LABORATORY  REQUIREMENTS    
 
Each  student  is  required  to  bring  the  following  items  every  meeting:    
 
Laboratory  cap               Shoe  covers    
Laboratory  goggles                
Laboratory  gown                  
Mask  with  carbon  filter                
 
Each  group  is  required  to  have  the  following  items  in  their  lockers  every  
meeting:    
 
Aluminum  foil               Masking  tape    
Rags  (5  pieces)               Matches/Lighter    
Scotch  tape                 Latex  gloves  (1  box)    
Pair  of  scissors               Tissue  paper    
Liquid  detergent               Test  tube  brush  
Rubber  aspirator             Permanent  marker  
Sponge               Dropping  pipets  
Glue                 Oil  cloth  
 
GOOD  LABORATORY  PRACTICES    
(Adapted  from  UPM  College  of  Pharmacy)    
A.  Always  wear  appropriate  laboratory  attire.    
1.   A   clean   laboratory   gown   should   be   worn   at   all   times   inside   the  
laboratory,  all  buttoned  up.    
2.   Long   pants   must   be   worn   during   laboratory   classes.   Shorts,   capri   pants  
and   pedal   pushers   do   not   adequately   cover   skin   and   therefore   must   be  
avoided.    
3.  Closed  shoes  must  be  worn  during  laboratory  periods.  Sandals,  open-­‐toe,  
sling   back,   and   half-­‐closed   shoes   are   not   encouraged   to   be   worn   during  
laboratory  classes.    
4.  Wearing  make-­‐up  is  permissible  but  keep  it  at  minimum.    
5.  Maintain  well-­‐trimmed  nails  and  avoid  polished  nails.    
  
 
6.   Wear   eye   protection   gear   when   dealing   with   experiments   that   use  
volatile  solvents  and  potentially  explosive  reagents.    
7.   If   something   gets   into   the   eyes,   wash   it   immediately   with   copious  
amounts  of  water  and  notify  the  teacher  immediately.    
8.   Never   use   contact   lenses   during   laboratory   classes.   Laboratory   fumes  
may  react  with  them  and  have  a  detrimental  effect  on  the  eyes.    
9.  Do  not  wear  jewelry  and  other  accessories  during  laboratory  classes.    
10.   Wear   a   mask   with   carbon   filter   when   performing   experiments   that   deal  
with  organic  solvents,  corrosives,  toxic  compounds  and  fuming  acids.    
11.   Gloves   must   be   worn   in   experiments   that   require   protection   of   the  
hands  and  prevention  of  contamination  of  the  finished  product.    
a.   Surgical   gloves   must   be   worn   in   experiments   that   deal   with  
microorganisms,   biological   fluids,   plant   samples,   and   in   preparation,  
formulation,  and  compounding  of  pharmaceutical  products.    
b.  Industrial  gloves  must  be  used  in  cases  wherein  organic  solvents,  
corrosive  and  toxic  chemicals  are  encountered.    
 
B.  Observe  proper  conduct  inside  the  laboratory.    
1.   In   case   of   accident,   no   matter   how   minor,   must   be   reported   to   the  
teacher  at  once.    
2.  Strictly  no  eating,  drinking,  and  smoking  within  laboratory  premises.  
3.  No  horse  playing  inside  the  laboratory.    
4.  No  unsupervised  experiment  shall  be  allowed.    
5.  The  teacher,  if  necessary,  must  supervise  make  –  up  classes.    
6.  Switch  off  or  put  cellular  phones  in  silent  mode.  The  use  of  cellular  phone  
is  not  allowed  during  laboratory  periods.    
7.   Students   must   ask   permission   from   the   teacher   before   going   outside   the  
laboratory.    
8.  Bags,  books,  and  other  unnecessary  things  must  be  placed  on  designated  
places.  Only  the  manual,  sample,  data  sheet,  toolbox  and  pens  must  be  in  
the  working  area.    
9.  No  boisterous  conversations  during  laboratory  classes.    
10.  Come  to  the  class  prepared.  Read  and  understand  the  exercise  prior  to  
coming  to  class.  Make  a  schematic  diagram  for  a  more  efficient  work.    
  
 
11.  Be  considerate  of  others  by  not  bringing  reagent  bottles  or  chemicals  to  
the  working  area.    
12.  Return  chemicals  and  glassware  to  their  proper  place  after  use.    
13.  Use  only  glassware  that  comes  from  the  locker  assigned  and  the  ones  
borrowed  from  the  stockroom.    
14.  Handle  chemicals  with  care.  Alertness  and  presence  of  mind  is  a  must  
for  every  experiment.    
 
