Generator Over Excitation Capability and Excitation System Limiters

Abstract – Sometimes, power system events have shown the need for generators to operate in the overexcited region to
support stable operation. Operation up to, and transiently beyond, the overexcited limits from the capability curve is
sometimes required. The two main issues in the paper are the generator capability in this region and the design of OEL
(OverExcitation Limiters) in the excitation system that take full advantage of the capability allowed in the design and
standards Keywords – Synchronous Machines, Excitation Controls, Generator Controls, Protective Limiters, System
Stability, Voltage Stability.

1. Introduction- To insure that generators are operated safely in the overexcited region during
system events there are two key issues. One is the generator capability in both continuous and
transient regions. The second issue is the protective limiters in the excitation system, that are
designed to protect the generator. During power system disturbances, some generators are
called to support voltage by supplying vars, either at or transiently beyond the over excited
capability. In section 2 of this paper the issues relating to generator capability are discussed.
The top section of the capability curve relates to field heating, limiting field current to
allowable levels. The second area on the capability curve to be considered in overexcitation
situations is the stator current or MVA limit, on the right side of the curve. This is becoming
more of an issue for units where the turbine may have been uprated and the generator has
the original design. In this case the increase in generator MW output comes at the expense of
available var output and overall MVA output capability. Excitation limiters, specifically OEL and
SCL (Stator Current Limit) functions are improving, and Sections 3 and 4 outline the historical
perspective on these limit functions, and the approach taken in today’s excitation controls.
Done properly, the limits can insure more of the generator capability and design margins are
available during system contingency events. Features such as recalibration of the limits based
in inlet air temperature (air cooled machine), or hydrogen pressure for H2 cooled machines
are available in today’s excitation controls

