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APPENDICES
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Contents
Appendix A Hardness .............................................................................................................. 5
Overview ....................................................................................................... 5
Units of Measure .......................................................................................... 5
Retrograde Solubility .................................................................................. 5
Forms of Hardness ....................................................................................... 6
Methods of Measurement .......................................................................... 6
Removal Methods ........................................................................................ 7
WAC Resin in the Hydrogen Form ....................................................... 7
SAC Resin in the Sodium Form ............................................................ 7
SAC Resin in the Hydrogen Form ........................................................ 7
Cold Lime Softening ............................................................................... 7
Nanofiltration and Reverse Osmosis ................................................... 7
Scale Control with Antiscalants ................................................................ 8
References ..................................................................................................... 8
Appendix B Alkalinity ............................................................................................................. 9

Total Alkalinity ............................................................................................. 9
Carbonate Chemistry .................................................................................. 9
Conversion of Free CO2 to Bicarbonate Alkalinity ............................... 9
Conversion of Bicarbonate Alkalinity to Carbonate Alkalinity ....... 10
Reaction with Calcium and Magnesium ............................................... 11
Measurement .............................................................................................. 11
Removal of Alkalinity ............................................................................... 12
References ................................................................................................... 12
Appendix C Resistivity/Conductivity ................................................................................. 13
Appendix D ph Measurement of Pure Water .................................................................... 16
Appendix E Silt Density Index ............................................................................................ 18
34a_m16_r0 A-1 Appendices

Appendix F Coagulants/Polymers/Filter Aids .................................................................. 21
Coagulants and Floculants for Clarification ........................................ 21
Coagulants ................................................................................................... 21
Flocculants ................................................................................................... 22
Weighting Agents ...................................................................................... 22
Filter Aids .................................................................................................... 23
References ................................................................................................... 23
Appendix G Valves ............................................................................................................... 24

G.1 Valve Types ........................................................................................ 24
G.1.1 Diaphragm ................................................................................. 24
G.1.2 Butterfly ...................................................................................... 25
G.1.3 Ball ............................................................................................... 26
G.1.4 Gate.............................................................................................. 27
G.1.5 Globe ........................................................................................... 28
G.1.6 Needle ......................................................................................... 29
G.1.7 Check ........................................................................................... 30
G.1.8 Pressure Relief .......................................................................... 31
G.2 Actuators ............................................................................................. 32
G.2.1 Manual ........................................................................................ 32
G.2.2 Pneumatic ................................................................................... 33
G.2.3 Double-Acting ........................................................................... 35
G.2.4 Spring Return ............................................................................ 35
G.2.5 Modulating ................................................................................ 36
G.3 Accessories ......................................................................................... 37
G.3.1 Position Indication ................................................................... 37
G.3.2 Travel Stops ................................................................................ 37
G.3.3 Limit Switches ........................................................................... 38
G.4 Material Selection ............................................................................. 39
G.4.1 PVC .............................................................................................. 39
G.4.2 Polypropylene ........................................................................... 39
G.4.3 Cast Iron ..................................................................................... 39
G.4.4 Ductile Iron ................................................................................ 39
G.4.5 Polypropylene Lined (PPL) .................................................... 39
G.4.6 EPDM lined ............................................................................... 40
G.4.7 Carbon Steel .............................................................................. 40
G.4.8 Stainless Steel ............................................................................ 40
G.4.9 Special Materials....................................................................... 40

Appendix H Pressure Vessels ............................................................................................... 41
H.1 Pressure Vessels ................................................................................ 41
H.1.1 Heads and Shells ...................................................................... 41
H.1.2 Pre-fabricated Vessels .............................................................. 42
H.2 Features ............................................................................................... 42
H.2.1 Legs and Skid ............................................................................ 42
H.2.2 Pressure Relief Valve ............................................................... 44
H.2.3 Paint ............................................................................................. 45
H.2.4 Lining .......................................................................................... 45
H.2.5 Lifting Lugs................................................................................ 46
H.2.6 Sightglass ................................................................................... 47
H.2.7 Manways .................................................................................... 49
H.3 Internals .............................................................................................. 50
H.3.1 Inlet Distributor ........................................................................ 50
H.3.2 Regenerant Distributor ............................................................ 51
H.3.3 Interface Collectors .................................................................. 52
H.3.4 Air Scour Distributor ............................................................... 53
H.3.5 Sub-surface Wash Distributor ................................................ 53
H.3.6 Draindown Lateral ................................................................... 54
H.3.7 Hub/Radial Underdrain .......................................................... 55
H.3.8 False Bottom ............................................................................... 56
H.3.9 Flat Plate Distributor (packed bed units) ............................ 57
H.3.10 Strainers ...................................................................................... 58
H.3.11 Vessel Connections ................................................................... 59
Appendix I Piping ............................................................................................................... 60

I.1 Piping ...................................................................................................... 60
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) ..................................................................... 60
Chlorinated Polyvinyl Chloride (CPVC) ........................................... 60
Polypropylene (PP) ................................................................................ 61
Stainless Steel ......................................................................................... 61
Carbon Steel ............................................................................................ 61
Polypropylene Lined Steel (PPL) ........................................................ 61
PTFE Lined Steel .................................................................................... 61
Hastalloy .................................................................................................. 62
Alloy 20 .................................................................................................... 62
I.2 Pipe Sizing ............................................................................................. 62

Appendix J Unit Conversions for Water Chemistry Calculations ............................... 70
Overview ..................................................................................................... 70
Equivalent Weight ..................................................................................... 70
Measurements by Volume ........................................................................ 71
Appendix K Conversion Factors .......................................................................................... 73

Prefixes ......................................................................................................... 73
Abbreviations ............................................................................................. 73
Length and Area ......................................................................................... 73
Weight .......................................................................................................... 74
Volume ......................................................................................................... 75
Velocity and Flux ........................................................................................ 76
Density (weight / volume) ........................................................................ 76
Water at 62° F (16.7° C) ............................................................................... 77
Water at 39.2° F (4° C) (maximum density) ............................................ 77
Pressure ........................................................................................................ 78
Temperature ................................................................................................ 78
Energy .......................................................................................................... 78
Appendix L Periodic Table of the Elements .................................................................... 79

Appendix A
Hardness
Overview
Total hardness is the measure of the combined amount of calcium (Ca2+, calcium
hardness) and magnesium (Mg2+, magnesium hardness) cations present in water.
The term hardness originated out of the household use of water for washing. Some
water was hard (difficult) to use when doing laundry. This water required more soap
to produce suds; therefore, it was called “hard” water.
Hardness causes scaling which hinders the efficient operation of process units such
as boilers. Scale coats the boiler tubes unevenly and in effect adds insulation to the
tubes which prevents uniform heat transfer, causes hot spots where the scale is
thinnest, and eventually results in tube failure.
Scaling also occurs on reverse osmosis membranes as the minerals in the feed water
are concentrated during operation. This can increase operating pressure, decrease
permeate quality, and lead to complete failure of the system.
Units of Measure
Hardness is measured in grains per gallon (gr/gal) or in parts per million as calcium
carbonate (ppm as CaCO3).
Retrograde Solubility
Calcium carbonate is not very soluble in water, and it exhibits what is called
retrograde solubility; that is, its solubility decreases as water temperature increases.
The solubility of most compounds in water increases as the temperature increases.
This is why hardness scaling is typically found in the hottest part of a system.

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Forms of Hardness
There are two forms of hardness: temporary and permanent. Temporary hardness is
the portion of the total hardness that is associated with alkalinity. Permanent
hardness is all of the rest. The term ‘temporary hardness’ is a result of the reversibility
of the calcium carbonate precipitation reaction with heat. Heating a solution
‘temporarily’ precipitates the hardness; cooling re-dissolves it. Permanent hardness,
on the other hand, is not removed by heating.
Thus, if a particular water sample had 30 ppm of calcium, 10 ppm of magnesium, 60

ppm of sodium, 15 ppm of chloride, 25 ppm of bicarbonate, and 60 ppm of sulfate
(all as ppm CaCO3):
Hardness (Total) = 30 ppm calcium + 10 ppm magnesium = 40 ppm

Temporary hardness = 25 ppm (the portion associated with bicarbonate/alkalinity)
Permanent hardness = 15 ppm (the rest of the hardness)
Methods of Measurement
A number of methods can be used to measure hardness in water, the most common
being the colorimetric test. Only the colorimetric method is discussed here. In the
colorimetric test, two water samples are collected in test tubes. One of the samples
is mixed with a specific chemical reagent that reacts with the substance in question
(hardness ions in this case) and a color indicator. The color indicator causes the
water sample to change color, and the intensity of the color is directly related to how
much of the reagent has reacted with the hardness ions. Both samples are placed in
the colorimeter. The water without chemical reagent is used as the standard. The
color of the mixed sample is read (as the solution’s ability to transmit light). The
colorimeter converts the transmittance reading into a concentration reading for the
substance in question. This concentration is recorded as either parts per million
(ppm) or milliequivalents per liter (meq/L).
Both total hardness and calcium hardness are directly measured in separate
colorimetric tests. Since total hardness is the sum of calcium hardness and
magnesium hardness, magnesium hardness can be determined indirectly as the
difference between the total hardness and the calcium hardness. This method of
determining magnesium hardness is simpler and cheaper than testing for
magnesium directly.

