BBSSES Volume 7 Issue 3 [Year - 2016] ISSN 2321 – 9726(online)

A Stylistic Analysis of The Bus by Arun Kolatkar

Metkari Hanmant Ashok

Email- hametkari33@g mai.co m

The English and Foreign Languages University (EFL-U),

Hyderabad, India-500007

Abstract
The present paper concerns itself with a stylistic analysis of the selected poem „The Bus’. The
Bus belongs to the collection of poems titled Jejuri. It was written by Arun Kolatkar (1932-2004)
in 1976. Published in the same year, the collection consists of thirty one poems; each dealing
with different aspects of the place called Jejuri in Maharashtra. The poem offers a variety of
linguistic peculiarities and hence is selected for its stylistic analysis. This paper adopts close
reading and textual analysis of linguistic aspects, such as phonological and phonetic, lexical,
semantic, syntactic and graphological, as a method of textual and stylistic analysis of the poem
under consideration. It is further claimed that the meaning of a text is the fusion of all the above
mentioned levels present in every text. Hence all individual linguistic categories, such as sounds,
words, sentences and their meanings and the arrangement of words and sentences on the actual
pages, complement one another and convey a complete message. First, the
phonological/phonetic or sounds and sound patterns of a poem are analyzed because they tend to
contribute to the overall tone and meaning of the poem. Second, Coleridge defines poetry as
“best words in best order”. This definition itself marks the importance o f lexical patterns in
poetry. The desired meaning in poetry is usually achieved through careful selection of
meaningful and suitable words according to the context and subject matter of the poem. Third,
syntactic analysis deals with the kinds of sentence structures used with regard to their importance
in a text. Additionally, semantic level tries to analyze meanings of words and sentences. Finally,
graphology concerns itself with how a poem gets projected on page and its contribution and
visual significance as one of the media of conveying the message of a text.
Keywords- stylistic analysis, phonological, lexical, syntactic, semantic, grophology
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1.1 Introduction
Jejuri is among the most celebrated collections of poems by Kolatkar. It is more often than not
considered as Kolatkar‟s classic in Indian poetry in English. The collection consists of thirty one
poems in all written about the poet‟s visit to the place called Jejuri. The name of the collection
seems to be selected after the name of the place. Each of the poems of this collection deals with
different gods in Jejuri, stories related to the lord of the place Khandoba and more importantly
the priests and different servants of the god s spread around the city. Some of them deal with the
pilgrims as well. Of all, these are the gods and their servants who are to be taken seriously,
because the gods are not real and their servants are haunted by the thought of making money by
doing something for the pilgrims. Further, Kolatkar (1932-2004) wrote poems in Marathi and
English and Jejuri is his most famous collection of poems in English and the winner of the
Commonwealth Prize for Poetry in 1977. Similarly, Chirimiri, Bhijki Vahi and Doran are some
Bhartiya Bhasha, Shiksha, Sahitya evam Shodh
www. bhartiyashodh.com Page 4
BBSSES Volume 7 Issue 3 [Year - 2016] ISSN 2321 – 9726(online)

of his famous poems written in Marathi. In fact, stylistic analysis of the present poem is believed
to be very exploratory and revealing as far as the meaning of the poem is concerned on the basis
of textual components.

1.2 A brief review of lite rature

According to Satyanarayana (cited in Shahane and Sivaramkrishna, 1980: 82-3), the excellence
of the language use by Koltkar is very suitable to persuade the readers and does not leave behind
any trace of translation from the poet‟s own language into English in Jejuri. This collection is
regarded as the popular sequence of the poet (Choudhary, 2005). Bahri (cited in Bird, 2012) calls
the collection a documentary social text. The poem is a collection that shows the long process in
search of God and perhaps comments on the essence of Hindu philosophy in general.
Additionally, it is in the form of a quest poem. It is said to voice the modern radical attitude and
refusal of traditional disbelief in the existence of God (Naik, 2006: 118; Raghunathan, 1990:
209). So the collection would hardly be misinterpreted as a mere travelogue unless one is
ignorant of it and left unexplored, opines Mohapatra (cited in Shah and Nayar, 2000: 6). On the
other hand, the poet‟s critics take on him for his drawback in placing humor at the right place
and, occasionally, at the right time as well. So, it is his major flaw (Raghunathan, 1990: 223).
Though Kolatakar succeeds in giving his readers a sense of religious happenings at Jejuri, the
poems simultaneously point at his weakness of adapting the appropriate style for the issues he is
handling. Particularly, his prosaic style necessarily overshadows rhythm in his poems (Ibid:
241).