2. Generator Overexcited Capability- The capability of the generator in the overexcited

region is limited by the capability of cooling the field winding and the overall MVA output
(stator current) of the machine. The overexcited region of the machine is also referred to as
lagging power factor (in generator convention), where vars are being supplied from the
machine. A plot of the generator capability curve is shown in Fig. 1. These curves show a
machine whose capability follows ambient conditions, in this case the cooler inlet air
temperature. The ISO rated nameplate is based on 40C inlet air temperature. Page 2 The over
excited region is the top part of the curves in Fig. 1, a locus of points from iteratively solving
the load equation for a given value of P (MW) and finding the Q (MVAR) that results from a
fixed field current. The field current is defined as IFFL, full load current at rated voltage, MVA,
and pf. The field current limit is based on temperature profiles of the field in continuous
operation. There are short time levels of overexcitation that are allowed by IEEE standards [1-
2]. The basic premise of the standard is based on physical principles of thermodynamic heat
balance, that is, higher levels are allowed for shorter periods of time, and lower levels for
longer periods of time. The basic functional form can be fit with either an I*t or I2 *t inverse
time curve. The curve corresponding to IEEE C50.13 is plotted in Fig. 2. The top curve
corresponds to the values permitted by the standards. The remaining curves in Fig. 2
correspond to limiter functions in GE’s present excitation systems, and will be discussed in
later sections of this paper. C50.13 specifically relates to round rotor machines, and C50.12
that covers hydro-turbine generators does not give specific overexcitation guidelines. For this
reason, C50.13 is used for hydro-turbine machine although its interpretation of the
overexcitation allowable may be quite conservative. There may be an opportunity through
studies and testing to allow increased overexcitation for hydro-turbine generators, and this
may be important if they are a significant part of the generation mix. By way of example, Fig. 3
shows a comparison for a 55MVA 12 pole hydro-turbine generator between the C50.13 curve
(lower curve) and an allowable overexcitation corresponding to an allowable 5C temperature
rise in the field. The field time constant for this machine is about 20 minutes, substantially
longer than the 1 minute seen on round rotor machines. Some older round rotor machines
may have larger margin over the standards level, it is not in general always the case. 0 50 100
150 200 250 300 350 200 150 100 50 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 LEAD MEGAVARS LAG
MEGAWATTS 34 C Cold gas 40 C Cold gas 46 C Cold gas 0.40 PF 0.60 PF 0.80 PF 0.85 PF 0.90 PF
0.94 PF 0.97 PF 0.99 PF 0.95 PF 0.80 PF 0.60 PF 0.40 PF 1.0 Fig.1 – Generator Reactive
Capability Curve Fig. 2 – Overexcitation Capability and OEL Curves Fig. 3 – Over Excitation
Capability for a Hydro-turbine Generator with a 5 degrees C Field Temperature Rise Page 3
Each machine has to be evaluated on a case by case basis to see what additional capability
may be available. For any new machines the situation is much the same, but compounded now
by the trend for increased flux density in the machines and consequent target of temperature
profiles to match the allowable levels from standards curves. In this case there may be
consistently less margin, but this again depends on the particular application. The proliferation
of gas turbine driven machines with peak rating and ambient temperature following have to
be taken into account in defining allowable levels and margins. The other region of interest is
the right part of the curve in Fig. 1 that represents a circle of constant MVA. This intersects the
field-heating curve at the point where the generator (and turbine) has rated power and power
factor output, commonly referred to as ‘nameplate’ conditions. Increasing the turbine by
uprating, without a corresponding uprate of the generator, leaves an unprotected region at
higher MW output if only an OEL excitation limiter is used. For this reason we will later
describe both OEL and SCL limit functions which are in the GE EX2000 excitation system.
3. Excitation OEL limiter- To limit the excitation system from supplying excess field current,
some form of overexcitation or maximum excitation limiter has been used. Some existing
excitation equipment have a level detector on field current or voltage and a fixed timer that
transfers to full load field in manual control, clearly not a good operating strategy for system
voltage stability. There are a number of ways the field current can exceed full load levels. The
two most common would be during an overload when the system voltage is reduced, and
transiently when there is a close in fault on the machine. Mitigating a system voltage
reduction (collapse) scenario typically requires long time sustained field forcing. Transmission
system faults, on the other hand, cause high fault currents and consequent high induced field
current, which exist, only until the fault is cleared. A block diagram of the present GE design
OEL limiter is given as Fig. 4. The OEL control is a takeover type function that replaces the AVR
input to the firing circuits. When the OEL is not in control, its output is fixed at full level, which
will insure the AVR signal will always be in control as it acts through a low value gate. When
the OEL control is active, the primary control regulation function is a Field Current Regulator
(FCR). For close in faults where the induced field current is large, due to constant flux linkages
in the generator with high stator current, the Signal Level Detector (SLD) will allow unlimited
forcing for field current above 140% IFFL. This forcing can be sustained for a given period of
time, usually at least 1 second but may be set to as high as 10 seconds for compound or
brushless excitation systems. After the SLD has timed out the FCR is activated. The FCR is
shown in the bottom of the figure as a proportional plus integral (PI) regulator. There are two
reference values as input to the FCR, one at 125% times IFFL, and the second at 100% times
IFFL. The FCR is a fast high bandwidth control that acts to reduce the field current to its
setpoint. It should be noted that when the FCR is active the integrator in the AVR is disabled to
prevent wind-up. For brushless excitation systems where the main generator field current is
not accessible, a calculated value based on the alternator field current and time constant are
used as an approximation. The second way in which the OEL can be active is an accumulated
I*t (I times t) calculation that provides an inverse time type curve. In the EX2000 system this is
described as a PRotection Inverse Time (PRIT) module. The PRIT calculation begins
accumulating if the current is above 102% IFFL, but never reaches a trip point if the current is
below 106% IFFL. This permits operation over the range of permissible generator voltages and
tolerance in the field current calculation. The function of the calculation is to accumulate I*t
through an integrator (a 60 seconds time constant is chosen to match the field thermal time
constant) with a small feedback term (what is termed a leaky integrator). The leaky integrator
permits an alarm to be generated at 102% of IFFL while not permitting a trip to occur until
field current exceeds 106% of IFFL. If the PRIT module times out, then the field current
regulator is activated with setpoint of 100% IFFL. There is additional logic, not shown in Fig. 3,
which assures that the FCR remains in control if sustained over excitation were to occur (since
the 100% IFFL level is below the 102% IFFL pickup). If the SLD circuit had already activated the
FCR, then the setpoint + + + - FCR Field Current Regulator K02 S 1.0 (MAX VR ) K01 Ifd Setpoint
VOEL OR SIGNAL LEVEL DETECT INVERSE TIME CURVE I*t 125% IFFL 100% IFFL Ifd FIELD
CURRENT I*t • • FCRPLN FCRPLN FCRNLN FCRNLN OEL ACTIVE Fig. 4 - Over Excitation Limiter
Block Diagram Page 4 will be reduced from 125% to 100% when the PRIT module times out.
Copies of the characteristic curve for the PRIT module, as typically set, are plotted in the lower
two curves in Fig. 2. There are two curves given in the figure, one marked as trip level and the
second marked as limit level. The accumulator on field current error in the PRIT module has
actually three comparator circuits on the output. The highest level is for the trip output, a
second level (typically 85%) for a transfer output (if there are two regulators and there is a
transfer to a back-up regulator), and the lowest level for activation of the limiter. The limiter
level is typically set to somewhere between 50 and 75% of the trip level. In Fig. 2, a level of
70% is shown to plot the limit curve. The design point for the PRIT curve is to have coincidence
of the 120 second trip time at 112% IFFL per the IEEE C50.13 curve. For higher values of field
currents the PRIT trip curve (and limit curve) are slightly within the requirements set forth in
the IEEE Standards. A plot of test results from a 250 kVA diesel driven generator in a controlled
environment test lab is shown in Fig. 5. These plots show terminal voltage in per unit,
generator var output in per unit, field voltage in per unit on air-gap base, and field current in
per unit on full load base. For reference, the full load field current is 3.73 times the air-gap
base for this generator. The OEL event was simulated by reducing the terminal voltage
feedback to 0.8 pu while the generator was operating at full rated kW output and connected
to the local utility. The sudden reduction in feedback signal causes the field voltage to reach
ceiling level. Note, as described in the OEL model, full forcing is available for 1 second, then
operation at 125% IFFL for a time determined by the inverse time curve in the OEL, followed
by operation at 100% IFFL. After about 38 seconds the terminal voltage feedback signal is
restored and the AVR resumes control, without a bump as the control prevents windup. The
OEL limiter, and the SCL limiter, has the capability of modifying its limits based on either
hydrogen pressure (if the generator is hydrogen cooled) or inlet air temperature
measurement. The set of capability curves in Fig. 1 illustrates Figure 5 - Test of the OEL on a
250KVA Diesel-Turbine Generator in an Exciter Lab Page 5 the need for this feature. Also, it
should be mentioned that the OEL is monitoring both the heating and cooling of the generator
field. After an OEL event, the integrator in the OEL is still active and it takes some time for it to
decay to zero value. If a subsequent OEL event occurs before the machine had cooled to
normal temperature, the time to accumulate to the limit value will be shorter to account for
the fact the machine is hotter than normal. These are features that make controls smarter.
4. Excitation – Stator Current Limit- The generator stator current limit (SCL) is derived
from the MVA limit, which results in a family of current limits as terminal voltage changes. This
is shown in the right part of the curve in Fig. 6 as a circle with radius of rated MVA. The circle
intersects the field-heating curve at the point where the machine has rated power and power
factor output, commonly referred to as ‘nameplate’ conditions. The turbine power output is
typically matched to this MW line, denoted as ‘original’ design turbine power on the curve. If,
for example, a decision is made to uprate the turbine and not uprate the generator, then the
MW line shown as ‘uprated’ could apply. In this case the limitation of MVA output (as
reflected in (QSCL) is more restrictive than field heating (QOEL). For units operating with
increased MW output, this leaves an unprotected region if only an OEL limiter is used. The SCL
control action depends on the operating point. In the overexcited region ( +Q) the SCL needs
to reduce excitation to bring the operating point down to the limit. In the underexcited region
(-Q) the opposite is true, the excitation needs to be increased to bring the current/MVA to the
limit. The other issue for the SCL is to insure that for faults on the transmission system, where
the stator current is transiently high, the limiter action does not prevent forcing to ceiling for
maximum synchronizing torque. This may require either a timer or slower acting control to
ignore fast transient swings. There are basically two ways to implement the SCL function. The
present implementation of the SCL in GE equipment is as a controller, in much the same
fashion as the var/pf control functions. The SCL controller provides inputs to the raiselower
contacts of the voltage setpoint, using the ramp function described ref. [14]. Inherently, this is
a lower bandwidth control that has the benefit of not responding inappropriately to transient
fault currents. If the var/pf control is active, it is taken out of service when the SCL is
operating. The SCL can be re-calibrated as a function of hydrogen pressure or ambient
temperature, in the same way the OEL and UEL Another method would be to use a regulator
that works on the MVA or stator current error, to drive it to the limit curve. In this case a PI
control, similar to the FCR shown in Fig.4 could be used. A current or MVA error signal is used
to develop an output in the proper sign to force the unit back to limit. An SCL regulator acts in
a similar fashion to the underexcited limiter, UEL, as a signal input to the voltage regulator
summing point.