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Removal Methods
• WAC Resin in the Hydrogen Form
Weak acid cation (WAC) resins in the hydrogen form remove only temporary
hardness; i.e., only the amount of hardness equal to the alkalinity of the water.
• SAC Resin in the Sodium Form
Strong acid cation (SAC) resin in the sodium form removes all of the hardness in
exchange for sodium. This is conventional water softening.
• SAC Resin in the Hydrogen Form
Strong acid cation (SAC) resin in the hydrogen form removes all cation impurities,
including hardness, in exchange for hydrogen. This is part of the demineralization
process.
• Cold Lime Softening
Cold lime softening removes calcium hardness to 35 ppm as CaCO3 and also
removes 80% of magnesium hardness. Cold lime softening is discussed in Module 3,
Clarifiers.
• Nanofiltration and Reverse Osmosis
Nanofiltration and reverse osmosis are membrane technologies that remove 90% to
99% of the total hardness.

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Scale Control with Antiscalants
When removal of all the scale-forming hardness is not cost efficient, calcium
carbonate scale formation can be inhibited using various deposit control agents that
inhibit the formation of scale at an acceptable cost. These scale inhibitors prevent
the growth of calcium carbonate crystals. As temperature increases, calcium
carbonate becomes less soluble. The antiscalants permit scale-forming salts to exist
in an over-saturated condition without precipitating from the solution. Commonly
used deposit control agents include polyphosphates, polyacrylates, and
phosphonates. Several of these agents can be blended, combining various
advantages to solve specific scaling problems. Many commercial formulations are
available for both membrane systems and boilers.
References
Lowenthal, R. E., and G.v.R. Marais. 1976. Carbonate Chemistry of Aquatic Systems:
Theory and Application. Ann Arbor: Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Inc.
Applebaum, Samuel B. 1968. Demineralization by Ion Exchange in Water Treatment and

Chemical Processing of Other Liquids. New York: Academic Press.
Betz Laboratories, Inc. 1980. Betz Handbook of Industrial Water Conditioning. 8th
edition. Trevose, PA: Betz Laboratories, Inc.

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Appendix B
Alkalinity
Total Alkalinity
The Total Alkalinity (TA), commonly called alkalinity, of water is the sum of the
concentrations of the bicarbonate (HCO3-), carbonate (CO32-), and hydroxide (OH-)
ions, expressed in equivalent calcium carbonate (CaCO3) units.
Total Alkalinity = Bicarbonate + Carbonate + Hydroxide

Alkalinity Alkalinity Alkalinity
TA, ppm as CaCO3 = ([HCO3-] + [CO32-] + [OH-]), ppm as CaCO3
Carbonate Chemistry
Carbon dioxide gas reacts with water, creating alkalinity. The chemistry of the
interaction (carbonate chemistry) is complex. Carbon dioxide molecules combine
with water molecules to form carbonic acid. Some of the carbonic acid dissolved in
the water converts to bicarbonate ions, and some of the bicarbonate ions convert to
carbonate ions. The degree of conversion into bicarbonate ions and carbonate ions
depends on the pH of the water.
The total amount of carbon dioxide in water is called free CO2, which is measured as
the amount of CO2 present as both dissolved gas and carbonic acid.
Conversion of Free CO2 to Bicarbonate Alkalinity
In acidic water, almost all carbonate species are present as dissolved carbon dioxide
and carbonic acid (free CO2). As the pH increases, due to the addition of sodium
hydroxide, for example, free CO2 in the water converts to bicarbonate alkalinity:
(CO2)gas in solution + H2CO3 + 2OH- → 2HCO3- + H2O

Free CO2 Hydroxide Ions Bicarbonate Alkalinity Water
As more hydroxide ions are added, more free CO2 is converted to bicarbonate
alkalinity.

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Conversion of Bicarbonate Alkalinity to Carbonate Alkalinity
As pH increases, bicarbonate alkalinity converts to carbonate alkalinity according to

the following reaction:
HCO3- + 2OH- → CO32- + H2O

Bicarbonate Alkalinity Hydroxide Ions Carbonate Alkalinity Water
Further addition of hydroxide ions converts more bicarbonate alkalinity to carbonate

alkalinity until the conversion is complete. The equilibrium between carbon dioxide,
bicarbonate and carbonate as a function of pH is illustrated in Figure B-1.
1
0
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
-7
-8
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Figure B-1. Carbonate Species vs pH

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Reaction with Calcium and Magnesium
As process water pH increases, free CO2 and bicarbonate alkalinity shift into
carbonate alkalinity, and hydroxide ion concentration increases. The increase in
hydroxide ion concentration creates hydroxide alkalinity. When the concentrations
of carbonate alkalinity and hydroxide alkalinity become high enough, these ions
react with hardness, calcium and magnesium ions, to form solid precipitates
according to the following reactions.
Ca2+ + CO32- → CaCO3 ↓
Mg2+ + OH- → MgOH ↓
The downward arrows indicate that solid particles form and settle (precipitate) out of
the water.
Measurement
The most common laboratory method for determining alkalinity is colorimetric

titration. Two separate test procedures are required. Each uses a chemical called an
indicator that changes color at a specific pH. Methyl orange changes color from
yellow to salmon pink when the pH is between 4.2 and 4.4. Phenolphthalein
changes from colorless to pink at pH 8.2 to 8.4. After adding the indicator to a water
sample, acid or alkali is added until the color changes. The amount of chemical
required to achieve the color change is recorded. When methyl orange is the
indicator, the recorded value is the methyl orange, or M, alkalinity. When
phenolphthalein is used, the recorded value is the phenolphthalein, or P, alkalinity.
M and P alkalinity are related to bicarbonate alkalinity, carbonate alkalinity and
hydroxide alkalinity as follows:
P Alkalinity = OH- + CO3 2- / 2
M Alkalinity = OH- + CO3 2- + HCO3-
Bicarbonate Carbonate Hydroxide

Alkalinity Alkalinity Alkalinity
P=0 M 0 0
P=M 0 0 P
2P = M 0 2P 0
2P < M M – 2P 2P 0
2P > M 0 2(M – P) 2P – M

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Using the equations for M and P alkalinity above, it is easy to see that when P
alkalinity in the colorimetric titrations is recorded as 0, there can be no hydroxide
alkalinity and no carbonate alkalinity. Therefore, the M alkalinity must be
attributable only to bicarbonate content. Likewise, when the test results of the two
titrations are equal (M = P), there can be no bicarbonate or carbonate content. If
there were, the two values would not be equal. Therefore, all of the alkalinity
indicated by the titration results must be hydroxide alkalinity. The remaining values
in the table can be shown to be true by manipulation of the two equations, but that
proof is beyond the scope of this appendix.
Removal of Alkalinity
Alkalinity can be removed using ion exchange resin (discussed in Module 5, Ion
Exchange) or cold-lime softening (discussed in Module 3, Clarification).
One approach to dealkalizing water uses weak acid cation exchange resins. Water is
passed through a column containing this resin in the hydrogen form. Calcium and
magnesium are removed until all the alkalinity is converted into carbonic acid by the
mobile hydrogen ions. A forced draft decarbonator removes the carbonic acid.
Another approach uses strong acid cation (SAC) resin in the sodium form coupled
with strong base anion (SBA) resin in the chloride form. Water first passes through
the SAC softener and then through the SBA dealkalizer to remove bicarbonate and
sulfate anions from the softened water.
In cold-lime softening, hydrated lime, Ca(OH)2, is added to the process water,

causing Free CO2 and bicarbonate alkalinity to be converted into carbonate alkalinity.
Calcium and magnesium react with the carbonate alkalinity and hydroxide alkalinity
to form a precipitate. The carbonate alkalinity and hydroxide alkalinity are removed
from the process water in this precipitate, resulting in a reduction of the total
alkalinity of the water.
References
Lowenthal, R.E., and G.V.R. Marais. 1976. Carbonate Chemistry of Aquatic Systems:
Theory and Application. Ann Arbor, MI: Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Inc.

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Appendix C
Conductivity/Resistivity
Conductivity is a measure of the ability of a substance to conduct, or carry, an

electrical current. The conductivity of water is a direct indicator of the total ionizable
(dissolved) material present in the water. A basic introduction to Conductivity is
contained in Module 2, Water Chemistry.
Resistance measures the opposition that a material offers to the flow of current. To
measure resistance, a constant current is applied to a conductive material of known
cross-sectional area, and the voltage is measured at two points along the length of
the material. The difference in voltage between these two points is called the
potential difference (V). The resistance (R) of the material is equal to the potential
difference (V) divided by the total current (I) applied to the material. The equation is
written as follows:
R (W) = V (volts) / I (amperes)
The standard unit for resistance (volts/amperes) is the “ohm”(W). The resistance of
an object depends on the linear distance between the two points used to measure
the voltage difference, the cross-sectional area, and the temperature of the material.
Resistivity is a characteristic of the material itself and is not dependent on geometry.

