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Crewpetro Private Limited

Well Control -
2015
Primary Training Center :- No. 10-15, 2nd Floor, Shree Narayan Plaza, Ahmedabad- Mehsana Bypass, Mehsana,
Gujarat-384002, India ,+91-8154805879

Kerala :- 1st Floor, Veliath Plaza, Opp. Indian Govt. Press, Koratty, Kerala, +91-9946098799

Mumbai :- 303, 3rd Floor, D-Definity Tower, Above Cosmos Bank, Goregaon East, Mumbai, +91-8767605879

Philippines :- 6/F, Cyberone, Bagumbayan, Eastwood Avenue, Eastwood City, Manila, +63-9179901113
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Contents

1. Well Control Concepts

2. Basic Calculations

3. Mud & Pit Management

4. Risk Management

5. Causes of Kicks

6. Abnormal Pressure warning Sign

7. Kick Detection

8. Shut-in Procedure & verification

9. Post Shut-in Monitoring Activities

10. Well Control Drills

11. Well Control Methods

12. Kill Sheet

13. Equipment
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Chapter 1 Well Control Concepts

Well Control Terminology

Well control is the technique used in oil and gas operations such as drilling, well workover, and well
completions to maintaining the fluid column hydrostatic pressure and formation pressure to prevent
influx of formation fluids into the wellbore. This technique involves the estimation of formation fluid
pressures, the strength of the subsurface formations and the use of casing and mud density to offset
those pressures in a predictable fashion. Understanding of pressure and pressure relationships are very
important in well control.

Effects of Porosity and Permeability

The essential properties of reservoir rocks are their porosity and permeability - these properties will
determine how much and how quick a kick will enter the well. Kicks will enter a wellbore faster from
rocks having high permeability. It is possible to drill under balance in formations with very low
permeability, such as shales, because the entry of the influx into the wellbore is very slow.

The porosity provides the storage space for fluids and gases and is the ratio of the pore spaces in the
rock to the bulk volume of the rock.

This is expressed as a percentage. Reservoir rocks commonly have porosities ranging from 5% to 30%.

Formation permeability is a measure of how easy the fluid will flow through the rock and depends upon
on the number, size and degree of interconnection between the pore spaces. Shales may have a similar
porosity as sandstones but because the pores are not connected fluid is unable to travel through the
formation. Permeability is expressed in Darcys and in reservoir rocks, ranges from a few milliDarcys to
several Darcys.

Pressure is a very important concept in the oil and gas industry. Pressure can be defined as: the force
exerted per unit area. Its SI unit is newtons per square metre or pascals. Another unit, bar, is also widely
used as a measure of pressure, with 1 bar equal to 100 kilopascals. Normally pressure is measured in the
U.S. petroleum industry in units of pounds force per square inch of area, or psi. 1000 q psi equals
6894.76 pascals.

Fluid Pressure

Fluid is any substance that flows; e.g. oil, water, gas, and ice are all examples of fluids. Under extreme
pressure and temperature almost anything will become fluid. Fluid exerts pressure and this pressure is
as a result of the density and the height of the fluid column.

Most oil companies usually represent density measurement in pounds per gallon (ppg) or kilograms per
cubic meter (kg/m3) and pressure measurement in pounds per square inch (psi) or bar or pascal (Pa).

Pressure increases as the density of the fluid increases. To find out the amount of pressure a fluid of a
known density exerts for each unit of length, the pressure gradient is used.

A pressure gradient is defined as the pressure increase per unit of the depth due to its density and it is
usually measured in pounds per square inch per foot or bars per meter.
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It is expressed mathematically as; pressure gradient = fluid density × conversion factor. The conversion
factor used to convert density to pressure is 0.052 in English system and 0.0981 in Metric system.

Hydrostatic pressure

Hydro means water, or fluid, that exerts pressure and static means not moving or at rest. Therefore,
hydrostatic pressure is the total fluid pressure created by the weight of a column of fluid, acting on any
given point in a well. In oil and gas operations, it is represented mathematically as; Hydrostatic pressure
= pressure gradient × true vertical depth or Hydrostatic pressure = fluid density × conversion factor ×
true vertical depth .

The figure (not shown) shows two wells, well X and Y. Well X has measured depth of 9800 ft and a true
vertical depth of 9800 ft while well Y has measured depth of 10380 ft and its true vertical depth is 9800
ft.To calculate the hydrostatic pressure of the bottomhole, the true vertical depth is used because
gravity acts (pulls) vertically down the hole. The figure also illustrates the difference between true
vertical depth (TVD) and measured depth (MD).[2]

Formation pressure

Formation pressure is the pressure of the fluid within the pore spaces of the formation rock. This
pressure can be affected by the weight of the overburden (rock layers) above the formation, which
exerts pressure on both the grains and pore fluids. Grains are solid or rock material, and pores are
spaces between grains. If pore fluids are free to move, or escape, the grains lose some of their support
and move closer together. This process is called consolidation.[3] Depending on the magnitude of the
pore pressure, it can be described as being normal, abnormal or subnormal. Normal pore pressure or
formation pressure is equal to the hydrostatic pressure of formation fluid extending from the surface to
the surface formation being considered. In other words, if the formation was opened up and allowed to
fill a column whose length is equal to the depth of the formation, then the pressure at the bottom of the
column will be equal to the formation pressure and the pressure at surface is equal to zero. Normal pore
pressure is not a constant. Its magnitude varies with the concentration of dissolved salts, type of fluid,
gases present and temperature gradient.

When a normally pressured formation is raised toward the surface while prevented from losing pore
fluid in the process, it will change from normal pressure (at a greater depth) to abnormal pressure (at a
shallower depth). When this happens, and then one drill into the formation, mud weights of up to 20ppg
(2397 kg/m ³) may be required for control. This process accounts for many of the shallow, abnormally
pressured zones in the world. In areas where faulting is present, salt layers or domes are predicted, or
excessive geothermal gradients are known, drilling operations may encounter abnormal pressure.
Abnormal pore pressure is defined as any pore pressure that is greater than the hydrostatic pressure of
the formation fluid occupying the pore space.

It is sometimes called overpressure or geo pressure. An abnormally pressured formation can often be
predicted using well history, surface geology, downhole logs or geophysical surveys. Subnormal pore
pressure is defined as any formation pressure that is less than the corresponding fluid hydrostatic
pressure at a given depth.

Subnormally pressured formations have pressure gradients lower than fresh water or less than 0.433
psi/ft (0.0979 bar/m). Naturally occurring subnormal pressure can be developed when the overburden
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has been stripped away, leaving the formation exposed at the surface. Depletion of original pore fluids
through evaporation, capillary action and dilution produces hydrostatic gradients below 0.433 psi/ft
(0.0979 bar/m). Subnormal pressures may also be induced through depletion of formation fluids. If
Formation Pressure < Hydrostatic pressure then it is under pressured. If Formation Pressure >
Hydrostatic pressure then it is over pressured.

Fracture pressure

Fracture pressure is the amount of pressure it takes to permanently deform the rock structure of a
formation. Overcoming formation pressure is usually not sufficient to cause fracturing. If pore fluid is
free to move, a slow rate of entry into the formation will not cause fractures. If pore fluid cannot move
out of the way, fracturing and permanent deformation of the formation can occur. Fracture pressure
can be expressed as a gradient (psi/ft), a fluid density equivalent (ppg), or by calculated total pressure at
the formation (psi). Fracture gradients normally increase with depth due to increasing overburden
pressure. Deep, highly compacted formations can require very high fracture pressures to overcome the
existing formation pressure and resisting rock structure. Loosely compacted formations, such as those
found offshore in deep water, can fracture at low gradients (a situation exacerbated by the fact that
some of total "overburden" up the surface is sea water rather than the heavier rock that would be
present in an otherwise-comparable land well). Fracture pressures at any given depth can vary widely
because of the geology of the area.

Bottom hole pressure

Bottom hole pressure is used to represent the sum of all the pressures being exerted at the bottom of
the hole. Pressure is imposed on the walls of the hole. The hydrostatic fluid column accounts for most of
the pressure, but pressure to move fluid up the annulus also acts on the walls. In larger diameters, this
annular pressure is small, rarely exceeding 200 psi (13.79 bar). In smaller diameters it can be 400 psi
(27.58 bar) or higher. Backpressure or pressure held on the choke also increases bottomhole pressure,
which can be estimated by adding up all the known pressures acting in, or on, the annular (casing) side.

Overburden pressure

Overburden pressure is the pressure exerted by the weight of the rocks and contained fluids above the
zone of interest. Overburden pressure varies in different regions and formations. It is the force that
tends to compact a formation vertically. The density of these usual ranges of rocks is about 18 to 22 ppg
(2,157 to 2.636 kg/m3). This range of densities will generate an overburden pressure gradient of about 1
psi/ft (22.7 kPa/m). Usually, the 1 psi/ft is not applicable for shallow marine sediments or massive salt.
In offshore however, there is a lighter column of sea water, and the column of underwater rock does not
go all the way to the surface. Therefore, a lower overburden pressure is usually generated at an offshore
depth, than would be found at the same depth on land.

Mathematically, overburden pressure can be derived as:

S = ρb× D×g

where

g = acceleration due to gravity

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S = overburden pressure

ρb = average formation bulk density

D = vertical thickness of the overlying sediments

The bulk density of the sediment is a function of rock matrix density, porosity within the confines of the
pore spaces, and pore fluid density. This can be expressed as

ρb = φρf + (1 – φ)ρm

where

φ = rock porosity

ρf = formation fluid density

ρm = rock matrix density

What is a kick?

An influx of formation fluid into the wellbore that can be controlled at surface.

What criteria are necessary for a kick to occur?

 The formation pressure must exceed the wellbore or annular pressure. Fluids will always flow in
the direction of decreasing or least pressure.
 The formation must be permeable in order for the formation fluids to flow.

What is a blowout?

A flow of formation fluids that cannot be controlled at surface.

What is an underground blowout?

An underground blowout occurs when there is an uncontrollable flow of fluids between two formations.
In other words, one formation is kicking while, at the same time, another formation is losing circulation.

What is a surface blowout?

A surface blowout occurs when the well cannot be shut in to prevent the flow of fluids at surface.

Preventing a kick from becoming a blowout is paramount in well control!

Formation integrity test

An accurate evaluation of a casing cement job as well as of the formation is extremely important during
the drilling of a well and for subsequent work. The Information resulting from Formation Integrity Tests
(FIT) is used throughout the life of the well and also for nearby wells. Casing depths, well control
options, formation fracture pressures and limiting fluid weights may be based on this information.

To determine the strength and integrity of a formation, a Leak Off Test (LOT) or a Formation Integrity
Test (FIT) may be performed. This test is first: a method of checking the cement seal between casing and
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the formation, and second: determining the pressure and/or fluid weight the test zone below the casing
can sustain.

Whichever test is performed, some general points should be observed. The fluid in the well should be
circulated clean to ensure it is of a known and consistent density. If mud is used for the test, it should be
properly conditioned and gel strengths minimized.

The pump used should be a high-pressure, low-volume test or cementing pump. Rig pumps can be used
if the rig has electric drives on the mud pumps, and they can be slowly rolled over. If the rig pump must
be used and the pump cannot be easily controlled at low rates, then the leak-off technique must be
modified. It is a good idea to make a graph of the pressure versus time or volume for all leak-off tests.

The main reasons for performing formation integrity test (FIT) are:

To investigate the strength of the cement bond around the casing shoe and to ensure that no
communication is established with higher formations.

To determine the fracture gradient around the casing shoe and therefore establish the upper limit of the
primary well control for the open hole section below the current casing.

To investigate well bore capability to withstand pressure below the casing shoe in order to validate or
invalidate the well engineering plan regarding the casing shoe setting depth.

Principles of U-tube

It is often helpful to
visualize the well as a U-tube (see above). One column of the tube represents the annulus and the other
column represents the pipe in the well. The bottom of the U-tube represents the bottom of the well. In
most cases, there are fluids creating hydrostatic pressures in both the pipe and annulus. Atmospheric
pressure can be omitted, since it works the same on both columns. If there were 10 ppg (1198 kg/m³)
fluid in both the pipe and annulus, hydrostatic pressures would be equal and the fluid would be static on
both sides of the tube. However, what will happen if fluid in the annulus is heavier than the fluid in the
string?

The heavier fluid in the annulus exerting more pressure downward will flow into the string, displacing
some of the lighter fluid out of the string, causing a flow at surface. The fluid level will fall in the annulus,
equalizing pressures.
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When there is a difference in the hydrostatic pressures, the fluid will try to reach balance point. This is
called U-tubing, and it explains why there is often flow from the pipe when making connections. This is
often evident when drilling fast because the effective density in the annulus is increased by cuttings.

Another example of U-tubing is when a slug is pumped. The heavier slug is designed to allow tubing to
pull dry by falling to a level below the average length of stand pulled. The depth where the slug will fall
and the amount of fluid that U-tubes from the well can be calculated using the following equations:

Gain In Pits = (Slug Weight – Annulus Weight) × Volume of Slug ÷ Annulus Weight

Distance of Drop = Gain in Pits ÷ Pipe Capacity

Example

What will be the gain in the pits, and how far the slug will fall if the mud weight is 10 ppg (1198 kg/m³),
the pipe’s capacity is 0.0178 bbl/ft (0.00929 m³/m)? The volume of the slug is 30 bbls (4.77 m³) and
weighs 11 ppg (1318 kg/m³).