C.  Observe  proper  hygiene  and  safety  rules  inside  the  laboratory.    
1.   Use   clean   and   dry   glassware   all   the   time.   Clean   all   glassware   using  
detergent   solution.   If   insufficient,   use   hot   nitric   acid.   The   use   of   cleaning  
solution   is   not   recommended   since   the   chromic   acid   generated   is  
considered  a  toxic  hazardous  waste.    
2.   Never   pick   up   shattered   pieces   of   glass   by   the   hand.   Call   the   attention   of  
the  laboratory  technician.    
3.  Know  the  location  of  the  fire  extinguisher  and  the  first  aid  kit  and  know  
the  proper  use  of  it  and  do  not  hesitate  to  use  such  equipment  should  the  
need  arise.    
4.   Be   extremely   tentative   when   touching   objects   that   have   been   heated  
since  hot  glass  looks  like  cold  glass.    
5.  When  asked  to  determine  the  odor  of  the  substance  being  tested,  do  not  
sniff;  instead,  gently  waft  the  vapors  towards  the  nose.    
6.   Ensure   cleanliness   of   the   working   area   before,   during,   and   after   the  
laboratory  period.    
7.  Wash  hands  before,  during,  and  after  doing  the  experiments  to  avoid  the  
introduction  of  contaminants  and  acquisition  of  disease.    
8.   Solid   wastes   (paper,   masking   tape,   matchsticks,   fruit   peel,   and   leaves)  
must  be  thrown  at  the  waste  bin  and  never  to  the  sink  or  the  floor.  Filter  
paper   containing   CuS   precipitate   should   never   be   thrown   directly   into   a  
waste   container.  The  precipitate   should  be  first  washed  with   running   water  
because  the  reaction  of  CuS  with  air  liberates  considerable  amount  of  heat  
and  can  pose  a  significant  fire  hazard  in  the  laboratory.    
9.   Always   add   concentrated   acid   to   water.   Do   not   discard   concentrated  
acids  directly  to  the  sink.  Look  for  the  acid  waste  bottle.    
  
 
10.   Use   the   appropriate   spatula   (steel   or   porcelain)   for   transferring   solid  
reagents.   Do   not   use   the   same   spatula   for   different   solids   to   avoid  
contamination.    
 
11.  Observe  proper  and  safety  handling  of  chemicals.    
a.   Flammable   reagents   are   never   handled   when   there   are   open  
flames  in  the  vicinity.    
• acetone    
• alcohols    
• benzene    
• carbon  disulfide    
• diethyl  ether    
• ethyl  acetate    
• hexane    
• petroleum  ether  (benzine  or  ligroin)    
• toluene    
 
b.   Explosive   reagents   should   never   be   handled   with   water.   These  
should  be  stored  in  kerosene  or  mineral  oil.  Do  not  touch  with  bare  hands.  
Instead,  use  forceps.    
• sodium  metal    
• potassium  metal  and  other  group  IA  metals    
 
c.  White  phosphorus  should  be  stored  in  water  since  it  reacts  with  air.  
Always  cut  it  under  water  and  use  forceps  in  handling  the  chemical.    
 
d.   Chlorocarbons   (CCl4   and   CHCl3)   are   known   liver   carcinogens.  
Whenever  possible,  minimize  exposure  to  such  agents.    
 
e.   Carbon   disulfide   easily   burns   even   at   temperatures   below   100   °C.  
Therefore,  be  extra  careful  when  the  procedure  states  that  a  heating  step  is  
involved  with  such  chemical.    
 
 
  
 
f.   Strong   oxidizing   agents   should   never   come   into   contact   with   organic  
materials  since  they  can  cause  fires.    
• hydrogen  peroxide    
• nitric  acid    
• potassium  permanganate    
• sulfuric  acid    
 
g.  Corrosive  agents  should  be  handled  with  industrial  gloves.    
 
• aluminum  chloride    
• ammonia    
• bromine    
• carboxylic  and  sulfonic  acids    
• hydrochloric  acid    
• nitric  acid    
• phenol    
• phosphoric  acid    
• sodium  and  potassium  hydroxide    
• sodium  carbonate    
• sulfuric  acid    
• thionyl  chloride    
 
h.  Harmful  and  toxic  reagents  must  be  handled  under  the  fume  hood.    
 
