Physics X Notes

MEASUREMENT
Meter
Meter is the unit of length in S.I. System.
Meter is defined as "The distance between the two marks on a Platinum-Iridium
bar kept at 0OC in the International Bureau of Weight and Measures in Paris."
One meter = 100 cm
One meter = 1000 mm
Kilogram
Kilogram is the unit of mass in S.I. System.
"Kilogram is defined as the mass of a platinum cylinder placed in the
International Bureau of Weight and Measures in Paris."
One kilogram = 1000gram
Second
Second is the unit of time in S.I. System.
A second is defined in terms of the time period of Cs-133 atoms.
i.e." one second is equal to 9,192,631,770 periods of vibrations of Cs-133
atoms."
60 seconds = one minute
3600 seconds = one hour
Least Count
Minimum measurement that can be made by a measuring device is known as "
LEAST COUNT'.
Least count (vernier callipers) = minimum measurement on main scale / total number of
divisions on vernier scale
.
Least count (screw gauge) = minimum measurement on main scale / total number of
divisions on circular scale
Smaller is the magnitude of least count of a measuring instrument, more precise the
measuring instrument is.
A measuring instrument can not measure any thing whose dimensions are less than the
magnitude of least count.
Least Count of Vernier Callipers = 0.01 cm
Least Count of Micrometer Screw gauge = 0.001 cm
Zero Error
It is a defect in a measuring device (Vernier Callipers & Screw Gauge).
When jaws of a Vernier Callipers or Screw Gauge are closed, zero of main scale must
coincide with the zero of vernier scale or circular scale in case of screw gauge.
If they do not coincide then it is said that a zero error is present in the instrument.
Types Of Zero Error
Zero error may be positive or negative.
A positive zero error in the instrument shows a larger measurement than the
actual measurement.
In order to get exact measurement, positive zero error is subtracted from the
total reading.
.
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A negative zero error in the instrument shows a smaller measurement than the
actual measurement.
In order to get exact measurement, negative zero error is added to the total
reading.
Pitch
"Perpendicular distance between two consecutive threads
of the screw gauge or spherometer is called PITCH."
Pitch = Distance traveled on main scale / total number of rotations
Error
An error is defined as
"The difference between the measured value and actual value."
If two persons use the same instrument for measurement for finding the same
measurement, it is not essential that they may get the same results. There may arise a
difference between their measurements. This difference is referred to as an "ERROR".
Types Of Error
Errors can be divided into three categories:
(1) Personal Error
(2) Systematic Error
(3) Random Error
Personal Error
An error comes into play because of faulty procedure adopted by the observer is called
"PERSONAL ERROR".
Personal error comes into existence due to making an error in reading a scale. It is due to
faulty procedure adopted by the person making measurement.
Systematic Error
The type of error arises due to defect in the measuring device is known as "SYSTEMATIC
ERROR".
Generally it is called "ZERO ERROR". It may be positive or negative error. Systematic error
can be removed by correcting measurement device.
Random Error
The error produced due to sudden change in experimental conditions is called "RANDOM
ERROR".
For example:
Sudden change in temperature, change in humidity, fluctuation in potential difference
(voltage).
It is an accidental error and is beyond the control of the person making measurement.

SCALARS & VECTORS
SCALAR QUANTITIES
Physical quantities which can completely be specified by a number (magnitude)
having an appropriate unit are known as "SCALAR QUANTITIES".
Scalar quantities do not need direction for their description.
Scalar quantities are comparable only when they have the same physical dimensions.
Two or more than two scalar quantities measured in the same system of units are equal
if they have the same magnitude and sign.
Scalar quantities are denoted by letters in ordinary type.
Scalar quantities are added, subtracted, multiplied or divided by the simple rules of
algebra.
EXAMPLES
Work, energy, electric flux, volume, refractive index, time, speed, electric potential,
potential difference, viscosity, density, power, mass, distance, temperature, electric
charge, electric flux etc.
VECTORS
QUANTITIES
Physical quantities having both magnitude and direction
with appropriate unit are known as "VECTOR QUANTITIES".
We can't specify a vector quantity without mention of direction.
Vector quantities are expressed by using bold letters with arrow sign such
as:
vector quantities can not be added, subtracted, multiplied or divided by the simple rules
of algebra.
Vector quantities added, subtracted, multiplied or divided by the rules of trigonometry
and geometry.
EXAMPLES
Velocity, electric field intensity, acceleration, force, momentum, torque, displacement,
electric current, weight, angular momentum etc.
REPRESENTATION OF
VECTORS
On paper vector quantities are represented by a straight line with arrow head pointing
the direction of vector or terminal point of vector.
A vector quantity is first transformed into a suitable scale and then a line is drawn with
the help of the
Scale chosen in the given direction.

ADDITION OF VECTORS
PARALLELOGRAM LAW
OF VECTOR ADDITION
According to the parallelogram law of vector addition:
"If two vector quantities are represented by two adjacent sides or a
parallelogram
then the diagonal of parallelogram will be equal to the resultant of these two
vectors."
EXPLANATION
Consider two vectors . Let the vectors have the following orientation
parallelogram of these vectors is :
According to parallelogram law:

MAGNITUDE OF
RESULTANT VECTOR
Magnitude of resultant vector can be determined by using either sine law or cosine law.
RESOLUTION OF VECTOR
DEFINITION
The process of splitting a vector into various parts or components is called "RESOLUTION
OF VECTOR"
These parts of a vector may act in different directions and are called "components of
vector".
We can resolve a vector into a number of components .Generally there are three
components of vector viz.
Component along X-axis called x-component
Component along Y-axis called Y-component
Component along Z-axis called Z-component
Here we will discuss only two components x-component & Y-component which are
perpendicular to each other. These components are called rectangular components of
vector.
METHOD OF RESOLVING
A VECTOR INTO
RECTANGULAR
COMPONENTS
Consider a vector acting at a point making an angle θ with positive X-axis. Vector
is
represented by a line OA. From point A draw a perpendicular AB on X-axis. Suppose OB
and BA
represents two vectors. Vector OA is parallel to X-axis and vector BA is parallel to Y-axis.
Magnitudes of these vectors are Vx and Vy respectively. By the method of head to tail we
notice that the sum of these vectors is equal to vector .Thus Vx and Vy are the
rectangular components of vector .