1.3 Text and analysis of the poem

The Bus

The tarpaulin flaps are buttoned down

on the windows of the state transport bus
all the way up to jejuri.

A cold wind keeps whipping

and slapping a corner of the tarpaulin
at your elbow.

You look down to the roaring road.

You search for the signs of daybreak in
what little light spills out of the bus.

Your own divided face in a pair of glasses

on an old man`s nose
is all the countryside you get to see.

You seem to move continually forward

toward a destination
just beyond the caste mark between his eyebrows.

Outside, the sun has risen quietly.

Bhartiya Bhasha, Shiksha, Sahitya evam Shodh
www. bhartiyashodh.com Page 5
BBSSES Volume 7 Issue 3 [Year - 2016] ISSN 2321 – 9726(online)

It aims through an eyelet in the tarpaulin.

and shoots at the old man`s glasses.

A sawed off sunbeam comes to rest

gently against the driver`s right temple.
The bus seems to change direction.
At the end of the bumpy ride
with your own face on the either side
when you get off the bus

you don‟t step inside the old man`s head.

1.3.1 Phonological and phonetic analysis of The Bus

1.3.1.i Assonance

i) Line no. 4 in the words wind and whipping

ii) Line no. 5 in the words corner and tarpaulin
iii) Line no. 8 in the words day and break
iv) Line no. 10 in the words divided and glasses
v) Line no. 11 in the words old and nose
vi) Line no. 13 in the words you and move
vii) Line no. 13 in the words continually (vowel repetition)
viii) Line no. 15 in the words beyond and between
ix) Line no. 15 in the words cast and mark
x) Line no. 16 in the words outside, risen and quietly (diphthong)
xi) Line no. 18 in the words and and at
xii) Line no. 19 in the words sunbeams and comes
xiii) Line no. 20 in the words gently, against and temple
xiv) Line no. 20 in the words right and drivers (diphthong)
xv) Line no. 23 in the words either and side (diphthong)
xvi) Line no. 25 in the words don‟t and old (diphthong)
1.3.1.ii Consonance

i) Line no. 1 in the words tarpaulin and down

ii) Line no. 2 in the words state and transport
iii) Line no. 4 in the words cold and wind
iv) Line no. 9 in the words what, light and out
v) Line no. 11 in the words on and and an and man‟s and nose
vi) Line no. 16 in the words sun and risen
vii) Line no. 17 in the words in an, in and tarpaulin
viii) Line no. 18 in the words shoots and man‟s
ix) Line no. 18 in the words and and old
x) Line no. 22 in the words end and ride
xi) Line no. 23 in the words own and on
xii) Line no. 25 in the words inside, old and head

Bhartiya Bhasha, Shiksha, Sahitya evam Shodh

www. bhartiyashodh.com Page 6
BBSSES Volume 7 Issue 3 [Year - 2016] ISSN 2321 – 9726(online)

1.3.1.iii Alliteration

i) Line no. 4 In the words cold and keeps

ii) Line no. 7 in the words roaring and road
iii) Line no. 8 in the words search and sign
iv) Line no. 9 in the words little and light
v) Line no. 15 in the words beyond and between
vi) Line no. 19 in the words sunbeam and sawed off
1.3.1.iv Repetiti on

i) Line no. 2 the article the is repeated

ii) Line no. 22 the article the is repeated
1.3.1.v Consonant clusters

i) In line no. 15 in the words just and cast

As the poem is a description of the journey from a place to Jejuri, the sound patterns and the
phonetic features that occur in the poem are not very musical. The poem opens suddenly when
the bus is already on its way to the destination. It is in a plain and descriptive style and hence
does not display an interesting account of sound patterns. However, the frequent occurrence of
plosives, nasals and liquids shows that the journey is tiresome and monotonous as well. The
frequency of plosives conveys the indifference of the poet and passengers towards the journey
and the state transport service as well. More importantly, it is the lack of sound patterns like
repetition and alliteration which makes the poem appear seriously.
Numerous occurrences of the short vowels also show that it is a long journey and everyone is in a
relaxed mood. The hesitation of the passengers while speaking may be the reason of this
occurrence. Similar to the poet‟s other poems; this poem too lacks the common sounds and
sound patterns. Phonological and phonetic features, in turn, give the readers a general idea about
the theme of the poem. Relatively less number of sound patterns creates a kind of harmony in the
poem. Assonance, consonance, alliteration and repetition are some the sound pattern in the
poem. Thus the phonological aspects of the poem give the readers a general understanding of the
poet‟s thematic universe.