• aniline             Ÿ  phenol    
• benzene             Ÿ  phenylhydrazine  
• bromine             Ÿ  sodium  
• carbon  tetrachloride         Ÿ  potassium  cyanide  
• dimethyl  sulfate    
• elemental  mercury    
• hydrogen  sulfide    
• methanol    
• nitrobenzene    
  
 
i.  Cancer  suspect  agents  should  be  handled  under  the  fume  hood.    
 
• benzene           Ÿ dimethyl  sulfate  
• carbon  tetrachloride       Ÿ formaldehyde    
• chloroform           Ÿ phenylhydrazine    
 
j.   Solutions   of   cyanides   must   never   come   into   contact   with   acids   because  
toxic  HCN  will  be  liberated.    
 
k.  Substances  that  stain  the  skin  must  be  handled  with  gloves.    
• picric  acid    
• methyl  violet    
• malachite  green  and  other  dyestuffs    
 
l.   Elemental   mercury   and   soluble   mercury   compounds   should   never   be  
disposed  to  the  sink.  It  should  be  disposed  in  a  separate  waste  bottle  (white  
container).    
 
m.  Do  not  work  near  flame  or  hot  plate  when  dealing  with  chemicals  that  
are  very  volatile  and  have  low  flash  points.    
• carbon  disulfide    
• chloroform    
• diethyl  ether    
 
n.   Make   sure   that   reagent   caps   are   tightly   screwed   after   use   to   prevent  
accidental  spillage  in  case  of  accidents.    
 
o.  Carry  large  bottles  of  chemicals  with  both  hands,  one  hand  gripping  the  
neck  and  the  other  supporting  the  bottom  of  the  container.    
 
p.  Never  use  an  unlabeled  chemical.    
 
q.   Never   perform   the   taste   test   inside   the   laboratory   unless   specifically  
instructed  by  the  teacher.    
  
 
 
r.  Do  not  point  test  tubes  at  others  or  towards  yourself  while  the  contents  
are  boiling  because  it  might  splatter.    
 
s.   Do   not   mix   strong   oxidizing   agents   with   reducing   agents   unless  
specifically  instructed.    
 
t.  Observe  proper  containers  and  storage  for  chemicals.    
 
1) Solutions  of  alkalis  must  not  be  stored  in  glass  containers  or  
in   glass   –   stoppered   containers   as   leaching   and   freezing   of  
the  stopper  will  occur.  Use  stoppers  made  of  cork  or  rubber  
instead.    
 
2)   Light-­‐sensitive   solutions   must   be   stored   in   amber   –   colored  
bottles.    
• ceric  sulfate    
• ferrous  and  ferric  salts    
• iodine    
• oxalic  acid    
• potassium  permanganate    
• silver  nitrate    
• sodium  thiosulfate    
 
3)   Solutions   of   ferrous   salts   must   be   kept   acidic   to   prevent   air   –  
oxidation  of  ferrous  ions  to  ferric  state.  The  rate  of  oxidation  increases  as  
the  pH  of  the  solution  increases.    
 
4)  Ferrous  and  ferric  solutions  must  be  freshly  prepared.    
 
5)   Chlorine   and   bromine   water   deteriorates   on   standing   and   must   be  
placed  on  amber  bottles.  These  reagents  must  be  prepared  fresh.    
 
6)   It   is   better   to   prepare   solutions   in   small   quantities   when   they   are  
  
needed.    
 
12.  Observe  proper  disposal  of  chemicals.  Organic  solvents  and  noxious  
chemicals  must  never  be  disposed  to  the  sink.    
a.  GREEN  LABEL  –  for  halogenated  solvents  only    
b.  RED  LABEL  –  for  nonhalogenated  solvents  only    
c.  WHITE  LABEL  –  for  metal  residues    
d.  BLUE  LABEL  –  for  waste  concentrated  acids    
e.   Unreacted   sodium   or   potassium   metal   must   be   first   reacted   with  
excess  ethanol  before  disposing  it  to  the  sink.    
f.  Unreacted  white  phosphorus  must  first  be  oxidized  to  phosphate  ions  
via  nitric  acid  prior  to  disposal.    
 