The standard unit for resistivity is “ohm-meter” (W* m). A piece of wire might have a
resistance of 10 ohms (a function of the length of wire, the diameter of the wire, and
the temperature) but the material from which the wire is made might have a
resistivity of 2 ohm-meters. Similarly, a pipe full of water might have a resistance of
10,000 ohms, but the water itself might have a resistivity of 1,000 ohm-meters (or 0.1
Mohm-cm, the unit commonly used in water treatment).
Conductance is the reciprocal, or inverse, of resistance, and conductivity is the

inverse of resistivity.
conductivity = 1 / resistivity
Conductivity is a measure of how freely electrical current can pass through a

material. The standard unit for conductivity is the Siemens (S). The “mho”(ohm
spelled backwards) was formerly used as the standard unit. In water treatment the
micro-Siemens (µS or mmho) is the unit most frequently seen. The micro-Siemens
is the inverse of the mega-ohm-cm.

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The conductivity of natural waters ranges from about 20 µS (glacier melt water) to
about 70,000 µS for seawater. Conductivity is a useful measurement for these
waters, however, for purified waters with conductivity below 1 µS it is often more
convenient to express the measurement as resistivity.
As the conductivity decreases, the measurement becomes much more sensitive to

fluctuations caused by noise. A noise level of 0.1 µS is insignificant in a 300 µS
measurement but it creates a problem when measuring a solution with 0.1 µS. The
difference between theoretically ultra pure water at 25°C (0.055 µS or 18.2 mega-
ohm-cm) and water with just a little added ionic conductivity, for example 0.02 µS, is
a resistivity change of almost 5 mega-ohm-cm to 13.3 mega-ohm-cm.
The conductivity of water is strongly dependent on the temperature of the solution.

The measurement is almost always corrected to 25°C so that a comparative
measurement of ionic conductivity can be made. Figure C-1 below is a graph of the
resistivity of ultra pure water as a function of temperature.
Resistivity of Water as a Function of Temperature

Resistivity (Mohm-cm)

Temperature (°C)
Figure C-1: Resistivity of Ultra Pure Water as a Function of Temperature

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The conductivity of a solution is measured by placing two electrodes in the solution.
An alternating current is forced to flow between the electrodes. The voltage
(potential difference) necessary to push the current through the solution from one
electrode to the other is proportional to the conductivity. The most common
arrangement for the electrodes is a rod inside a cylinder as shown below in
Figure C-2.
Figure C-2: Resistivity Probe

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Appendix D
pH Measurement of Pure Water
pH Measurement of Pure Water
pH is a measure of the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) in a solution. A basic

introduction to pH is contained in Module 2, Water Chemistry.
The pH level influences the chemical behavior of water, which has an impact on the
effectiveness of many water treatment processes. Proper monitoring and control of
pH are essential in assuring the long, efficient life of reverse osmosis (RO)
membranes. It is important to know how pH is measured and to understand some
of the difficulties associated with measuring the pH of pure water.
There are different types of pH electrodes,

each of which is made from specific materials.
The appropriate type of electrode is chosen
based on the application. Glass electrodes, as
shown in Figure 16.D-1, are the most widely
used, because they are very versatile and
accurate. They are also very stable, easy to
use, provide reproducible readings, and can
measure pH in some non-aqueous solutions.
This type of electrode is accurate from –20° C
to over 130° C, and is not susceptible to
oxidizing or reducing agents. It is made of an
inert glass tube that is sealed at one end with Glass
a special type of glass designed for measuring Body
pH. This special glass is often called the
membrane. The tube is filled with a
potassium chloride electrolyte solution that Reference
Element
has a constant ionic strength and pH. A
reference element, usually made from silver Electrolyte
Silver
wire coated with silver chloride, is placed in Solution Chloride
the electrolyte solution to measure the Coating
Glass
electrode potential. A small air space is left in Membrane
the tube to allow thermal expansion of the
Figure 16.D-1 Glass Electrode
electrolyte solution.

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When the outer surface of the membrane is exposed to a sample solution, a small
voltage potential, called the phase-boundary potential, is created across the glass
membrane that is measured by the reference element. The magnitude of the
measured signal is proportional to the pH of the water. The temperature does effect
the signal that the pH electrode measures. This relationship is well understood and
must be considered to have an accurate pH measurement.
There are distinct challenges to measuring the pH of pure water. The main challenge
is that almost all of the ionic impurities have been removed from pure water. These
ionic impurities are used as a conductive pathway between the electrodes that
measure the phase boundary potential. Without the pathway, the resistance
becomes so large (1 M-ohm or greater) that it is impossible to accurately measure
the pH of the water.
To measure pH in highly resistive solutions, it is necessary to add a source of

conductivity to the water. Potassium chloride can be used for this purpose, as it does
not affect the pH of the solution.
High resistivity water quickly absorbs carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Once it
is absorbed into the water, carbon dioxide dissociates into bicarbonate ions and
hydrogen ions. These hydrogen ions decrease the pH of the water. This
phenomenon can be observed by monitoring the pH of a beaker of high resistivity
water that is exposed to the atmosphere for several minutes. The pH of the water
continuously decreases, which indicates an increase in the concentration of hydrogen
ions. Because of this phenomenon, pH measurements must be made very quickly.
Fortunately, the resistivity of high purity water is easily measured compared to pH.
The resistivity of a solution increases as the concentration of ions in the solution
decreases. A solution with a very low concentration of ions must have a pH very
close to neutral (7).

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Appendix E
Silt Density Index
Silt Density Index
The Silt Density Index (SDI) is a fouling index. It is used to quantify the tendency of
water to foul water treatment equipment such as sub-micron filters and reverse
osmosis (RO) membranes. SDI provides a measurement of the rate at which these
membrane filters are fouled by very small particles present in feedwater.
Water-borne suspended particles of less than 10 microns can compact tightly, giving
them a substantial ability to foul RO membranes. Turbidity readings are used to
quantify the amount of suspended matter in feedwater. Turbidity is measured by the
amount of light diffracted by particles suspended in the water. This is not a good
indication of the fouling ability of RO feedwater, since very small, suspended
particles diffract little light but can have high fouling capabilities. RO feedwater that
has passed through a multi-media filter may have a very low turbidity but still exhibit
a high SDI and corresponding fouling tendencies towards the RO membranes.
Figure E-1 shows a simplified diagram of a device used to take SDI readings.
Feedwater Supply (30-80 psig)
Isolation Valve
Pressure Regulator, set for 30 psig
Pressure Gauge
Filter Holder and 0.45-micron

Filter
Collection Container
Figure E-1: Schematic of SDI apparatus

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The American Society for Testing and Materials procedure ASTM D-4189-82 provides
a standardized test methodology for measuring the silt density index. The procedure
is summarized here:
Water is passed, at a constant pressure of 30 psi, through a standard 0.45-micron

filter. As the filter is fouled, the flow of water decreases, and it takes longer to collect
a fixed volume sample. The collection times are recorded using the following steps,
and are then used to calculate SDI.
1. Starting with a fresh filter, the initial time required to fill a 500-ml container with
the sample water is measured and recorded as t1.
2. After t1 is recorded, sample water is allowed to flow through the filter to drain for
a time interval T of 15 minutes.
3. After the 15-minute interval, the time required to fill a second 500-ml container
with sample water is measured and recorded as t2.
A 15-minute SDI is calculated using the data collected in the steps above and the
formula shown in Figure E-2. A sample calculation is also given.
Silt Density Index
Formula Example
t1
SDI=100 (1- ) t1= 15 seconds
t2
T t2 = 30 seconds
T = 15 minutes
15
100 (1- )
30
SDI = =3.3
15
Figure E-2: Formula and Sample Calculations for Silt Density Index

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For waters with a very high fouling potential, the 0.45-micron filter may become
completely plugged before a second 500-ml sample can be collected. In these cases,
a shorter time interval can be used. The SDI number calculated in this way (say a 5-
minute SDI) is less accurate but still provides a relative indication of fouling
potential.
If the calculated SDI is greater than 5, the feedwater requires filtration or other pre-
treatment to prevent membrane surface fouling during the treatment process.
When performing tests to determine the SDI reading of sample water, it is important
to realize that numerous factors can cause errors in the reading. Some common
examples of these factors are listed below.
• Air bubbles trapped on the filter surface
• Unsteady feed pressure, or feed presssure that is higher or lower than 30 psi
• Oil or other hydrophobic materials coating membrane surface (e.g., finger prints)
• Overfeed of a filtration polymer
If a filtration polymer, such as a cationic polymer, is being fed to an upstream filter

such as a sand or multimedia filter, an overfeed of this polymer can bias the SDI
readings obtained downstream of the filter. Overfeed of a cationic polymer to an
upstream filter results in very low readings if the SDI is taken before the antiscalant
feedpoint, while very high readings are observed downstream of the antiscalant
feedpoint. Not only is a “coating effect” of the 0.45-micron filter suspected in this
case, which would cause lower readings to be observed, but a reaction between the
negatively-charged antiscalant and the positively-charged cationic polymer can
occur. If enough overfeed of the cationic polymer occurs, SDI readings could vary
from less than 3 before the antiscalant feedpoint, to over 10 downstream of the
antiscalant feedpoint.
The SDI is a measurement of the rate of fouling of a membrane filter under dead end
filtration conditions (i.e. all of the water is forced through the filter). However,
reverse osmosis is a cross flow filtration process: it has a higher velocity across the
membrane surface than into the membrane. The effects of cross flow filtration are
not accounted for by an SDI test. A cross flow fouling index would provide a better
correlation with real operation; however, an acceptable, simple, reliable procedure
has not yet been developed for this measurement.