Vx = Horizontal component of .
Vy = Vertical component of .
MAGNITUDE OF
HORIZONTAL
COMPONENT
Consider right angled triangle ΔΟΑΒ
MAGNITUDE OF
VERTICAL COMPONENT
Consider right angled triangle ΔΟΑΒ
MULTIPLICATION & DIVISION OF VECTOR BY A NUMBER (SCALAR)

MULTIPLICATION
OF A VECTOR
BY A SCALAR
When a vector is multiplied by a positive number (for example 2, 3 ,5, 60 unit etc.) or a
scalar only
Compiled By: its
Sirmagnitude
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original vector.
If however a vector is multiplied by a negative number (for example -2, -3 ,-5, -60 unit
etc.) or a scalar not only its magnitude is changed but its direction also reversed.
The product of a vector by a scalar quantity (m) follows the following rules:
(m) = (m) which is called commutative law of multiplication.
m(n ) = (mn) which is called associative law of multiplication .
(m + n) =m +n which is called distributive law of multiplication.

DIVISION
OF A VECTOR
BY A SCALAR
The division of a vector by a scalar number (n) involves the multiplication of the
vector by the reciprocal of the number (n) which generates a new vector.
Let n represents a number or scalar and m is its reciprocal then the new vector is
given by :
where m = 1/n
and its magnitude is given by:
The direction of is same as that of if (n) is a positive number.
The direction of is opposite as that of if (n) is a negative number.

Addition of vectors by Head to Tail method (Graphical Method)
Head to Tail method or graphical method is one of the easiest methods used to find the
resultant vector of two of more than two vectors.
DETAILS OF
METHOD
Consider two vectors and acting in the directions as shown below:

In order to get their resultant vector by head to tail method we must follow the following
steps:
STEP # 1
Choose a suitable scale for the vectors so that they can be plotted on the paper.
STEP # 2
Draw representative line of vector

Draw representative line of vector such that the tail of coincides with the
head of vector .
STEP # 3
Join 'O' and 'B'.
represents resultant vector of given vectors and i.e.

STEP # 4
Measure the length of line segment and multiply it with the scale chosen initially to
get the magnitude of resultant vector.
STEP # 5
The direction of the resultant vector is directed from the tail of vector to the head of
vector .

"Kinematics is the branch of Physics in which we
discuss bodies at rest or motion
without the reference of external agent that causes
motion or rest."
OR
"The branch of physics which deals with the
description of motion of objects without
reference to the force or agent causing motion in it,
is called Kinematics."
REST
"If a body does not change its position with respect to its
surroundings then
the body is said to be in a state of rest."
MOTION
"If a body continuously changes its position with respect to its
surrounding
than it is said to be in a state of motion."
TYPES OF MOTION
Motion of objects can be divided into three categories.
(i) TRANSLATIONAL MOTION
(ii) ROTATIONAL MOTION
(iii) VIBRATIONAL MOTION
TRANSLATIONAL MOTION
"Motion of a body in which every particle of the body is being
displaced by the same amount is called Translational Motion".
EXAMPLE:
(i) Motion of a person on a road.
(ii) Motion of a car or truck on a road.
ROTATIONAL MOTION
"Type of motion in which a body rotates around a
fixed point or axis is called Rotational Motion."
EXAMPLE:
(i) Motion of wheel
(ii) Motion of the blades of a fan
VIBRATIONAL MOTION
"Type of motion in which a body or particle moves to and fro
about a fixed point or mean position is called Vibratory Motion."
EXAMPLE:
(i) Motion of simple pendulum
(ii) Motion of the wires of guitar
(iii) Motion of swing
DISPLACEMENT
"Distance between two points in a particular direction is called

Displacement."
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Displacement may also be defined as "the minimum distance between
two points in a particular direction."
It is a vector quantity and is always directed from the initial point to the
terminal point.
It is denoted by "d".
SPEED
"Distance covered by a moving body in one second is called its
Speed".
OR
"Distance covered by a body in unit time is called Speed".
Speed is a scalar quantity.
FORMULA
Speed = Distance traveled/Time taken
OR
v = S/t
UNIT
Unit of speed in S.I system is "m/sec".
VELOCITY
"Distance covered by a body in a particular direction in one
second is called Velocity".
OR
"Displacement of a body in unit time is called Velocity".
OR
"Change of position of a body per second in a particular direction
is called Velocity."
FORMULA
velocity = displacement/time
UNIT
In S.I system unit of velocity is meter/second.
It is a vector quantity.
ACCELERATION
"The rate of change of velocity of a body is called Acceleration."
OR
"Change in velocity of a body in unit time is called its acceleration."
It is denoted by "a".
It is a vector quantity.
If a body moves with uniform velocity or constant velocity then its
acceleration will be zero.
UNIT: m/sec2.
FORMULA
Acceleration = change in velocity/time
OR
a = ΔV/t