HALOGENATED   NONHALOGENATED   METAL  RESIDUES    
COMPOUNDS     COMPOUNDS    
benzyl  chloride     benzene     magnesium    
carbon  tetrachloride     carbon  disulfide     mercury   (metal   and   its  
salts)    
chlorobenzene     ethanol     vanadium    
chloroform     ethyl  acetate     zinc  dust    
chlorosulfonic  acid     hexane    
dichloromethane     methanol    
thionyl  chloride     pyridine    
 
13.  Attend  to  spills  immediately.    
a.   In   case   of   microbiologic   cultures,   the   teacher   should   be   notified  
immediately  to  prevent  the  spread  of  pathogens.    
b.   For   spilled   acids,   neutralize   first   with   sodium   bicarbonate   or  
sodium  carbonate  prior  to  cleaning.    
c.  For  spilled  bases,  neutralize  first  with  sodium  bisulfate.    
d.   Neutral   solvents   can   be   absorbed   with   sand   or   paper   towels,  
although   the   use   of   sand   is   more   preferred   since   paper   towels   are   not  
reliable  all  the  time.    
e.   If   the   spilled   liquid   is   very   volatile,   clear   the   area,   extinguish   all  
lighted  burners  and  let  the  liquid  evaporate.    
  
 
 
D.  Observe  proper  laboratory  techniques.    
 
1.  Prevent  contamination  of  reagents  and  solutions.    
a.   Select   the   best   grade   of   chemical   available   for   analytical   work.   If  
possible,  pick  the  smallest  bottle  that  will  supply  the  desired  quantity.  
b.   Replace   the   top   of   every   container   immediately   after   removal   of  
the  reagent.    
c.  Hold  the  stoppers  of  reagent  bottles  between  your  fingers.  Never  
set  a  stopper  on  a  desktop.    
d.   Unless   specifically   directed   otherwise,   never   return   any   excess  
reagent  to  a  bottle.    
e.   Unless   directed   otherwise,   never   insert   spatulas,   spoons,   or   knives  
into   a   bottle   that   contains   a   solid   chemical.   Instead,   shake   the   capped  
bottle   vigorously   or   tap   it   gently   against   a   wooden   table   to   break   up   an  
encrustation;   then   pour   out   the   desired   quantity.   In   such   cases,   a   clean  
porcelain  spoon  should  be  used.    
f.  Keep  the  reagent  shelf  and  the  laboratory  balance  clean  and  neat.  
Clean  up  spilled  solids  immediately  with  a  camel’s  hairbrush.    
g.  Do  not  use  steel  spatula  for  substances  that  react  with  metals.  Use  
porcelain  spatula  instead.    
• iodine  crystals    
• EDTA  and  its  salts    
 
2.  Observe  proper  weighing  procedure.    
a.   Never   weigh   an   object   on   an   analytical   balance   that   exceeds   its  
maximum  limit.  Look  for  the  mark  on  the  balance.    
b.  Handle  the  analytical  balance  with  care.    
b1.)  Balances  should  be  placed  on  heavy  surfaces  to  minimize  
the  effect  of  vibrations  and  should  be  maintained  in  a  level  position.    
b2.)   Avoid   subjecting   the   analytical   balance   to   unnecessary  
motion,   as   this   will   cause   damage   to   the   balance   owing   to   its   high  
sensitivity.    
b3.)   Always   make   sure   that   the   balance   is   plugged   to   the  
  
voltage  regulator  before  use.    
 
b4.)  Check  if  the  spirit  level  is  in  the  center  of  the  mark.    
b5.)   Allow   equilibration   time   for   the   balance   before   use.   The   zero  
display  will  appear  several  seconds  after  turning  on  the  balance.    
b6.)  Center  the  load  on  the  pan  as  well  as  possible.    
b7.)   Protect   the   balance   from   corrosion.   Avoid   spillage   on   the  
balance  pan  as  much  as  possible.  Clean  up  immediately  if  such  cases  occur.    
b8.)   Never   weigh   an   object   into   the   balance   that   is   not   at   room  
temperature.  Allow  cooling  to  room  temperature  before  weighing  because  
weighing  an  object  that  is  not  at  room  temperature  will  cause  the  apparent  
mass  of  the  object  to  be  low.    
b9.)   Use   tongs   or   finger   pads   to   prevent   the   uptake   of   moisture   by  
dried  objects.    
b.10)  Once  the  glassware  is  tared,  do  not  place  it  outside  the  balance  
because  analytical  balances  are  sensitive  enough  to  measure  the  mass  of  a  
fingerprint  and  air  currents  can  affect  the  mass  of  an  object.    
b.11)   Volatile   liquids   should   be   weighed   using   covered   containers  
(i.e.,  iodine  flask)  to  prevent  loss  of  sample  by  evaporation.    
b.12)  Paper  tares  are  used  to  contain  plant  materials  and  chemicals  
that  are  not  hygroscopic,  deliquescent  or  efflorescent  for  weighing.    
b.13)   Beakers,   watch   glass,   or   other   suitable   glassware   is   preferred  
when  weighing  chemicals.    
b.14)   Hygroscopic,   efflorescent,   and   solids   that   easily   sublime   must  
be  weighed  in  weighing  bottles.  
• alkali  hydroxides    
• anhydrous  calcium  chloride    
• iodine    
• magnesium  chloride    
b15)   Always   make   sure   that   the   glass   doors   are   closed   before  
determining  the  mass  of  the  object.    
b16)   Tare   the   balance   after   use   before   turning   it   off.   Ensure  
cleanliness   of   the   balance   pan   and   make   sure   to   completely   close   the  
sliding  doors  of  the  balance  to  prevent  entrance  of  dirt  inside  the  balance  
pan.    
  