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Appendix F
Coagulants, Flocculants, and Filter Aids
Coagulants and Flocculants for Clarification
Module 3, Clarification, discusses the use of coagulants and flocculants for the
clarification of water. Coagulants are chemical salts that are used to create microfloc
through the agglomeration of particles in the process water. Flocculants agglomerate
the microfloc into larger, heavier particles of floc called macrofloc.
Coagulants
The particles present in inlet water are charged, causing them to repel each other.
When a coagulant is mixed with inlet water, it destabilizes these charges and the
particles clump together to form tiny visible particles called microfloc.
There are four widely used coagulants: aluminum sulfate (alum), ferrous sulfate,
ferric chloride, and lime. These four coagulants, along with their common trade
names, chemical formulas, and useful pH ranges, are listed below in Table F-1.
Popular or
Coagulant Chemical Formula Usual Optimal pH Range
Trade Name
Aluminum Sulfate Filter Alum Al2(SO4)3 • 14H2O 5.5 to 7.5
Ferrous Sulfate Copperas FeSO4 • 7H2O 8.0 to 11.0
Ferrisul, Fe2(SO4)3 • 2H2O or 8.0 to 11;
Ferric Sulfate Ferrifloc, or
Fe2(SO4)3 • 3H2O 5.0 to 6.0 for color removal
Ferriclear
Calcium Hydroxide Hydrated Lime Ca(OH)2 10.0 to 11.0
Table F-1: Four Common Coagulants

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Alum is the most commonly used coagulant, because it is the lowest in cost.
Alum, ferrous sulfate, and ferric chloride are stored as liquids that are metered
directly into the clarifier. Lime is stored as a powder that is mixed with water and
metered into the clarifier as slurry. The chemical reactions between each of these
major coagulants and process water are given in Module 3. The storage and feed of
these chemicals is also discussed in Module 3.
The choice of which coagulant to use depends on influent water chemistry and the
clarification process that follows coagulation. Alum clarification is commonly used
upstream of ion exchange processes. Cold lime softening is used upstream of reverse
osmosis to prevent calcium carbonate scale formation and to increase unit recovery.
Flocculants
Flocculants are synthetic polymers in the chemical class polyelectrolytes. Because

they create macrofloc from microfloc, they are considered coagulation aids. They are
classified into three groups:
1. Anionic: These polymers ionize in water solution to form negative sites along the
polymer molecule.
2. Cationic: These polymers ionize in water solution to form positive sites along the
polymer molecule.
3. Non-ionic: These polymers ionize only slightly.
An appropriate polymer is selected based on the results of jar testing, as discussed in

Module 3.
Weighting Agents
Waters that are low in turbidity and high in color (organic material, often measured
as TOC) form light, fragile flocs. They coagulate better if a weighting agent is added.
Examples of weighting agents are bentonite clay, powdered limestone, and coal ash.
The purpose of the weighting agent is to add a controlled amount of solid material
to the water, providing a nucleus on which the floc can form. Floc formed with a
weighting agent has a higher density and settles more readily.
Some chemical companies market mixtures of electrolyte and clay that can be used
for waters with different levels of turbidity.

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Sludge recycling is another process through which solid material is added to process
water to act as a weighting agent. In alum and cold lime processes, the impeller in
the fast-mix chamber agitates the mixture of chemical and water. This agitation
usually stirs up a portion of the sludge in the bottom of the mixing tank, providing a
natural sludge recycling action. In the lamella clarifier (see Module 3); however,
sludge is drained away from the bottom of the inclined plate. If sludge recycling is
desired, a recycle line must be added so that sludge can be re-introduced to the
slow-mix tank.
The advantage of sludge recycling is cost reduction. Sludge already contains process
chemicals as well as precipitated particles, reducing the quantity of new chemical
that must be added to keep the process operating at optimal conditions.
Filter Aids
Synthetic organic polymers are sometimes used as filtration aids. These polymers are
added directly to the filter medium, where they form a film on the filter medium
particles. This polymer film increases the amount of particles that can be removed
from the inlet water stream.
When a filter becomes clogged, slowing the inlet flow, it is backwashed to remove
particles from the medium. Backwashing affects the coating of filtration aid on the
filter medium. The life span of the coating is affected by the chemistry of the inlet
water and the frequency of backwashing. The need for re-coating also depends on
the type of filtration aid being used and the filter medium to which it is applied. If
the filter medium is a synthetic, such as the Argo Scientific JelCleer filter medium,
the coating survives several backwashes.
In the JelCleer system, glass beads are coated with a layer of polyacrylate ester and
a layer of quaternary amine coagulant. The polyacrylate ester is physically and
chemically bonded to the glass beads. The organic coagulant is field-applied after
the beads are loaded into the pressure filter tank. The number of times the coagulant
coating can be backwashed depends on the chemical makeup of the feed source.
References
Betz Laboratories. 1980. Betz Handbook of Industrial Water Conditioning, 8th Edition.
Trevose, PA: Betz Laboratories, Inc.
Kim, Yong H. 1995. Coagulants and Flocculants: Theory and Practice. Littleton, CO: Tall
Oaks Publishing, Inc.

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Appendix G
Valves
G.1 Valve Types
Valves control and direct the flow of fluid. Many different types of valves are used in
water treatment systems. This appendix contains a brief description of each type of
valve. For additional details, refer to Technical Specification 16, Valves.
G.1.1 Diaphragm
Diaphragm valves use a flexible diaphragm to block the opening of the valve body
and stop or restrict the flow of fluid through the valve. To restrict flow, the
diaphragm is pushed against a ridge or weir. It is then lifted away from the weir to
allow fluid to flow. Diaphragm valves are ordinarily used on pipes with diameters
smaller than 2 inches. Diaphragm valves can be an alternative to butterfly valves
(see Section G.1.2) when the pipe diameter is up to 6 inches. Larger sizes are not
practical due to the size of the diaphragm needed. Figure G-1, below, shows the
internal system of a typical diaphragm
valve.
The materials of the diaphragm and of

the valve body must be considered for
the particular application (see Section
courtesy of ITT Fluid Technology Corp.

G.4 below). The diaphragm is often a
soft polymeric material that can have a
coating for improved chemical resistance
(PTFE, for example). The valve body can
also be lined with polymeric materials.
Diaphragm valves are particularly useful
in chemical handling applications, as
there is only one sealing surface
(between the body and the diaphragm)
and little opportunity for complications.
Diaphragm
Figure G-1: Diaphragm Valve

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G.1.2 Butterfly
Butterfly valves restrict the flow of fluid with a circular disk that is mounted inside
the pipe. When the disk is oriented parallel to the flow, fluid is allowed to flow past
the disk and through the valve body. The flow of fluid can be impeded or stopped by
changing the orientation of the disk to a position more perpendicular to the length
of the pipe. Butterfly valves are the most frequently used valves in water treatment
applications. They are almost always used on pipes with diameters that are 6 inches
or larger and mostly used for valves 2 inches and larger for water service.
Figure G-2, below, shows a typical butterfly valve.

Disk
Figure G-2: Butterfly Valve
Butterfly valves do not restrict flow as easily as diaphragm valves because they do not
develop a significant Cv (a characteristic of a valve that determines its pressure and
flow relationship) until the valve is mostly closed. These valves are successfully used
to set flows that are not changed often or do not require great accuracy. They are an
excellent choice for on/off service valves and manual isolation valves.

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The butterfly valve disk is connected to the actuator by a shaft. The seal around the
shaft may be an important consideration for some applications with corrosive
materials. The construction materials of the disk, the valve body, the shaft, and the
seal should all be considered for compatibility with the process fluid. For water
service, a stainless steel disk and an EPDM (Ethylene-propylene terpolymer) rubber-
lined valve body are common.
Butterfly bodies are available in two main styles: wafer and lug. Wafer style bodies
slip between two flanges and use the flange bolts to hold the valve in position. End-
of-pipe isolation valves must not be wafer style because both flanges must be in
place for this arrangement to work. Lug style valve bodies are threaded to accept
bolts from the flanges on either side. Thus, both flanges do not have to be present.
Lug style butterfly valves may or may not operate under pressure with one flange
removed depending on the particular design.
G.1.3 Ball
Ball valves use a sphere with a hole

through the center to control flow.
When the sphere is rotated so that
the hole is perpendicular to the pipe,
the valve blocks the fluid flow, and
when the hole is exposed to the pipe

opening, fluid passes through the
valve. Figure G-3, on the right,
shows the interior of a typical ball
valve.
These valves are frequently used on

lines smaller than 2 inches:
instrument isolation, sampling,
pneumatic lines, and small-flow
situations. Ball valves are also a good
choice for high-pressure applications
such as those found on reverse
osmosis and some condensate Sphere
polisher units. Several styles of ball with Hole
valves are available, from high-
pressure three-piece valves to small, Figure G-3: Ball Valve
stamped, one-piece body valves.