Gain in Pitsbbls = (Slug Weightppg – Annulus Weightppg) × Volume of Slugbbls

÷ Annulus Weightppg

= (11 – 10) × 30 ÷ 10

= 1 × 30 ÷ 10

= 3 bbls

Distance of Dropft = Gain In Pitsbbls ÷ Pipe Capacitybbls/ft

= 3 ÷ 0.0178

= 168.5 ft

Gain In Pitsm³ = (Slug Weightkg/m³ – Annulus Weightkg/m³) × Volume of Slugm³

÷ Annulus Weightkg/m³

= (1318 - 1198) × 4.77 ÷ 1198

= 120 X 4.77 ÷ 0.00929 ÷ 1198

= 0.478 m³

Distance of Dropm = Gain In Pitsm³ ÷ Pipe Capacitym³/m

= 0.478 ÷ 0.00929

= 51.45 m

Formation Strength

Description
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In order to plan and drill a well it is necessary to have some knowledge of the formation
strength/fracture pressures of the formations to be penetrated. The maximum volume of an influx that
can be contained by the open hole is dependent on the fracture gradient.

In the absence of LOT data an estimation can be made using Daines’ method (a refinement of Eaton’s
method).

Leak-Off Test (LOT)/Formation Integrity Test (FIT)

A leak-off test (LOT) determines the pressure at which the formation begins to take fluid. This test is
conducted after drilling out about 10-15 ft (3-5 metres) of new hole below the shoe of any casing
intended for pressure containment.

Such a test will establish the strength of the formation at the shoe and the integrity of the cement job at
the shoe, which is used to determine the maximum mud weight the open hole can withstand to reach
the next casing point. For long open hole sections, the original leak-off test will not necessarily
determine the weakest point in that section.

In the event that a weaker formation has been drilled, a further leak-off test should be performed.

The exposed formation is usually tested to the following:

• A pre-determined pressure test that is below fracture pressure (FIT).

• Leak-off pressure (LOT).

• Breakdown and injection pressure (Injectivity Test).

The test pressure should not exceed 70% of the minimum yield of the weakest casing, allowing for
mud weight differential (inside/behind the casing string).

Data obtained from LOT’s should be treated with some caution. High or low temperatures will have an
effect on mud properties such as density and rheology, thus introducing an element of error into the
surface readings obtained during a LOT.

Using values obtained to calculate the maximum pressure the formation can temporarily handle, such as
circulating out a kick, is acceptable. However, the ability of the formation to support pressure
continuously may be adversely affected by changes in the hole profile or localized damage to the
wellbore.

Conversely, the capability of the formation to withstand pressure may improve during the subsequent
drilling of the section due to the build up of filter cake on the formation wall and temperature
enhancement of formation strength.

Shallow Gas

Shallow gas is defined as any hydrocarbon-bearing zone which may be encountered at a depth close to
the surface or mudline. Generally it is not possible to close-in and contain a gas influx from a shallow
zone because weak formation integrity may lead to breakdown and broaching to surface / mudline.

This situation is particularly hazardous when drilling from a fixed installation or jack-up.
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Shallow gas-bearing zones are usually normally pressured. However, the effective increase in pore
pressure due to gas gradient can lead to underbalance when a shallow gas zone is first penetrated.

Well Barriers

Primary well barrier: - This is the first object that prevents flow from a source.

Secondary well barrier: - This is the second object that prevents flow from a source.

What are Well Barriers?

Well barriers are envelopes (something that surrounds or encloses something else) of one or more
dependent WBE’s (well barrier elements) to prevent fluids or gases from flowing unintentionally from a
formation, into another formation or back to surface.

Well barrier(s) shall be defined prior to commencement of an activity or operation by description of the
required WBE’s to be in place and the specific acceptance criteria.

Well Barrier Element Examples

Fluid Barriers, Casing and Cement, Drill string, Drilling, Wireline, Coil Tubing, Workover BOP’s ,Wellhead ,
Deep set tubing plug ,Production Packer ,Stab-in Safety Valves ,Completion String ,Tubing Hanger

Well Barriers Drilling, Coring, Tripping

Primary well barrier: This is the first object that prevents flow from a source.

Some of the elements that form the barrier envelope

Barrier Components and Associated Equipment

 A barrier may need several components to be considered a barrier.

 A BOP has multiple components and associated equipment such as control systems, hydraulic
power supply etc.
 A BOP is therefore considered a single barrier.
 A single point failure (of the wellhead/BOP connection) will negate the barrier.
 Associated equipment such as control systems, hydraulic power supply needed to activate the
barrier should be considered ‘safety critical element’s as much as the BOP.

Well Barrier Acceptance Criteria.

Well barrier acceptance criteria are technical and operational requirements that need to be fulfilled in
order to qualify the well barrier or WBE for its intended use.

Acceptance Criteria

Function and number of well barriers

The function of the well barrier and WBE shall be clearly defined.

 One well barrier in place during all well activities and operations, including suspended or
abandoned wells, where a pressure differential exists that may cause uncontrolled cross flow in
the wellbore between formation zones.
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 Two well barriers available during all well activities and operations, including suspended or
abandoned wells, where a pressure differential exists that may cause uncontrolled outflow from
the borehole/well to the external environment.
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Chapter-2 Basic Calculation

Force

The force applied on an object is defined as the product of its mass and its acceleration:

F = m.Γ

Where m = mass, (lbm)

Γ = acceleration, (ft/s/s)

F = force, (lbf)

The above fundamental formula in dynamic becomes in case of force of gravity:

F(gravity) = m.g = weight

Where g = gravitational acceleration

= 32.174 ft/s/s or

= 9.81 m/s/s

which means that the force of an object is simply the weight of that object expressed in pound-force or
kilogram force.

Pressure

The pressure is defined as the force divided by the area that force is acting on:

Pressure = Force
Area
(Specific case : Pressure = Weight )
Area
Hydrostatic Pressure

Hydrostatic pressure is the pressure exerted by a column of fluid and is calculated by multiplying the
density gradient of the fluid by the true vertical depth at which the pressure is being measured. Most
well control calculations revolve around this basic equation:

Hydrostatic Pressure = Fluid Density Gradient x True Vertical Depth

Throughout this manual equations are presented using the 3 units of measurement used by TSF world-
wide, namely: Oilfield, SI and Metric. To convert a mud weight into a pressure gradient a conversion
factor is required as follows:

Oilfield units: Ph (psi) = 0.052 x MW (ppg) x TVD (ft)

SI units: Ph (kPa) = MW (kg/m3) ÷ 102 x TVD (m)

Metric units: Ph (bar) = MW (kg/l) ÷ 10.2 x TVD (m)

where, Ph = Hydrostatic pressure

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MW = Mud weight

TVD = True vertical depth

Annular Capacity & Volume

Note: Dh is bigger ID and Dp is smaller OD. The examples below will

show the Dh as hole size and Dp is drill pipe OD

a) Calculate annular capacity in bbl/ft

Annular capacity in bbl/ft = (Dh2 – Dp2) ÷1029.4

Example: Hole size (Dh) = 6-1/8 in.

Drill pipe OD (Dp) = 3.5 in.
Annular capacity in bbl/ft = (6.1252 – 3.5 2) ÷1029.4
Annular capacity = 0.0245 bbl/ft
b) Calculate annular capacity in ft/bbl

Annular capacity in ft/bbl = 1029.4 ÷ (Dh2 – Dp2)

Example: Hole size (Dh) = 6-1/8 in.

Drill pipe OD (Dp) = 3.5 in.
Annular capacity in ft/bbl = 1029.4 ÷ (6.125 2 – 3.5 2)
Annular capacity = 40.743 ft/bbl
c) Calculate annular capacity in gal/ft

Annular capacity in gal/ft = (Dh2 – Dp2) ÷ 24.51

Example: Hole size (Dh) = 6-1/8 in.

Drill pipe OD (Dp) = 3.5 in.
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Annular capacity in gal/ft = (6.125 2 – 3.52) ÷24.51

Annular capacity = 1.031 gal/ft
d) Calculate annular capacity in ft/gal

Annular capacity, ft/gal = 24.51 ÷ (Dh2 – Dp2)

Example: Hole size (Dh) = 6-1/8 in.

Drill pipe OD (Dp) = 3.5 in.
Annular capacity in ft/gal = 24.51 ÷ (6.125 2 – 3.5 2)
Annular capacity in ft/gal = 0.97 ft/gal
Annular volume can be determined by this following formula;
Annular volume in bbl = annular capacity (bbl/ft) x length of annulus (ft)
Note: annular volume can be expressed in several unit depending on unit that you use in the calculation.

Example:

Annular capacity = 0.0245 bbl/ft

Length of annulus = 1000 ft
Annular volume = 1000 x 0.0245 = 24.5 bbl.

Pipe Displacement & Capacity

Pipe displacement, normally in bbl/ft, is steel volume to displace fluid volume. When we either pull out
of hole or trip in hole for any kind of pipes such as drill pipe, casing or tubing, you should know how
much fluid to displace steel volume.
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For example, when we pull out of hole, a trip sheet must be monitored all time. We must know how
much fluid will fill the hole each stand of drill pipe pulled out. If the volume of displacement less than
theoretical displacement value, we may have problem due to swabbing formation into wellbore.

Pipe Displacement in bbl/ft = (OD in2 – ID in2 ) ÷ 1029.4

Where,
OD is outside diameter of pipe in inch.
ID is inside diameter of pipe in inch.

This formula is good for plain pipe diplacment such as casing and tubing. It’s not accurate enough for
drill pipe because this formula does not account for tool joint displacement therefore you need drill pipe
specification sheet for its displacement.
Example: Determine pipe displacement in bbl/ft of 9-5/8” casing 40 ppf, OD = 9.625 in, ID = 8.835 in
Pipe Displacement of 9-5/8” casing 40 ppf in bbl/ft = (9.6252 – 8.8352 ) ÷1029.4
Pipe Displacement of 9-5/8” casing 40 ppf in bbl/ft = 0.01417 bbl/ft
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Chapter-3 Mud & Pit Management

Types of drilling fluid

Many types of drilling fluids are used on a day-to-day basis. Some wells require that different types be
used at different parts in the hole, or that some types be used in combination with others. The various
types of fluid generally fall into a few broad categories:-

Water-base mud

This fluid is the mud in which water is the continuous phase. This is the most common drilling mud used
in oil drilling.

Oil-based mud

This drilling mud is made up of oil as the continuous phase. Diesel oil is widely used to provide the oil
phase. This type of mud is commonly used in swelling shale formation.

With water-based mud the shale will absorb the water and it swells that may cause stuck pipe.

Air and foam

There are drilling conditions under which a liquid drilling fluid is not eh most desirable circulating
medium. Air or foam is used in drilling some wells when these special conditions exist.

Function

 Cooling and lubrication. As the bit drills into the rock formation, the friction caused by the
rotating bit against the rock generate heat. The heat is dissipated by the circulating drilling fluid.
The fluid also lubricates the bit.
 Cuttings removal. An important function of the drilling fluid is to carry rock cuttings removed by
the bit to the surface. The drilling flows through treating equipment where the cuttings are
removed and the clean fluid is again pumped down through the drill pipe string.
 Suspend cuttings. There are times when circulation has to be stopped. The drilling fluid must
have that gelling characteristics that will prevent drill cuttings from settling down at the bit. This
may caused the drill pipe to be stuck.
 Pressure control. The drilling mud can be the first line of defense against a blowout or loss of
well control caused by formation pressures.

The hydrostatic head produced by the mud in psi is = 0.052 x G x H

where G = density of mud in ppg

H = depth of the hole in feet.

This hydrostatic head will counter the formation pressure in order to avoid a blowout while drilling.

For example, Lets say a well is being drilled in a salt-water basin (pressure gradient of 0.465 psi/ft), the
pressure in the formation at 10,000 feet would be expected to be:
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10,000 x 0.465 = 4,650 psi

The weight of mud required to counter this pressure is calculated as follows.

P = 0.052GH

4,650 = 0.052 x G x 10,000

G = 8.94 ppg

 Data source. The cuttings that the drilling mud brings to the surface can tell the geologist the
type of formation being drilled.
 To wall the hole with impermeable filter cake. This will give a temporary support to the wall of
the borehole from collapsing during drilling.

Well cementing

Well cementing is the process of introducing cement to the annular space between the well-bore and
casing or to the annular space between two successive casing strings.

Completion Fluids

Completion fluids can be defined as any fluid pumped downhole to conduct operations after the initial
drilling of a well. Completion fluids improve well productivity by reducing damage to the producing
zone.

Completion fluids must perform two primary functions. The first is to control the well, accomplished
with a column of fluid with the proper density and accounting for the influence of temperature and
pressure on the total hydrostatic pressure. The second function is to maintain the inherent permeability
of the productive interval.

This second function requires that the fluid of choice be compatible with the formation matrix, which
includes not only the in-situ fluids and rock, but also any fluids or materials that invaded the pore space
while drilling or completing the well.

