Test Engineering Div.

BASIC ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

I. Introduction – Electrical Circuits

In its simplest form, this consists of an electric source, a load and connecting wires. Electric source provides
energy to the circuit in the form of electricity. Load consumes the energy generated by the source and converts it
into other forms such as heat, magnetic, or chemical energy. The connecting wires serves as the transmission
medium between the source and the load. The resistance of the load generally accounts for a major part of the
total circuit resistance, therefore most of the available source emf is applied across the load while a fraction part is
dropped in the connecting wires and other equipments used in the system. Load resistance may be connected in
two fundamental ways: series circuits and parallel circuits.

[1] Series Circuits

Load resistances are joined together end to end so that same current passes from one to the other
around one complete path.

Figure 1. Illustration of a series circuit

[2] Parallel Circuits

Load resistances are connected across one another so that total current, entering one junction, divides to
pass through the individual parts in definite ratios and combines at the other junction to leave the latter.

Figure 2. Illustration of a parallel circuit

I. DC Network Laws and Theorems

Electric circuits whether simple or complex can readily be solved by application of laws and theorems that relate
several currents, voltages and resistance voltages in such circuits.

[1] Ohm’s Law

In any electrical circuit, the value of current (I) depends upon two factors, the impressed emf (V) and total
resistance (R). In 1826, George Simon Ohm proved experimentally that:

The current is directly proportional to the impressed emf and inversely proportional to the
resistance.

This statement embodies one of the most fundamental laws of electrical science. Figure 3 describes the
relationship between the 3 quantities mentioned in Ohm’s law.
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Figure 3. Relationship among V, I and R in Ohm’s law.

[2] Total resistance in series circuit

Referring to the circuit in Figure 1, the total resistance in a series circuit may be solved like below.

[3] Total resistance in parallel circuit

Referring to the circuit Figure 2, the total resistance in a parallel circuit may be solved like below.

[4] Kirchhoff’s Laws

Two important laws introduced by Gustav Kirchhoff, one for currents and another for voltages.

[a] Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)

The algebraic sum of the currents at any junction of an electric circuit is zero.

Figure 4. Illustration of Kirchhoff’s current law

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[b] Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

The algebraic sum of the sources and the resistance voltages in any closed loop of an electric
circuit is zero.

Figure 5. Illustration of Kirchhoff’s voltage law

[5] Voltage and Current Divider Principles

Voltage dividers are seen often in circuit design because they are useful for generating reference voltage,
for biasing active devices and active as feedback elements. Current dividers on the other hand are seen
less often.

[a] Voltage Divider Principle (VDP)

Referring to Figure 6, assume that the load R2 does not draw any current.

Figure 6. Illustration of voltage divider principle

[b] Current Divider Principle (CDP)

Referring to Figure 7, assume that the only load is R2.

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Figure 7. Illustration of current divider principle

[6] Thevenin’s and Norton’s Theorem

There are situations where it is simpler to concentrate on one component rather than write the equations
for the complete circuit. When the input source is a voltage, Thevenin’s theorem is used to isolate the
component of interest, but when the input source is a current source, Norton’s theorem is used.

[a] Thevenin’s Theorem

First proposed by M.L. Thevenin in the latter part of the 19TH century, and has since been
recognized as an important principle in electric-circuit theory. The theory states that:

In any two terminal network of fixed resistances and constant voltage sources, the current
in a load resistor connected to the output terminals is equal to the current that would exist
in the same resistor if it were connected in series with (a) a simple voltage source whose
voltage is measured at the open-circuited network terminals and (b) a simple resistance
whose magnitude is that of the network looking back from the two terminals into the
network with all the voltage sources replaced by their internal resistances.

The current through the load resistance may readily be determined by performing a simple open-
circuit test.

Figure 8. Example circuit for Thevenin’s theorem

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Consider Figure 8, isolate RL and measure the open voltage at terminals a and b.

Voltage at terminals a and b (Vab) is equal to the measured voltage across the resistor R2 (VR2).

Changing the voltage source into its equivalent internal resistance (negligible in value that it is
considered to be zero), solve the equivalent resistance by looking back at the original circuit.

Redraw the equivalent Thevenin’s circuit.

Figure 9. Thevenin’s equivalent circuit of Figure 8

Solving IL,

[b] Norton’s Theorem

A somewhat modified form of Thevenin’s theorem wherein the original network is converted into a
simple circuit in which a parallel combination of constant-current source and looking back
resistance feeds the load resistor.
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The current through the load resistance may readily be determined by performing a simple short-
circuit test.
Consider Figure 8, isolate RL and measure the short circuit current at terminals a and b.

Solving for Norton’s equivalent resistance employs the same procedure with that of Thevenin’s
equivalent resistance.

Redraw the Norton’s equivalent circuit.

Figure 10. Norton’s equivalent circuit of Figure 8

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Solving IL,

[c] Thevenin and Norton’s theorems calculation comparison

[7] Mesh Analysis

First proposed by Maxwell, the method involves a set of independent loop current assigned to as many
meshes exists in the circuit, these currents are employed in connection with appropriate resistances when
KVL equations are written. Consider Figure 11.

Figure 11. Example circuit for Mesh analysis

Applying KVL for loops I1, I2 and I3,

By mathematical manipulation, the 3 loop equations will yield the unknown quantities in the circuit.

[8] Superposition

The theorem states that, in a network of resistors that is energized by two or more voltage sources, (a) the
current in any resistor or (b) the voltage across any resistor is equal to (a) the algebraic sum of the
separate currents in the resistor or (b) the voltages across the resistor, assuming that each voltage source,
acting independently of the others, is applied separately in turn while the others are replaced by their
respective internal values of resistances.
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In any electrical circuit, the individual components of currents caused by the individual components of
several voltage sources, are directly proportional to one another. Consider Figure 12.

Figure 12. Example circuit for superposition theorem

To solve for IL, IA and IB, there are 3 steps to follow.

Step 1. Replace VB by its internal resistance and assume that the circuit energized by VA alone.

Step 2. Repeat Step 1 by replacing VA by its internal resistance and assume VB to energize the circuit
alone.

Step 3. Algebraically add the currents from Steps 1 and 2 taking into account the current directions.
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[9] Nodal Analysis

Every junction in a complex network represents a connection of three or more branches are regarded as a
node. Moreover, considering one of the nodes as a reference or zero-potential point, current equations
are then written for the remaining junctions; thus, a solution is possible with n-1 equations, where n is the
number of nodes. Consider Figure 13.

Figure 13. Example circuit for nodal analysis

By mathematical manipulation of A and B will yield the unknown quantities.

References

[1] Intersil Corporation, Basic Analog for Digital Designer, Application Note AN9510.2,
October 19, 2004

[2] Charles S. Siskind, Electrical Circuits 2ND Ed., McGraw-Hill, Kōgakusha,

1965