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There is a large sealing surface between the ball and the valve body which makes
this type of valve problematic in chemical service. The ball cavity also holds a volume
of fluid when the valve is closed that could cause corrosion problems. The ball has a
shaft and a seal somewhat similar to butterfly valves.
The construction materials of the ball and the body must meet process requirements.
Ball valves are typically plastic or stainless steel construction. The choice often
follows the choice of piping material.
Ball valves are also available with modified holes to change the flow characteristics.
A “vee-ball” with a diamond shaped opening has much better flow control
characteristics and is often used to throttle high-pressure pumps.
G.1.4 Gate
Gate valves use a blade that moves perpendicular to the

pipe (a gate) to block the flow of fluid. The gate travels
through a groove in the valve body to seal the fluid path.
To raise and lower the gate, an actuator is connected to a
courtesy of ITT Bell & Gossett

shaft attached to the top of the gate. A manual actuator
for a gate valve is typically a round handle on a threaded
shaft. As the handle rotates, the threaded shaft raises or
lowers the gate. Figure G-4, on the right, shows the
interior of a gate valve.
Gate valves are also used to modulate flow. When the

gate moves away from its lowered or closed position, the
size of the opening for the fluid increases. When the
gate is fully raised, the fluid has almost the entire cross-
section of the valve to flow through, and the valve
creates very little resistance to the flow. Figure G-4: Gate Valve
Cross-section

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G.1.5 Globe
Globe valves use a spherical plunger to block a circular opening in the valve body.
The fluid enters the side of the valve body and is directed upward through the
circular opening to flow against the plunger. Globe valves have a slightly higher
pressure drop than other valves due to the changes in direction the flow experiences
while traveling through the valve body.
An actuator is used to raise and lower the plunger. The actuator is connected to a
shaft that is attached to the plunger. As the plunger moves away from the opening,
more fluid flows through the valve. As the actuator lowers the plunger onto the
opening, the fluid flow is restricted and ultimately blocked. A manual actuator for a
globe valve is typically a round handle on a threaded shaft. As the handle rotates,
the threaded shaft raises or lowers the plunger. Figure G-5, below, shows a cutaway
of a globe valve. Globe valves are also used to modulate flow. They are often found
on reverse osmosis reject lines where they enable precise manual setting of the reject
flow.
courtesy of Fisher Valves
Figure G-5: Globe Valve Cross-section

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G.1.6 Needle
Needle valves use a tapered conical rod, called a needle, to block the flow of fluid
through the valve body. As the needle is raised, the fluid flows around the needle.
The needle is raised and lowered using a handle, which is attached to a threaded rod
that is connected to the needle. As the handle is rotated, the needle moves up and
down. Due to their size, needle valves are typically used on small pipes that are used
to collect samples from larger pipes or tanks. Figure G-6, below, shows the interior
of a needle valve.
courtesy of Balon, Inc.
Figure G-6: Needle Valve Cross-section

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G.1.7 Check
Check valves allow fluid to flow in one direction

and prevent fluid from flowing in the opposite
direction. There are a several different types that
use a variety of blocking mechanisms: a lifting
ball, a lifting disk, folding disks (butterfly), a
flapper, or a poppet.

Ball type check valves, for example, use a ball
inside the valve body. The ball prevents the flow
of fluid in one direction only. The fluid pushes
the ball against a seat in the valve body, blocking
the opening. The valve will allow fluid to flow in
the opposite direction: the ball is lifted from the
seat by the force of the flow, but is prevented
from blocking the opening, allowing fluid to
pass around the ball and through the valve.
Figure G-7, upper right, shows the interior of a
typical ball type check valve.
Butterfly check valves use disks that rotate open

when the flow is in one direction. When the
flow is reversed, the disks are pushed against a Figure G-7: Check Valve
seat in the valve body and block the opening.
Figure G-8, lower right, shows a typical
butterfly check valve.
Ball type check valves are typically used on

lines smaller than 2 inches. Most other types courtesy of Centerline
of check valves can be used in larger lines.
Check valves can be provided with springs so

that the valve can be mounted in any
orientation or without springs for gravity
closing. For larger valves, the closing speed
must be controlled to prevent water hammer
and resulting damage.
Figure G-8: Butterfly Check Valve

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G.1.8 Pressure Relief
Pressure relief valves are designed to remain closed until a designated fluid pressure
is reached. The valve opens and allows some fluid to be released from the system to
lessen the pressure. The designated pressure is below the failure point of some
component in the system. Figure G-9, below, shows a relief valve on a pressure
vessel.
Figure G-9: Pressure Relief Valve
Pressure relief valves must be sized to handle the increased flow that might be
present at higher temperatures. Sometimes a pump has a dead head pressure
greater than the pressure rating of downstream piping or vessels. The system must
have a pressure relief valve that can handle enough flow to push pump operation out
the flow curve to the point where the pressure is not over component ratings.
Pressure vessels are usually provided with a small pressure relief valve to avoid over
pressurization due to temperature increases, such as the over pressurization when a
sealed vessel is exposed to sunlight. The relief valve can be very small in this
situation since no significant flow can result.

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G.2 Actuators
Actuators provide the force necessary to change the condition of the valve (for
example, opening a valve that is closed). There are several methods of actuation;
valves can be operated manually, opened and closed automatically, and modulated
to intermediate positions.
G.2.1 Manual
Manual actuators require an operator to change the condition (or position) of the
valve. Long handles or levers are typically used on small valves that only require a
one-quarter turn to change from fully open to fully closed. Manual ball and butterfly
valves generally use levers. Manual diaphragm valves normally use a round handle
with a threaded shaft to raise and lower the diaphragm. Larger valves use a hand
wheel with a gear assembly to open or close the valve. If a valve is difficult to reach
due to high elevation, a pulley and chain may be used with a gear assembly to
change the condition of the valve. Figure G-10, below, shows examples of manual
actuators.
Handles as
Manual Actuators
Figure G-10: Manual Actuators

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G.2.2 Pneumatic
Pneumatic actuators require a source of compressed air to change the condition of

the valve. Because these actuators do not require manual operator involvement, they
are typically used by the control system to automatically change the condition of a
valve. For each valve, the type of motion required to change the valve’s condition
determines the type of actuator that is used.
For example, a diaphragm valve requires linear motion to change its condition.
Figure G-11, below, shows an example of using air to open a diaphragm valve. In
the figure, air is used to overcome the force of the spring, raise the diaphragm, and
open the valve. When the air supply is removed, and the air exhausts from the
chamber, the spring lowers the diaphragm and closes the valve. A double-acting
pneumatic actuator has two air chambers, one to open the valve and one to close the
valve.
Spring
to Close
Air In
to Open
Figure G-11: Actuator on a Diaphragm Valve

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Ball valves or butterfly valves require rotational motion to change the orientation of
the ball or disk. Figure G-12, below, shows a one-quarter-turn pneumatic actuator
for a ball valve or a butterfly valve. Air pressure in the chamber on the left causes the
piston to be pushed back and the shaft is turned clockwise (looking from the top).
Air pressure in the chamber on the right causes the other piston to be pushed back
and the shaft is turned counter-clockwise.
Figure G-12: Quarter Turn Pneumatic Actuator

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There are two types of automatic actuators: double-acting and spring return.
G.2.3 Double-Acting
Double-acting actuators require air pressure on one side to open and air pressure on
the other side to close. There must always be air pressure on one side or the other. If
air pressure is lost, the valve is left in an indeterminate state that might be open or
closed or part way.
Double-acting valve actuators require a 4-way solenoid pilot valve. The four possible
positions have the following functions:
• An inlet for compressed air

• A port for air to open the valve
• A port for air to close the valve
• A common exhaust port
G.2.4 Spring Return
Spring return actuators have a

spring to return the valve to its
normal or rest position without
pneumatic assistance. Air

pressure must be applied to
overcome the spring and change
Spring
the condition of the valve from its
normal position. When the force
to Close
is removed, either by the control
system or by some failure, the
spring returns the valve to its
normal position. The normal Air In
position can be either open or to Open
closed, whichever is safest. If
there is a loss of air or loss of
power (to the pilot solenoid), the
spring ensures that the valve fails
to its safe position. Figure G-13,
on the right, shows a spring return
actuator on a diaphragm valve. Figure G-13: Actuator on a Diaphragm Valve
Spring return valve actuators require 3-way solenoids because there is only one port
for valve movement.

