering two layer granular mo-
tions (active layer and plug flow region). In the active
layer, the governing equations were solved under bound-
ary layer assumptions, while the granular flow in the plug
flow region was considered as a solid body rotation.
The focus of the present research is on characterizing
and quantifying the transport processes in the bed ma-
terial within a rotary calciner, as shown in Figure 1.
The solid particles are normally preheated before they
enter the calciner and are considered to be granular
material in this study. No volatilization is considered
in the present study. The motion of the solid particles
inside the rotary calciner, together with the intersti-
tial gas flow, plays an important role in the heat and
mass transfer processes of the bed material. Our objec-
tive is to develop a computational model to predict
the granular flow and the heat transfer within the bed,
which is the foundation for predicting the thermal
desorption processes. Boateng5 and Boateng and Barr6
numerically predicted the granular flow and the heat
transfer within the bed, considering two layer granu-
lar motions (active layer and plug flow region). In the
active layer, the granular flow governing equations
1190 Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association
were solved under boundary layer assumptions, while
the plug flow region was considered to undergo a solid
body rotation. In the present work, the granular flow
momentum equations are solved without boundary
layer and solid body rotation assumptions. A two-di-
mensional model formulation for the particle flow in-
duced by calciner rotation is first presented. Follow-
ing Boateng, a pseudo three-dimensional model for
heat transfer is then described where the axial bulk
temperature gradient is obtained from a one-dimen-
sional energy balance model. The axial gradient of the
bulk temperature of the bed profile is then used as a
source/sink term to formulate the three-dimensional
energy equation. Results on the particle flow and heat
transfer in a rotary calciner are presented. Such mod-
els for the prediction of granular particles in rotary
calciners can provide detailed information regarding
the mixing of bed material in rotary calciners. The
present model predictions compare well with available
experimental data in the literature. The desorption of
volatile contaminants is dependent on the particle flow
and temperature field within the calciner. A desorp-
tion model is now under development.
PROBLEM FORMULATION
Two Dimensional Model for
the Transverse Flow
The rapid deformation of bulk solids is termed granular
flow. The description of the dynamic behavior of the
granular flow involves aspects of fluid mechanics, plas-
ticity theory, soil mechanics, and rheology.7 The equa-
tions of motion for granular flows are derived by adopt-
ing the kinetic theory of dense gases. This approach in-
volves a statistical-mechanical treatment of transport
phenomena rather than the kinematic treatment com-
monly used to derive these relationships for fluids.
The schematic of a rotary calciner (as used for the
proposed decontamination of solid wastes) is shown
in Figures 1a and 1b. Preheated contaminated solid par-
ticles are fed into the calciner from one end. The axial
motion of the feed material is driven by the slow rota-
tion of the calciner along with its downward inclination
(about 4°). The bed material (in the proposed decontami-
nation method) is either heated electrically or by gas fire
contained in an annular space surrounding the calciner.
A counterflow stream of nitrogen or other inert gases
sweeps away any devolatilized gases that result from the
heating procedure. A fluidization model using kinetic
theory of granular flow was employed to formulate this
complex, two-phase flow heat transfer (and in the fu-
ture, ma ss transfer) problem. Start ing with the
Boltzmann equation for velocity distribution of par-
ticles, the model is a generalization of the Navier-Stokes
Volume 47 November 1997