1.3.2 Lexical analysis of The Bus

In line no. 3 the lexical item jejuri is nothing but the name of a holy place where the temple of
Lord Khandoba is situated and the pilgrims are going to worship him.
In line no. 4 the verbs slapping and whipping in the poem show the force of the wind in the early
morning. These verbs even give the wind an animate form. The pilgrim‟s efforts to venture
beyond this physical setting are also indicated through these verbs.
The adjective in line no. 7 roaring which modifies the noun road expresses the noise made by
the state transport bus on its way to Jejuri. It also satirizes the state transport service.
The noun phrase, with a prepositional phrase operating as a post modifier, sings of daybreak is
understood as it is darkness and dawn. Here, the pilgrim is seen searching for some sings of the
beginning of the day, so that he can feel relieved.

Bhartiya Bhasha, Shiksha, Sahitya evam Shodh

www. bhartiyashodh.com Page 7
BBSSES Volume 7 Issue 3 [Year - 2016] ISSN 2321 – 9726(online)

Divided is used to modify face and shows that due to the darkness the pilgrims are unable to see
anything except their own face divided in the two glasses worn by an old man sitting nearby. In
the poem, this symbolically presents the skeptic or doubtful attitude of the pilgrim toward God.
In line 15 the compound noun caste mark refers to the mark on the forehead of the old man as
well as to relieved feelings of the passenger. When the caste mark appears on the old man‟s
forehead it hints the beginning of the day. After some time, the reflection of his face also begins
to disappear from the glasses of the old man because of the sunlight. Thus his sight proceeds to
the caste mark from his glasses indicating that the passenger is getting closer to the destination.
The need to look beyond this material thing to the metaphysical importance of the journey is
suggested in the poem.
In line no‟s. 17 and 18 the verbs aims and shoots signify an important aspect of the sun because
it is projected as having some aims and an ability to shoot. These verbs also personify the sun.
Such a selection of verbs adds to the importance of the poem. Of course, verbs are carefully
chosen to show the way the sunbeams enter the bus. Moreover, these verbs make this description
very impressive and lifelike.
The next lexical unit, an adjective, in line no. 19 sawed off is used in relation to the sunbeams to
modify sunbeams. Readers learn about the sharpness of the sunray through this adjective. This
sunray actually has a sharp shape because it seems that it enters the bus through a narrow
passage and hence acquires this particular shape.
Use of the verb seems in line no. 21 is an important clue about the poet‟s depiction of the
journey. This verb shows that the poet is not sure about the direction of the bus, and also reveals
that the poet himself is not a part of this journey.
The adjective bumpy in line no. 22 modifies the noun ride. This journey to a holy place is finally
called a bumpy ride. It satirizes the painful or boring journey and the roads and the state transport
services of India as well. Ironically, the plight of the Indian roads and how they are full of
potholes and holes is marked here.
The next important aspect of this poem is the use of the second person pronoun you. you appears
constantly in the course of the poem. Its consistency foregrounds the idea that this poem is
specifically addressed to the readers. Stylistic effect of this pronoun is to include the reader in the
poem. Such an address strategy explains how the poet wants to stay away from the journey and
replaces the reader with you by using the second person pronoun. This use in a way hammers the
pilgrims to replace themselves with this pronoun.

1.3.2.i Function words in the poem

The, are, on, the, of, the, all, the, up and to (lines 1, 2 and 3)
A, and, a, of, the, at and your (lines 4, 5 and 6)
You to, the, you, for, the of, in, of and the (lines 7, 8 and 9)
Your, in, a, of, on, an, all, the, you and to (lines 10, 11 and 12)
You, to, a, the and his (lines 13, 14 and 15)
The, has, an, in, the, and, at and the (lines 16, 17 and 18)
A, to, the, the and to (lines 19, 20 and 21)
At, the, of the, with, your, on, the, you, the, you, don‟t and the (lines 22, 23, 24 and 25)
1.3.2.ii Content words in the poem

Bhartiya Bhasha, Shiksha, Sahitya evam Shodh

www. bhartiyashodh.com Page 8
BBSSES Volume 7 Issue 3 [Year - 2016] ISSN 2321 – 9726(online)