 
 
3.  Observe  proper  operating  procedures  when  using  the  oven.    
a)   The   equipment   needs   to   be   equilibrated   to   the   desired  
temperature  before  using.  Preheat  the  oven  for  30  minutes  before  using.    
b)   Check   the   display   area   of   the   oven   if   it   meets   the   temperature  
requirement.   Make   sure   to   follow   the   prescribed   temperature   to   prevent  
inadequate  drying  or  decomposition.    
c)   Some   ovens   have   the   ability   to   circulate   heated   air   that   allows  
more  efficient  removal  of  moisture  and  therefore  shortened  drying  time.    
d)  Do  not  change  the  temperature  settings  on  the  heating  equipment  
without  the  consent  of  the  teacher.    
e)   Take   extra   care   when   putting   and   removing   objects   to   avoid  
serious  burns.  Use  tongs  and  mittens  as  necessary.    
 
4.  Observe  proper  techniques  in  volume  measurements.    
a)   Do   not   dry   the   interior   surfaces   of   glassware   or   porcelain   ware  
unless   directed   otherwise.   The   preferred   way   of   drying   glassware   is   via  
oven.   Air   –   drying   can   be   done   but   is   time   consuming.   Never   place  
glassware   near   electric   fans   for   faster   drying.   Cheesecloth   can   be   used   if  
there  is  a  need  to  dry  the  interior  of  glassware  quickly.  Tissue  papers  and  
rags  are  not  allowed.    
b)  Never  use  the  mouth  to  deliver  liquids  into  a  pipet.  Always  use  an  
aspirator  to  prevent  accidental  ingestion  of  the  liquid  being  drawn.    
c)   Before   using   a   pipet,   burette,   graduated   cylinder   or   a   volumetric  
flask,   it   should   be   rinsed   first   with   several   small   portions   of   the   solution  
whose  volume  is  being  measured.   This   step   ensures   that   any   residual   liquid  
remaining  is  removed.    
d)   Never   use   dirty   volumetric   glassware   because   dirt   and   grease   on  
the   inner   glass   surface   prevents   liquids   from   draining   evenly,   leaving  
droplets  of  the  liquid  on  the  walls  of  the  container  to  avoid  discrepancies  of  
the  volume  delivered.    
e)   Avoid   parallax   error   in   reading   measurements   of   liquids.   Use   the  
upper   meniscus   for   intensely   colored   liquids.   For   clear   liquids,   read   the  
lower   meniscus.   Make   sure   that   the   eye   must   be   at   the   level  of   the   surface  
  
of  the  liquid.    
 
f)  When  drawing  liquid  with  a  pipet,  the  forefinger  must  be  used  to  
arrest   the   flow   of   the   liquid.   Make   sure   that   there   are   no   air   bubbles   or  
foam  present  within  the  vessel.  The  small  volume  remaining  inside  the  tip  
of  the  pipet  should  not  be  blown  or  rinsed  into  the  receiving  vessel.    
 