Mud Properties

Mud density or mud weight

Mud weight is measured by means of a mud balance. The weight of water is 8.33 ppg. The mud weight
can be increased by adding barite (barium sulphate). Barite has a specific gravity of between 4.2 – 4.3.
Other materials can be used to increase mud weight such as ilmenite (S.G of 4.58)

Mud viscosity

Mud viscosity is difficult to measure but in the field the Marsh funnel and the Fann V-G meter is
commonly used.

The Marsh Funnel is filled with mud, the operator then notes the time, removes his finger from the
discharge and measures the time for one quart (946 cm3) to flow out. Marsh funnels are manufactured
to precise dimensional standards and may be calibrated with water which has a funnel viscosity of 26
+0.5 sec.
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In using Fann V-G (Viscosity-gel) meter, readings are taken at 600 rpm and 300 rpm.

The viscosities are defined as follows:

p = 600 - 300

aF = ½ 600

Yb = 300 - p

Where p = plastic viscosity, cp

aF = apparent viscosity, cp

Yb = Bingham yield point, lb/100 ft2

 = Torque readings from instrument dial at 600 and 300 rpm.

From these relationships:

Yb = 2(aF - p)

aF = p + ½ Yb
True yield point: Yt = ¾ Yb

Yield point is influenced by the concentration of solids, their electrical charge, and other factors. If not
at the proper value, it can also reduce drilling efficiency by cutting penetration rate, increasing
circulating pressure, and posing the danger of lost circulation.

Gel strength

The gel strength of a mud is a measure of the shearing stress necessary to initiate a finite rate of shear.

With proper gel strength can help suspend solids in the hole and allow them to settle out on the surface,
excessive gel strength can cause a number drilling problems.

Filtration

The filtration, water loss or wall building test is conducted with a filter press.

The rate at which filtrate will invade permeable zone and the thickness of the filter cake that will be
deposited on the wall of the hole as filtration takes place are important keys to trouble-free drilling

Drilling Fluid treating and monitoring equipment

In addition to the main mud pumps, several items of mud treating equipment are found on most rigs.
Much of this equipment is aimed at solids removal, including shale shakers, desanders, desilters and
centrifuges.

Shale shakers remove larger particles from the mud stream as it returns from the bottom of the hole.
Shakers are equipped with screens of various sizes, depending on the type of solids to be removed.

Finer particles in the mud stream are removed with desanders, desilters and centrifuges. Each of these
items of solids-control equipment is applicable only over a certain range of particle sizes.
 19

In addition to removing solids, mud handling equipment may also include a mud degasser to remove
entrained gas from the mud stream. Degassing the drilling fluid is sometimes necessary when small
volumes of gas flow into the well bore during drilling.

Additional equipment include mixers to agitate mud in the tanks, smaller pumps to various duties and
equipment for adding chemicals and solid materials to the mud system.

Drilling hazards

The following are some of the most common hazards in drilling and can be overcome by proper control
of the mud properties.

Salt section hole enlargement

Salt section can be eroded by the drilling fluid and causes hole enlargement. These enlargement will
require larger mud volume to fill the system and in case of casing the hole, larger cement volume is
required.

To avoid these problems a salt saturated mud system is prepared prior to drilling the salt bed.

Heaving shale problems

Areas with shale sections containing bentonite or other hydratable clays will continually absorb water,
swell and slough into the hole.

Such beds are referred to as heaving shales and constitute a severe drilling hazard when encountered.

Pipe sticking, excessive solid buildup in the mud and hole bridging are typical problems.

Various treatments of the mud are sometimes successful, such as

 Changing mud system to high calcium content by adding lime, gypsum etc which reduces the
tendency of the mud to hydrate water sensitive clays.
 Increasing circulation rate for more rapid removal of particles.
 Increasing mud density for greater wall support
 Decreasing water loss mud
 Changing to oil emulsion mud
 Changing to oil-based mud.

Blowouts

Blowout is the most spectacular, expensive and highly feared hazard of drilling.

This occurs when encountered formation pressure exceed the mud column pressure which allows the
formation fluids to blow out of the hole.

Mud density or the mud weight is the principal factor in controlling this hazard.

In drilling a blow out preventer (BOP) stack is always attached at the top of the conductor pipe. In case
of a gas kick (a sign that may lead to a blow out) the BOP stack can close the annular space between the
drilling pipe and the conductor pipe or casing or shut the whole hole (with a blind ram of the BOP).
 20

Lost Circulation

Lost circulation means the loss of substantial amount of drilling mud to an encountered formation.

Lost circulation materials are commonly circulated in the mud system both as a cure and a continuous
preventive.

These materials are the fibrous materials such as the hay, sawdust or padi husk and lamellated (flat and
platy) materials such as mica, cellophane.
 21

Chapter 4 Risk Management

Risk management for control of well in the past consisted of the usual configuration of blowout
preventers and rig personnel trained and experienced in the proper handling of a well control incident.
In the eyes of the insurers, this basic risk management for control of well is now deemed inadequate.
Insurers are demanding that operators, and drilling contractors, better manage these risks or possibly
risk their insurability. To prevent additional policy qualifications and requirements mandated by the
underwriters (and which may not be cost effective or even practical for current drilling operations),
operators and drilling contractors must take the initiative in developing risk management plans that are
focused on the mitigation and effective management of those risks normally associated with control of
well.
Risks associated with control of well are no different from other risks. Once identified, risks and their
contributing factors can be effectively managed–reducing the chance of a well control event from
occurring, and being prepared to handle one if it does occur, in the most effective and safest manner
possible thus reducing the number and dollar value of control of well claims.
To develop a complete risk management plan, operators must first identify all risks relevant to control of
well. Once identified, companies must analyze each risk as to the level of risk that may be incurred and
the consequences of each risk.
Following the analysis, an assessment is made comparing each risk, and possible consequences, against
the risk threshold that has been predetermined. At this point, the operator can develop a total risk
management plan to properly manage those risks that cannot be avoided or transferred. In order for the
plan to be effective, it should also incorporate a process for the proper management and handling of
claims associated with control of well.
Identifying Risks the first step in development such a plan is the identification of the associated risks and
their contributing factors associated with control of well issues. When done properly, it becomes
apparent very quickly that there are many, many risks that can, and do, affect well control issues. Those
risks identified particular to the well itself might include:

 Drilling target–oil versus gas;

 Formations to be drilled;

 Well depth;

 Well location–onshore, inland waters, offshore, deep water;

 Casing string design; and

 Drilling technique employed–conventional, underbalanced, or drilling with casing.

Those risks identified particular to the drilling contractor might include:

 Drilling rig–rig condition, and maintenance program/records;

 Drilling personnel–training, certification and experience level;

 Performance records–unplanned downtime and well control incidents/loss history; and

 22

 Level of crew awareness/preparedness.

Those risks identified particular to the operator might include:

 Experience level–personnel and drilling environment;

 Communications; and

 Emergency preparedness.

A more thorough assessment is warranted due to the implementation of new drilling techniques (i.e.
underbalanced drilling, deepwater drilling, drilling with casing, etc.), the utilization of high specification
rig equipment, the use of expensive, highly technical bottomhole assemblies, and extended drilling
environments.
Assessment and Analysis of Risks
Once all the risks associated with control of well issues are determined, then they can be individually
assessed, analyzed and compared to the operator’s predetermined risk threshold–which is the level of
risk that the operator is willing to assume.
Proper risk management requires quantification of the associated risks and their respective
consequences. The assessment allows the operator to fully understand each risk and its potential for
loss. The analysis of the identified risks will compare the costs of the risks (and their associated
consequences) versus the costs to mitigate, transfer or manage the risks and associated consequences.
Once the assessment and analysis is completed, the operator will have identified those risks that should
be mitigated, transferred, managed, or avoided. Risks can mitigated through self-imposed restrictions
on drilling environments (onshore, offshore, deep water) or taking a different position as an operator–
i.e. shared working interest; or, transferred through insurance and/or turnkey drilling plans.
Those identified risks that cannot be mitigated, transferred or avoided must be properly managed in a
proactive manner.
This requires the development of a risk management plan to ensure the protection of personnel, the
environment, and assets.
Plan Development
An effective risk management plan promotes continuous improvement to the operator’s risk profile,
thus assisting in future procurement of coverage. The plan should also be quantitative in nature, so that
results can be tracked and the plan modified over time to improve its effectiveness and the operator’s
overall drilling efficiencies. A properly developed risk management plan does not have to be complex;
rather, it should be focused, practical and cost effective in its implementation.
The primary factors that contribute either to the initial occurrence of a well control incident or the
escalation of a well control incident are:
• Poor execution of drilling plan;
• Inadequate well-control equipment;
• Inexperienced or complacent rig crews;
 23

• Insufficient corporate preparedness in responding to well control emergencies; and

• Lack of communication at all levels.
An effective risk management plan should address these five primary factors.
Well Control Modeling
Well plans are designed to safely drill and complete an oil or gas well; they are not designed for failure.
However, certain events occur during the course of drilling a well that require the operator to deviate
from the original well plan. Deviations such as setting casing shallower/ deeper than planned and
unscheduled mud weights are normal occurrences.
However, many times, these deviations do not address the corresponding changes required to maintain
effective control of well. Well control modeling offers insight and reasoning to the critical aspects of
maintaining primary well control. The modeling is done for a specific well and is based on data from the
planned drilling program. It can be updated in a timely manner whenever any deviations may occur. A
comprehensive well control model for a well will include:

 Kick tolerance for critical well sections;

 Kick circulation behavior based on a particular hole section and encompassing hole angle, hole
geometry, mud type (WBM/OBM/SBM) to include maximum pit gain with gas at surface,
maximum calculated casing pressure, DP pressure schedules and maximum ECD at shoe (or
specified weak point);

 Maximum gas flow rate during kick circulation (scfm, gas buster sizing);

 Critical kick volume per hole section considering possible kick intensity, influx type and other
factors;

 Recommended well control procedures and special considerations for various scenarios that
might include running liner, off bottom, out of hole, horizontal section, etc.; and

 Volumetric well control procedures and expected pressures for kicks off bottom, out of hole or
plugged BHA.

Well control modeling is intended to be a tool for well site and office personnel to use as an operational
guideline and in critical decision making. The critical kick volumes and kick tolerance calculations can
provide a guideline for specifying PVT sensitivities and shut-in procedures. The expected behavior during
kick circulation from various hole sections can be used as a guide for successful kill circulation.
The results of the well control modeling can be placed directly into the drilling program for ready access
by well site and office-based personnel.
Rig Audit of Well Control Equipment
A practical risk management plan should include a type of review, audit or survey of the drilling
contractor’s well control equipment to ensure that the correct well control equipment is properly rigged
up. It is best to complete the audit after the surface or intermediate casing has been set and before the
shoe has been drilled out (once the BOPs have been rigged up and tested).
 24

The audit should be focused solely on the well control equipment and include a comprehensive checklist
covering all major components of the well control equipment, related systems and tools.
This includes the accumulator system, blowout preventers, choke and kill line components, choke
manifold, separator and pit system.
The audit can be based on the operator’s best practices or other established and accepted industry
practices (API, IADC, ARP, or MMS as appropriate). Any unacceptable conditions should be addressed
and corrected immediately by the responsible party.
Training of Rig Personnel
Rig personnel are the first line of defense in preventing well control incidents from occurring. Although
most tool pushers and drillers have received some level of formal training in well control measures, it is
of paramount importance that each rig crew member understands blowouts–how they occur and
evolve, and the importance of early kick detection and proper shut-in procedures. Armed with a better
understanding of blowouts and a heightened awareness of kicks, each rig crewmember can make a
difference in reducing these occurrences. A rig crew that is informed, aware and alert can be a big factor
in reducing the complications created by unrecognized or mishandled kicks.
Emergency Response Plan
Operators must be prepared to respond immediately to any well control incident–whether a simple kick
or a catastrophic blowout. A proper response to a well control emergency may reduce the risks of the
event escalating to a blowout, risks to personnel and assets and minimize environmental impact.
Early involvement by the well control company demonstrates a proactive effort by the operator to
regulatory agencies and shareholders. The key element in any emergency response plan is an effective
response structure to enhance the decision-making process that will be vital in minimizing the effects of
an emergency. An emergency response plan can greatly enhance the operator’s ability to successfully
resolve a well control incident in a more efficient and timely manner.
Better Communications
Poor communications is a major cause in the occurrence and escalation of well control incidents. This
can be as simple as communicating between the tool pushers and drillers when changing towers,
between the driller and the rig crew as to the daily drilling plans and anticipations, and operator’s
management and the field personnel. A risk management plan should promote and assure the
facilitation of communication between all parties, at all times. Communications is the most important
part of a successful risk management plan.
 25

Chapter- 5 Causes of Kick

There are 5 major causes for the loss of primary well control.

Failure to Fill The Hole Properly While Tripping

As the drillstring is pulled from the hole, the mud level drops due to the volume of pipe being removed.
As the mud level drops the hydrostatic pressure may be reduced enough to lose primary well control
allowing formation fluids to enter the wellbore.

Swabbing

The hydrostatic pressure in the wellbore will always be reduced to some extent when the drillstring or
any downhole tools are being pulled from the hole. The reduction in hydrostatic pressure should not be
such that primary control is lost.

Swabbing is caused by one or more of the following:

 High pulling speeds.