Tarpaulin, flaps, buttoned down, windows, state transport bus, way and jejuri (lines 1, 2 and 3)
Cold, wind, keeps, whipping, slapping, corner, tarpaulin, elbow (lines 4, 5 and 6)
Look, down, roaring, road, search, signs, day break, what, little, light, spills out and bus (lines 7,
8 and 9)
Own, divided, face, pair, glasses, old, man‟s, nose, countryside, get and see (lines 10, 11 and 12)
Seem, move, continually, forward, towards, destination, just, beyond, caste mark, between,
eyebrows (lines 13, 14 and 15)
Outside, sun, risen, quietly, aims, through, eyelet, tarpaulin, shoots, old, man‟s and glasses (lines
16, 17 and 18)
Sawed off, sunbeam, comes, rest, gently, against, driver‟s, right, temple, bus, seems, change and
direction (19, 20 and 21)
End, bumpy, ride, own, face, either, side, when, get off and bus (lines 22, 23 and 24)
Step, inside, old, man‟s and head (line 25)

The content and function words are more or less similar in quantity in the present poem. It causes
the poem to sound coherent, usually function word s are omitted in poetry and advertisements
because they are considered to be less important compared to content words. Content words
carry a huge amount of meaning in language. The lexical elements in the present poem also mark
a kind of skeptical feeling toward the religious belief and satire on the people and religious ethos
as well. cold, whipping, slapping, divided, old, caste mark, destination, quietly, aims, shoots,
sawed off, gently, temple, bumpy, glasses, nose and head are some of the words that clearly
imply the fact that the poet is making fun and satirizing the people and the whole situation at the
same time. Simultaneously, the words whipping, slapping and shoots arouse a strong feeling of
objection and hatred toward some norm or tradition. Finally, the avoidance of capital letter in the
proper noun jejuri (Jejuri), the place on which the poem is based, reflects poet‟s ignorant attitude
toward the place. And, the contracted form don’t (do not) gives an informal touch to the
interaction between the poet and reader. For, contracted forms of verbs are often associated with
informal style of interaction.
1.3.2.iii Anaphora

Third person pronoun it in line no. 17 functions as an anaphoric reference to its antecedent sun.
The use of the third person pronoun it instead of she/he tells the readers about the important
aspect of the particular culture the poet belongs to. Conventionally, in some cultures the sun is
considered as God and called either by feminine or masculine third person pronoun. The use of it
can be attributed to the poet‟s specific choice of his artistic expression. But in the present
example it shows that the sun in this cultural context is considered more as an inanimate being.
However, this use can be the choice of the individual poet who sees sun as an inanimate being
and in his own culture the sun can be considered as an animate being.
1.3.2.iv Lexical sets in the poem

Wind, tarpaulin, flaps, state transport bus, way, roaring road and Jejuri are the words related to
journey.
Sunbeam, sun and daybreak are related to morning or the beginning of the day.
Lexical sets are groups of words that are related to each other or share some meaning similarity
in the context of the poem. They add to the coherence of the poem. For the meaning to be

Bhartiya Bhasha, Shiksha, Sahitya evam Shodh

www. bhartiyashodh.com Page 9
BBSSES Volume 7 Issue 3 [Year - 2016] ISSN 2321 – 9726(online)

clearer, the lexical sets in the poem are important from the point of view of its meaning. They
play a pivotal role for the clarity of the specific contexts.

1.3.3 Syntactic analysis of The Bus

Syntactic constructions in a poem are of utmost importance as they hold the primary position in
analyzing it. Sentences are more important carriers of meaning than phonetic or morphological
features in a poem because they give a complete sense when read.
Syntactic constructions in the present poem are simple and descriptive in nature because the
subject matter of the poem requires them to be so. This reminds us of content and form
dichotomy in general. These syntactic constructions play a vital role for readers to visualize the
whole journey and the things going on in a pilgrim‟s mind. Particularly, the text contains almost
all types of tenses i.e. past, present and future (time) according to the demands of situations in
the poem. Syntactic constructions in the poem actually coincide with the time of journey and as
the time changes these constructions also move from past to present and future and vice- versa. A
number of sentences are in simple present tense and are skilfully used to appeal the readers to be
part of the journey and follow the action by getting involved into it. However, the non-definite
clauses show uncertainty of the action, for instance,

You seem to move continually forward

toward a destination
just beyond the caste mark between his eyebrows.
Simple present continuous constructions such as,
A cold wind keeps whipping and slapping,
make readers imagine that the action is presently taking place in front of them.
Thus the syntactic constructions in the poem are simple and suitable to its subject matter. Its
descriptive strategy helps readers to visualize and experience the journey toward the place called
Jejuri.