5.  Observe  proper  filtration  techniques.    
a)  Avoid  wasteful  use  of  Whatman  filter  paper.    
b)  A  filter  cone  is  preferred  when  the  precipitate  is  desired,  while  a  
fluted   filter   paper   is   desired   when   the   filtrate   is   the   one   needed   for   the  
experiment.  
c)   The   size   of   the   filter   paper   must   be   ⅓   smaller   than   the   internal  
diameter   of   the   funnel   to   be   used.   It   should   be   moistened   with   distilled  
water  or  with  whatever  solvent  is  used  after  insertion  to  the  funnel  prior  to  
filtration.    
d)  The  tip  of  the  funnel  must  be  touching  the  wall  of  the  receiver.    
e)  Use  a  stirring  rod  to  guide  the  supernatant  liquid  to  the  funnel.    
f)  Ashless  filter  paper  absorbs  moisture  from  the  hand  and  from  the  
environment,   so   it   should   not   be   handled   with   bare   hands   as   much   as  
possible.   If   handling   cannot   be   avoided,   manipulations   should   be   done  
quickly  enough  to  prevent  absorption  of  moisture  by  the  paper,  which  can  
affect  the  measurement.    
  g)  When  using  vacuum  filtration,  make  sure  that  the  setup  is  properly  
connected  to  avoid  laboratory  accidents.  Have  the  setup  inspected  by  the  
teacher  and  never  operate  the  equipment  without  supervision.  
 
COMMON  LABORATORY  PROCEDURES    
 
1.  Using  the  Balance    
 
A  balance  is  used  to  measure  the  mass  of  an  object.  Turn  the  balance  on  by  
pressing  the  on/off  button  down.  The  electronic  readout  should  then  be  lit.  
Open  one  of  the  sliding  doors  and  be  sure  the  balance  pan  and  surrounding  
area  is  clean.  You  can  clean  it  with  a  balance  brush.  Next  shut  the  doors  and  
  
press  the  tare  bar  to  set  the  balance  at  zero.  Now  simply  place  the  object  to  
be  weighed  on  the  balance  and  measure  the  mass  to  0.0001  grams.  
   

 
 
 
Always  use  weighing  paper  when  weighing  solids  to  protect  the  balance.  To  
do  this  simply  place  the  weighing  paper  on  the  balance  pan  and  be  sure  it  is  
not  touching  the  side.  Press  the  tare  bar  on  the  right  side  and  the  balance  
will  then  read  0.0000  g.  Now  add  the  desired  mass  of  solid  and  record  the  
mass.  Always  clean  the  balance  carefully  after  use.  At  the  end  of  the  period,  
turn  off  the  balance  by  pressing  the  on/off  button.  Always  use  the  balance  
with  extreme  care  as  it  is  very  expensive.    
 
2.  Handling  Solids    
 
Use   a   clean   spatula   to   transfer   solid   from   bottles.   Never   use   a  
contaminated   spatula.   Also,   never   return   unused   solid   to   the   reagent  
bottle.  Simply  discard  it.  To  avoid  waste,  never  remove  more  solid  from  a  
bottle  than  is  necessary.  
 
3.  Handling  Liquids    
When   transferring   liquids   from   a   reagent   bottle,   always   remove   the  
cap/stopper  and  hold  it  in  your  hand.  Never  place  the  cap/stopper  on  the  
  
bench  or  contamination  could  result.  Pour  the  liquid  slowly  and  carefully  to  
avoid  spillage.  You  may  find  the  use  of  a  glass  rod  helpful,  as  shown  below.  
 

 
 
 
4.  Capping  a  Flask    
During   many   experiments   you   will   have   to   cap   a   flask   to   protect   the  
contents   from   contamination.   The   figure   below   illustrates   the   proper  
method  using  Parafilm.  
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
  
 
5.  Measuring  Liquid  Volumes  
Many  glassware  items  have  volume  marks  printed  on  them.  Before  using  a  
piece   of   glassware   to   make   a   volume   measurement,   you   should   take   a  
moment  to  study  its  calibrations  to  insure  that  you  know  how  to  read  them  
properly.   A   beaker   or   Erlenmeyer   flask   can   be   used   for   rather   rough  
measurements.   A   graduated   cylinder   of   the   appropriate   size   can   be   used  
for   measurements   of   moderate   accuracy.   A   pipet   is   commonly   used   to  
transfer   an   accurately   known   volume   of   a   liquid   from   one   container   to  
another.   However,   the   accuracy   of   such   a   transfer   is   only   as   good   as   the  
technique  of  the  operator  will  allow.  
 