FIRST EQUATION OF MOTION
Vf = Vi + at
Consider a body initial moving with velocity "Vi". After certain interval of time "t",
its velocity becomes "Vf". Now
Change in velocity = Vf - Vi
OR
ΔV =Vf – Vi
Due to change in velocity, acceleration "a" is produced in the body. Acceleration is
given by
a = ΔV/t
Putting the value of "ΔV"
a = (Vf – Vi)/t
at = Vf – Vi
at + Vi =Vf
OR
SECOND EQUATION OF
MOTION
OR
S = Vit + 1/2at2
Consider a car moving on a straight road with an initial velocity equal to ‘Vi’. After
an interval of time‘t’ its velocity becomes ‘Vf’. Now first we will determine the
average velocity of body.
Average velocity = (Initial velocity + final velocity)/2
OR
Vav = (Vi + Vf)/2
but Vf = Vi + at
Putting the value of Vf
Vav = (Vi + Vi + at)/2
Vav = (2Vi + at)/2
Vav = 2Vi/2 + at/2
Vav = Vi + at/2
Vav = Vi + 1/2at.......................................(i)
we know that
S = Vav x t
Putting the value of ‘Vav’
S = [Vi + 1/2at] t

THIRD EQUATION OF MOTION
OR
2aS = Vf2 – Vi2
Initial velocity, final velocity, acceleration, and distance are related in third
equation of motion.
Consider a body moving initially with velocity ‘Vi’. After certain interval of time its
velocity becomes ‘Vf’. Due to change in velocity, acceleration ‘a’ is produced in the
body. Let the body travels a distance of ‘s’ meters.
According to first equation of motion:
Vf = Vi + at
OR
Vf – Vi = at
OR
(Vf – Vi)/a = t....................(i)
Average velocity of body is given by:
Vav = (Initial velocity + Final velocity)/2
Vav = (Vi + Vf)/2.................. (ii)
we know that :
S = Vav x t.................. (ii)
Putting the value of Vav and t from equation (i) and (ii) in equation (iii)
S = { (Vf + Vi)/2} { (Vf – Vi)/a}
2aS = (Vf + Vi)(Vf – Vi)
According to [ (a+b)(a-b)=a2-b2]
ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY OR FREE FALLING OBJECTS
"Galileo was the first scientist to appreciate that, neglecting the effect of air resistance, all bodies
in free-fall close to the Earth's surface accelerate vertically downwards with the same
acceleration: namely 9.8 m/s2"
Example
If a ball is thrown vertically upward, it rises to a particular height and then falls back to the
ground. However this is due to the attraction of the earth which pulls the object towards the
ground"

CHARACTERISTIC OF FREE FALLING BODIES
1, When a body is thrown vertically upward, its velocity continously decreases and become zero
at a particular height During this motion the value of acceleration is negative and Vf is equal to
zero (a = -9.8m/s2 , Vf = 0).
2, When a body falls back to the ground , its velocity continously increases and become
maximum at a particular height During this motion the value of acceleration is positive and Vi is
equal to zero (a = 9.8m/s2 , Vi = 0).
3, Acceleration due to gravity is denoted by a and its value is 9.8m/s2 .
4, Equation of motion for the free-falling bodies be written as,
Vf = Vi + gt
h = Vit + 1/2 gt2
2gh = Vf2 - Vi2

FORCE & MOTION
FORCE
"Force is an agent which changes or tends to change the state
of rest or of uniform motion of a body."
In the light of Newton's 2nd law of motion Force may be defined as :
"Force acting on a body is equal to the product of the
mass and acceleration produced in the body."
i.e.
F = ma
Force can accelerate or decelerate a body.
Force is a vector quantity.
UNITS OF FORCE
(i) NEWTON (N) in S.I system
(ii) DYNE in C.G.S system
(iii) POUND (Lb) in BRITISH ENGINEERING SYSTEM (F.P.S)
NEWTON
Newton is the unit of force and can be defined as:
"The amount of force that produces an acceleration of
1 m/s2 in a body of mass 1-kg is equal to 1 NEWTON."
1 N = 1 kg x 1m/s2
[ N = kg m/s2]
NEWTON 'S FIRST LAW OF
MOTION
STATEMENT:
Newton 's first law of motion states that:
"Every body remains at rest or continues to move with uniform
velocity in straight line unless an unbalanced force acts upon it".
EXPLANATION
First law of motion consists of two parts:
PART NO 1:
The first part states that a body at rest remains at rest unless an unbalanced force acts
upon it.
This part is in accordance with our common experience for example, a book lying on a
table remains at rest unless it is lifted or pushed by an external force.
PART NO 2 :
Second part states that a body in motion remains in motion with uniform velocity
unless an unbalance force acts upon it. This part is not self-evident because a ball
pushed once does not continue its motion forever. A little consideration however,
shows that there is an opposing force like ground friction and air friction acting in this
case. These frictional forces are responsible to stop the ball. If we eliminate these
opposing forces, a body in motion will continue its motion forever.

INERTIA
"Tendency of a body by virtue of which the body at rest or
moving with uniform velocity retains its state is called INERTIA."
OR
"Property of a body by which a body resists a force, applied to
it to change its state of rest or of uniform velocity is called INERTIA."
INERTIA of a body is directly related to its mass. Heavy bodies have greater inertia
while lighter bodies have little inertia.
LAW OF INERTIA AND THE
FIRST LAW OF MOTION
Every body in the universe opposes the force which tends to change its state of rest or
of uniform motion. This property INERTIA is a direct consequence of FIRST LAW OF
MOTION. As heavy bodies due to greater INERTIA requires forces of large magnitude and
bodies of small masses require small forces.
By the above explanation of INERTIA we conclude that the state of rest or motion does
not change by its self unless an external force acts upon it, which is according to the
FIRST LAW OF MOTION.
Thus the FIRST LAW OF MOTION is also called LAW OF INERTIA.
NEWTON'S 2ND LAW OF MOTION