 Mud properties with high viscosity and high gels.
 Tight annulus BHA/hole clearance, or restricted annulus clearance.
 Mud density in use is close to formation pressure.

Lost Circulation

When lost circulation occurs, the drilling fluid level can drop and a reduction in hydrostatic pressure in
the wellbore may cause the loss of primary well control. Loss of circulation may result from one or more
of the following:

 Cavernous or vugular formations.

 Naturally fractured, pressure depleted or sub-normally pressured zones.
 Fractures induced by excessive pipe running speeds, especially if the mud density is close to the
fracture gradient.
 A restricted annulus due to balling of BHA or sloughing shales/ mobile formations.
 Excessively high annular friction losses.
 Excessive pressures caused by breaking circulation when mud gel strength is high.
 Mechanical failure (casing, riser, etc).

Insufficient Mud Weight

When the hydrostatic pressure due to drilling fluid density is less than formation pressure of a
permeable zone, formation fluids will enter the wellbore. This may occur due to the following:

 Drilling into an abnormal pressure zone.

 Dilution of the drilling fluid on surface (reduction in MW).
 Reduction in drilling fluid density due to influx of formation fluids, in particular gas.
 Settling of weighted material (barite sag).
 Failures to displace riser to kill mud after circulating out a kick.
 26

 Pumping long columns of lower weight fluids during specific operations (e.g. hole cleaning pills
in inclined sections, spacers during cementing, etc).
 After cementing and while WOC the hydrostatic pressure of the slurry may be reduced to the
equivalent of the mix water as it starts to set.

Loss of Riser Drilling Fluid Column

On floating rig operations, the loss of the drilling fluid column in the riser may result in a reduction of
hydrostatic pressure in the wellbore and may cause the loss of primary well control. This loss of riser
hydrostatic column could be due to:

 Accidental disconnect.
 Riser damage.
 Displacement of riser with seawater or a lower density fluid.
 Accidental “U-tubing” into choke/kill lines.

Abnormal Formation Pressure

Abnormal formation pressures are often associated with causes for kicks. Abnormal formation pressures
are greater pressures than in normal conditions. In well control situations, formation pressures greater
than normal are the biggest concern. Because a normal formation pressure is equal to a full column of
native water, abnormally pressured formations exert more pressure than a full water column. If
abnormally pressured formations are encountered while drilling with mud weights insufficient to control
the zone, a potential kick situation has developed. Whether or not the kick occurs depends on the
permeability and porosity of the rock. A number of abnormal pressure indicators can be used to
estimate formation pressures so that kicks caused by insufficient mud weight are prevented.
 27

Chapter-6 Abnormal Pressure Warning Signs

Warning signs of kicks

Warning signs and possible kick indicators can be observed at the surface. Each crew member has the
responsibility to recognize and interpret these signs and take proper action. All signs do not positively
identify a kick; some merely warn of potential kick situations. Key warning signs to watch for include the
following:

 Flow rate increase

 Pit volume increase
 Flowing well with pumps off
 Pump pressure decrease and pump stroke increase
 Improper hole fill-up on trips
 String weight change
 Drilling break
 Cut mud weight

Each is identified below as a primary or secondary warning sign, relative to its importance in kick
detection.

Flow rate increase (primary indicator)

An increase in flow rate leaving the well, while pumping at a constant rate, is a primary kick indicator.
The increased flow rate is interpreted as the formation aiding the rig pumps by moving fluid up the
annulus and forcing formation fluids into the wellbore.

Pit volume increase (primary indicator)

If the pit volume is not changed as a result of surface-controlled actions, an increase indicates a kick is
occurring. Fluids entering the wellbore displace an equal volume of mud at the flowline, resulting in pit
gain.

Flowing well with pumps off (primary indicator)

When the rig pumps are not moving the mud, a continued flow from the well indicates a kick is in
progress. An exception is when the mud in the drillpipe is considerably heavier than in the annulus, such
as in the case of a slug.

Pump pressure decrease and pump stroke increase (secondary indicator)

A pump pressure change may indicate a kick. Initial fluid entry into the borehole may cause the mud to
flocculate and temporarily increase the pump pressure. As the flow continues, the low-density influx will
displace heavier drilling fluids, and the pump pressure may begin to decrease. As the fluid in the annulus
becomes less dense, the mud in the drillpipe tends to fall and pump speed may increase.

Other drilling problems may also exhibit these signs. A hole in the pipe, called a “washout,” will cause
pump pressure to decrease. A twist-off of the drillstring will give the same signs. It is proper procedure,
however, to check for a kick if these signs are observed.
 28

Improper hole fill-up on trips (primary indicator)

When the drillstring is pulled out of the hole, the mud level should decrease by a volume equivalent to
the removed steel. If the hole does not require the calculated volume of mud to bring the mud level
back to the surface, it is assumed a kick fluid has entered the hole and partially filled the displacement
volume of the drillstring. Even though gas or salt water may have entered the hole, the well may not
flow until enough fluid has entered to reduce the hydrostatic pressure below the formation pressure.

String weight change (secondary indicator)

Drilling fluid provides a buoyant effect to the drillstring and reduces the actual pipe weight supported by
the derrick. Heavier muds have a greater buoyant force than less dense muds. When a kick occurs, and
low-density formation fluids begin to enter the borehole, the buoyant force of the mud system is
reduced, and the string weight observed at the surface begins to increase.

Drilling break (secondary indicator)

An abrupt increase in bit-penetration rate, called a “drilling break,” is a warning sign of a potential kick.
A gradual increase in penetration rate is an abnormal pressure indicator, and should not be
misconstrued as an abrupt rate increase.

When the rate suddenly increases, it is assumed that the rock type has changed. It is also assumed that
the new rock type has the potential to kick (as in the case of a sand), whereas the previously drilled rock
did not have this potential (as in the case of shale). Although a drilling break may have been observed, it
is not certain that a kick will occur, only that a new formation has been drilled that may have kick
potential.

It is recommended when a drilling break is recorded that the driller should drill 3 to 5 ft (1 to 1.5 m) into
the sand and then stop to check for flowing formation fluids. Flow checks are not always performed in
tophole drilling or when drilling through a series of stringers in which repetitive breaks are encountered.
Unfortunately, many kicks and blowouts have occurred because of this lack of flow checking.

Cut mud weight (secondary indicator)

Reduced mud weight observed at the flow line has occasionally caused a kick to occur. Some causes for
reduced mud weight are:

 Core volume cutting

 Connection air
 Aerated mud circulated from the pits and down the drillpipe

Fortunately, the lower mud weights from the cuttings effect are found near the surface (generally
because of gas expansion), and do not appreciably reduce mud density throughout the hole. Table 3
shows that gas cutting has a very small effect on bottomhole hydrostatic pressure.
 29

Chapter-7 Kick Detection

Kick Detection while Drilling

Drilling Breaks

All drilling breaks will be flow checked. Even if a flow check is negative, circulating bottoms-up may be
advisable before continuing to drill ahead, e.g. HTHP wells, transition zones or reservoir intervals. The
Toolpusher will be advised of all flow checks.

Increase in Flow Rate

The first positive indicator that the well is flowing is an increase in the return flow rate while the pumps
are running at constant output.

Increase in Pit Volume

A gain in pit volume is a positive indicator that a kick is occurring assuming there are no other activities
ongoing such as mud additions, mud transfers, start/stop of mud solids control or degassing
equipment. Anyone influencing the active system volumes MUST communicate with the Driller.

Variation in Pump Speed and Pressure

A decrease in pump pressure combined with an increase in pump speed may occur when low-density
formation fluids flow into the annulus causing a “U-tubing” effect.

Changes in the pump speed and pressure do not always mean an influx has entered the wellbore and
may be an indication of pump problems, a washout in the drillstring, washed nozzles etc. First conduct a
flow check before proceeding with other diagnostic measures to determine the cause(s) of the
variation.

Well Flowing during a Connection

Annular flow with the pumps shut off may be a positive indicator that a kick is in progress.

An influx may occur during a connection due to the reduction in bottom hole pressure as the pumps are
shut down (reduction of hydrostatic pressure from ECD ➱ ESD).

Change of Drilling Fluid Properties

Gas cut or fluid contaminated mud returning from the well could mean the well is kicking. Reduced mud
weights can occur during drilling for many reasons; principally:

 Reduction due to the presence of formation fluids in the mud.

 Reduction due to gas cutting.

 The settling out of weighting material (barite ‘sag’).

Kick Detection while Tripping

Flow into the wellbore will cause improper hole fill-up.

 30

Any deviation from expected hole fill volumes will be investigated and the first action will be to install a
fully open safety valve and then make a flow check (refer to 4.4.1).

If the flow check is positive the well will be shut-in immediately. A negative flow check is not necessarily
confirmation that an influx has not occurred. It is possible that the well will not flow even if an influx
has been swabbed in.

If the hole does not take the correct volume of mud, or if the Driller has any doubt, the pipe will be run
immediately and cautiously back to bottom and bottoms-up circulated.

Containment as early as possible

When a well kicks, it should be shut-in within the shortest possible time. By taking action quickly, the
amount of formation fluid that enters the wellbore and the amount of drilling fluid expelled from the
annulus is minimized

Kick Detection in Floating rig

Because a floating drilling rig moves while on location, it can be difficult to detect some of the basic kick
warning signs. Rig movement can mask an increase in return flow and a pit increase. One way in which
pit level can be measured accurately is to use several sensors in the pits to sum the outputs and give a
more stable reading. As for return-flow sensors, many designs include a paddle that is mounted in the
return line. Increased fluid flow depresses the paddle and sends a signal to the driller’s console, where
flow increase is read as a percentage

The vertical movement, or heave, of a floater and the pumping action of the slip joint can combine to
make the return-flow indication questionable. In other words, the return- flow line may run full one
moment and dry the next, even when the average flow rate is constant. Today, however, modern
integrated and computerized systems can compensate for these fluctuations and give an accurate
readout to personnel.
In addition, the use of a drill string compensator often makes it difficult to rapidly spot drilling breaks.

Further, information about downhole conditions may be hard to interpret, because the returning mud
and cuttings are often jumbled in large-diameter marine
risers, where the velocity is quite low. Mud temperature trends are more difficult to analyze because of
the heat-exchanger effect of the marine riser in cold seawater. Because of such problems, all systems
and devices that can be used for kick detection should be monitored very carefully on a floating rig.
Again, modern computerized equipment helps overcome many of the problems associated with rig
movements
 31

Chapter-8 Shut-in Procedures

When any positive indication of a kick is observed such as a sudden increase in flow or an increase in pit
level, then the well should be shut in immediately without doing a flow check. If the increase in flow or
pit gain in the case of drilling conventional wells is hard to detect then a flow check can be done to
confirm the well is flowing.

Drilling - Surface BOP’s

The procedure is:

 Stop rotation.

 Pick up the drillstring to shut-in position.

 Stop the pumps and flow check - if the well flows:

 Close annular and open remote control choke line valve (HCR).

 Notify the Toolpusher and OIM (who will notify the Operator Representative).

 Record shut-in drillpipe and casing pressures, pit gain and time of day.

 Check space-out and close upper pipe rams and ram locks.

 Bleed off pressure between pipe rams and annular (if possible without risking
further kick).

Drilling - Subsea BOP’s

The procedure is:

 Stop rotation.

 Pick up the string to shut-in position.

 Stop the pumps and flow check - if well flows:

 Close the annular preventer (upper preferred), and open the choke line ‘failsafe’
valves on the BOP stack.

 Notify the Toolpusher and OIM (who will notify the Operator Representative).

 Record the shut-in drillpipe and casing pressures (note fluid density in choke/kill
lines). Record the gain in pit volume and time of day.

 Confirm the space-out and close the designated hang-off rams with reduced
closing pressure. Reduce the annular pressure, slack off and land drillstring on
the rams using the drillstring compensator (DSC).

 Increase the manifold pressure back to 1500 psi. Engage ram locks.
 32

 Bleed off pressure between pipe rams and annular (if possible) and open
annular.

 Adjust the DSC to support the drillstring weight to the BOP plus 20,000 lbs.
Position the DSC at mid-stroke.

 Monitor riser for flow.

Diverting

When a kick occurs in a well with insufficient casing to safely control a kick, a blowout will occur.
Because a shallow underground blowout is difficult to control and may cause the loss of the rig, an
attempt is usually made to divert the surface blowout away from the rig. This is common practice on
land or offshore rigs that are not mobile. Special attention must be given to this procedure so that the
well is not shut in until after the diverter lines are opened.

Shut-in procedures

When a primary warning sign of a kick has been observed, do the following immediately:

 Raise the kelly until a tool joint is above the rotary table.
 Increase the pump rate to maximum output.
 Open the diverter line valve(s).
 Close the diverter unit (or annular preventer).
 Notify company personnel.

Recent experiences show that shallow gas flows are difficult to control, but the industry philosophy is
improving, and new handling procedures are being developed.

Crewmember responsibilities for shut-in procedures

Each crewmember has different responsibilities during shut-in procedures. These responsibilities follow
and are listed according to job classification.

Floorhand (roughneck)

These responsibilities for shut-in procedures belong to the floorhand:

 Notify the driller of any observed kick-related warning signs.

 Assist in installing the full-opening safety valve if a trip is being made.
 Initiate well-control responsibilities after shut-in.