5. Summary and Conclusions- The generator excitation is limited by the defined capability
curve. In the overexcited region, the limiting factor is the design of the field circuit, a function
of its cooling and thermal profile. In general, the design metrics are driven by the capability of
the insulation systems, and structural aspects of elongation and winding stress. The guidelines
for allowable overexcitation are those in C50.13. The design margins above C50.13 are a
function of the specific machine design, and can be somewhat higher in hydro-turbine
generators with salient pole laminated rotor structures. Studies and tests may allow increasing
hydro-turbine generator over excited capability. 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 200 150 100 50
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 LEAD MEGAVARS LAG MEGAWATTS 40 C Cold gas 0.85 PF 0.97 PF
0.95 PF 1.0 Original Turbine Power Uprated Turbine Power QOEL QSCL Fig 6 – SCL to Protect
the Unit if the Turbine is Uprated Page 6 The generator capability is one half of the story, the
remaining part is the limiters in the excitation system. Traditionally, limiters have been used as
an automatic way of insuring the generator remains within its defined capability for either
system events or operator action. Past limiter designs have been simplistic with fixed level and
timers, and were not generally designed for maximum utilization of the capability region.
Present designs, as shown, are much more flexible and can be tailored towards maximum
utilization if the generator capability. This may be a reason to consider upgrading an older
excitation system 6. systems. He is a registered professional engineer in the State of Virginia, a
member of the IEEE Excitation System Subcommittee, and has been issued 5 patents.
Alexander Murdoch received his BSEE from Worcester Polytechnic Institute in 1970, and his
MSEE and Ph.D. from Purdue University in 1972 and 1975, respectively. Since 1975 Dr.
Murdoch has worked for General Electric, in the Power Systems Energy Consulting, where he is
a senior engineer. His areas of interest include rotating machine modeling, excitation system
design and testing and advanced control theory

Low Forward Power Protection

Turbo generators are run by steam turbines. In case of turbine trip, if the generator remains
connected to the grid, the generator will run as motor and rotate the turbine. With no steam in turbine,
there will be air in the turbine casing. Turbine blades, specially low pressure turbine blades will offer
heave windage loss thereby increasing the temperature of blades to very high value which will
damage the turbine. When turbine is run by steam, temperature is limited to that of the steam. But
when steam is not there, temperature will go dangerously high. So forward power relay is used to trip
the generator thereby preventing the motor operation of the set. This saves the turbine from high
temperature. Some utilities prefer reverse power relay over forward relay.

The purpose of both, reverse power and low forward power relays is same namely, to
prevent damage to the steam turbine. In low forward power protection relay trips the generator circuit
breaker when the power delivered to the grid drops below a certain level (typical setting being 0.5 %
of full load). In reverse power protection relay operates immediately(5s delay) after the generator
starts drawing power from the grid instead of delivering power to the grid. Both the philosophies are
followed.

Reverse Power Protection of Generator

A synchronous Generator / Alternator is expected to supply active power to the system in normal
operating condition. If the turbine i.e. prime mover fails the Generator / Alternator connected to the
system will continue to operate as synchronous Motor drawing active power from the system. This
reversal of power flow due to loss of prime mover can be detected by reverse power relay.