STATEMENT:
When an unbalanced force acts upon a body, it is accelerated in the direction of force.
The magnitude of acceleration is directly proportional to the applied
force and is inversely proportional to the mass of body.
With the help of above equation 2nd law of motion can be expressed as:
THE NET FORCE ACTING ON A BODY IS EQUAL TO THE PRODUCT
OF THE MASS OF BODY AND THE ACCELERATION PRODUCED IN IT.
NEWTON'S 3RD LAW OF MOTION
STATEMENT:
"To every action there is a reaction equal in magnitude but opposite in direction"
OR
"When a body exerts a force on another body, the second body also exerts
a force on the first body of same magnitude but in the opposite direction"
FACTION = -FREACTION
Force exerted by one body is called ACTION and the force exerted by the second body is
called REACTION.
EXAMPLES:
(1) Motion of rocket: fuel burns rapidly, exerts force in downward direction and rocket
moves upward
as a reaction.
(2) Book lying on a table: weight of the book on the surface is action and the force
exerted by the surface (R) is the reaction.
R = -W

(3) Walking on a street
(4) Motion of helicopter
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MASS AND WEIGHT
Mass Weight
(1) The quantity of matter in a (1) Weight is the force by which the earth
body is called its mass. attracts a body towards its center.
(2) Weight is a vector quantity and is always
(2) Mass is a scalar quantity.
directed towards the center of the earth.
(3) Mass of a body is always (3) Weight of a body vary place to place and
constant every where in the become zero on the center of earth and far
universe. away from the surface of earth.
(4) Mass of a moving body is
(4) Weight of a body is W = mg.
m=F/a.
(5) Mass can be determine by an (5) Weight of a body is measured by spring
ordinary balance. balance.
(6) Unit of mass in S.I system is
(6) Unit of weight in S.I system is NEWTON (N).
KILOGRAM ( kg).
FRICTION
When a body slides over the surface of another body, an opposing force is set up
between them to resist the motion. The force which opposes the motion is called friction
OR Force of Friction.
Force of friction tends to decelerate a body and always acts in the opposite direction of
motion.
CATEGORIES OF FRICTION
(1) Contact friction
(2) Fluid friction
LIMITING FRICTION
When an external force is applied against the force of friction, the force of friction also
increases by the same amount. Therefore, It adjusts itself in such a way that it is equal
and opposite to the external force. It has a maximum value just before the motion starts.
So friction is a self-adjusting force. The maximum force of friction that stops the body from
moving is called LIMITING FRICTION.
It is denoted by Fs.
LIMITING FRICTION is directly proportional to the surface reaction.
Limiting friction Fs is:

Where R = normal reaction
but R = W
and R = mg
Where = constant known as coefficient of friction.

COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION
Coefficient of friction is the ratio of LIMITING FRICTION to the NORMAL REACTION.
Coefficient of friction is constant for a given pair of surfaces but different for different
pairs
Unit of :
Since it is a ratio of two similar quantities, therefore it has no unit as shown.
ROLLING FRICTION
When a body rolls over a surface, the force of friction is called ROLLING FRICTION. When
a sphere rolls over a surface it experiences an opposing force called ROLLING FRICTION.
Rolling friction is much less than the sliding friction because in case of rolling contact area
of two surfaces is very small as compared to sliding.
Momentum- Law of conservation of Momentum
MOMENTUM
Quantity of motion of a body is referred to as "MOMENTUM".
Definition
Momentum of a moving body defined as :
"The product of mass and velocity of a body is called MOMENTUM."
Mathematically
Momentum = mass x velocity
It is a vector quantity. Momentum is always directed in the direction of velocity.

The unit of momentum is in S.I system kg .m/s or NS.
Momentum depends upon mass and velocity of body.
LAW OF CONSERVATION OF
MOMENTUM.
The law of conservation of momentum states that:
"When some bodies constituting an isolated system act upon

one another, the total momentum of the system remains constant."
OR
"The total momentum of an isolated system of interacting bodies remains constant."
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"Total momentum of an isolated system before collision is always equal to total
momentum after collision."
MATHEMATICAL
REPRESENTATION
Consider two bodies of mass m1 and m2 moving initially with velocities u1 and u2.
Total momentum before collision = m1u1 + m2u2
Let after collision their velocities become v1 and v2.
Total momentum after collision = m1v1 + m2v2

According to the law of conservation of momentum
m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF FRICTION - METHODS OF REDUCING

FRICTION
ADVANTAGES OF FRICTION
Friction plays a vital role in our daily life. Without friction we are handicap.
1. It is becomes difficult to walk on a slippery road due to low friction. When we move
on ice, By:
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2. We can not fix nail in the wood or wall if there is no friction. It is friction which
holds the nail.
3. A horse can not pull a cart unless friction furnishes him a secure Foothold.
DISADVANTAGES OF FRICTION
Despite the fact that the friction is very important in our daily life, it also has some
disadvantages like:
1. The main disadvantage of friction is that it produces heat in various parts of
machines. In this way some useful energy is wasted as heat energy.
2. Due to friction we have to exert more power in machines.
3. It opposes the motion.
4. Due to friction, noise is also produced in machines.
5. Due to friction, engines of automobiles consume more fuel which is a money loss.
METHODS OF REDUCING FRICTION
There are a number of methods to reduce friction in which some are discussed here.
USE OF LUBRICANTS:
The parts of machines which are moving over one another must be properly lubricated
by using oils and lubricants of suitable viscosity.
USE OF GREASE:
Proper greasing between the sliding parts of machine reduces the friction.
USE OF BALL BEARING:
In machines where possible, sliding friction can be replaced by rolling friction by using
ball bearings.
DESIGN MODIFICATION:
Friction can be reduced by changing the design of fast moving objects. The front of
vehicles and airplanes made oblong to minimize friction.