Derrickman

These responsibilities for shut-in procedures belong to the derrickman:

 Notify the driller of any observed kick-related warning signs.

 Initiate well-control responsibilities.
 Begin mud-mixing preparations.
 33

Driller

These responsibilities for shut-in procedures belong to the driller:

 Immediately shut in the well if any of the primary kick-related warning signs are observed.
 If a kick occurs while making a trip, set the top tool joint on the slips and direct the crews in the
installation of the safety valve before closing the preventers.
 Notify all proper company personnel.

Diverter Procedures While Drilling

Surface BOP’s

At first sign of flow:

 Do not stop pumping.

 Open diverter line to divert/close diverter (both functions should be interlocked).
 Increase pump speed to maximum rate.
 Switch suction on the mud pumps to heavy mud in the reserve pit.
 Zero the stroke counter.
 Raise the alarm and make announcement on PA system. Inform the Toolpusher and OIM. Post
personnel to watch for gas.
 If the well appears to have stopped flowing after pumping the heavy mud, stop the pumps and
observe the well.
 If the well continues to flow after the heavy mud has been pumped, carry on pumping from the
active system and prepare to pump water. Also consider mixing heavier kill mud.
 When all the mud has been consumed, switch the pumps to water.
Do not stop pumping for as long as the well continues to flow.

Subsea BOP’s

Note: The slip joint packer is the most vulnerable item of equipment in the marine riser system during
diverting operations.

 Rigs with subsea BOP’s should shut the well in when possible.
 Moving the rig off location immediately may be the best option.
 If diverting is necessary, do not stop pumping.
 Open diverter line and close the diverter.
 Increase pump strokes to maximum pumping rate.
 If a pin connector is in use, unlatch the connector (or open dump valves and increase pressure
on slip joint packing).
 Switch the suction line on the pumps to heavy mud in the reserve pit.
 Raise the alarm and make announcement on PA system. Inform the Toolpusher and OIM. Post
personnel to watch for gas.
 Continue to pump until all mud has been consumed, switch pumps to water.
 Make preparations to move the rig off location.
 34

Chapter-9 Post Shut-in Monitoring & Activities

There are several figures that must be recorded after the well has been properly shut in in case of a well
control situation.

Shut-In Casing Pressure (SICP): Read and record the shut-in casing pressure (casing gauge).

In order to get the proper pressure reading, the casing gauge should be installed upstream of the closed
choke.

Shut-In Drillpipe Pressure (SIDP): Read and record the shut-in drillpipe pressure. You must remember
that whether you have a float in drilling string or not.

If there is no a float is in the drillstring, the shut in drill pipe pressure can be read directly from the
standpipe manifold.

If there is a float in the drillstring, you need to bump the float in order to determine the correct shut in
drill pipe pressure. I will write about how to bump float to record the shut in drill pipe pressure later.

Time: Record the time that the well control situation is occurred and keep an accurate time log for the
entire well kill operation

Closing Pressure: Record the closing pressure of BOP. In order to prevent well bore fluid leaking through
BOP elements, the closing pressure should be high enough.

Pit Gain: Read and record the pit gain. Pit volume gained is very critical for the maximum casing
pressure calculation. You should check the volume gained from mud logger and driller in order to get
the accurate figure. I don’t recommend you to ask only one person to get this figure. It is better to have
another data source to compare with.

After the well is properly secured and all information is gathered, the supervisor on the rig should
inform his supervisor to find the proper method to kill the well.
 35

Chapter- 10 Well Control Drills

Drills

Blowouts can be avoided if people on the job are familiar with the warnings of a kick and understand
control procedures. Time is important in killing any well; therefore, early recognition of the signs and
prompt and proper action for control are essential. A vital part of any crew’s training is practice in
closing the preventers under simulated kick conditions. Practice drills should be initiated without
warning and at unexpected times. The drilling crew should be trained by means of detailed instruction
and repeated drills to ensure that it can detect well flow quickly and can close in the well promptly. A
properly trained floor crew should be expected to handle a kick in such a manner that they do not make
the situation worse before the tool pusher or company representative can take charge.

Pit Drills

 The tool pusher or company representative raises the pit-level sensor to simulate a rise in pit
level.

 Upon recognition of the simulated kick, the driller sounds the alarm.

 The driller then picks up the kelly above the rotary table, being sure that no tool joints are in the
ram BOPs.

 The driller shuts down the pump.

 The driller opens the remote-controlled choke-line (HCR) valve.

 The driller closes the annular preventer.

 The driller closes the remote choke.

 The driller records the time (as measured from the time the simulated pit gain was recognized)
required to shut the well in, in the driller’s report.

 When a trip is being made, the following pit drill has been used:

 The tool pusher or company representative manipulates the flow sensor or trip tank level
indicator to simulate a kick.

 Upon recognition of the simulated kick, the driller sounds the alarm.

 Driller and crew set the top tool joint on the slips.

 The rotary helpers (floor hands) stab a fully open safety valve in the drill pipe.

 The driller opens the remote-controlled choke-line (HCR) valve.

 The rotary helpers make up and close the drill pipe safety valve.

 The driller closes the annular preventer.

 36

 The driller records the time since the simulation started to conduct the steps in the driller’s
report.

Kick Drill While Tripping – Trip Drills Procedure

At the discretion of the Drilling Supervisor, but not less than once every two weeks per crew while
normal drilling operations are in progress.

 INITIATE kick verbally or by raising a float in the trip tank.

 On initiation the crew leader (Driller/Assistant driller) is to ALERT the crew.

 BRING tool joint to rotary level.

 INSTALL stabbing valve in open position (hand tight).

 CLOSE stabbing valve.

 CLOSE the annular preventer.

 OPEN hydraulic operated valve in the side outlet from the BOP stack to the choke manifold.

 INSTALL circulating head, MAKE UP correct torque, OPEN stabbing valve and TAKE readings of
the closed-in annulus and drillpipe pressure.

 READ gain in trip tank.

 END drill, RETURN all settings to normal operating mode.

Diverter Drill

Diverter drill should be carried out to reduce the crew’s reaction time and prove the operation of all
diverter system equipment. A drill should be carried out before drilling out the surface casing.

A specific detailed diverter drill will be prepared for each rig/well that should include the following:

 Simulation of diverting the well according to diverter procedures (includes lining up pumps to
heavy mud).

 The sending of essential personnel to their pre-assigned positions.

 The sending of all non-essential personnel to the muster point or assigned position as per the
emergency response plan.

 Simulate “get ready for disconnect and move off location” on floating rig.
 37

Chapter-11 Well Control Methods

The objective of various kill method is to circulate out any invading fluid and circulate a satisfactory
weight of kill mud into the well without allowing further fluid into the hole. Ideally this should be done
with the minimum of damage to the well.

If this can be done, then once the kill mud has been fully circulated around the well, it is possible to
open up the well and restart normal operations. Generally, a kill mud which just provides hydrostatic
balance for formation pressure is circulated.

This allows approximately constant bottom hole pressure which is slightly greater than formation
pressure to be maintained as the kill circulation proceeds because of the additional small circulating
friction pressure loss.

After circulation, the well is opened up again and the mud weight may be further increased to provide a
safety or trip margin.

Wait & Weight Method

The well is shut in while the mud is weighted up to the required kill weight, calculations and kill sheets
are prepared. Only one circulation is required to kill the well.

Advantages

 Lower pressures are imposed on the well.

 This method is generally faster since the kick is circulated out and the well killed in a minimum
of one circulation.
 Safer
 Less wear on surface gas equipment and choke

Disadvantages

 The well control process must wait until the kill mud is ready.
 More calculations are required.

Procedure
The procedure for the Wait and Weight method is as follows:

 After the well has been secured and pressures have stabilised, complete kill sheet including kill
graph.
 Bring pumps up to speed keeping casing pressure constant by manipulating the choke
 When pump is up to kill speed the choke is manipulated to keep the drill pipe pressure at initial
circulating pressure (ICP).
 Pump kill mud down drill pipe keeping casing pressure constant and allowing drill pipe pressure
to fall from ICP to final circulating pressure (FCP).
 38

 When kill mud reaches the bit the drill pipe pressure should be at FCP. Continue pumping kill
mud keeping drill pipe pressure constant at FCP until the kick is circulated out and kill mud
reaches surface.

Driller’s Method

Under controlled conditions, the existing mud is circulated to bring the influx out of the hole.
During this circulation, calculations are made; kill sheets completed and the mud weighted up to the
required kill weight.

A second circulation then displaces the well to kill mud, killing the well.

This method is typically used in situations such as circulating out large gas shows, trip gases, or kicks that
have been swabbed into the hole, since a mud weight increase will not be required.

Advantages

 Circulation begins immediately.

 It is a simpler technique, requiring fewer calculations.

Disadvantages
 More time is required for the two circulations.
 Higher pressures are imposed on the annulus.
 More wear on choke and gas equipment
First Circulation:

 Once the pressures have stabilized, the pump is brought up to kill rate speed while holding the
casing pressure constant (less CLFL for subsea BOP’s).
 If the observed pressure is greater or lower than the expected pumping pressure, subsequent
calculations will be based on this new value of ICP (refer to 6.1.1).
 When the kill rate speed is established, the choke operator should switch to the drillpipe gauge
and hold this pressure constant until the influx is removed from the well.
 Shut-in the well and record SIDPP and SICP prior to beginning the second circulation (they
should be approximately equal).
 The active mud system should be weighted up to the proper kill mud weight and lined up on the
selected mud pump.
 Prepare a drillpipe pressure schedule, as was done with the ‘Wait and Weight’ method.
Second circulation:

 The pump is brought up to kill rate speed while holding the casing pressure constant (less CLFL
for subsea BOP’s).
 When the kill rate speed is established, switch to the drillpipe gauge and follow the drillpipe
pressure schedule until the kill mud reaches the bit.
 At this point hold drillpipe pressure (FCP) constant until the kill mud returns at surface.
 Once uncontaminated kill mud is observed at surface, shut-in the well and monitor drillpipe and
casing for pressure.
 If any pressure is found, the reason for it will have to be investigated and additional steps taken.
 39

 If no pressure is registered the well will be flow checked through the choke before opening the
BOP’s.
 On floating rigs, the riser will be displaced to the kill weight mud and any gas trapped in the
BOP’s removed before the BOP’s are opened.
 To help in identifying the cause of potential problems, it is important to maintain an accurate
record of times, pressures, volumes, etc. on the well control report. Normally the Driller or his
assistant will be assigned this task.
 40

Chapter- 12 Kill Sheet

Overview

A kill sheet is normally used during conventional operations. It contains prerecorded data, formulas for
the various calculations, and a graph—or other means—for determining the required pressures on the
drillpipe as the kill mud is pumped. Although many operators have complex kill sheets, only the basic
required kick-killing data is necessary. A kill sheet is shown in the example problem in the following
section.

A summary of the steps involved in proper kick killing follows. The sections not directly applicable to
deepwater situations are noted. When a kick occurs, shut in the well using the appropriate shut-in
procedures. Once the pressures have stabilized, follow these steps to kill the kick:

 Read and record the shut-in drillpipe pressure, the shut-in casing pressure, and the pit gain. If a
float valve is in the drillpipe, use the established procedures to obtain the shut-in drillpipe
pressure.
 Check the drillpipe for trapped pressure.
 Calculate the exact mud weight necessary to kill the well and prepare a kill sheet.
 Mix the kill mud in the suction pit. It is not necessary to weight up the complete surface-mud
volume, initially. First pump some mud into the reserve pits.
 Initiate circulation after the kill mud has been mixed, by adjusting the choke to hold the casing
pressure at the shut-in value, while the driller starts the mud pumps. (Not applicable in deep
water.)
 Use the choke to adjust the pumping pressure according to the kill sheet while the driller
displaces the drillpipe with the exact kill-mud weight at a constant pump rate (kill rate).
 Consider shutting down the pumps and closing the choke to record pressures when the drillpipe
has been displaced with kill mud. (Note: If the kill mud is highly weighted up, settling and
plugging may occur.) The drillpipe pressure should be zero, and the casing should have pressure
remaining. If the pressure on the drillpipe is not zero, execute the following steps:
o Check for trapped pressure using the established procedures. If the drillpipe pressure is
still not zero, pump an additional 10 to 20 bbl (1.5 to 3 m3) to ensure that kill mud has
reached the bit. The pump efficiency may be reduced at the low circulation rate.
o If pressure remains on the drillpipe, recalculate the kill mud weight, prepare a new kill
sheet, and return to the first steps of this procedure.
 Maintain the drillpipe pumping pressure and pumping rate constant to displace the annulus
with the kill mud by using the choke to adjust the pressures, as necessary.
 Shut down the pumps and close the choke after the kill mud has reached the flow line. The well
should be dead. If pressure remains on the casing, continue circulation until the annulus is dead.
 Open the annular preventers, circulate and condition the mud, and add a trip margin when the
pressures on the drillpipe and casing are zero. In subsea applications, the trapped gas under the
annular is circulated out by pumping down the kill line and up the choke line with the ram
preventer below the annular closed. The riser must then be circulated with kill mud by reverse
circulation, down the choke line and up the riser, before the preventers can be opened.