The consequences of generator motoring and the level of power drawn from the power
system will be dependent on the type of prime mover as under this condition prime mover acts as a
load for synchronous Motor. For steam turbines, the motoring power is around 0.5-3 % of rated power
of Generator. Under the failure of prime mover, due to motoring of turbine windage loss will be more
in turbine blades as there is no steam to cool it down. Thus it will lead to damage of turbine.

Normally reverse power setting is kept less than 50% of the motoring power. For example if the motoring
power of steam turbine is 4% then reverse power setting shall be kept less than 2%. It shall also be noted that
reverse power protection is provided with a time delay of around 5 s to prevent spurious operation due to
disturbances or following synchronization.

Causes of Reverse Power in Generator:

As discussed earlier, one cause of reverse power flow in a generator is failure of prime mover. Now
failure of prime mover may be because of failure of Governor or failure of Governor Valve or
maloperation of Boiler Pressure Control System.

Another cause of reverse power flow occurs during synchronization of Generator. Let us assume that
Generator is to be synchronized with the Grid. The general practice for synchronizing a Generator is
to close the breaker when the needle on the synchroscope is moving clockwise and crossing 11
O’clock position as shown in figure below.

Picture taken from Yokogawa Meters and Instruments Corporation

As shown in figure, the position of needle is at 12 O’clock. Suppose the frequency of Generator is
less than the frequency of Grid, in this case the needle of synchroscope won’t move in clockwise i.e.
fast direction rather it will move anticlockwise direction i.e. toward slow direction. If we close
Generator circuit breaker in such condition, then the Grid will try to take the Generator to synchronous
speed by feeding power to the Generator and motoring of Generator will take place. Thus in such
case also reverse power will flow.

Low Forward Power Protection is dedicated for the Generator Protection.This protection
scheme trips the generator in case of Low forward power condition.For a generator there is always a
lower limit on the power that is supplied to the grid.Because below that power limit the generator will
not be able to supply power to the grid and instead of that it will take reverse power from the grid.The
reason it takes reverse power from the grid is that below that power limit the steam supply to the
turbine becomes very less and the rotor of the Turbo-generator will not get suficient power from the
turbine to rotate(To maintain Rotor Inertia).So it will take power from the grid to maintain its
inertia,that is nothing but Reverse Power.Low Forward Power is thus provided to avoid
Reverse Power/Motoring Action of the Generator.

**Due to the motoring action the end blades of the LP Turbine get damaged.

Generator Protection Schemes

The following are the main protection schemes adopted for our generator.
1. Generator Differential Protection
2. Generator & Transformer Differential Protection
3. Loss of Field or Loss of Excitation Protection
4. Negative Sequence or Current Unbalance Protection
5. Over Fluxing or Over Excitation Protection
6. Over Current Protection
7. Stator Earth Fault Protection
8. Rotor Earth Fault Protection (64R)
9. Restricted Earth Fault Protection
10. Backup Impedance Protection
11. Low Forward Power Protection
12. Reverse Power Protection
13. Pole Slip Protection
14. Pole Discrepancy Protection
15. Local Breaker Back Protection
16. Bus Bar Protection
17. Over Frequency Protection
18. Under Frequency Protection
19. Over Voltage Protection
1.GENERATOR DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION:
Setting : 0.5 Amp Time : Instantaneous
It is one of the important protections to protect generator winding against internal faults such as phase-
to-phase and three phase-to-ground faults. This type of fault is very serious because very large current
can flow and produce large amounts of damage to the winding if it is allowed to persist. One set current
transformers of the generator on neutral and phase side, is exclusively used for this protection. The
differential protection can not detect turn-to-turn fault and phase to ground within one winding for high
impedance neutral grounding generator such as ours. Upon the detection of a phase-to-phase fault in the
winding, the unit is tripped with out time delay.
Relays acted : a. Flag operation at Protection panel.
b. Acting of Master relay
c. Indication at Annunciation Panel.
Consequences : a. Tripping of 765KV breaker
b. Tripping of Field breaker
c. Stop command to Turbine thro’ Mark-IV
Status : a. Unit is at coasting down.

Once the differential protection operated, the unit can not be taken into service unless the generator
winding is thoroughly examined by the maintenance staff of any internal faults

2.GENERATOR-TRANSFORMER DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION :

Setting : 0.75 Amp Time : Instantaneous
It protects 11KV bus duct, 11/0.440KV unit auxiliary transformer, 11/20KV step-up transformer against
internal faults such as phase-to-phase and three phase-to-ground faults. This type of fault is very serious
because very large current can flow and produce large amounts of damage to the winding if it is allowed
to persist. One set current transformers of the generator on neutral side and another set current
transformer on 220KV side after transformer, is exclusively used for the protection. Upon the detection of
difference in current between these current transformers, the unit is tripped with out time delay.One the
generator-transformer differential protection operated, the unit can not be taken into service unless the
11KV bus duct, unit auxiliary transformer, power transformer are thoroughly examined by the maintenance
staff for any internal faults.
Relays acted : a. Flag operation at Protection panel.
b. Acting of Master relay
c. Indication at Annunciation Panel.
Consequences : a. Tripping of 765KV breaker
b. Tripping of Field breaker
c. Stop command to Turbine thro’ Mark-IV
Status : a. Unit is at coasting down.
3.LOSS OF FIELD OR EXCITATION PROTECTION :
Setting : K1-2, K2-1, K3-2 Trip after 2 Sec.
When the synchronous machine with excitation, is connected to the grid, it generates reactive power
along with active power to the grid and the rotor speed is same as that of grid frequency. Loss of field or
loss of excitation results in loss of synchronism between rotor flux & stator flux. The synchronous machine
operates as an induction machine at higher speed and draws reactive power from the grid. This will result
in the flow of slip frequency currents in the rotor body as well as severe torque oscillations in the rotor
shaft. As the rotor is not designed to sustain such currents or to withstand the high alternating torques
which results in rotor overheating, coupling slippage and even rotor failure.
A loss of excitation normally indicates a problem with the excitation system. Some times it may be due to
inadvertent tripping of filed breaker, open or short circuit of field winding or loss of source to the exciter.
If the generator is not disconnected immediately when it loses excitation wide spread instability may very
quickly develop and major system shutdown may occur.
When loss of excitation alarm annunciates at annunciation panel, the machine may probably be running
with less excitation at leading MVAR power. Increase the excitation on the machine until it reaches on
lagging MVAR power. The machine trips on the same protection along with alarm resynchronize the
machine and try to stabilize at required MVAR power. If not possible, trip the machine immediately and
inform to the maintenance staff for thorough checking of the Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR) and its
associated parts.
Relays acted : a. Flag operation at Protection panel.
b. Acting of Master relay
c. Indication at Annunciation Panel.
Consequences : a. Tripping of 765KV breaker
b. Tripping of Field breaker
c. Stop command to Turbine thro’ Mark-IV
Status : a. Unit is at coasting down.

4.NEGATIVE SEQUENCE OR CURRENT UNBALANCE PROTECTION :

Setting : Alarm – 75% of 12s Time - 5 Sec.
Trip – 75% of 12s Time - 300 Sec.
When the machine delivering the equal currents in three phases, no unbalance or negative phase
sequence current is produced as the vector sum of these currents is zero, when the generator is supplying
an unbalanced load to a system, a negative phase sequence current is imposed on the generator. The
system unbalance may be due to opening of lines, breaker failures or system faults. The negative
sequence current in the stator winding creates a magnetic flux wave in the air gap which rotates in
opposite direction to that of rotor synchronous speed. This flux induces currents in the rotor body,
wedges, retaining rings at twice the line frequency. Heating occurs in these areas and the resulting
temperatures depend upon the level and duration of the unbalanced currents. Under these conditions it is
possible to reach temperatures at which the rotor material no longer contain the centrifugal forces
imposed on them resulting in serious damage to the turbine-generator set. Any machine as per design
data will permit some level of negative sequence currents for continuous period.
An alarm will annunciate at annunciation panel if negative sequence currents exceeds a normal level.
Reduce the MVAR power on the machine if necessary load also and keep the machine for some time till
the alarm vanishes at annunciation panel. If the machine trips on the Negative sequence protection never
take the machine into service until the temperatures on the rotor parts settle down to its lower value.
Resynchronize the machine to the grid after considerable time under grid & feeder parameters are within
limits. If the unit trips again on the same protection, stop the machine after consideration time so as to
cool down the rotor parts and inform to the maintenance staff for thorough examination of the system.
Relays acted : a. Flag operation at Protection panel.
b. Acting of Master relay
c. Indication at Annunciation Panel.
Consequences : a. Tripping of 765KV breaker
b. Tripping of Field breaker
Status : a. Unit is at FSNL.

5. OVER FLUXING OR EXCITATION OR VOLTS PER HERTZ PROTECTION:

Setting : Alarm – 1.17 Time - 10 Sec.
Trip – 1.17 Time - 30 Sec.
Per unit voltage divided by per unit frequency commonly called Volts/Hertz is a measurable quantity that
is proportional to flux in the generator or step-up transformer cores. Moderate over fluxing (105-110%)
increases core loss resulting in increase of core temperatures due to hysterics & eddy currents loss. Long
term operation at elevated temperatures can shorten the life of the stator insulation. Severe over fluxing
can breakdown inter-laminar insulation followed by rapid local core melting. Over fluxing normally can be
caused by over speed of the turbine or over excitation during Off-line condition, and load rejection or AVR
mal-functioning during On-line condition.
If alarm annunciation panel, Increase/Reduce the speed of the turbine to rated generator speed
(3000RPM) and reduce the generator voltage to rated during Off-line condition. Reduce the MVAR power
on the generator during On-line condition. If the machine trips on over fluxing protection during On-line,
Keep the machine at FSNL till the grid parameters stabilize and resins. Again the machine trips on the
same stop the machine for examination of the AVR & Governor systems by maintenance staff.
Relays acted : a. Flag operation at Protection panel.
b. Acting of Master relay
c. Indication at Annunciation Panel.
Consequences : a. Tripping of 765KV breaker
b. Tripping of Field breaker
c. Stop command to Turbine thro’ Mark-IV
Status : a. Unit is at coasting down.

6.OVER CURRENT WITH VOLTAGE RESTRAINT PROTECTION :

Setting : Alarm – 85% Time - 10 Sec.
Trip – 100% Time - 0.5 Sec.
Normally generators are designed to operate continuously at rated MVA, frequency and power factor over
a range of 95 to 105% rated voltage. Operating the generator at rated MVA with 95% voltage, 105% stator
current is permissible. Operating of the generator beyond rated KVA may result in harmful stator over
current. A consequence of over current in winding is stator core over heating and leads to failure of
insulation.
If alarm annunciates at annunciation panel, Reduce the stator current to the below the rated by reducing
the MVAR power on the machine. When the trips on the same protection, Resins the machine after
keeping the machine at FSNL for some time, and keep the stator current below the rated.
Relays acted : a. Flag operation at Protection panel.
b. Acting of Master relay
c. Indication at Annunciation Panel.
Consequences : a. Tripping of 220KV breaker
b. Tripping of Field breaker
Status : a. Unit is at FSNL.

