160

4EpIp
Epe = equivalent Young’s modulus of the pile =
πro4

For a given problem, iterations will be necessary to evaluate the values of Lc and Gc.

Expressions for deflection and rotation at ground level given by Randolph's elastic
continuum formulation are summarised in Figure 6.28.

Results of horizontal plate loading tests carried out from within a hand-dug caisson in
completely weathered granite (Whiteside, 1986) indicate the following range of correlation :

Eh' = 0.6 N to 1.9 N (MPa) [6.21]

where Eh' is the drained horizontal Young's modulus of the soil.

The modulus may be nearer the lower bound if disturbance due to pile excavation and
stress relief is excessive. The reloading modulus was however found to be two to three times
the above values.

Plumbridge et al (2000b) carried out lateral loading tests on large-diameter bored piles
and barrettes in fill and alluvial deposits. Testing arrangement on five sites included a 100
cycle bi-directional loading stage followed by a five-stage maintained lateral loading test.
The cyclic loading indicated only a negligible degradation in pile-soil stiffness after the 100
cycle bi-direction loading. The deflection behaviour for piles in push or pull directions was
generally similar. Based on the deflection profile of the single pile in maintained-load tests,
the correlation between horizontal Young's modulus, Eh' and SPT N value was found to range
between 3 N and 4 N (MPa).

Lam et al (1991) reported results of horizontal Goodman Jack tests carried out from
within a caisson in moderately to slightly (grade III/II) weathered granite. The interpreted
rock mass modulus was in the range of 3.1 to 8.2 GPa.

In the absence of site-specific field data, the above range of values may be used in
preliminary design of piles subject to lateral loads.

6.14 CORROSION OF PILES

The maximum rate of corrosion of steel piles embedded in undisturbed ground and
loaded in compression can be taken to be 0.02 to 0.03 mm/year based on results of research
reported by Romanoff (1962, 1969) and Kinson et al (1981). Moderate to severe corrosion
with a corrosion rate of up to about 0.08 mm/year may occur where piles are driven into
disturbed soils such as fill and reclamation, particularly within the zone of fluctuating
groundwater level. It should be noted that Romanoff's data suggest that special attention
needs to be exercised in areas where the pH is below about 4.
 162

Ohsaki (1982) reported the long-term study of over 120 steel piles driven into a
variety of soil conditions and found that the above recommended corrosion rates are
generally conservative. Wong & Law (2001) reported the conditions of steel H-piles exposed
after being buried in undisturbed decomposed granite for 22 years. The presence of
groundwater was found to have only a small effect on the corrosion rate. The observed
maximum rate of corrosion in this case was about 0.018 mm/year.

For maritime conditions, the results of research overseas should be viewed with
caution as the waters in Hong Kong are relatively warm and may contain various pollutants
or anaerobic sulphate-reducing bacteria, which greatly increases the risk of pitting corrosion.
Faber & Milner (1971) reported fairly extensive underwater corrosion of the foundations to a
40-year old wharf in Hong Kong, involving pitting corrosion of the 3.2 mm thick steel casing
and cavities on the surface of the hearting concrete which required extensive underwater
repair works.

It is recommended that steel piles above seabed, whether fully immersed, within the
tidal or splash zone, or generally above the splash zone, should be fully protected against
corrosion for the design life (CEO, 2002). This precaution should also extend to precast piles
where the sections are welded together with the use of steel end plates. Below the sea-bed
level, an allowance for corrosion loss of 0.05 mm per year on the outer face of steel pile is
considered reasonable. BS EN 14199:2005 (BSI, 2005) put forward some guidance on the
rate of corrosion in different types of soils.

Possible corrosion protection measures that may be adopted include use of copper
bearing or high-yield steel, sacrificial steel thickness, protective paints or coatings (made of
polyethylene, epoxy or asphalt), together with cathodic protection consisting of sacrificial
galvanic anodes or impressed currents. In a marine environment, steel tubular piles may be
infilled with concrete from pile head level to at least below seabed level and the steel casing
above seabed be regarded as sacrificial. For onshore situations, steel piles may be protected
with coating or concrete surround within the zone of groundwater fluctuation or fill material.
The most appropriate measures need to be assessed on a site-by-site basis.

In the case of concrete piles, the best defence against the various possible forms of
attack as summarised by Somerville (1986) is dense, low permeability concrete with
sufficient cover to all steel reinforcement. Bartholomew (1980) classified the aggressiveness
of the soil conditions and provided guidance on possible protective measures for concrete
piles. Further recommendations are given in BS 8500-1:2002 (BSI, 2002) for specifying
concrete grade and cover to reinforcement to improve corrosion resistance for different soil
environments. However, high strength concrete may not necessarily be dense and
homogeneous. Specifying high strength concrete is no guarantee for durability.

For concrete piles in maritime conditions, the recommended limits on the properties
of concrete are as follows (CEO, 2004) :

(a) Minimum characteristic strength should be 45 MPa.

(b) Maximum free water/cement ratio should not exceed 0.38.