equations proposed by Jackson,8 except that the solid
viscosities and stresses are computed by simultaneously
solving a “fluctuating energy” equation. The primary as-
sumptions made during development of the flow model
were that the particles in the bed are cohesionless, which
means they possess a relatively high coefficient of restitu-
tion, and that particles are spherical, rigid, and slightly in-
elastic, which means that properties of granular flows are
isotropic, and the dissipation of energy due to inelastic col-
lisions is permitted.
Granular Flow Model
The governing equations for granular and interstitial gas
flows are stated as (for relatively high values of the solid
volume fraction, εs):8
∂(ρ ε )
k k
+ ∇.(ρ ε V ) = 0
∂t k k k
∂
∂(ρsεsVs)
+ ∇.(ρsεsVsV s) =
∂t
= (ρ s - ρ g)εsg - ∇Ps + β(V s - Vg )
(
∂ ρgε gV g ) + ∇. (ρ ε V V )= ρ g − ∇p + β(V
∂t
g g g g g s
where the subscript k (s or g) indicates either solid or gas
phase; V is the bulk velocity; ρ s and ρ g are the solid
and gas phase densities, respectively; and ε s and ε g are
the solid and gas volume fractions. P s is the total par-
ticle phase stress tensor, which consists of both static
and kinetic (streaming and collision) components, and
β is the drag coefficient. The coupling between the
particle phase and the gas phase are provided via β.
The expression for P s is given by Lun et al. 9 where the
stresses are locally dependent on the “granular tem-
perature” T˜ , the coefficient of restitution of the par-
ticles, and the volume concentration of the solids. Note
that the granular temperature is not the same as the
physical temperature of the particles or the gas phase.
Basically, the granular temperature is an estimate of
the particle fluctuation in granular flow. The granular
temperature is governed by the following equation: 10
∼ model (two-dimensional) for the planar velocity and
3 ∂(ρsεsT + ∇.( ρ ε V T∼
) = P: ∇V s + ∇.q
2 ∂t s s s
where the term qPT is the flux of pseudo-thermal energy,
while γ is the dissipation of pseudo-thermal energy due
to inelastic collision of particles. The detailed expressions
for the above physical quantities can be found in Ding
and Gidaspow.11
Volume 47 November 1997
Yang and Farouk
Flow Boundary Conditions
The no-slip condition is employed for the particles and
gas along the calciner wall. A zero gradient gas velocity
boundary condition is applied at the free surface. The
boundary condition used for particles at the free sur-
face is, however, not easily defined. As the calciner
rotates, the particles slide along the free surface,
whereas particles near the calciner wall undergo solid-
body type rotation. A boundary condition for solid
phase is derived at the free surface based on the force
balance on the surface particles and the experimental
data:5
∂u/∂y = 2.76 (ρs. d p) ω [m/s] (5)
where u is the velocity component in the direction parallel to
the free surface, y is the coordinate axis perpendicular to the
(1) free surface, dp is the particle diameter, ρs is solid density, and w
is the angular speed of the rotary calciner. The boundary con-
ditions for the granular temperature are:
T˜ = 0 at wall,
(2) dT˜
=0 at free surface.
dy
− Vg ) (3) Quasi Three-Dimensional Model
for Heat Transfer
Both the flow and the heat transfer problems within a
calciner are essentially three-dimensional. The axial
flow field is related to the mass flow rate through the
calciner and is governed by the inclination and the
rotation rate of the calciner. The planar flow field (as
formulated above) does not vary appreciably in the
axial direction. The heat transfer process in a calciner,
however, is profoundly three-dimensional as the ra-
dial heat transfer (see Figure 1) into the bed is con-
vected along the axial direction. Because the large as-
pect ratio of most calciners (length to diameter ratios
= 25:1) makes the solution of the resulting equations
computationally demanding, a quasi-three-dimen-
sional heat transfer model has been used in this study
(following Boateng5).
The quasi-three-dimensional model comprises an
axial model (one-dimensional) for the bulk gas (free-
board) and the solid phase (bed), and a cross-sectional
- γ (4) temperature field predictions. The former is used to
PT
independently determine the one-dimensional axial
temperature profiles for the freeboard gas and the bulk
bed. As part of the procedure for calculating axial tem-
perature profiles, the surface heat flux to the bed is de-
termined and becomes the thermal boundary condition
employed to drive the cross-sectional model. The bed
Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association 1191
Yang and Farouk

temperature gradient computed from the axial model is and the calciner wall) is defined as:
used as a sink term representing rate of energy removal
due to the material flow in the axial direction. hwb = qwb / (Tw -Tb)Awb (12)