Well-control learning experiences are often best accomplished by observing an actual kick problem. The
example below has been provided for this purpose.
 41

Example of a kick problem

Prekick considerations

While drilling the R.B. Texas No. 1 in the Louisiana Gulf Coast offshore area, a company representative
carried out his normal drilling responsibilities related to well control in the event that a kick should
occur. Some items that the representative did are listed below:

 Read the appropriate MMS orders and complied with the provisions.
 Checked the barite supplies to ensure that a sufficient amount of barite was on board to kill a
1.0-lbm/gal kick, if necessary.
 Recorded on the driller’s book that the kill rate was 21 spm and 800-psi pump pressure.
 Calculated the drillstring volume as follows:
4½-in. drillpipe to 14,000 ft.
6½×2-in. drill collars to 15,000 ft.
4½-in., 16.6-lbf pipe capacity
= 0.01422 bbl/ft×14,000 ft =199 bbl
6½×2-in. collar capacity
=0.0039 bbl/ft×1,000 ft = 3.9 bbl
Total = 199 + 3.9 = 202.9 bbl

Shut-in and weight-up procedures

The drillers on the rig had just changed tours when a drilling break was observed. The well was checked
for flow. A flow was recorded with the pumps off, and the following steps were taken:

 The kelly was raised until a tool joint cleared the floor. (A jackup rig was in use.)
 The pumps were shut down.
 The annular preventer was closed.
 The company representative was notified that the well was shut in.
 The driller told his crew in the mudroom to stand by in case the mud weight had to be
increased. Then, the company representative went to the floor and read the pressures as
follows:
psidp = 240 psi
psic = 375 psi
Pit gain = 31 bbl

After checking for trapped pressures, he recorded the information on his kill sheet. From the kill sheet,
he calculated that he needed to raise the mud weight from the 13.1-lbm/gal original weight to 13.4
lbm/gal. He was walking to the mudroom, to tell the derrickman that he needed 13.4-lbm/gal kill mud,
when he noticed the pits were almost full. He knew the needed barite would raise the mud level, so he
instructed the derrickman to pump off a foot of mud, section off the suction pit, and increase the weight
to 13.4 lbm/gal. The representative judged that it would be better to pump off the mud at that time,
rather than after the killing operation was started.

Pump rates
 42

The pump output was read from the mud engineer’s report as 5.2 strokes/bbl for the 6×18-in. duplex
mud pump. The volumetric output at 21 spm was 0.1916 stroke/bbl×21 spm = 4.0 bbl/min. The
representative knew he could cripple his pumps according to the chart previously provided to him but
felt that 4.0 bbl/min was not much more than the recommended 1 to 3 bbl/min as a kill rate.

Kill sheet preparation

The representative prepared his kill sheet as shown in Fig. 1.

43
 44

Working the pipe

While the mud weight was increased and the kill sheet was being prepared, the driller was instructed to
work the pipe every 10 minutes by moving it up and down. He was also instructed not to move a tool
joint through the annular preventer.

Displacing the drillpipe

After the mud was weighted to 13.4 lbm/gal, the representative was ready to displace the drillpipe. He
instructed the driller to start his pumps and run them at 21 spm. Then, he cracked open the choke
slightly and held his casing pressure at 375 psi until the driller had the pumps at the kill rate. The choke
was used to control the drillpipe pressure to decrease it gradually according to values on his kill sheet.
The pressures were maintained as shown in Table 1.

Table 1-Pumping Pressure Vs. Strokes Pumped

Strokes Pumped(bbl) Psidp(psi)
200 1000
400 960
600 915
800 870
1000 830
1055 820

When the drillpipe had been displaced, the pump was shut down and the choke was closed. The
pressures were then as follows:

psidp = 0 psi psic = 350 psi

The pressure on the drillpipe told the representative that the heavier kill-mud weight was sufficient to
kill the well. If it had not been of sufficient density, some pressure would have remained on the drillpipe.

Displacing the annulus

The representative was now ready to displace the annulus with kill mud. He initiated pumping by
adjusting his choke to maintain 350 psi on the casing while the driller started the pumps. After the
pumps were running at 21 spm, he used the choke to maintain the drillpipe pressure constant at the
final circulating pressure of 820 psi. He held this pressure until a 13.4-lbm/gal mud weight was observed
at the shaker, at which time he closed in the well. The drillpipe and casing had zero pressure. The choke
and the annular preventer were opened. The well was dead.

Post-kick considerations

There are several items that the representative considered after the well was dead to ensure that the
procedure was complete. He circulated and conditioned the mud in the hole and added a trip margin to
the mud weight so that he could make a short trip. Additional barite was ordered from the mud
company to resupply the bulk tank. He also took time to inspect his equipment to identify any damage
sustained from the kick
 45

Chapter- 13 Well Control Equipment

An important aspect of well control is the proper selection and utilization of the blowout preventers,
chokes and choke manifolds, mud-gas separators, degassers, mud monitoring equipment and all other
well control related equipment.

Only with correctly selected equipment, which has been properly maintained and serviced, can
successful well control procedures be conducted.

Blowout Preventers
Blowout preventers (BOPs), in conjunction with other equipment and techniques, are Used to close the
well in and allow the crew to control a kick before it becomes a blowout. Blowout preventer equipment
should be designed to:

 Close the top of the hole.

 Control the release of fluids.
 Permit pumping into the hole.
 Allow movement of the inner string of pipe.
These requirements mean that there must be enough casing in the well to provide an anchor for the
wellhead equipment, there must be provision for equipment to close the hole with or without pipe in
well, the equipment must provide for the attachment of lines for bleeding off pressure, and it must
allow pumping into the working string or annulus.
Basic types of blowout preventers on drilling rig are:

 Annular preventers

 ram preventers

 rotational preventers and

 diverters

The recommended component codes for designation of BOP stack arrangements are as follows:
A = Annular Preventer

G = Rotating Head

R = single ram type preventer with one set of rams, blind or pipe.

Rd = double ram type preventer with two sets of rams, blind or pipe.

Rt = triple ram type preventer with three sets of rams, blind or pipe.

CH = high remotely operated connector attaching well head or preventers

CL = low pressure remotely operated connector attaching; the marine riser to the BOP
 46

S = spool with side outlet for choke and kill lines

M = 1000 psi

BOP components are typically described upward from the uppermost piece of the permanent wellhead
equipment, or from the bottom of the BOP stack:

10K – 13 5/8 – SRRA

This BOP stack would be rated 10000 psi (69 MPa) working pressure, would have a through bore of 13
5/8 inches (34,61 cm), and would be arranged according to picture.
 47

Optional

Choke &
killing
outlet

Well head

Arrangement S*RRA**G** Double ram type preventer Rd optional

 48

Optional

Choke & Kill Line Outlet

Well head Well head

Arrangement S*RRRA** Arrangement RS*RRA**G*

Double Ram type preventers, Rd Optional Double Ram type preventers,
Rd Optional
In the BOP stack they are always positioned in such way, that annular preventer is the working
preventer positioned on the top of the stack, and ram preventer is on the bottom as the backup.
Working preventer is always positioned far from the source of danger, to be in position to change it if
fails.
 49

.
BOPs Rating
Any assembly of blowout prevention equipment can be rated by the lowest pressure item in the
hookup;

 whether it is casing,

 casing head,

 preventers, or

 Other fitting primarily exposed to well pressure.

The bursting pressure of the casing will often be the determining factor for rating the working pressure
of the assembly.
API Bulletin D 13 gives the pressure ratings for blowout preventer equipment:

API CLASS Working pressure 105 PA(psi) Service Condition

2M 138(2000) LIGHT DUTY

3M 207(3000) LOW PRESSURE
5M 345(5000) MEDIUM PRESSURE
10M 689(10000) HIGH PRESSURE
15M 1034(15000) EXTREME PRESSURE
 50

Annular-type preventers(Hydril)

Piston position
control
Base Plate

Element

Opening line and

area
B
Piston

Closing line
and area

 In the full-open position, the inner diameter of the packing unit equals the diameter of the
preventer bore.

 A system for squeezing the ring of packing lets the operator reduce the diameter until it engages
the pipe, tool joint, kelly or the full inner diameter of the preventer.

 The only way to close annular type of preventers is by use of hydraulic pressure.

Cutaway view of the blowout preventer can help to show the main parts:
Body, cover, packing element, and operating cylinder.
The pressure of hydraulic fluid introduced under the piston (A) produces lifting power that
raises the operating cylinder.
The tapered bowl of operating cylinder compresses the packing element to make the annular
shutoff.
Pumping the hydraulic fluid in opposite direction (B) forces the operating cylinder downward,
thus permitting the packing unit to open by expansion.
Although initial closure of the packing unit is obtained by hydraulic pressure from an external
source, well pressure will increase sealing effect and thus insure positive closure under high
well pressure.
 51

 The preventer is normally operated by a fluid pressure of 103*105 Pa (1500 psi).

 A pressure regulator should be employed to insure the lowest closing pressure to permit slight
leakage of well fluid around the drill pipe when rotating or stripping in or out of the hole.

 A small amount of fluid leaking past the pipe will lubricate and cool the packing unit.

Annular-type preventer (Shaffer)

 52

Upper
housing

Element

Seal Adapter

Adapter ring
Upper housing
Seal Element
Adapter Adapter Ring

Piston
Piston
Piston seals

Wear rings Lower

Housing
Piston Seals

Wear Ring

Lower Housing

The pressure of hydraulic fluid introduced under the piston (A) produces lifting power that raises the
operating cylinder. The tapered bowl of operating cylinder compresses the packing element to make
the annular shutoff.

A
AA
 53

Packing element (Hydril & Shaffer)

Hydril Shaffer
The steel finger inserts are used which strengthen Neoprene rubber is used with oil based muds and
and reinforce the resilient packing material. low temperatures from – 35 °C to 77 °C.
Natural rubber is used with water based mud, and
working temperatures from –
35 °C to 107 °C.
High duration and reliability , Identification code is Higher duration than natural rubber with better
R or NR with serial number and black elasticity on lower temperatures than nitrile
Color on the upper edge. rubbers.
Nitrile rubber (synthetic components in natural Identification code is N or CR with serial number
rubber), is used with oil based muds or with muds and green color on the upper edge.
that have oil based additives, and working
temperatures from – 7 °C to 88 °C. Identification
code is S or NBR with serial number and red color
on the upper edge.

Hydril Shaffer

RAM Type Preventers

 54

They close the annular space outside the string of pipe in a well or open hole, by moving rams from a
retracted position clear of the bore into a position where they close around the pipe.
Rams operate in pairs and seal space below them closed.

Pipe rams are provided with semicircular openings which match the diameter of the pipe sizes for which
they are designed. It is absolutely vital that the pipe rams in a preventer fit the drill pipe or tubing in the
use, and all concerned must be certain in this regard at all times.
If more than one size of drill pipe is in the hole, most operators require a second ram preventer in the
stack.
Locking Device
Locking devices are designed to hold the rams in the closed position when the string is hanged on the
ram, and if accumulator operating pressure is lost or removed. Manual locking system are commonly
used or surface BOP stacks. Depending upon the type, manual locks hold the rams closed by either
screwing the locking screw or unscrewing it. In either case, the threads on the locking shaft should be in
a condition that allows the locks to be easily closed. Since each manual locking system works
independently both sides must be locked.
BOP stack with auto-lock system in ram preventer is also used now days. The preventers quipped with
automatic locking system remain locked in closed position even is the closing pressure is lost or
removed, and hydraulic opening pressure is required to unlocked or locking devices.

Blank units which will close on the open hole are commonly termed “blind” rams.

 Blind rams will flatten drill pipe or tubing if they are inadvertently closed in them, and the driller
should always be certain not to operate the blind rams when the pipe is in the hole.

Ram-type preventers were originally manually operated, but most preventers of this type today are
closed and opened by hydraulic means, using fluid that is under 35.105 Pa (500 psi) to 103.105 Pa (1500
psi) of pressure.

 Most ram-type preventers are provided with screws to lock the rams in the closed position.
 Manually operated preventers are similar to hydraulic units, except for the hydraulic cylinders.
 55

Shaffer ram-type hydraulic blowout preventer with automatic lock

On the picture (left) there is the closing system with ram in opened position, and on the picture
(right) is the same system in fully closed position.

Closing element

Closing element of the ram-type preventer consists of three parts:

Rubber (elastomer), steel block, and ram holder

It is also possible (available), to use rams that can be closed around different drill pipe diameters: from
88,9 mm (3 ½˝) to 127,0 mm (5");

That is just to avoid the necessity to change the rams in preventer, when the drill pipe diameter is
changed.
 56

Blind rams can also be used as drill pipe cutters. The use of blind rams for such purposes is acceptable
only when there is the treat of open blowout, and nothing else can be done.
 57

Rotational preventers

Rotational preventers are used for:

 For drilling in layers that are suspected to cause possible kick off.
 When drilling on the balance or under balanced (drilling the rocks of great permeability or
porosity; to avoid pollution with mud).
 When using indirect circulation.
 When the drilling is done using air or gas.