STATICS
.
Statics
Statics is the branch of mechanics which deals with the study of bodies at rest under a
number of forces, the equilibrium, conditions of equilibrium, types of equilibrium and
torque etc.
Equilibrium
A body is said to be in equilibrium if it is at rest or moving with uniform velocity.
In other words if the linear and angular acceleration of a body are zero, the body is said
to be in equilibrium.
Or we can say that when two or more forces act on a body such that their resultant or
combining effect on the body is Zero and the body retains its state of rest or of uniform
motion then the body is said to be in equilibrium.
Example
A book lying on the table, suspended bodies, all stationary bodies, jump by using
parachute.
Types of equilibrium
With respect to the state of a body, equilibrium may be divided into two categories:
1. Static equilibrium.
2. Dynamic equilibrium.
Static equilibrium
If the combined effect of all the forces acting on a body is zero and the body is in the
state of rest then its equilibrium is termed as static equilibrium.
For example: All stationary bodies
Dynamic equilibrium
When a body is in state of uniform motion and the resultant of all the forces acting upon it
is zero then it is said to be in dynamic equilibrium.
For example: Jump by using parachute.
Conditions of equilibrium
There are two conditions of equilibrium are as follows
First condition of
equilibrium
The first condition of equilibrium stated as follow:
To maintain the transitional equilibrium in a body the vector sum of all the forces acting
on the body is equal to zero
In other words we can say that to maintain equilibrium the sum of all the
forces acting along X-axis is zero and the sum of all the forces acting
along Y-axis is zero.
Second condition of equilibrium
The second condition of equilibrium stated as follow:
A body will be in rotational equilibrium when the algebraic sum of clock wise torque and
anti clock wise torque is zero.
In other words:

A body will be in rotational equilibrium if vector sum of all the torque acting on the body is
zero.
STATES OF EQUILIBRIUM
.
States of equilibrium
There are three states of equilibrium:
Stable equilibrium
Unstable equilibrium
Neutral equilibrium
Stable equilibrium
When the center of gravity of a body lies below point of suspension or support, the body
is said to be in STABLE EQUILIBRIUM. For example a book lying on a table is in stable
equilibrium.
Explanation
A book lying on a horizontal surface is an example of stable equilibrium. If the book is
lifted from one edge and then allowed to fall, it will come back to its original position.
Other examples of stable equilibrium are bodies lying on the floor such as chair, table etc.
Reason of stability
When the book is lifted its center of gravity is raised. The line of action of weight passes
through the base of the book. A torque due to weight of the book brings it back to the
original position.
Unstable equilibrium
When the center of gravity of a body lies above the point of suspension or support, the
body is said to be in unstable equilibrium
Example
Pencil standing on its point or a stick in vertically standing position.
Explanation:
If thin rod standing vertically is slightly disturbed from its position it will not come back to
its original position. This type of equilibrium is called unstable equilibrium, other example of
unstable equilibrium are vertically standing cylinder and funnel etc.
Reason of instability
When the rod is slightly disturbed its center of gravity is lowered. The line of action of its
weight lies outside the base of rod. The torque due to weight of the rod toppled it down.
Neutral equilibrium
When the center of gravity of a body lies at the point of suspension or support, the body
is said to be in neutral equilibrium. Example: rolling ball.
Explanation
If a ball is pushed slightly to roll, it will neither come back to its original nor it will roll
forward rather it will remain at rest. This type of equilibrium is called NEUTRAL
EQUILIBRIUM.
Reason of neutral
equilibrium
If the ball is rolled, its center of gravity is neither raised nor lowered. This means that its
center of gravity is at the same height as before.
TORQUE - CENTER OF GRAVITY
Torque
The torque or moment of force can be define as
“The tendency of a force to produce rotation in a body
about an axis is called torque or moment of force."
The turning effect of a force depends upon two factors:
The magnitude of force (F)
Moment arm (r)
The torque about any axis is given by the product of force and moment arm

Torque = force x moment arm
OR
Positive torque:
If a body rotates about its axis in anti clockwise direction, then the torque is taken
positive.
Negative torque:
If the body rotates in the clockwise direction, then the torque is taken as negative.
Center of gravity
The center of a body is that point in the body through which the resultant forces due to
the earth’s attraction posses and through which the whole weight of the body always acts.
OR
Center of gravity of a body is a point where total weight of the body is concentrated.
Every body posses a center of gravity and this is irrespective of the body. It is not
necessary that the center of gravity should be within the body, but it may also be situated
in space out side the body.
Example: center of gravity of a ring is at the center, which is in the space.
Center of gravity of different objects:
Rectangle
Center of gravity of a rectangular is at the point of intersection of its diagonals
Circle
Center of gravity of a circle is at its center.
Square
Center of gravity of square is at the point of intersection of its diagonals.

Regular bar
The center of gravity of a regular bar is at its geometrical center.
Triangle
The center of gravity of a triangle is at the point of intersection of its medians.
Cylinder
The center of gravity of a cylinder is at the axis of cylinder.

CIRCULAR MOTION AND GRAVITATION
GRAVITATION
Every object in our universe attracts the other object with
certain fore towards its center. This force of attraction is known
as GRAVITATIONAL FORCE and the phenomenon is
called GRAVITATION. This is gravitational force which is
responsible for the uniformity or regularity in our daily
astronomical life. The whole system of the universe is in order
only due to this force. Due to gravitation, the system of our
universe is working uniformly and smoothly. The planets
around the earth or around the sun moves in an orderly motion
due to gravitation.
NEWTON’S LAW
OF GRAVITATION
In order to explain the gravitational force between two bodies,
Newton formulated a fundamental law known after his name
i.e. "NEWTON'S LAW OF GRAVITATION"
Newton’s law of gravitation states that every object in the
universe attracts the other object with a force and :
(1) The gravitational force of attraction between two bodies is
directly proportional to the product of their masses.
F α m1 x m2 ------- (1)
(2) The gravitational force of attraction between two bodies is
inversely proportional to the square of the distance between
their centers.
F α 1/d2 --------- (2)
MATHEMATICAL
REPRESENTATION
Combining (1) and (2)