7 STATOR EARTH FAULT PROTECTION :

Setting : 70% Time - 5 Sec.
Normally the generator stator neutral operates at a potential close to ground. If a faulty phase winding
connected to ground, the normal low neutral voltage could rise as high as line-to-neutral voltage
depending on the fault location. Although a single ground fault will not necessarily cause immediate
damage, the presence of one increases the probability of a second. A second fault even if detected by
differential relay, may cause serious damage. The usual method of detection fault is by measuring the
voltage across the secondary of neutral grounding transformer (NGT). Here are two over lapping zones to
detect stator ground faults in a high impedance grounded generator system, the two zones are put
together cover 100% stator winding for earth faults. A fundamental frequency neutral over voltage relay
covers about 0-95% of the stator zonal winding for all faults except those near the neutral. Another third
harmonic neutral under voltage relay covers remaining 96-100% of the stator zone 2 winding on neutral
side.
Relays acted : a. Flag operation at Protection panel.
b. Acting of Master relay
c. Indication at Annunciation Panel.
Consequences : a. Tripping of 220KV breaker
b. Tripping of Field breaker
c. Stop command to Turbine thro’ Mark-IV
Status : a. Unit is at coasting down.
8.ROTOR EARTH FAULT PROTECTION (64R) :
Settings : Less than 80K ohm
Any rotor field winding of the generator is electrically isolated from the ground. Therefore the existence of
one ground fault in the field winding will usually not damage the rotor. However the presence of two or
more ground faults in the winding will cause magnetic and thermal imbalance plus localized heating and
damage to the rotor metallic parts. The rotor earth fault may be caused due to insulation failure of
winding or inter-turn fault followed by localized heat.
Relays acted : a. Flag operation at Protection panel.
b. Acting of Master relay
c. Indication at Annunciation Panel.
Consequences : a. Tripping of 220KV breaker
b. Tripping of Field breaker
c. Stop command to Turbine thro’ Mark-IV
Status : a. Unit is at coasting down.
9.RESTRICTED EARTH FAULT PROTECTION:
Settings : 0.1 Amp. Time : Instantaneous
It is similar to generator differential protection in working. It protects the high voltage winding of
11/220KV power transformer against internal faults. One set current transformers of the power
transformer on neutral and phase side, is exclusively used for this protection. The protection can not
detect turn-to-turn fault within one winding. Upon the detection of a phase-to-phase or phase-to-ground
fault in the winding, the unit to be tripped without time delay.
Relays acted : a. Flag operation at Protection panel.
b. Acting of Master relay
c. Indication at Annunciation Panel.
Consequences : a. Tripping of 220KV breaker
b. Tripping of Field breaker
c. Stop command to Turbine thro’ Mark-IV
Status : a. Unit is at coasting down.
Once the restricted earth fault protection operated, the unit can not be taken into service unless the
transformer winding is thoroughly examined by the maintenance staff for any internals faults.
10.BACKUP IMPEDANCE PROTECTION:
Settings ; K1-3, K2-0.71 Time – 1.5 Sec.
As in name implies, it is used to protect the generator from supplying the over loaded or faulty system. It
is backup protection of the generator over current protection. In measures ratio of the voltage and current
supplied by the generator and initiates trip signal when the measured impedance is less than the preset
value.
If the machine trips on the Backup protection, never take the machine into service until the temperatures
of the generator settle down to its lower value. Resynchronize the machine to the grid after considerable
time when grid & feeder parameters are within limits.
Relays acted : a. Flag operation at Protection panel.
b. Acting of Master relay
c. Indication at Annunciation Panel.
Consequences : a. Tripping of 220KV breaker
b. Tripping of Field breaker
c. Stop command to Turbine thro’ Mark-IV
Status : a. Unit is at coasting down.
11.LOW FORWARD POWER PROTECTION:
Setting : 0.5% Time : 1 Sec.
The generator will not develop output power when turbine input is less than the no load losses and
motoring action develops on the turbine. The generator is able to generate power, usually 55 to 10% of
generator capacity, within pre-determined time after closing of 400KV breaker.
Relays acted : a. Flag operation at Protection panel.
b. Acting of Master relay
c. Indication at Annunciation Panel.
Consequences : a. Tripping of 400KV breaker
Status : a. Unit is at FSNL with potential.
The unit trips on the low forward protection, Resins the machine and increase input power to the turbine
as quickly as possible within low forward power time setting. Even after two to three attempts, the
machine is tripping on the same protection; probably the governor of turbine is faulty. Inform to
maintenance staff for rectification of the same.
12.REVERSE POWER PROTECTION:
Setting : 0.5% Time - 2.0 Sec.
It is backup protection to the low forward protection. Motoring of a generator will occur when turbine
output is reduced such that it develops less than no-load losses while the generator is still on-line, the
generator will operate as a synchronous motor and driving the turbine. The generator will not be harmed
by synchronous motoring and a steam turbine can be harmed through over heating during synchronous
motoring if continued long enough. The motoring of the turbine output can be detected by reverse power
protection. The avoid false tripping due to power swings a time delay is incorporated before tripping
signal is generated.
Relays acted : a. Flag operation at Protection panel.
b. Acting of Master relay
c. Indication at Annunciation Panel.
Consequences : a. Tripping of 400KV breaker
b. Tripping of Field breaker
c. Stop command to Turbine thro’ Mark-IV
Status : a. Unit is at coasting down.
The unit trips on the reverse power protection. Resins the machine and increase the input power to the
turbine as quickly as possible within low forward power time setting. Even after two to three attempts, the
machine is tripping on the same protection; probably the governor of turbine is faulty. Inform to
maintenance staff for rectification of the same.