The lines,
your own divided face…
…is all the countryside you get to see…,
depict the darkness out and show the pilgrim sitting nearby the old man, most probably in front
of him because his face is said to be reflected in the old man‟s glasses. He can only see his own
face and that is all the things he can see. This again implies that the pilgrim cannot look beyond
the religious scenario as his thoughts are controlled by this reality. Consequently, he cannot look
beyond the things around him.

Next lines,

You seem to move continually forward…

Just beyond the cast mark between his eyebrows,
describe the rising of the sun in the sky. Now it becomes clear that the things on the man‟s
forehead such as the caste mark and eyebrows are visible because of the sunlight. It, in a way,

Bhartiya Bhasha, Shiksha, Sahitya evam Shodh

www. bhartiyashodh.com Page 10
BBSSES Volume 7 Issue 3 [Year - 2016] ISSN 2321 – 9726(online)

suggests that as the day starts or as the sun rises the things on the old man‟s face get clearer
which were not visible earlier. The poet here tries to suggest that there is a world beyond religion
which the pilgrim fails to reach.
The lines,
Outside, the sun has risen quietly…and shoots at old man’s glasses,
are an evidence that the sun has finally completely come out. Afterwards, it starts entering the
bus through the curtains and windows of the bus. The entry of the sunbeams in the bus is
skilfully described by using various linguistic items.

1.3.4 Graphological analysis of The Bus

A few graphological features are also present, in the poem, which participate in the meaning of
the poem. They can be described as follows.
The line,
Outside, the sun has risen quietly,
is an example of a graphological feature because by the placement of a comma after the adverb
outside the readers are forced to take a pause. Here, the comma is used to point an important
phonetic device. This example, to an extent, illustrates how phonetic and graphological devices
are related to each other.
Another graphological feature appears between the penultimate and last line of the poem. The
gap between these two lines contributes to some kind of literary effect by the use of a formal
feature. This gap functions as an inseparable component of the discourse of the poem. Till the
penultimate line the poem runs expectedly and smoothly, but the gap between the last two lines
compels the readers to stop before reading the last line. This gap creates curiosity taking as to
what will be the next line. It also makes them to anticipate the next line. But as the last line
appears, the readers confront something unexpected. When confronted with this graphological
irregularity in the poem, the readers surprise as they are exposed to something unorthodox. An
ordinary reader will expect the last line to be about the entry of the pilgrim to the temple or
something similar to the penultimate line. The poet creates an impression by the phrases, clauses
and sentences like,

your own divided face…

…is all the countryside you get to see
You seem to move continually forward…
Just beyond the cast mark between his eyebrows,
that the pilgrim will try to look beyond the religious ethos around him. But the gap between last
two lines suggests how the poet‟s expectation fails as the pilgrim does not understand the reality
but only ends up with entering the temple.
Norms of graphology are violated here hence this is undoubtedly graphological deviation. The
way a poem appears on the printed pages is known as graphology. That unusual gap between the
penultimate and last line deviates from the usual style of putting words or sentences on a printed
page. However, this feature is usually considered to be very important as it contributes to the
meaning of the poem. The importance of this device in stylistics is due to its quality of
conveying meaning through written aspects of text and to visualize the meaning through it.

Bhartiya Bhasha, Shiksha, Sahitya evam Shodh

www. bhartiyashodh.com Page 11
BBSSES Volume 7 Issue 3 [Year - 2016] ISSN 2321 – 9726(online)