Governing Equations for Temperature Fields where qwb is the average heat flux from wall to the bed,
The bulk gas (free board) temperature Tg and bulk particle and Tw and Tb are average wall and particle temperature
temperature, Tb are given by at a given axial plane. Note that hwb was obtained from a
two-dimensional heat transfer model for particles (physi-
dT
g (6) cal temperature).
m˙ gCg = hgb Agb (Tb − T g ) + hwg Awg (T w − T g )
dz Once the axial gradient of the bulk particle tempera-
and ture is known, a planar (two-dimensional) heat transfer
dT b model for the particles can be formulated as:
m˙ b Cb = hgb Agb (Tg − Tb ) + hwb Awb (Tw − T b )
dz
+ hr Awb (Tw − Tb ) (7)  ∂T ∂Ts   ∂ 2T ∂ 2 Ts  dTb
ρ Cb  u +v −k 
 2 +
 − m& C = 0 (13)
s s
 eff  b b
 ∂x ∂y   ∂x ∂y 2  dz
where mg is the mass flow rate of freeboard gas, mb is
the calciner feed rate, and hwb, h gb, and hwg are the con- where Ts(x,y) is the particle temperature distribution at a
vection coefficients between wall and bed, freeboard given axial location. The effective thermal conductivity
gas and bed, and wall to free board gas, respectively. keff is defined as follows:
The following expressions are used for the heat trans- 1 − εs
k eff = 3 + 4ε s σεd p T
3
fer coefficients (Boateng, 1993). For the convective heat 1 / ks + 1/ 4σεd p T (14)
transfer between the calciner wall and free board gas,
For given wall and bulk bed temperature values, eq 13
hwg = 0.036 kg/Dk Re0.8 Pr0.33 (D/L)0.055 (8) can be solved to calculate hwb.

where D and L are calciner diameter and length, respec- SOLUTION PROCEDURE
tively. The Cartesian coordinate system was employed to describe
For the convective heat transfer between the free the granular flow field considered. The computational
board gas and the exposed bed surface domain is shown in Figure 2. The x-axis is considered
to be parallel to the bed free surface while the y-axis is
hgb = 0.4 Gg0.62 (9) perpendicular to the bed surface. An interpolation tech-
where nique was used to handle the circular boundary of the
.
3600mg calciner surface. The governing equations describing the
Gg = [kg/m2 hr] (10) flow and heat transfer in this problem were solved nu-
Ag merically using a finite difference discretization proce-
The radiative heat transfer coefficient between the exposed dure. The SIMPLE scheme of Patankar11 is used to solve
bed surface and the calciner wall is given by the finite difference equations (1-4 and 13). The present

hr = εσ (Tw + Tsur) (Ts2 + Tsur2) (11)

The heat transfer coefficient hwb (between bed material

Figure 3. Predicted granular flow field with polyethylene in the 1 m

I.D. rotary drum filled at 15%; rotation rate = 3 rpm.
Figure 2. Computational domain and the mesh system.

1192 Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association Volume 47 November 1997