13.POLE SLIP OR OUT-OF-STEP PROTECTION:

Setting : 6.9 ohm.
When a generator loses synchronism, the resulting high current peaks and off-frequency operation may
cause winding stresses, pulsation torques and mechanical resonances that have the potential danger to
turbine generator. Therefore, to minimize the possibility of damage, it is generally accepted that the
machine should be tripped without time delay preferably during the first half-slip cycle of the loss of
synchronism condition. The electrical center during loss-of-synchronous conditions can occur in the
generator as a result of increased impedance of the generator while decrease system impedance. The
protections normally applied in the generator zone such as back-up impedance, loss of excitation etc., will
not protect a generator during loss of synchronism under normal generator conditions.
Relays acted : a. Flag operation at Protection panel.
b. Acting of Master relay
c. Indication at Annunciation Panel.
Consequences : a. Tripping of 220KV breaker
b. Tripping of Field breaker
c. Stop command to Turbine thro’ Mark-IV
Status : a. Unit is at coasting down.
The unit trips on the Pole slip protection, Resynch the machine after stabilization of the grid parameters

14.POLE DISCREPANCY PROTECITON:

Setting : 0.5 Sec.
If One or two poles of generator breaker fail to close during synchronization, all poles of the breaker trip
on this protection. It may be due to mechanical failure of the breaker un equal distribution of closing
signal to the breaker from protection system.
Relays acted : a. Flag operation at 220KV Breaker panel.
b. Indication at Annunciation Panel.
Consequences : a. tripping of 220KV breaker
Status : a. Unit is at FSNL with potential.
The generator breaker trips on the pole discrepancy protection, Resynch the generator. Even after two to
three attempts, the machine is tripping on the same protection, probably the generator breaker is faulty.
Inform to maintenance staff for rectification of the same.

15.LOCAL BREAKER BACKUP PROTECTION:

Setting : 25% Time : 0.8 Sec.
For most of the faults, the generator breaker involves tripping the generator from the system. Failure of
the breaker to open probably results in loss of protection and other problems such as motoring action or
single phasing, If one or two poles of the generator breaker fail to open due to mechanical failure in
breaker mechanism, the result can be a single phasing and negative phase sequence currents inducted on
the rotor. The LBB protection is energized when the breaker trip is initiated after a suitable time interval if
confirmation of the confirmation of breaker tripping from three poles is not received. The energized
tripping signal from LBB protection will trip all 220KV generator breakers and all 220KV feeder breakers
through Bus-bar protection.
Relays acted : a. Flag operation at Protection panel.
b. Acting of Master relay for all units.
c. Indication at Annunciation Panel.
Consequences : a. Tripping of 220KV breaker
b. Tripping of Field breaker of all units.
Status : a. all Units are at FSNL.
Once the LBB protection operated, the entire station is in dark. First restore all essential services to all units
such as lube oil system and turning gear etc., from battery backup and. Checkup the faulty 220KV breaker
and isolate the breaker from the system by opening the both side of the isolators.
After restoring all services from station supply, Close 220KV feeder breakers first and take all units into
service one after the other duly co-coordinating with the DE/LD.
Since it involves complex operation, it is necessary to get help from maintenance staff for restoring the
normally in the station. Never attempt to close the faulty 220KV generator in panic as it causes permanent
damage to the generator and transformer.

16.BUS BAR PROTECTION:

Setting : 0.8 Amp.
There are mainly three protection zones namely called generator zone, bus duct transformer zone, 220KV
breakers zone. The protection of generator zone and bus duct & transformer zone are covered in previous
schemes. All 220KV breakers at switchyard will come under Bus-Bar protection. Functioning of this scheme
is similar to the generator differential protection or generator-transformer differential protection. It
measures all incoming currents from the generators at 220KV side and all outgoing currents in 220KV
feeders, and initiates trip signal if it detects any deviation more than the preset value as the algebraic sum
of all currents at 220KV bus must be less than the preset value. It isolates all 220KV generator breakers
and all 220KV feeder breakers connected to 220KV bus.
Relays acted : a. Flag operation at Protection panel.
b. Acting of Master relay for all units.
c. Indication at Annunciation Panel.
Consequences : a. Tripping of 220KV breaker
b. Tripping of Field breaker of all units.
Status : a. all Units are at FSNL.
Once the Bus-Bar protection operated, the entire station is in dark. First restore all essential services to all
units such as lube oil system and turning gear etc., from battery backup and 6.6/0.44KV Stage – II reserve
power supply. Checkup the entire 220KV switch yard for any wire snapping or equipment damage.
After restoring all services from station supply, Close 220KV feeder breakers first and take all units into
service one after the other duly co-ordinating with the DE/LD.
Since it involves complex operation, it is necessary to get help from maintenance staff for restoring the
normalcy in the station. Never attempt to restore the 220KV supply at switch yard in panic unless the
entire system is thoroughly examined and satisfy yourself as it causes permanent damage to the
equipment or injury/death to the person working at switch yard.