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G.2.5 Modulating
Modulating actuators are capable of positioning a valve at any position between fully
open and fully closed. A 3 to 15 psi pneumatic signal, which is generated by the
control system, operates a regulator on a spring return actuator to partially open a
valve. This signal can be varied continuously to provide ongoing modulation of a
valve to control level in a tank, pressure in a system, or flow through a pipe. Note
that a modulating actuator requires a 3 to 15 psi signal for the regulator and a higher
pressure pneumatic line to operate the valve itself. Modulating valves can be
provided with optional position sensors to provide feedback on valve position and
ensure accurate modulation. Figure G-14, below, shows a pneumatic modulating
controller on the actuator of a diaphragm valve.
Pneumatic
Controller
Figure G-14: Pneumatic Controller

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Handle Perpendicular
to Pipe: Valve Closed
Figure G-15: Ball Valve Handle as Position Indicator
34a_m16_r0 A-37a Appendices

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G.3 Accessories
G.3.1 Position Indication
The position of some valves can be easily determined by looking at the handle used
to open and close the valve. By convention, if the handle is parallel to the pipe, the
valve is open. If the handle is perpendicular to the pipe, the valve is closed.
Figure G-15, on the opposite page, shows an example of a ball valve that is closed.
Due to the nature of some actuators, it is not possible to tell whether a valve is open
or closed just by looking at it. In such cases, position indicators are needed to
determine the condition of the valve. Valves that require rotational motion generally
have an indicator that follows the same convention as the handle on a manual valve.
Diaphragm valves that require liner motion typically use a stem to indicate whether
the diaphragm has been raised (open) or lowered (closed). Figure G-16, below,
shows examples of position indicators on diaphragm valves.
Position
Indicator
Figure G-16: Position Indicators on Diphragm Valves
G.3.2 Travel Stops
Valves can be fitted with travel stops to limit the travel of the actuator. A travel stop
can prevent a valve from opening fully, providing a predetermined and repeatable
valve position and resulting flow. This is very useful for setting backwash flows on
vessels, rinse flows, etc.

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G.3.3 Limit Switches
Depending on the application, the control system may need to confirm the position
of the valve. Limit switches are used to check the position of the valve and to
confirm that the valve is fully open or fully closed. Limit switches are not normally
used in the water treatment industry except occasionally on valves in hazardous
chemical service. Limit switch failure tends to be more prevalent than valve actuator
failure for many designs. Figure G-17, below, shows an example of limit switches
that confirm the fully open and fully closed positions of a diaphragm valve.
Figure G-17: Limit Switches

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G.4 Material Selection
The materials of construction for valve bodies and components are ordinarily
selected based on cost and the fluid with which the valve comes in contact. For
more details, refer to Technical Specification 16, Valves.
G.4.1 PVC
PVC (polyvinyl chloride) is usually the least expensive material. It is commonly used
on applications with a pipe diameter of less than 6 inches. Due to PVC’s lack of
strength, components typically do not support the weight of people standing on
them. Diaphragm, butterfly, and ball and check valves are available in PVC.
G.4.2 Polypropylene
Polypropylene valves are stronger than PVC, but they are also more expensive. The
same valve types that are generally available in PVC are available in polypropylene.
G.4.3 Cast Iron
Valves made from cast iron can be used in many non-corrosive applications such as
filtration, backwashing, or the inlet to a cation exchange unit. Steam piping often
uses valves made from cast iron. Cast iron is a sturdy material that can withstand
most working pressures.
G.4.4 Ductile Iron
Ductile iron is less brittle than cast iron.
G.4.5 Polypropylene Lined (PPL)
Demineralized water is corrosive, therefore cast or ductile iron components are

typically lined with polypropylene for these applications. The components have the
strength of cast iron and the corrosion resistance of polypropylene.

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G.4.6 EPDM lined
The seats and seals of various valves are lined with EPDM for corrosion resistance
and to provide a soft seat for good sealing characteristics. EPDM possess sufficient
rigidity and resistance to wear, which makes it a good choice for valve mating
components.
G.4.7 Carbon Steel
When the valve sizes become too small for cast iron components, carbon steel is
used. If the application is in a corrosive environment, a PPL or EPDM lining is
required.
G.4.8 Stainless Steel
316, or 316L if the component is to be welded, is the most common type of stainless
steel used for water treatment systems. This alloy provides the greatest combination
of durability and corrosion resistance, but it is more expensive than lined carbon
steel. It is accepted that when more than 2,000 ppm of chloride ions are present,
stainless steel has the possibility of suffering from stress corrosion cracking. Other
factors such as temperature, fatigue (from pipe bending or twisting), and operating
pressure also contribute to the risk of stress corrosion cracks occurring.
G.4.9 Special Materials
Certain materials and circumstances require special materials.
Hastelloy C
Hastelloy C is only required for concentrated hydrochloric acid service where plastic
or PPL is not appropriate.
Alloy 20
Alloy 20 is only required for sulfuric acid (H2SO4) service where lined or plastic pipe
is not appropriate.
PTFE lined Cast Iron

PTFE lining has better chemical resistance characteristics for concentrated sulfuric
acid service then polypropylene lining.

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Appendix H
Pressure Vessels
H.1 Pressure Vessels
Pressure vessels are used to hold media for filtration, ion exchange, and condensate
polishing applications as well as many other applications in industry. All pressure
vessels are designed, manufactured, tested, and inspected per the American Society
of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIII,
Division 1. More information on all aspects of pressure vessels can be found in
Technical Specification 12, Pressure Vessels or Technical Specification 17,
Vessel Internals.
This appendix discusses only welded carbon steel pressure vessels. Other types of
vessels are discussed in other places as appropriate.
H.1.1 Heads and Shells

Vessel
The heads of a pressure Head
vessel are the top and
bottom domes. The shell
refers to the straight side
that connects the top and
bottom heads. Pressure Straight
vessels that have their
Side
heads and shell plates
welded together have
heads that are based on a
2:1 semi-elliptical or Figure H-1: Example of a Torispherical Pressure
torispherical design. Vessel Head
Figure H-1, to the right,
shows an example of a pressure vessel with a torispherical head shape.
Vessels for most water treatment applications are designed for 100 psig, 125 psig, or
150 psig operating pressure (although any pressure can be used). Condensate
polishing vessels may require much higher design pressures. The design pressure is
the maximum pressure the vessel could see under any condition. It is necessary to
consider the maximum inlet water pressure (from municipal supply, for example)
plus the dead head pressure of any pump feeding the vessel.

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H.1.2 Pre-fabricated Vessels
Smaller, pre-fabricated pressure vessels, such

as those used for cartridge filters, have a
head that is bolted to the vessel, as shown in
Figure H-2. If it is sufficiently heavy, it is
moved with an attached swing arm. This is a
davit style opening.
H.2 Features
H.2.1 Legs and Skid
Pressure vessels can be supported with three

or four legs attached directly to the floor. Figure H-2: Bolted Head on a
Three-leg arrangements are available for 36- Cartridge Filter Vessel
inch to 72-inch vessels and four-
leg arrangements are available for
all vessels. There is no particular
advantage to a four-leg
arrangement for smaller vessels.
Pipes for the vessel have a separate
support structure (a removable
skid) that is also mounted to the
floor. Figure H-3 shows a vessel
with four leg supports.
Legs
Removable Pipe
Support Skid
Figure H-3: Example of a Vessel

Supported with Legs

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Vessel legs and pipe supports can also be attached to a single skid, which is then
commonly mounted to the floor. The pipes and the vessel are held together on a
common fixed skid and cannot easily be separated. Figure H-4 shows a vessel and
its pipes supported on a fixed skid.
Fixed
Vessel
and Pipe
Support
Skid
Figure H-4: Example of a Vessel Support Skid
Vessel Leg support systems are less expensive than skid systems and are easier to
transport because the unit can be broken up into smaller sub-assemblies: the piping
manifold can completely detach from the vessel. A unit with a removable skid for
piping support is more difficult to install, however, because of the extra work to align
and reattach the vessel to the pipework. A fixed skid system is more expensive to
manufacture but is simpler to install.

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H.2.2 Pressure Relief Valve
Each vessel is provided with a thermal pressure relief valve. This pressure relief valve
is small (generally 3/4 inch) and is designed to relieve pressure developed from the
warming of a sealed vessel sitting in the sun, perhaps. It is not designed to handle
any significant volume of water flow. Figure H-5 shows a relief valve installed on a
pressure vessel.
Flow From Top

of Vessel
Relief Valve
Figure H-5: Pressure Relief Valve
If upstream pumps have dead head pressures greater than the pressure rating of the
vessel, a pressure relief valve must be sized to relieve sufficient flow to push pump
operation out the flow curve such that the pressure is not greater than the vessel
pressure rating. If the possibility of over-pressurization due to pump dead head (or
similar conditions) exists; the ASME code requires the use of a pressure relief valve
sized to handle the necessary flow. This condition, however, rarely occurs.