Figure 4. Predicted and measured velocity as functions of depth at
mid-chord, 15% fill; rotation rate = 3 rpm.
computations employed a uniform mesh system with
750 grid points. For the parameters considered, the grid
was found to be adequate. Sample calculations were
performed with denser grids, which did not produce
appreciable differences in the flow structure or heat
transfer characteristics. Equations 6 and 7 are also nu-
merically solved by a finite difference method. If the
free board gas flow mode is countercurrent to the bed
material flow, a false transient formulation can be used
to obtain the solutions. The computations were per-
formed on an IBM RISC-6000 workstation. The typical
CPU time used for the steady state solution is about
600 seconds.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Flow Field Modeling
Results are first presented for the planar (two-dimensional)
flow fields of the particles. While the formulation is given
Figure 5. Predicted granular flow field with polyethylene in the 1 m
I.D. rotary drum filled at 29%; rotation rate = 3 rpm.
Volume 47 November 1997
Yang and Farouk
Figure 6. Predicted and measured velocity as function of depth at
mid-chord, 29% fill; rotation rate = 3 rpm.
for gas/particle medium, only particle (solid) phase results
are presented here. The gas phase flow fields will be im-
portant when the desorption of the volatiles in the par-
ticles are considered in the future.
Figure 3 shows a typical predicted flow field in a
cross-sectional plane of the calciner. The flow and geo-
metric parameters are chosen so that direct comparison
of the predictions can be made with the experimental
results of Boateng.5 For the result shown in Figure 3, the
diameter of calciner is chosen as 1.0 m. The rotational
speed is 3 rpm. The polyethylene particle diameters
are 3.6 mm and the bulk density is 960 kg/m3. The
coefficient of restitution is 0.85. The angle of repose is
28°, which gives a 15% filling percentage. The solid
volume fraction εs is 0.8. The values of emissivities used
for the calciner surface and the sad are 0.3 and 0.8,
respectively. Figure 4 shows the predicted and mea-
sured granular velocity profiles at the mid-chord of the
bed. Satisfactory agreement between theoretical and
experimental results is found near the top and bottom
regions. The deviation near velocity inversion point
could be due to two reasons: the granular flow model
is not accurate when the particle velocity is small, and
Figure 7. Predicted and measured velocity as function of depth at
mid-chord, 15% fill; rotation rate = 5 rpm.
Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association 1193
Yang and Farouk
Figure 8. Nondimensional velocity as function of nondimensional
distance from the free surface, 15% fill.
the experimental errors are significant when measur-
ing near-zero velocities.
The fill percentage effect is discussed next. Figure 5
shows the predicted flow field in a cross-sectional plane
of the calciner with 29% material fill. Figure 6 shows the
granular velocity profile comparisons at the mid-chord
of the bed for numeral and experimental results for the
same case. Due to the greater depth of the bed, the veloc-
ity profile has larger curvature than that of the 15% ma-
terial fill case (see Figure 4). When the bed depth is small,
the velocity profile tends to be linear.
Obviously, the rotational speed of the calciner ω is
an important factor that affects the granular flow. Figure
7 shows the predicted and measured granular velocity
profiles at the mid-chord of the bed for 5 rpm and 15%
material fill. Better agreement between numerical and
experimental results is found here. The granular flow
model used gives better predictions for the cases where
Figure 9. The effect of the particle size on the granular velocity profile
at mid-chord.
1194 Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association
Figure 10. Axial temperature variation for predicted and measured
results
the particles are more active or at higher speed. As in the
“smaller calciner rotational speed” case, the error is found
in the velocity reverse region. Figure 8 shows the normal-
ized granular velocity profile at the mid-chord plane for
different values of ω. The normalized velocity profiles are
found to be almost overlapping.
Figure 9 shows the effects of the granular particle size
on the velocity profiles at the mid-chord. The granular
diameters chosen were 7.2 mm, 3.6 mm, and 1.2 mm.
The rotational speed is 3 rpm and the material fill is 15%.
The results indicate that the larger granular particles lead
to a stiffer velocity gradient in the flow field. The “active
layer” will therefore increase with decreasing granular size.
Heat Transfer Modeling
To validate the quasi three-dimensional model, a
sample case is considered based on the experimental
work of Tscheng and Watkinson.13 In the experiment,
Figure 11. Temperature contours at the entrance of the calciner
predicted by the quasi-three-dimensional model (Tw = 323K, ∆T = 6K).
Volume 47 November 1997
 Yang and Farouk

Figure 12. Temperature contours at the middle plane of the calciner Figure 13. Temperature contours at the exit of the calciner predicted
predicted by the quasi-three-dimensional model (Tw = 340K, ∆T = 6K). by the quasi-three-dimensional model (Tw = 366K, ∆T = 6K).