In   making   any   volume   measurement,   the  
liquid       level   should   always   be   the   same   as  
your   eye   level.   Erlenmeyer   flasks   and  
graduated  cylinders  are  usually  filled/read  by  
raising   them   to   your   eye   rather   than   by  
squatting   down   to   bring   your   eye  level  to  the  
bench  top.  The  liquid  level  in  a  pipet  is  always  
lowered   to   the   mark   while   the   mark   is   held  
steady  at  eye  level.  
 
Burettes:   With   practice,   the   position   of   the  
meniscus  of  a  liquid  in  the  50  mL  burettes  can    
be  estimated  to  within  0.1  mL.  The  figure  on  
the  right  shows  the  use  of  a  card  with  a  dark  
strip   on   it   to   sharpen   the   image   of   the   meniscus.   You   will   find   by  
experiment  that  if  the  top  of  the  strip  is  positioned  slightly  below  the  level  
of  the  liquid  in  the  burette,  the  bottom  of  the  meniscus  will  be  very  easy  to  
see.  
 
You  should  always  use  the  following  procedure  when  changing  the  solution  
in   a   burette.   First,   empty   the   burette   out   the   top   and   half   –   fill   it   with  
distilled  water.  Open  the  stopcock  and  drain  about  5  mL  out  of  the  tip.  Over  
the  sink,  empty  the  burette  out  the  top  by  inverting  it  swiftly,  and  then    
  
 
repeat   the   water   washing,   this   time   also   opening   the   stopcock   when   the  
burette  is  inverted  to  allow  most  of  the  water  to  drain  back  out  of  the  tip.  
Wait  about  30  seconds  for  drainage  and  then  close  the  stopcock.  While  it  is  
still   upside   down,   blot/wipe   off   the   top   of   the   burette   with   tissue.   Then  
turn  it  upright,  and  using  a  clean  beaker  for  the  transfer,  add  enough  of  the  
new   solution   to   bring   the   liquid   level   up   to   about   the   48   mL   mark.   Next,  
drain   part   of   the   liquid   out   of   the   tip   into   a   waste   receiver,   close   the  
stopcock,   and   wipe   off   the   tip   with   a   laboratory   tissue.   Then,   at   the   sink,  
cradle  the  top  of  the  burette  between  the  thumb  and  index  finger  of  one  
hand.   While   holding   it   by   the   tip   with   your   other   hand,   turn   the   burette  
horizontal.   While   twirling   the   burette   by   the   tip,   slowly   empty   it   through  
the   top,   being   careful   to   wet   the   entire   interior   wall   with   the   new   solution.  
Repeat   this   operation   two   more   times.   Finally,   fill   the   burette   above   the  
zero  mark  and  drain  the  excess  out  the  tip  until  the  meniscus  is  within  the  
calibrated  portion  of  the  burette.  
 
Be  sure  that  no  air  bubbles  are  trapped  in  the  tip.  Do  not  attempt  to  bring  
the  meniscus  to  0.00.  This  method  is  both  time  consuming  and  unwise,  
since  the  0.00  line  may  not  be  in  precisely  the  right  place.  
 
Pipets:   Students   often   experience   some   initial   difficulty   in   using   a   pipet.    
The   following   instructions,   the   illustrations   in   the   figure   below   and   some  
hands-­‐on   practice   using   distilled   water   should   help   you   to   become  
proficient   fairly   quickly.     In   what   follows,   we   assume   that   the   pipet   has  
been  pre-­‐rinsed  with  the  solution  you  want  to  transfer  following  essentially  
the  same  procedure  as  that  described  above  for  burettes,  except  that  you  
must   use   a   bulb   to   suck   the   small   doses   of   water   or   the   new   liquid   into   the  
pipet  rather  than  pouring  them  from  the  beaker.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
  
 

 
 
To  begin  a  pipetting  operation  hold  the  pipet  vertical  and  res  the  pointed  
end   on   the   bottom   the   container   from   which   you   want   to   transfer   a  
sample.     With   your   least-­‐dextrerous   hand,   use   bulb   fitted   with   an  
Eppendorf  tip  to  draw  the  liquid  a  few  centimeters  above  the  mark  on  the  
pipet.    If  you  keep  the  pipet  bottomed,  you  can  then  remove  the  bulb  and  
quickly   seal   the   pipet   mouth   with   the   index   finger   of   your   “better”   hand  
before   the   liquid   level   falls   belopw   the   mark.     You   might   try   conditioning  
your  index  fingertip  first  by  rubbing  it  gently  in  the  palm  of  the  other  hand.  
 