F α m1m2 /d2
F = G m1m2/d2
Where G = universal gravitational constant
Value of G:
G = 6.67 x 10-11 Nm2/kg2
MASS OF THE
EARTH
Consider a body of mass ‘m’ placed on the surface of the
earth. Let the mass of the earth is ‘Me’ and radius of earth is
‘Re’ .
Gravitational force of attraction between earth and body is

F = G m Me/ Re2
We know that the force of attraction of the earth on a body is
equal to weight the weight of body.
i.e
F=W
therefore
W = G m Me/ Re2
But W = mg
mg = G m Me/ Re2
or
g = G Me/Re2
or
Me = g x Re2/G
From astronomical data:
g= 9.8 m/s2
Re = 6.4 x 106 m
G = 6.67 x 10-11 N-m2/kg2
Putting these values in the above equation.
Me = 9.8 (6.4 x 106)2/6.67 x 10-11
or

WORK
PHYSICAL
DEFINITION OF
WORK
"Work is said to be done if a force causes a displacement
in a body in the direction of force".
OR
"The work done by a constant force is defined as the product of
the component of the force and the displacement in the direction of
displacement."
MATHEMATICAL
DEFINITION
"Work is the scalar product of force and displacement".
OR
"Work is the dot product of force and displacement".
Work is a scalar quantity.

UNIT OF WORKS
• In S.I system: Joule (j)
• In C.G.S. system: Erg
• In F.P.S. system: ft X lb
CATEGORIES
OF WORK
(i) POSITIVE WORK:
If force and displacement are in the same direction, work will be positive or if θ = 0 or θ <
90°

(ii) ZERO WORK:
If force and displacement are perpendicular to each other, work will be zero. i.e.
since θ= 90°
Work = 0
as
Work = Fd Cosθ
Work = Fd Cos 90°
Work = (F)(d)(0)
Work = 0
NEGATIVE WORK:
If force and displacement are in the opposite direction, work will be negative.
since θ= 180°
Work = - ve
as
Work = Fd Cosθ
Work = Fd Cos 180°
Work = (F)(d)(-1)
Work = -Fd
ENERGY
ENERGY
"The ability of a body to perform work is called Energy".
A body cannot perform work if it does not posses energy. A body cannot perform work
more than the amount of energy.
It is a scalar quantity.
UNITS OF
ENERGY

(i) Joule
(ii) Calorie [NOTE: 1 Calorie = 4.2 joule.]
(iii) KWatt-Hour
TYPES OF
ENERGY
There area numerous types of energy such as:
Heat Energy
Light Energy
Sound Energy
Nuclear Energy
Chemical Energy
Electrical Energy
Solar Energy
Wind Energy
Kinetic Energy
Potential Energy etc. etc.
POWER
"The rate of work done of a body is called Power".
AVERAGE
POWER
Average power of a body doing work is numerically equal to the total work done divided
by the time taken to perform the work.
MATHMATICALLY
Power = Work done/time
Power = Work/t
but [work = Fd]
therefore
Power = Fd/t
UNITS OF
POWER
(i) watt [1 watt = 1joule/sec ]
(ii) Kilo watt [1Kw = 1000 watt]
(iii) Mega watt (Mw) [1Mw = 106 watt]
(iv) Horse power [1Hp = 746w]
POTENTIAL ENERGY
INTRODUCTION
Energy stored by a body by any means is called "Potential Energy".
DEFINITION
"The energy stored by a body due to its position in gravitational field is known as
‘Gravitational Potential Energy’".

FORMULA
Consider a body of mass "m" placed at a height of "h" from the surface of earth.
Force = Weight = W
but displacement (d) = h
Work done = Fd
OR
Work done = Wh
[but W = mg]
work done = mgh
We know that the work done in lifting the body is stored in the body in the form of
Potential Energy. Thus P.E. = mgh
LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
LAW OF
CONSERVATION OF
ENERGY
According to the law of conservation of energy :
"Energy can neither be created nor it is destroyed, however
energy can be converted from one form energy to any
other form of energy"
SHOW THAT THE MOTION OF A SIMPLE PENDULUM IS ACCORDING TO THE LAW
OF CONSERVATION ENERGY.
OR
PROVE THE LAW OF CONSERVATION WITH THE HELP OF A SUITABLE EXAMPLE.
We know that the motion of the bob of a simple pendulum is simple harmonic motion.
Here we have to prove that the energy is conversed during the motion of pendulum.
Proof: Consider a simple pendulum as shown in the diagram.
Energy
Conservation At
Point ‘A’
At point ‘A’ velocity of the bob of simple pendulum is zero. Therefore, K.E. at point ‘A’ =
0. Since the bob is at a height (h), Therefore, P.E. of the bob will be maximum i.e.
P.E. = mgh.
Energy total = K.E. + P.E
Energy total = 0 + mgh
Energy total = mgh
This shows that at point A total energy is potential energy.
Energy
Conservation At
Point ‘M’
If we release the bob of pendulum from point ‘A’, velocity of bob gradually increases, but
the height of bob will decreases from point to the point. At point ‘M’ velocity will become
maximum and the height will be nearly equal to zero.
Thus ,
K.E. = maximum = 1/2mV2 but P.E. = 0.
Energy total = K.E. + P.E
Energy total = 1/2mV2 + 0
Energy total = 1/2mV2
This shows that the P.E. at point is completely converted into K.E. at point ‘M’.
Energy
Conservation
At Point ‘B’
At point M the bob of Pendulum will not stop but due to inertia, the bob will moves
toward the point ‘B’. As the bob moves from ‘M’ to ‘B’, its velocity gradually decreases but
the height increases. At point ‘B’ velocity of the bob will become zero.
Thus K.E. at point ‘B’ = 0 but P.E. = max.
P.E. = mgh.
Energy total = K.E. + P.E.
Energy total = 0 + mgh
Energy total = mgh
This shows that at point B total energy is again potential energy.
CONCLUSION
Above analysis indicates that the total energy during the motion does not change. I.e. the
motion of the bob of simple pendulum is according to the law of conservation of energy.