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H.2.3 Paint
The installation conditions determine the Paint selection. An epoxy polyamide

primer and finish coat is used for typical indoor installations. An epoxy polyamide
primer with a Siloxane finish is used for typical outdoor installations. A Siloxane
epoxy primer and finish coat is preferred in coastal areas. Other paint systems are
available as necessary. Refer to Technical Specification 7, Lining and Painting,
for more information.
H.2.4 Lining
Pressure vessels are ordinarily lined with either a spray-on or sheet rubber lining.
This lining prevents both corrosion of the vessel and the introduction of dissolved
iron into the water. In cases where dissolved iron is not a concern, the lining can be
omitted, and a corrosion allowance can be added to the thickness of the steel vessel.
If even slightly corrosive conditions are present, an unlined vessel is not
recommended. Technical Specification 7, Lining and Painting, provides more
detailed information.
Spray-on linings are available in a wide variety of formulations and thicknesses.

Each has particular characteristics that give it an advantage in a particular
application.
An epoxy polyamide lining, such as Plasite 7133, covers a wide range of water
treatment applications. It is frequently used in filter vessels where severely corrosive
conditions do not exist.
A modified epoxy lining, such as Plasite 7156 handles high temperature applications
more effectively because of the amine adduct type curing agent. Hot water tanks
and sodium and amine cycle condensate polishers frequently use a modified epoxy
lining.
A coal tar epoxy lining, such as Amercoat 78 HB, is more commonly used on
unpressurized, large area items such as clarifiers and gravity filters.
A baked phenolic lining, such as Heresite P-403, has excellent characteristics for
concentrated acid applications. It also provides a very hard, tough lining for media
filters where frequent backwashing creates abrasive conditions.

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If there is concern that a spray-on lining
might get scratched or chipped Vessel Wall
(possibly because of frequent backwash
cycles), a 3/16-inch sheet of rubber
lining can be used to protect the vessel.
This is usually a soft black rubber, but
for demanding applications, a semi-
hard black rubber can also be used.
Figure H-6 shows the lining of a vessel.
H.2.5 Lifting Lugs
Four lifting lugs are provided on the

upper side shell of the vessel and are Lining Paint
equally spaced at 90° intervals. More
lifting lugs are located on the vessel
skid. They provide a secure connection Figure H-6: Vessel Lining
point for lifting equipment when
handling the vessel during installation or maintenance. Figure H-7 shows the lifting
lugs on a multi-media filter vessel.
Lifting
Lug
Figure H-7: Lifting lugs

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H.2.6 Sightglass
Sightglasses are used to view the inside of a pressure vessel. The sightglass is
relatively small and is located on the side of the pressure vessel to allow the operator
to see the level or condition of media or water. For example, a sightglass centered at
the top of the resin bed in an ion exchange unit would easily indicate loss of resin
(resin level too low) or poor distribution (resin being stirred up).
A second sightglass may be added to view other characteristics of the media bed,
such as expansion during backwash. A sightglass would be located at the desired
height of media bed expansion while being backwashed. An operator can then
determine if the expansion is too low or too high and make the appropriate
adjustments to the system. Additional sightglasses may be added to view any
characteristic or activity in the pressure vessel. Figure H-8 shows a pressure vessel
with multiple sightglasses.
Sightglasses
Figure H-8: Example of Sightglasses

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Regardless of what is being viewed, all sightglasses are mounted flush with the
interior of the vessel to avoid creating hiding places for the media. Figure H-9
shows the design of the sightglass. Plexiglass® is the normal sightglass material but
Pyrex® can be used for high pressure or high temperature condensate polishing
applications.
The sightglasses in Figure H-9 are oval in shape. High pressure condensate
polishers use sightglasses that are round in shape. Relatively high operating pressure
(600 – 700 psi) makes the use of oval-shaped sightglasses impractical.
Sightglass is Flush
with the Interior
of the Vessel
Figure H-9: Sightglass

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Top
Circular
Manway
Davit
Swing
Arm
Elliptical
Manway
Bottom
Circular
Manway
Figure H-10: Examples of Pressure Vessel Manways

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H.2.7 Manways
Manways allow access to the inside of the pressure vessel. During manufacturing
and installation, and possibly thereafter, assembly and maintenance technicians need
to perform various activities inside the vessel. For example, internals must be
adjusted, media may need to be added, or the vessel lining may need inspection or
repair.
Each chamber of a vessel must have a manway. Thus, simple filter vessels, without
false bottoms or flat plat distributors, require only one manway. Sandwich packed
bed ion exchange units, which have flat plate distributors, have four chambers (inlet,
resin 1, resin 2, outlet) and require four manways. The style and size of the manway
is mostly a matter of personal taste and cost.
The 14x18 elliptical manway is normally the least expensive. Elliptical manways (also
called crab style) fit on the inside of the vessel and are held in place by a bar clamp
assembly. These manways are light enough to be removed by hand.
Circular manways bolt to a large flange on a neck. The design dictates much thicker
steel and proportionally more weight. A swing arm davit supports a circular
manway, if installed in the top head or the side of a vessel. A hinge supports a
circular manway that is installed in the bottom head of a vessel. Figure H-10, on the
opposite page, shows manways on the top and bottom heads and the resin chamber
of a packed bed ion exchange pressure vessel. A 20-inch circular manway can be
used on any vessel with a diameter of 42 inches or higher. A 24-inch circular
manway can be used on any vessel with a diameter of 48 inches or higher.

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H.3 Internals
Vessels in differing services have different requirements for internals. All vessels
need inlet distribution and outlet collection. For simple filter vessels this is all that is
required. For air scour, sub-surface wash, chemical distribution and chemical
collection capabilities, further internals are necessary. Each type of internal is
described below. The materials of construction of the internals must be compatible
with regenerant chemicals they might see during regeneration cycles.
H.3.1 Inlet Distributor
Most pressure vessels with down

flow service use an inlet distributor
to uniformly spread the incoming
service water over the media bed.
The inlet distributor consists of a
header and a series of risers that
direct the flow upward. The
diameter of the vessel determines
the number of risers that are Figure H-11: Normal Flow Inlet
necessary to ensure uniform
distribution. Inlet distributors use a
splash plate at the end of each riser
to distribute the flow at flow rates
up to 12 gpm/ft2. Figure H-11
shows a normal flow inlet
distributor. Inlet distributors can be
fabricated from stainless steel, PVC
or polypropylene pipe.
For applications where a higher

flowrate is necessary (12-35 gpm/
ft2), the splash plate on each riser is
replaced with a perforated basket
that acts as a high flow distributor. Figure H-12: High Flow Distributor
Figure H-12 shows an example of a
high flow inlet distributor on a mixed bed ion exchange unit.

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Some applications require flowrates
greater than 35 gpm/ft2. These units
use a very high flow inlet distributor,
which consists of several
distribution arms branching off a
central hub and a perforated plate
that evenly distributes the flow.
Figure H-13 shows an example of a
very high flow inlet distributor on a
mixed bed, external regeneration,
condensate polisher.
Figure H-13: Very High Flow Distributor

H.3.2 Regenerant Distributor
Regenerant distributors uniformly spread resin regeneration chemicals over the resin
bed. Figure H-14 shows up flow and down flow regenerant distributors dispersing
chemicals in a split-flow, counter-current ion exchange unit.
Header Lateral
Down Flow
Regenerant Support
Distributor Member
Up Flow
Regenerant
Distributor
Figure H-14: Regenerant Distributors

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Interface
Collector
Figure H-15: Interface Collector

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The down flow regenerant distributor is located just above the resin bed. The
distributor consists of a header extending the width of the vessel and several laterals
branching off of the header. The laterals are threaded into couplings that are welded
to the header. Many holes, sized for the specifically designed flowrate, are drilled
into the laterals to evenly distribute the regenerant chemicals. Structural steel
members support the laterals.
During a backwash cycle, the expanded resin bed surrounds the down flow
regenerant distributor. To prevent resin from entering the laterals, they have
wellscreen inserts that have a 0.007-inch slot size.
The up flow regenerant distributor is located below the bottom plate. The distributor
consists of a header extending the width of the vessel. Numerous holes, sized for
the specific design flowrate, are drilled into the header to evenly distribute the
regenerant chemicals as they pass up through strainers in the false bottom to reach
the resin bed.
H.3.3 Interface Collectors
In ion exchange vessels with two different chemical flows, an interface collector is
used to collect the chemicals before they flow into the wrong part of the resin bed.
The interface collector is located within the resin bed to collect regenerant. Figure
H-15, on the opposite page, shows an interface collector in a split-flow, counter-
current ion exchange vessel. Since this unit has regenerant flowing both up and
down, this internal collects the regenerant in the middle of the resin bed and sends it
out of the vessel. Since the interface collector is nearly identical to the sub-surface
wash lateral, described in Section H.3.5, it also acts as a backwash water distributor
to clean the upper portion of the resin bed in the split flow, counter current unit.
Layered counter-current units, mixed bed units, and in-situ regenerated condensate
polishers use an interface collector between layers of two different resins. Chemical
from one resin bed is collected before it travels into the resin type for which it was
not designed.
The interface collector consists of a header extending the width of the vessel and a
series of laterals branching off either side of the header. Wellscreen with a 0.007-inch
slot size is welded inside the pipe to prevent resin from entering the lateral. A
structural steel c-channel beam is added to each series of laterals to maintain their
rigidity.