1.3.5 Semantic analysis of The Bus

The verbs used for the sunbeams as their agent personify the sunbeams. Several sides of the
sunbeams are pictured through these verbs. The deliberate use of different verbs makes the
readers imagine the playful nature of the sunbeams. But at the same time, rather from a linguistic
point of view, these verbs violate the linguistic rule called selection restriction. Verbs used in
relation to the sunbeams require animate beings as their agent, but since the sunbeams are an
inanimate entity they lead to the violation of the selection restric tion rule. For, certain verbs
usually tend to occur with the subjects having some semantic features such as +animate.
Exploring the same point discussed earlier, the verbs whipping and slapping should follow the
subject which is +animate and +human. But the wind, an inanimate entity, is used as the agent of
these verbs or actions. One major contribution these verbs make to the meaning in the context of
the poem is that they create a kind of literary effect on the mind s of readers. This violation of a
linguistic norm implies that the wind is very wild and its force is strong. At the same time, these
verbs project the wind as an animate being which is performing the actions described by the
verbs. Symbolically, the wind represents the pilgrim‟s thoughts trying to escape this terrible
religious reality. The verbs shoots and aims as well are the examples of the similar kind of
breaching. These verbs occur with the sunbeams as their agent. Analogous to the above verbs,
these verbs too require the subject that has some semantic feature as their actions demand. The
sunbeams have been projected as having aims of their own and an ability to shoot at the old
man‟s glasses too. If the poet were to use verbs like falls or aims or comes or rests instead of
shoots the effect would have definitely been reduced or different. In this way, certain literary
effects and violation of linguistic rules are two inseparable formal properties of the text.
The next important aspect of the text is the use of the image of the old man. The image of the old
man and progress of the day from dawn to sunrise are correlated in the course of the poem. As
the day starts, the things on the old man‟s face appear clearer and also the destination comes
closer. The caste mark on the old man‟s forehead gives a relief to the pilgrim because it works as
an indicator of the beginning of the day. So the image of the old man in the present poem makes
an important point in the context of the meaning of the poem. Meaning that these are old people
who take interest in such religious activities and the journey is mainly meant for them.
Interestingly, the young are exclusively left out from the context of the poem.

1.3.6 Conclusion
To conclude, the poem is about a journey to the holy place called Jejuri. Primarily, the language
of the poem is a deviant one which is due to the artistic need of the poet. Next, the description of
the pilgrim, the old man and the sunbeams is an interesting one. The journey shows that it is not
an easy task to visit the place of the famous god Khandoba, as it is very painstaking. Moreover,
pilgrim‟s constantly looking for the signs of daybreak is indicative of his own uneasiness. Not
surprisingly, the emergence of a reliable religion which will serve its society selflessly still
seems impossible because priests and others give the impression of being merely commercial
and materialist. Furthermore, the image of the old man is described in an impeccable manner. It
also creates laughter in the poem. Last but not least, the gap between the penultimate and last
line is used to startle the readers and the last line also creates some comic effects and ends on a
pessimistic note. In other words, the poem depicts the journey which could also imply the

Bhartiya Bhasha, Shiksha, Sahitya evam Shodh

www. bhartiyashodh.com Page 12
BBSSES Volume 7 Issue 3 [Year - 2016] ISSN 2321 – 9726(online)

journey from birth to death of human beings. Thus an analysis of linguistic aspects of the poem
proves to be essential, objective and revealing in terms of its meaning and interpretation.

Bibliography
Abrams, M., & Harpham, G. G. 2015. A Glossary of Literary Terms. New Delhi: Cengage
Learning India Private Limited.
Bird, E. 2012. Re-reading postcolonial poetry: Arun Kolatkar’s Jejuri. Sage Journals- The
Journal of Commonwealth Literature 47(2) 229–43.

Bradford, R. 1997. Stylistics. London: Routledge.

Chaudhari, A. 2005. On Strangeness in Indian Writing. The Hindu, 2 October 2005.
Kolatkar, A. 1976. Jejuri. Bombay: Clearing House Publications.
Kumar, S. 1988. Stylistics and Language Teaching. Delhi: Kalinga Publications.
Leech, G. 1969. A Linguistic Guide to English Poetry. London: Longmans, Green and Co.
Moving Lines: The celebration of impropriety and the renewal of the world in Arun Kolatkar‟s
poetry. Paper presented at the international conference on Fundamentalism and Literature 1-20,
Ecole Normale Supérieure, Lyon, France, 28th and 29th of May 2008.

Naik, M. 2006. Indian English Poetry from Beginning upto 2000. Delhi: Pencraft International
118-26.
Nayar, P. 2013. Studying Literature: An Introduction to Fiction and Poetry. Hyderabad: Orient
BlackSwan Private Limited.
Raghunathan, L. 1990. Contemporary Indian Poetry in English. Reliance Publishing House 203-
42.
Shah, N., & Nayar, P. ed. 2000. Modern Indian Poetry in English: Critical Studies. New Delhi:
Creative Books 96-109.
Shahane, V., & Shivaramakrishna, M. ed. 1980. Indian Poetry in English: A Critical Assessment.
The Macmillan Company of India Limited 72-83.
Thornborrow, J., & Wareign, S. 1998. Patterns in Language: An Introduction to Language and
Literary Style. London: Routledge.
Wales, K. 1989. A Dictionary of Stylistics. New York: Longman Group Ltd.

Widdowson, H. 1975. Stylistics and the Teaching of Literature. London: Longman.

Bhartiya Bhasha, Shiksha, Sahitya evam Shodh

www. bhartiyashodh.com Page 13