Raise   the   over   filled   pipet   vertically   out   of   the   vessel   from   which   you   are  
taking  the  measured  sample  and  quickly  put  a  beaker  or  some  other  waste  
receiver   under   it.     Raise   the   mark   of   the   pipet   to   your   eye   level,   tilt   the  
receiver  slightly,  and  touch  the  pointed  tip  of  the  spot  on  its  sidewall.  
 
 
 
  
 
If   you   now   slightly   rock   your   index   finger   you   can   open   and   close   a   tiny  
crack   at   the   mouth   of   the   pipet   and   thereby   allow   the   liquid   level   in   the  
pipet   to   fall   exactly   to   the   mark   on   its   shaft.   Be   patient   because   if   you  
overshoot  the  mark  you  must  begin  the  whole  process  again.  Remove  the  
accurately  filled  pipet  from  its  container  and  while  still  tightly  sealing  its  top  
with   your   finger,   quickly   dry   the   lower   portion   of   the   shaft   with   a   single  
downward   stroke   of   a   tissue.   Tilt   the   final   receiver   slightly   and   while  
holding   the   pipet   vertical,   place   its   tip   against   the   receiver   wall   so   that  
when   take   your   finger   off   of   the   pipet   mouth,   liquid   will   flow   smoothly  
down  to  the  bottom  of  the  vessel.  You  want  to  avoid  splashing  as  much  as  
possible.  Keep  the  tip  of  the  pipet  in  contact  with  the  flask  sidewall  for  at  
least  30  seconds  after  it  looks  empty,  and  then  remove  it  from  the  receiver.  
The  pipets  in  the  laboratory  are  calibrated  "to  deliver"  the  specified  
quantity  of  liquid  rather  than  "to  contain"  it.  What  this  really  means  is  that  
you  should  never  blow  the  last  drops  out  of  them.  
 
6.  Filtration  
You   will   often   need   to   separate   a   liquid   from   a   solid.   At   times   you   will  
simply   decant,   that   is,   you   will   carefully   pour   out   the   liquid,   leaving   the  
solid  behind.  At  other  times  you  will  need  to  filter  the  solution.  To  do  this  
you  will  use  filter  paper  and  a  funnel.  You  must  first  flute  the  paper  in  order  
to  accelerate  the  process;  this  is  shown  on  the  figure  below.  

 
 
  
 
Fluting  the  Filter  Paper  
 
You   will   then   set   the   paper   in   the   funnel   using   your   wash   bottle.   To   do   this  
simply  place  the  paper  into  the  funnel  and  add  a  small  amount  of  water  to  
the   bottom   of   the   filter.   Slowly   add   water   to   the   sides   with   a   circular  
motion   to   avoid   air   bubbles   between   the   paper   and   the   funnel.   Once   the  
paper   has   set,   transfer   the   solution   to   be   filtered.   If   the   solid   has   settled,  
decant   the   liquid   through   the   filter   first   in   order   to   save   time.   Never  
overwhelm   the   filter;   don't   add   the   solution   too   quickly   and   never   come   to  
within   one   centimeter   of   the   top   of   the   paper.   Transfer   the   solid   using   a  
wash  bottle  and  rubber  policeman,  and  then  wash  the  solid  as  directed  by  
the  experimental  procedure.  
 
 
7.  Heating  You   will   use   both   a   hot   plate   and   a   Bunsen   burner   to   heat   solids  
and  solutions.  Always  be  careful  to  avoid  burns  and  never  heat  a  material  
too   quickly   or   explosive   "bumping"   can   occur.   When   using   a   hot   plate  
always  begin  at  the  setting  indicated  in  the  manual.  However,  this  setting  
may   vary   depending   on   the   hot   plate   so   you   will   have   to   experiment.   In  
using  a  bunsen  burner,  always  use  a  tight  blue  flame  as  shown  in  the  figure  
below.  Control  the  heat  transfer  by  adjusting  the  distance  from  the  burner  
to   the   object.   Note   that   the   distances   suggested   in   the   manual   are  
measured  from  the  hottest  part  of  the  flame  to  the  object.    

 
  
 
8.  pH  Meter  Operating  Instructions  
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  
 

 
 
 
 
Proposed  by:  
 
 
Robert  Paul  S.  Lim,  RPh  
Academic  Coordinator  
 
Approved  by:  
 
 
Prof.  Rosalinda  C.  Solevilla,  RPh.,  Ph.D.  
Dean