 Rotational preventer is always positioned at the top of the stack above annular preventer.
 It is used when differential pressure at the wellhead does not exceed 34,5.105Pa (500 PSI),
 and in such situation it must enable manipulation (withdrawing and embedding) and rotation of
drill stem through the closed working (sealing) element.
 Rotational part of the preventer is mounted on the drill pipe by use of unique prong, and is
posted on the working floor.
 When needed, the rotational head is connected to the housing, mounted on the top of annular
preventer.
 Rotational sleeve is rotated by the rotation of the kelly, and is at the same time rotating the
working rubber element on the cylindrical bearing.
 58

Diverters
 Diverters as the name says are used to, direct eventual invaded higher pressure fluid from the
well, to the cleaning and reservoir system, and not to danger the workers on the working
platform of the derrick.
 That is accomplished by closing the working sealing element of the diverter and opening
diverter pipe lines whose diameter is from 101,6 mm (4") to 304,8 mm (12").
 There are usually two relief lines, and one that is opened must be always in the direction that
provide that gas or dangerous fluid will be carried away of the rig floor.

 The line is opened at the same moment the working sealing element is closed.
 It is important because failing to do so it is possible to fracture shallow rocks and the gas or high
pressure fluid can rupture to the surface near or far from the rig uncontrolled.
 59

 That is especially dangerous off-shore when using the platform that is standing on the see-
bottom on the legs, because the material can be washed over below one leg, and the platform
can turn over.
 Diverters are mainly used in off-shore drilling. On shore they are rarely in use: mainly in drilling
for the conductor when the well is to be with total depth over 6000 m.
 That is because there is no other preventer that will enable the passage of the bit of 60,4 mm
(26“) diameter, that is used to drill the hole for casing with diameter of 508 mm (20“).
Inside preventers

An Inside Preventer:-

 kelly cock
 inside blowout preventer,
 drill pipe float valve, or
 drop in check valve

Should be available for use when stripping the drill string into or out of the hole. The valve(s), sub(s), or
profile nipple should be equipped to screw into any drill string member in use.
Kelly valves (kelly cocks)
 An upper Kelly valve is installed between the swivel and the kelly.
 A lower Kelly valve is installed immediately below the kelly.
 Upper Kelly has on the top the left-hand screw to avoid uncontrolled screw of, and on the
bottom there will be a right-hand screw.
Inside Blowout preventer
The inside blowout preventer protects the rotary swivel, drilling hose, standpipe and mud pumps when
a kick occurs through the drill string.
 It will effectively seal against the pressures up to 69 MPa.
 Permits downward flow of circulation fluid through the drill pipe while preventing upward flow
after circulation stops.
 Always on the working floor near the rotary table.

In Shaffer type Kelly valve, closing element is a (roller) cylinder.

Sealing is achieved by rubber to metal contact.
 60

Shaffer Type Kelly Valve

Drill string safety valve

A spare drill pipe safety valve should be readily available (i.e. stored in open position with wrench
accessible) on the rig floor at all times.
 This valve or valves should be equipped to screw into any drill string member in use.
 The outside diameter of the drill pipe safety valve should be suitable for running in the hole.

Drill string float valves

A float valve is placed in the drill string to prevent upward flow of fluid or gas inside the drill string.
 This is a special type of back pressure check valve.
 When in good working order it will prohibit backflow and a potential blowout through the drill
string.

The drill string float valve is usually placed in the lower-most portion of the drill string, between two drill
collars or between the drill bit and drill collar.

Since the float valve prevents the drill string from being filled with fluid through the bit as it is run into
the hole, the drill string must be filled from the top, at the drill floor, to prevent collapse of the drill pipe.
 61

Drill String Safety Valve

Flapper-type float valve

The flapper-type float valve offers the advantage of having the opening through the valve that is
approximately the same inside diameter as that of the tool joint.

This valve will permit the passage of balls, or go-devils, which may be required for operation of tools
inside the drill string below the float valve.

Spring-loaded float valves

The spring-loaded ball, or dart, and seat float valve offers the advantage of an instantaneous and
positive shut off of backflow through the drill string.
 62

 These valves are not full-bore and thus cannot sustain long duration or high volume pumping of
drilling or kill fluid.
 A wire line retrievable valve that seals in a profiled body that has an opening approximately the
same inside diameter as that of tool joint may be used to provide a full-open access, if needed.

Self Filling Float System

Floats in the BHA play a critical role in protecting the rig from uncontrolled hydrocarbons in the
formation. However running into hole (RIH) with a float, or non-return valve (NRV), can be operationally
inconvenient. The float will add surge pressure to the formation and also creates a fluid void in the drill
pipe that needs periodic top-filling to prevent the pipe from collapsing.

The Self-Filling Float (SFF) takes a different approach, allowing the operator to select the timing of the
float activation. By using the SFF rapid, surge-free RIH can be achieved before activation puts it into a
fully protected mode, providing two high quality non return barriers between the rig and the formation.

Minimize trip time

The SFF will allow the string to self-fill whilst RIH. This saves 30%-50% of the time spent tripping into
hole compared to regular floats.

Surge-relief
Formation damage induced by surge pressures can be avoided with the SFF in the open position. If surge
is an issue the SFF allows faster RIH before reaching the speed threshold.

Well head

The wellhead includes all equipment placed on top of the well to support tubular, provide seals, and
control the paths and flow rates of fluids.

All wellheads include at least;

− One casing head and casing hanger,

− A tubing head and tubing hanger, and a Christmas tree.
 63

Casing heads are attached to surface casing or to another casing head to provide a hanging point for
the next string of casing.

− If there is one casing head, it is welded or screwed (depending on diameter) to the surface casing, and
the production casing is hung from it.
If more than one casing string is used inside the surface casing, then more than one casing head may be
needed.
− An intermediate casing head may be added with each new casing string until the production casing has
been hung.

The top of a casing head has a cone-shaped bowl that holds the casing hanger.
 A casing hanger is a set of slips that grips and supports a casing string.
 Metal and rubber packing rings fit over the slips to complete the casing hanger assembly and
provide an annular seal.
 Threaded or flanged outlets on the side of the casing head allow access to the sealed annulus
for pressure gauges that warn of casing leaks.
 64

Three types of end and outlet flanges are controlled by API Spec. 6A. (10-4)
 That is 6B and 6BX flanges that can be used as integral, blind or weld neck flanges.
 Type 6B may also be used as threaded flanges.
 Some type of 6BX blind flanges may also be used as test flanges.
The third type – segmented flanges are used on dual completion wells and are integral with the
equipment.

X – Diameter of hub, m
B – Maximum bore, m
T – Flange thickness, m
K – Diameter of raised face, m
BC – diameter of bolt circle, m
OD – outside flange diameter, m
 65

The bolt length is established using: Lcsb=A + n

Where: -

Lcsb – calculated stud length (effective thread length, excluding end points), m
Lssb - specified stud bolt length (which is LCSB rounded off to the nearest commercially available
length), m

A=2 × (T+0,5×t+d)+S

A - Stud bolt length exclusive of negative length tolerance, m

T – Flange thickness, m

t – Plus tolerance for flange thickness, m

d – Nut thickness (equals nominal bolt diameter), m

S – Flange face standoff (for BX assemblies it is zero), m

n – Negative tolerance on bolt length :

1,5875 mm (1/16") for lengths up to 304,8 mm (12"); 3,175 mm (1/8") for lengths over
304,8 mm (12") to 457,2 mm

(18"); 6,35 mm (1/4") for lengths over 457,2 mm (18"), m

 Type R and RX gaskets are used on 6B flanges.

 Only type BX gaskets are to be used with 6BX flanges.
 RX and BX provide a pressure energized seal but are not interchangeable.

E – groove depth, m

F – groove width, m
 66

R2 – radius in groove, m

R1 – radius in ring (octagonal ring), m

H , B – ring height

P – standard ring or groove diameter, m

A – width of ring, m

C – width of flat (octagonal ring), m

Gasket and groove type "R"

Note :- The pressure passage hole in the RX ring has a hole whose centerline is located at midpoint
of dimension ˝C˝. Hole diameter is 1,524 mm (0,06 in) for rings RX-82 to RX- 85,2,286 mm (0,09 in)
for rings RX-86 and RX-87, and 3,048 mm (0,12 in) for rings RX-88 to RX-91.(10-27)

Ring and Groove “RX” Ring and Groove “BX”

Sealing systems

 Pack off system consists of lip seal packing and two metal packing supports.
 67

 Each crossover spool, multistage crossover spool, crossover adapter; shall have at least one
restricted area pack off.

Studded Connection

Flanged Connection

Clamp Hub Connection

Crossover spool with restricted

area packoff supported by
lower head

Side outlet connections used on BOP

 68

Testing and Maintenance of surface BOP stack and well control equipment
The purpose for various test programs on drilling well control equipment is to verify:

 That specific functions are operationally ready.

 The pressure integrity of the installed equipment.
 The control system and BOP compatibility.

All operational components of the BOP equipment should be functioned at least once a week to
verify the component’s intended operations, Function tests may or may not include pressure tests.

 They should be alternated from the driller’s panel and from mini-remote panels, if on location.
 Actuation times should be recorded as a data base for evaluating trends.
 69

When testing BOP stack the hole

is separated by the use of so
called “cup tester

Pressure tests
 All blowout prevention components that may be exposed to well pressure should be tested first to a
low pressure of 1,38 to 2,1 MPa (200 to 300 psi) and then to a high pressure.
 When performing the low pressure test, do not apply a higher pressure and bleed down to the low
test pressure.
 A stable low test pressure should be maintained for at least 5 minutes.
 The initial high pressure test on components that could be exposed to well pressure (BOP stack,
choke manifold and choke lines) should be to the rated working pressure of the ram BOP’s or to the
rated working pressure of the wellhead that the stack is installed on, whichever is lower.
 Initial pressure tests are defined as those tests that should be performed on location before the well
is spaded or before the equipment is put into operational service.
 Diverter systems are typically pressure tested to a low pressure only.
 Annular BOPs, with a joint of drill pipe installed, may be tested to the pressure applied to the ram
BOPs or to a minimum of 70% of the annular preventer working pressure, whichever is the lesser.
 The lower kelly valves, kelly, kelly cock, drill pipe safety valves, inside BOPs and top drive safety
valves, should be tested with water pressure applied from below to a low pressure of 1,38 to 2,1
MPa (200 to 300 psi) and then to the rated working pressure.
 For instance: The producer of ram-type preventer (18 3/4“; 15000 psi) defines test pressures as:

o around drill pipes 800 to 1100 psi; from 5,5 to 7,6 MPa,
o full bore rams 800 to 1100 psi; from 5,5 to 7,6 MPa,
o cutting rams 1100 to 1400 psi; od 7,6 to 9,7 MPa.
 70

 Subsequent high pressure tests on the well control components should be to a pressure
greater than the maximum anticipated surface pressure, but not to exceed the working
pressure of the ram BOPs.
 The maximum anticipated pressure should be determined by the operator based on specific
anticipated well conditions..
 The pressure test performed on hydraulic chambers of annular BOPs, connectors, hydraulic
lines and manifolds, should not exceed (should be at least) 10,3 MPa 1500 psi).
 Initial pressure tests on hydraulic chambers of ram BOPs and hydraulically operated valves
should be to the maximum operating pressure recommended by the manufacturer.

 For annular preventers closing pressures differ because of the higher closing area.
 Figure shows closing pressures for annular preventers depending on working pressure and
closing area (full closing or around specific pipe diameter).

0
100 200 300 400 500 600 700
 71

Pressure Testing
of an annular
preventer

Pressure testing
of RAM type
preventer, closing
around the pipe
body.

Hydraulic control fluids

Preventers are activated by the use of special hydraulic control fluid. The fluid must:
 Not freeze on low temperatures (temperature range from 84 °C to –46 °C).
 lubricate moving parts and avoid wearing out , not cause corrosion,
 Disperse in salt or fresh water and not pollute or contaminate.
 72

For such purpose it is possible to use:

 original manufacturer product
 Koomey hydraulic fluid C-50F is mixed with fresh water and ethylene glycol must be added to
the diluted fluid for freeze protection.

Schematic of conventional hydraulic BOP control (KOOMEY)

Air operated hydraulic pumps (1) and electric motor driven triplex or duplex pump (2) pressurize the
working fluid in accumulators.

System pressure is 20,7 MPa and is visible on the pressure gauge (3).
 Such pressure is reduced for ram preventers over the reducing and regulating valve (4) and read
on the pressure gauge (5), and for annular preventers over the reducing and regulating valve (6)
and read on the pressure gauge (7).
 Preventer closing is regulated over the valve (8).
 Each ram pair or annular preventer are controlled through one control valve.
 Pneumatic pressure transmitters (9,10,11) and air regulators for pneumatic pressure
transmitters (12, 13, 14) enable the calibration of panel gauge to hydraulic pressure gauge on
the uni
Recommended installation of Blowout Preventer Control Systems
Quick and efficient closing and control of preventer stack units is possible from:
 Accumulator (pumping) unit,
 master control panel, and
 Auxiliary control panel.
Safety distance for accumulator unit is recommended to be minimum 30 meters away from the
wellhead.
All commands have graphical and textual explanation.
Commands are used to transfer the initial pressure that opens or closes the hydraulic fluid passage in
accumulator unit to enable preventer closing or opening.
 73

Master control panel

KOOMEY Model
GBK6A Air Operated

Auxiliary Control Panel.