17.OVER FREQUENCY PROTECTION:

Setting : 52 Hz Time - 2 Sec.
For a generator connected to a system, abnormal frequency operation is a result of a severe system
disturbance. The generator can tolerate moderate over frequency operation provided voltage is within an
acceptable limits. The machine operated at higher speeds at which the rotor material no longer contain
the centrifugal forces imposed on them resulting in serious damage to the turbine-generator set. The
abnormal over frequency on the machine may be due to improper speed control adjustment or
disoperation of the speed controller or severe grid disturbance or sudden load through off.
Relays acted : a. Flag operation at Protection panel.
b. Acting of Master relay
c. Indication at Annunciation Panel.
Consequences : a. Tripping of 400KV breaker
b. Tripping of Field breaker

c. Stop command to Turbine thro’ Mark-IV

Status : a. Unit is at coasting down.
The unit trips on the over frequency protection, Resins the machine. Even after two to three attempts, the
machine is tripping on the same protection; probably the governor of turbine is faulty. Inform to
maintenance staff for rectification of the same.

18.UNDER FREQUENCY PROTECTION:

Setting : 48 Hz Time : 2.0 Sec.
For a generator connected to a system, under frequency operation is a result of a severe system
disturbance. The generator can tolerate moderate under frequency operation provided voltage is within
an acceptable limits. The machine operated at lower higher speeds causes severe over fluxing in the
generator-transformer. The abnormal under frequency on the machine may be due to improper speed
control adjustment or disoperation of the speed controller.
Relays acted : a. Flag operation at Protection panel.
b. Indication at Annunciation Panel
Consequences : a. NIL
Status : a. Unit is at lower speed with potential.
Increase governor speed until machine reaches full speed. Even after two to three attempts, the machine
are running at lower speed, probably the governor of turbine is faulty. Inform to maintenance staff for
rectification of the same.
19.OVER VOLTAGE PROTECTION :
Setting : a. 110% Time - 2.0 Sec.
b. 120% Time - 0.3 Sec.
Generator voltage is at present value under normal operating conditions as selected by operator in AVR. If
it parts from preset value, May be due to AVR mal-functioning or a system disturbance. Severe over
voltage can cause over fluxing and winding insulation failure. The over voltage protection can be
considered as a backup to the Volts-per-Hertz protection.
Relays acted : a. Flag operation at Protection panel.
b. Acting of Master relay
c. Indication at Annunciation Panel.
Consequences : a. Tripping of 220KV breaker
b. Tripping of Field breaker
Status : a. Unit is at FSNL without potential.
Raise the generator voltage slowly with manual mode in AVR and keep generator voltage within the limits
of normal voltage. If it is unable to control the generator voltage, trip the field breaker and inform to the
maintenance staff for rectification of the AVR.

Short Circuit Ratio of a Synchronous Machine

The Short Circuit Ratio (SCR) of a synchronous machine is defined as the ratio of the field current required to
generate rated voltage on an open circuit to the field current required to circulate rated armature current on short
circuit. The short circuit ratio can be calculated from the open circuit characteristic ( O.C.C) at rated speed
and the short circuit characteristic(S.C.C) of a three-phase synchronous machine as shown in the figure
below.

From the above figure, the short circuit ratio is given by the equation shown below.
Since the triangles Oab and Ode are similar. Therefore,

The direct axis synchronous reactance Xd is defined as the ratio of open circuit voltage for a given field current
to the armature short circuit current for the same field current.

For the field current equal to Oa, the direct axis synchronous reactance in ohms is given by the equation shown
below.

The per unit value of Xd is given as

But, the base impedance is

Therefore,

From the equation (1) and the equation (6) we get

From the equation (7) it is clear that the short circuit ratio is equal to the reciprocal of the per unit value of the
direct axis synchronous reactance.
In a saturated magnetic circuit, the value of Xd depends upon the degree of saturation.

Significance of Short Circuit Ratio (SCR)

Short Circuit Ratio is an important factor of the synchronous machine. It affects the operating characteristics,
physical size and cost of the machine. The Large variation in the terminal voltage with a change in load takes
place for the lower value of the short circuit ratio of a synchronous generator. To keep the terminal voltage
constant, the field current (If) has to be varied over a wide range.

For the small value of the short circuit ratio (SCR), the synchronizing power is small. As the synchronizing
power keeps the machine in synchronism, a lower value of the SCR has a low stability limit. In other words, a
machine with a low SCR is less stable when operating in parallel with the other generators.

A synchronous machine with the high value of SCR had a better voltage regulation and improved steady state
stability limit, but the short circuit fault current in the armature is high. It also affects the size and cost of the
machine.

The excitation voltage of the synchronous machine is given by the equation.

For the same value of Tph Excitation voltage is directly proportional to the field flux per pole.

The synchronous inductance is given as

Therefore,

Hence, the short circuit ratio is directly proportional to the air gap reluctance or air gap length.
 If the length of the air gap is increased, the SCR can be increased. With the increase in the air gap length, the
field MMF is to be increased for the same value of excitation voltage (Ef). Hence, to increase the value of field
MMF either field current or the number of field turns has to be increased. All this requires a greater height of
field poles and, as a result, the overall diameter of the machine increases.

Thus, a conclusion is that the large value of SCR will increase the size, weight and the cost of the machine.

The typical values of the SCR for different types of machines are as follows:-

 For cylindrical rotor machine, the value of SCR lies between 0.5 to 0.9.
 In case of the Salient-pole machine, it lies between 1 to 1.5 and
 For synchronous compensators, it is 0.4.