MACHINE
A machine is a device by means of which work can be performed easily or in a convenient manner.
A machine can be used:
To lift heavy loads by applying little force.
To enlarge magnitude of force
To increase rate of work done
To change the direction of force
Example of simple machines are : Lever, pulley, inclined plane, wedge, screw etc.
EFFORT OR POWER
The power directly applied to a machine to lift a load is called Effort or Power. It is denoted by ‘P’.
LOAD OR WEIGHT
The weight lifted by a machine is called Load. It is denoted by ‘W’.
MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE
The ratio of weight (load) lifted by a machine to the force (effort) applied on a machine is called
mechanical advantage of the machine.
Greater the value of mechanical advantage of a machine, easier is the work done.
Mathematically,
M.A. = Weight over-comed by Machine/ Force Applied on the Machine
UNIT:
It has no unit.
INPUT
Amount of work done on a machine by a given effort (force) is called input of a machine.
OUTPUT
Amount of work done by a machine on the load (weight) is called output of the machine.
EFFICIENCY
The ratio of output of a machine to the input of machine is called its efficiency.

UNIT:
It has no unit.
IDEAL MACHINE
An ideal machine is a hypothetical machine whose output is equal to its input.
For an ideal machine
Efficiency of an ideal machine is 100% because there is no loss of energy in an ideal machine due to
friction or any other means that can waste useful energy.
M.A of an ideal machine is d / h.
LEVER
Lever is a simple machine which is used to lift heavy bodies or heavy load in a very easy way.
Lever consists of a rigid bar capable to rotate about a fixed axis called fulcrum. Effort is applied at
one end of the bar and weight can be lifted from the other end.
TYPES OF LEVER
There are three kinds of lever depending upon the positions of load , effort and fulcrum.
FIRST KIND OF LEVER

In the first kind of lever, the fulcrum F lies between effort (P) and load (W).
Example: common balance, seesaw, scissors, handle of hand pump.

SECOND KIND OF LEVER
In the second kind of lever, load (W) lies between effort (P) and fulcrum (F).
Example: door, nutcracker, punching machine.

THIRD KIND OF LEVER
In the third kind of lever, effort (P) lies between load (W) and fulcrum (F).
Example: forceps, jaws, human forearm, fire tong.
Inclined Plane
Definition
A heavy load can be lifted more easily by pulling it along a slope rather than by lifting in vertically.
Such a slope is called an Inclined Plane.
Mechanical Advantage
M.A = W/P = l/h = Length of Inclined Plane/Perpendicular Height
Pulley
A pulley consists of a wheel mounted on an axle that is fixed to the framework called the block. The
wheel can rotate freely in the block. The groove in the circumference prevents the string from slipping.

Fixed Pulley
If the block of the pulley is fixed then it is called a fixed pulley.
Mechanical Advantage of Fixed Pulley
In a fixed pulley, the force P is the applied force and weight W is lifted. If we neclect the force of
friction then:
Load = Effort
Moveable Pulley
In this pulley, one end of the rope that is passing around the pulley is tied to a firm support and effort P
is applied from its other end. The load and weight to be lifted is hung from the hook of block. In this
system, the pulley can move. Such a pulley is called moveable pulley.
Mechanical Advantage of Moveable Pulley
In an ideal system of a moveable pulley, the tension in each segment of the rope is equal to the applied
effort. As two segments support the weight, the ffort acting on the weight W is 2P. Therefore, according
to the principle of lever:
W * Radius of the Wheel = 2P * Radius of the Wheel
=> 2P = W
The Mechanical Advantage is given by:
M.A = W/P
M.A = 2P/P
=> M.A = 2
Hence, the mechanical advantage of a moveable pulley is 2.

MATTER
KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY OF

MATTER
According to kinetic theory of matter:
• Matter is made of very small particles called MOLECULES.

• These molecules are in a state of motion.
• They possess Kinetic Energy.
• Molecular motion may be translational, rotational or vibrational.
• These molecules attract each other.
• As the temperature of a substance is increased, its molecular speed is
also increased and vice versa.
• If a substance is compressed , The K.E of its molecules increases and its
temperature rises
States of Matter
Matter has been classified into three states. These states are discussed below:
1.Solid
According to the kinetic theory of matter, solid has the least kinetic energy. The
properties of solids are given below:
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• Their shape and volume is fixed.

• They have greater kinetic energy than solids but less than that of gases.
• The volume of liquid is fixed.
• They move more freely than solids.
• The attraction between molecules is lower than solids.
• The distance between the molecules is greater than that of solids.
• On heating, they convert into vapours.
• On cooling, they convert into solid.
3. Gas
According to the kinetic molecular theory, gases possess the following properties.
• Gases possess more kinetic energy.
• Their shape and volume are not fixed.
• The distance between their molecules is large.
• Their temperature is proportional to their kinetic energy.
• Their temperature rises with increase in pressure.
• On cooling, they convert into liquid and gases.
BROWNIAN MOTION
A famous scientist ROBERT BROWN observed that molecules of a substance are
moved in ZIG ZAG path. Their motion is random. They collide with each other
and move in a new direction after collision in ZIG ZAG fashion. This type of
motion present in the molecules of matter is called "Brownian motion".

Brownian motion
ELASTICITY
The property of solid by virtue of which a solid body recovers its original shape
after the removal of an applied force is called "ELASTICITY".
ELASTIC LIMIT
If applied force on a solid is gradually increased, a state is reached after which
the material will not return to it original shape even after the removal of applied
force. This limit is called "ELASTIC LIMIT".
After elastic limit, material is permanently deformed. Different substances have
different elastic limit.
STRESS
When a body is deformed, the internal force came into play per unit area
to restore it to its original state is called "STRESS"
OR
"Stress is an opposing force expressed per unit area which resists any
change in shape."
Stress is equal to the force per unit area.
Mathematically:
or
Stress produces when a body is made to change in length, volume or Shape by

the application of an external force.
Hook's Law
Introduction
An English Physicist and Chemist Robert Hook discovered this law in 1678.
Statement
"Strain produced is proportional to the stress exerted within the elastic limit."