Ottawa sand was heated by passing it countercurrent to a necessary to develop an advanced mathematical
flow of preheated air in a 2.5 m long, 0.19 m I.D. rotary model to predict the flow and temperature distribu-
calciner. The preheated air temperature was 450 K and tion of granular materials. A two-dimensional nu-
the temperature of sand at the entrance is 325 K. The sand merical model has been developed to predict the
feed rate was 175 kg/m2.h, and air flow rate was 3300 kg/ fl o w a nd t em p era t u re di st ri b u t i o n i n a ro t a r y
m2.h. The rotational speed of the kiln was 1.5 rpm. The calciner. Based on the predicted flow field, a quasi
percent fill was 17%. The present model is tested based three-dimensional model for heat transfer has been
on the same conditions as the above experimental work. developed to predict the axial bulk temperature
The comparisons of the predicted axial temperature varia- variations. The temperature distributions at specified
tion with the experimental data are shown in Figure 10. axial locations in the bed are predicted using the bulk
The good agreement between them shows that the quasi temperature gradients. The predicted flow and heat
three-dimensional assumption and the mathematical transfer results showed satisfactory agreement with the
model is satisfactory. experimental results, which provides confidence to
Figures 11-13 show the temperature contours at three further the present study. Combined with the flow and
axial locations: the calciner entrance, the mid-section of thermal conditions obtained from the present mod-
the calciner, and the exit of the calciner. The temperature els, a devolatilization model will be developed and
distributions within the bed largely depend on the tem- employed to predict the overall desorption process.
perature difference between the surrounding gas and the The devolatilization model (kinetics of calcination) will
bulk bed temperature. For the air heating situation consid- provide quantitative evaluation of a calciner as a func-
ered here, convective heat transfer is the primary mode for tion of the operating parameters. Such models can even-
bed heating. This is, however, not the case for most indus- tually be used for optimized design of the calciners.
trial processes. Due to the countercurrent flow of the pre-
heated air, the heat transfer is effective along the entire NOMENCLATURE
length of the calciner. It is interesting to note that due to A area [m2]
the counter-clockwise rotation of the bed materials, the C specific heat [kJ/kg.°C]
higher temperature region in the bed is at the top left cor- D diameter [m]
ner. Figures 11-13 show the same feature. These results also d diameter [m]
demonstrate the non-isothermal temperature distributions h heat transfer coefficient [W/m2.°C]
that can be obtained within calciners. The temperature non- k thermal conductivity [W/m.°C]
uniformities can be mitigated by enhancing mixing within L length [m]
the bed material. Frequently, this is achieved in calciners P total stress tensor [Pa]
by placing protrusions and “lifters” on the calciner wall. Pr Prandtl number (=µCp/k)
q heat flux [W/m2]
SUMMARY Re Reynolds number (=VD/n)
To achieve a better understanding of the mixing, heat T thermal temperature [°C]
transfer and desorption processes in calciners, it is t time [s]

Volume 47 November 1997 Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association 1195
Yang and Farouk

u velocity component in x direction [m/s] REFERENCES

1. Pickering, R.W.; Feakes, F.; Fitzgerald, M.L. “Time for passage of ma-
v velocity component in y direction [m/s] terial through rotary kilns,” J. Appl. Chem. 1951, 1, 13-19.
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y Cartesian coordinate (normal to bed free surface) [m] sional and theological analysis,” Can J. Chem Eng. 1990, 68, 61-68.
4. Sass, A. “Simulation of the heat transfer phenomenon in a rotary
z Cartesian coordinate (along the calciner axis) [m] kiln,” I&EC Process Des. & Dev. 1967, 6(4), 532-535.
5. Boateng, A.A. “Rotary kiln transport phenomena: Study of the bed
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m˙ mass flow rate [kg/s.m2]
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lumbia, 1993.
Boateng, A.A.; Barr, P.V. “A thermal model for the rotary kiln includ-
ing heat transfer within the bed,” Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 1996, 39,
2131-2147
GREEK LETTERS 7. Savage, S.B. “Granular Flow Materials,” In Theoretical and Applied
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11. Ding, J.; Gidaspow, D. “A bubbling fluidization model using kinetic
SUBSCRIPTS theory of granular flow,” AIChE J. 1990, 36, 523-538.
12. Patankar, S.V. Numerical Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow; McGraw-Hill:
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k phase (solid or gas)
s solid About the Authors
w wall Dr. Lei Yang is a post-doctoral research fellow in the Me-
chanical Engineering and Mechanics Department at Drexel
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS University, Philadelphia, PA. Dr. Bakhtier Farouk (correspond-
ing author) is a professor in the Mechanical Engineering and
This study was supported by the Commonwealth of
Mechanics Department, Drexel University, 32nd and Chest-
Pennsylvania’s Ben Franklin Partnership and by Seaview nut Streets, Philadelphia, PA, 19104.
Thermal Systems, Blue Bell, PA.

1196 Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association Volume 47 November 1997