KOOMEY model ARC-4 air
Typical BOP stack
operated

Safety distance 100 to 150 feet

recommended using KOOMEY Pipe
Racks with protective walkway

KOOMEY S Series Accumulator Unit MODEL

T15120-3S / AC33 (Electric Power) with
auxiliary air pump Model AC33 and manifold
model SU2KB6S
Hydro-Nitrogen Accumulators
Three different types of accumulators are on disposal:

(1) Separator type, (2) cylindrical guided float type, and (3) spherical guided float type.
 The separator type is recommended for maximum safety, and are available in sizes ranging from
0.0245 liter to 42 liters, and 20,7 to 41,4 MPa working pressure.
 The operating temperature range is –34 °C to 85 °C.
Adequate accumulator capacity is necessary for a reliable operation of each and particularly of sub sea
BOP stack.
 By calculating a real accumulator capacity of working fluid according to the equation of state for
real gas, and assuming that the expansion of nitrogen is a polytrophic change of state, more
accurate parameters of usable volume of working fluid are obtained.
 This is very important in the extreme field conditions, like when the equipment operates under
high bore hole pressures.
 The temperature of nitrogen in the process of compression or expansion is not constant, since
there is a heat exchange between nitrogen and oil and surrounding air or sea water.
 Actual measurements confirm that nitrogen behavior in the mentioned conditions correspond
to the polytrophic change of state, as defined by Zeuner’s relation: p*Vn=const.
 This is an exponential function and the exponent is obtained by logarithm polytrophic equation
for initial and final state, where subscript “i” is for initial state and “f” for final state.
n=(log pi – log pf)/(log Vf – log Vi)
Applying actual values of initial and final pressures and volumes, the critical values of
polytrophic exponent n=1,32 and n=1,58 are obtained.
 74

Choke and kill manifolds

J-2 transmitter

Hydraulically actuated drilling Pressure Gauge

choke
Buffer Tank

Manually active gate valve

Cross
Manually active drilling choke
Hydraulically actuated
gate valve

MS Check Valve

Choke and kill manifolds can be made to meet any customer requirements, But for optimal work, they
should consist of:
 one, two or more drilling choke system (operated hydraulically or manual)
 manual and/ hydraulically or air operated gate valves,
 pressure transmitters,
 pressure gauges,
 crosses,
 tees,
 and a buffer tank as required.
 75

Drilling choke system

Hydraulically actuated drilling chokes are available in working pressures from 34,5 to 138 MPa (5000 to
20000 psi).
 Inlet and outlet flange sizes from 77,8 to 103,2 mm.
 The standard size of orifice is 44,5 mm (1 ¾”).
 Working temperature is up to 121 °C.
 Hydraulic pressure of 2 MPa (300 psi) is applied to the actuator, which results in opening or
closing the choke.

Manually actuated drilling chokes are available in working pressures from 34,5 to 138 MPa 5000
to 20000 psi).
 Inlet and outlet flange sizes from 77,8 to 103,2 mm.
 The standard size of orifice is 44,5 mm (1 ¾”).
 Working temperature is up to 121 °C.
 76

Pressure transmitters, located

on the standpipe and the
choke manifold, use actual
mud pressure as a pilot to
regulate low pressure
pneumatic signals which are
transmitted through hoses to
the control console where
Pressure readings are
registered on the panel
gauges.

Gate valves
The valves used on the choke manifold are of the gate valve type.
Their main parts are:
1. Positive rotating seats, 2. Gate and seat assembly, 3. Solid gate, 4. Thrust bearings
5. Threaded packing retainer, 6. Back-seating, 7. Stem pin, 8. Grease injection port, 9. Body and
trim

The air or hydraulically operated models are identical in construction,

except for the size and pressure rating of the operating cylinder.
 77

Pit-Level and Pit-Volume Indicators

Since one of the best signs of a kick is an increase in pit volume, many operators require the installation
of pit-level and pit-volume indicators on every well. Such indicators continuously monitor the level of
drilling mud in the mud pits. Pit-level and pit-volume indicators are available from several
manufacturers, but most operate on similar principles. Most indicators consist of a series of floats in
each of the pits .The floats sense the level in each pit and transmit a totalized average to a recorder and
alarm.
The recorder usually consists of a gauge and chart mounted near the driller’s position on the rig floor.
Using air pressure or electronic signals to indicate and record the mud level and volume in the pits,
modern pit-volume instruments are calibrated in total barrels or cubic feet of fluid. They have low- and
high-level alarms that sound a warning and actuate lights when selected limits are reached, as might
occur as a result of lost circulation or a well kick. Recorder charts are clock-driven and furnish a
continuous record of the amount of mud in the pits.

The 1-bbl indicator quickly notes any change of mud volume and can also be used to measure the
volume of fluid required to fill the hole when pipe is pulled.

Mud- Return Indicators

Mud-return indicators have some limitations in that they may not always give accurate readings on
floating drilling rigs, but they can be valuable in assisting the rig crew in noting an increase in return flow
of drilling mud from the well. Because the entry of formation fluid into the hole causes an increase in
the rate of returns from the well, mud-return indicators may give the first positive sign that formation
fluid has entered the well.

Many different brands of return indicators are available, but most operate with some type of flow
sensor that is mounted in the return line from the bell nipple to the mud pits. The associated meter
continuously indicates the amount of mud coming out of the well. One return indicator compares input
volume by pump strokes to output volume, which is gauged by a flow sensor in the return line from the
well if the volumes are not the same, indication of an increase or decrease in flow is given immediately.
The sensor is capable of detecting increases or decreases with 99 percent accuracy. While mud is being
circulated, the sensor gauges the mud flow in terms of percentage points on the indicator dial. The
device also includes a pump-stroke counter that can be used to total the number of strokes of either
pump in a given period of time. In addition, the unit can indicate the number of strokes required to fill
the hole after a given number of stands have been pulled.
 78

Glossary
Abnormal Pore Pressure - Pressure of a formation which exceeds the normal pressure expected at a
given depth.

Annular Pressure Loss (APL) - Pressure loss caused by the flow of fluid up the annulus.

Bleeding - Controlled release of fluids from a closed and pressured system.

Blowout - An uncontrolled flow of gas, oil or other formation fluids from a wellbore.

Bottom Hole Pressure - The pressure exerted by a column of fluid contained in the wellbore.

Bullheading - A term for pumping into a shut-in well without returns.

Casing Burst Pressure - The amount of internal pressure that causes the wall of the casing to fail.

Casing Seat - The lowest point in a well at which casing is set.

Choke - A variable diameter orifice installed in a line through which high pressure well fluids can be
restricted or released at a controlled rate.

Choke Line - The high pressure piping between blowout preventer outlets or wellhead outlets and the
choke manifold.

Choke Manifold - The system of valves, chokes and piping to control flow from the annulus and regulate
pressures in the drillpipe/annulus flow system.

Closing Unit - The assembly of pumps, valves, lines, accumulators and other items necessary to open
and close the blowout preventer equipment.

Density - The weight per unit volume of a substance.

Differential Pressure - Difference between wellbore fluid pressure and pore pressure or the opposing
internal and external forces acting on equipment.

Drilling Break -A significant increase in the rate of penetration by the drill bit. It may indicate that the bit
has penetrated a high pressure zone, thereby warning of the possibility of a kick.

Displacement - The volume of steel in the tubulars and tools insert-ed and/or withdrawn from the
wellbore.

Drillpipe Safety Valve - A full-opening valve which, when installed in the drillstring, can be closed to
prevent flow through the bore of the drillpipe.

Equivalent Circulating Density (ECD) - The effective density at any depth created by the sum of the total
hydrostatic pressure plus annular pressure loss.

Equivalent Mud Weight (EMW) - A pressure exerted at a depth of interest which is converted into a
density.

Final Circulating Pressure - Drillpipe pressure required to circulate at a selected kill rate, adjusted for the
increase in kill drilling fluid density above the original drilling fluid density.
 79

Flow check - A flow check is the observation of the well without circulation. Flow checks are made to
determine if the well is, or is not flowing. The duration of a flow check must be whatever time necessary
to determine without question whether the well is static or flowing.

Flow Rate - The volume of a fluid passing through any conductor, such as pipe or tubing, per unit of
time.

Formation Integrity Test - Application of pressure by superimposing a surface pressure on a fluid

column in order to determine the ability of a subsurface zone to withstand a certain hydrostatic
pressure.

Formation Pressure - Pressure exerted by fluids within the pore spaces of a formation.

Fracture Gradient - The pressure gradient at which the formation accepts whole fluid from the wellbore.

Geothermal Gradient - The rate at which subsurface temperature increases with depth. The earth
averages 1°C per 33m (1°F per 60 ft) but may be considerably higher.

Glycol (Ethylene) - A colourless liquid when mixed with water lowers its freezing temperature. Used as a
desiccant in removing water from gas.

Hard Shut-In - To close in a well by closing a blowout preventer with the choke and/or choke line
valve(s) closed.

Hydrostatic Pressure - The pressure exerted by a column of fluid at rest.

Initial Circulating Pressure - The sum of the drillpipe pressure at the selected kill rate and the shut-in
drillpipe pressure.

Inside Blowout Preventer - A device that can be installed in the drill string that acts as check valve,
allowing drilling fluid to be circulated down the string but prevents back flow.

Intermediate String - Usually set in a transition zone of an abnormally pressured formation or used to
protect weak formations (loss circulation zones, hole sloughing, caving formations) and to provide
pressure containment. Cementing program may be designed to isolate hydrocarbon zones or flowing
salt sections.

Kick (Influx) - The entry of oil, gas or water into the wellbore. When the bottom hole pressure becomes
less than formation pressure and the permeability is great enough, formation fluid will enter the
wellbore causing a “kick”.

Kick Assembly - Assembly of full opening safety valve(s), circulating head and hose used to circulate
where pressures exceed the rating of the Top Drive or Kelly.

Kill Line - A high-pressure fluid line connecting the mud pump and the wellhead at some point below a
blowout preventer. This line allows heavy drilling fluids to be pumped into the well or annulus with the
blowout preventer closed.

Kill Rate - A predetermined circulating rate used to circulate out a kick and usually a fraction of the
circulating rate used while drilling.
 80

Lag Time - Bottom’s-up circulation time. Time it takes for the mud to reach surface from bit at a given
pumping rate while circulating on bottom.

Leak-Off Test Pressure - Pressure imposed at surface on the fluid column to determine the pressure at
which a formation will start to take fluid.

Liner - Installed as an intermediate casing string to permit deeper drilling, to separate the productive
zones from other reservoir formations or for testing purposes. Usually cemented to top of liner.

Marine Conductor - A pipe driven, jetted or cemented in pre-drilled hole, to provide structural strength,
to cover very soft formations below the sea bottom, to serve as a circulation system for the drilling fluid
and to guide the drilling and casing strings into the hole.

Maximum Allowable Annular Surface Pressure (MAASP) - The surface pressure which if exceeded, may
either cause loss of mud into a formation below the casing shoe or cause casing or other equipment to
fail, whichever pressure is least.

Mud Gas Separator - An atmospheric or low-pressure vessel for separating the gas from liquid in well
returns.

Normal Formation Pressure - Formation pressure equal to the pressure exerted by a vertical column of
water with a salinity normal for the geographic area.

Non-Return Valve (Check Valve) - Device used to restrict the flow of fluid to only one direction.

Overbalance - The amount by which pressure exerted by the hydrostatic head of fluid in the wellbore
exceeds formation pressure.

Overburden Pressure - The pressure on a formation generated by the combined weight of the rock and
fluid above that formation.

P e r m e a b i l i t y - The ability of fluid to flow from one pore space to another.

Pit Volume Indicator - A device installed in drilling fluid tanks to register the fluid level.

Porosity - The spaces within a rock. The ratio of the volume of interstices of a material to its total
volume.

Production String - Installed to separate the productive zones from other reservoir formations or for
testing purposes.

Relief Well - An offset well drilled to intersect the subsurface formation to combat blowout.

SCR max - The circulating rate at which the chokeline friction loss is equal to the shut-in casing pressure
(SICP).

SCR min - The circulating rate at which the choke line friction loss is equal to the maximum allowable
annular surface casing pressure (MAASP).

Space Out - Procedure conducted to position a pre-determined length of drillpipe above the rotary table
so that a tool joint is located above the rams on which the drillstring is to be suspended and that no tool
joint is opposite a set of rams after the drillpipe is hung off.
 81

Specific Gravity - The ratio of the weight of a given volume of a substance at a given temperature to the
weight of an equal volume of fresh water at the same temperature.

Subnormal Pore Pressure - Pressure of a formation which is below normal pressure expected at a given
depth.

Surface Casing - Installed to provide blowout protection, seal off shallow sands and prevent loss of
circulation. This string is normally cemented to surface or at least up to the shoe of the conductor string.

Swabbing - The lowering of the hydrostatic pressure in the wellbore due to upward movement of
tubulars and/or tools.

Underbalance - The amount by which formation pressure exceeds pressure exerted by the hydrostatic
head of fluid in the wellbore.

Underground Blowout - Uncontrolled flow of formation fluids entering the wellbore at one point and
leaving the wellbore at any point other than the surface. The flow is most likely to travel up the wellbore
before exiting, but can on occasion travel down the wellbore to the receiving formation.

Viscosity - A measure of the internal friction or the resistance of a fluid to flow.