Elastic Limit
The point at which a material becomes plastic is called elastic limit on yield point.
Yield Point
the yield point is the point at which the material begins to flow. It is also the point between
elastic region and plastic region.
Elastic Region
When the material obey's Hook's Law, it is said to be in Elastic Region.
Plastic Region
When stress is applied beyond the elastic limit, the graph is no longer a straight line. In this case
stress produces a permanent change in the material. The material is said to be in its Plastic
Region.
Breaking Point
The material breaks at a certain point called the Breaking Point of the material.
Young's Modulus
Definition
"The ratio of the stress on a on a body to the longitudinal strain produced is called Young's
Modulus."
Mathematical Expression
According to the definition of YOung's Modulus:
Young's Modulus = Sress / Longitudinal Strain

Unit
In S.I system, Young's Modulus is measured in N/m2.
Pressure
Definition
"The perpendicular force per unit area acting on a surface is called pressure."
Pressure = Force /Area
P = F/A
Unit
• S.I or M.K.S System - N/m2 or Pascal.
Pressure in Liquids
In water or other liquids, the weight exerted on a body or the bottom of the liquid is its pressure.
Pascal's Principle
Statement
When a pressure is applied to a liquid contained in a vessel, it is transmitted undiminished

equally in all directions and acts perpendicularly to the walls of the container.

Applications - Hydraulic Press
Pascal's Principle has the application in Hydraulic press. In a hydraulic press a narrow cylinder A
is connected with a wider cylinder B and they are fitted with airtight piston. It is filled with some
incompressible liquid. Pressure can be applied by moving the piston cylinder A in the downward
direction. Piston B is used to lift the object. The hydraulic press is provided with a rigid roof over
it. When piston B moves upward, it compresses any material placed between the rigid roof and
this piston. The hydraulic press is used for compressing soft materials like cotton into a cotton
bale and powdered materials into compact solids.
Pressure in Gases
The kinetic theory enables us to account for the pressure a gas exerts on the walls of its
container. When a moving molecule strikes the walls of its container, a force is exerted on the
walls during hte impact.
Atmospheric Pressure
The atmosphere, because of its weight exerts a pressure on the surface of the earth and on every
object on the earth including human beings. The pressure is known as Atmospheric Pressure.

Applications of Atmospheric Pressure
The fact that the atmosphere exerts pressure has been put into use in several devices such as
siphons, pumps and syringes.
Barometer
Definition
"A device for measuring the atmospheric pressure is called Barometer."
Mercury Barometer
In the laboratory, the atmospheric pressure is measured by means of a mercury barometer. A

mercury barometer consists of a thick walled glass tube of 1m length, which is opened at one end
and closed from the other side. The tube is filled with mercury. The open end is firmly covered
with a thumb and then carefully inverted in a vessel containing mercury. When the open end is
completely immersed in the mercury, the thumb is removed. Some of the mercury from the
columns drops in the vessel leaving a space. This space is called vacuum. If the mercury columns
is measured, it is found to be 760 mm. This length always remains constant even if different
diameter tubes are taken. The length of the mercury column is referred to as the atmospheric
pressure.
Archimede's Principle
Statement
"When an object is immersed in a liquid, an upward thrust acts upon it, which is equal to the
weight of the liquid displaced by the object."

Mathematically, Archimede's Principle may be represented by:
Apparent Weight = Actual Weight - Weight of the liquid displaced by the object
Buoyancy
It is the tendency of an object to float. It is equal to the up-thrust or weight of the water displaced
by the object.
Conditions for Floating Bodies
• A body will float in a liquid or a gas if it displaces liquid or gas whose weight is greater
than the weight of the body.
A body will sink if it displaces liquid or gas whose weight is less than the weight of the body.

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MEASUREMENT

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parallelogram of these vectors is :

According to parallelogram law:

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rectangular components of vector .

MULTIPLICATION & DIVISION OF VECTOR BY A NUMBER (SCALAR)

(m) = (m) which is called commutative law of multiplication.

m(n ) = (mn) which is called associative law of multiplication .

(m + n) =m +n which is called distributive law of multiplication.

The direction of is same as that of if (n) is a positive number.

The direction of is opposite as that of if (n) is a negative number.

Consider two vectors and acting in the directions as shown below:

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Draw representative line of vector

represents resultant vector of given vectors and i.e.

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"Distance between two points in a particular direction is called

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ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY OR FREE FALLING OBJECTS

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3, Acceleration due to gravity is denoted by a and its value is 9.8m/s2 .

4, Equation of motion for the free-falling bodies be written as,

h = Vit + 1/2 gt2

2gh = Vf2 - Vi2

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NEWTON'S 2ND LAW OF MOTION

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DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MASS AND WEIGHT

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Where = constant known as coefficient of friction.

It is a vector quantity. Momentum is always directed in the direction of velocity.

"When some bodies constituting an isolated system act upon

Total momentum before collision = m1u1 + m2u2

Let after collision their velocities become v1 and v2.

Total momentum after collision = m1v1 + m2v2

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF FRICTION - METHODS OF REDUCING

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TORQUE - CENTER OF GRAVITY

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Combining (1) and (2)

Gravitational force of attraction between earth and body is

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Work is a scalar quantity.

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M.A. = Weight over-comed by Machine/ Force Applied on the Machine

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FIRST KIND OF LEVER

Example: common balance, seesaw, scissors, handle of hand pump.

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Example: door, nutcracker, punching machine.

M.A = W/P = l/h = Length of Inclined Plane/Perpendicular Height