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H.3.4 Air Scour Distributor
In addition to the normal backwash cycle, an optional air scour system can be used
to clean the media bed in multi-media and greensand filter units. The air scour
system is used if the impurities on the media bed are particularly difficult to break up
with a normal backwash. This occurs frequently when polymers are added to
enhance performance of the media bed.
The air scour distributor consists of a stainless steel header extending the width of
the vessel with a series of laterals branching off either side of the header. The laterals
have holes drilled along opposite sides to release air into the media bed. Wellscreen
is welded inside the pipe to prevent media from entering the lateral. A structural
steel C-channel beam assembly is added to the distributor for support.
H.3.5 Sub-surface Wash Distributor
In addition to the normal backwash cycle, an optional sub-surface wash system can
be used to clean the media in multi-media and greensand filter units. Figure H-16
shows a sub-surface wash system in a multi-media filter. A sub-surface wash is
performed on a split flow counter-current ion exchange unit using the interface
collector described above.
Figure H-16: Sub-Surface Wash System

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The sub-surface wash distributor consists of a stainless steel header extending the
width of the vessel with a series of laterals branching off either side of the header.
The laterals have holes drilled along opposite sides to release backwash water into
the media bed. Wellscreen is welded inside the pipe to prevent media from entering
the lateral. A structural steel c-channel beam assembly is added to the distributor for
support.
H.3.6 Draindown Lateral
A draindown lateral allows water to be drained down to a prescribed level in the

vessel in preparation for air scour or air mixing. In applications where the vessel
rinse piping is connected to an open drain a separate draindown lateral is not
required: the rinse line is looped up to the required level and an anti-syphon check
valve is installed in the line to allow air in as the water level falls. In applications
where the vessel rinse line is connected to an overhead pressurized drain system it is
necessary to install a separate draindown lateral. The draindown lateral normally
penetrates the side of the vessel and is located at the top of the media bed. To
prevent media entering the draindown lateral, it is lined with wellscreen.
Figure H-17 shows a draindown lateral.
Figure H-17: Draindown Lateral

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H.3.7 Hub/Radial Underdrain
In a filtration pressure
vessel, the water exits the
vessel through the hub/
radial underdrain
assembly that is located
in the support sand
subfill layer below the
lowest layer of filtering
media. Figure H-18
shows the hub/lateral
underdrain assembly in a
multi-media filter unit.
The hub is a heavy-

walled, short cylinder
with top and bottom
plates, located in the
center of the vessel. An
equally spaced series of Figure H-18: Lateral Pipe with Wellscreen
threaded couplings are
welded around the
circumference of the cylinder.
Figure H-19 shows the
couplings on the central hub.
Each coupling holds one lateral
that branches off to almost
reach the side of the vessel. The
laterals are usually made with
slots machined on two sides
along the entire length of the
pipe. To prevent media from
entering the underdrain,
wellscreen is welded into the
pipe.
Threaded Welded
Coupling to Hub
for Lateral
Figure H-19: Hub/Radial Underdrain Central
Hub with Couplings

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H.3.8 False Bottom
In non-packed bed ion exchange units the resin bed is supported on a false bottom.
Treated water flows through strainers in the falsebottom to be collected in the space
below. Figure H-20 shows a typical false bottom in a co-current ion exchange unit.
The false bottom may have horizontal stiffeners to maintain its shape and withstand
the high operating pressure and flowrates.
Flat Plate
False Bottom Strainer
Figure H-20: False bottom with Strainers

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H.3.9 Flat Plate Distributor (packed bed units)
In packed bed ion exchange units, flat plates with strainers hold the resin bed
together. Since the service water flows up through the vessel and counter-current to
regenerant flow, both the top and bottom plates must act as distributors. During
normal service, the bottom plate distributes incoming service water: during resin
regeneration, it collects outgoing regenerant. During normal service, the top plate
collects outgoing service water: during resin regeneration, it distributes incoming
regenerant. Figure H-21 shows the top and bottom flat plate distributors in a
packed bed ion exchange unit.
The plate is structurally reinforced with horizontal stiffeners to maintain its shape.
The size of the stiffeners depends on the diameter of the vessel. All exposed surfaces
are rubber-lined for corrosion protection.
Flat Plate
Distributors
Figure H-21: Flat Plate Distributors

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Single Dome
Strainer
Locking Nut
Counter Flow Distributor

Valve Plate
Double Dome Strainer Metallic Wellscreen

Strainer
Figure H-22: Strainers

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H.3.10 Strainers
In both false bottoms and flat plate distributors strainers prevent resin from leaving
the vessel. Strainers are oriented with their dome side next to the resin to prevent it
from escaping its compartment. If resin is on both sides of a flat plate (e.g. in a
sandwich bed ion exchange unit), a double dome strainer is required. Figure H-22,
on the opposite page, shows both single and double dome plastic strainers. A
locking nut secures the strainer assembly in its hole in the plate.
When the application calls for flow in both directions but at different flowrates, the
locking nut is replaced with a counter flow valve (polypropylene strainers only). The
orifice in the counter flow valve is designed to induce proper distribution of the flow.
Figure H-22 also shows a strainer with a counter flow valve.
Strainers are manufactured from polypropylene, from stainless steel or from hastaloy.
Metallic strainers are a more durable alternative to plastic strainers. Metallic strainers
can also accommodate a higher flowrate per strainer than plastic strainers; therefore
fewer strainers and holes in the false bottom are needed. Polypropylene strainers are
rated for 4 gpm each while metallic strainers are rated for 10 gpm each. Metallic
strainers also include a formed 16-gauge top cap (above the wellscreen) and bottom
cap (below the false bottom). Figure H-22 also shows a metallic strainer.

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Nozzle Penetrates
Vessel Shell
Nozzle Terminates
at Flange of Inlet
Distributor
Figure H-23: Nozzle to Vessel Connection

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H.3.11 Vessel Connections
Vessel connections can be made with either nozzles or flange-on-pad connections.

A nozzle is a pipe that penetrates the vessel shell. Outside the vessel, the pipe
usually terminates in a flange. The nozzle flange mates with another pipe flange to
create a path in or out of the vessel. Figure H-23, on the opposite page, shows the
outer portion of a nozzle with its flange. If extra support is needed, triangular plates
can be welded to the pipe and the vessel wall.
The inside portion of the nozzle pipe either continues on to be part of an internal
component or terminates in a flange for connection to an internal component.
Figure H-23 also shows the details of a nozzle penetration that terminates with
flanges at both ends and shows the interior flange connected to an inlet distributor
assembly.
Flange-on pad connections have a flange that is welded directly onto the vessel wall.
Pipes or components that terminate with a flange can be mated to the flange pad.
This technique is used for a resin removal or a resin sampling connection and for
sightglass mounting. Figure H-24, below, shows a flange-on-pad connection.
Figure H-24: Flange-on-Pad

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Appendix I
Piping
I.1 Piping
There are two critical parameters for selecting piping for a particular application: the
construction material and the diameter. The construction material of the pipe is
determined by its compatibility with the fluid to be carried in the pipe. The diameter
of the pipe is determined by the maximum acceptable pressure losses through the
piping system.
For industrial water treatment applications, there are relatively few suitable piping
materials. The paragraphs below discuss the most common types of construction
material and the applications where they are normally used.
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
PVC is an inexpensive material that is compatible with water and almost all of the
chemicals that are used in water treatment. Using PVC with sulfuric acid is not
recommended, however, because the heat produced when sulfuric acid mixes with
water could severely weaken the PVC pipe.
PVC pipe and socket fittings are glued together with PVC solvent cement.
PVC piping is usually available in Schedule 40 and Schedule 80 wall thicknesses.

Schedule 80 pipe has a thicker wall, which makes it physically more robust and able
to handle higher operating pressures. In larger sizes, however, PVC pipe fittings are
prone to failure. PVC is not recommended for pipes that have diameters larger than
6 inches.
Chlorinated Polyvinyl Chloride (CPVC)
CPVC has all of the characteristics of PVC, but it is able to handle higher
temperatures. This allows it to be used in hot water applications where PVC is not
suitable.

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Polypropylene (PP)
Polypropylene is another plastic piping material used for water service and for many
types of chemical applications. It is more expensive than either PVC or CPVC, but it
is less expensive than stainless steel.
Polypropylene pipe and fittings are butt fused. A special machine is used to align,
heat, and connect the pieces.
Stainless Steel
Stainless steel is the most commonly used piping material for water service with
large flows. It can also be used with many chemicals. However, concentrated
sulfuric acid and any concentration of hydrochloric acid should not be used in
stainless steel.
Stainless steel pipe is available in several schedule thicknesses and with several
flange ratings to suit different pressure ratings.
Carbon Steel
Carbon steel piping is appropriate for applications that need the strength and
robustness of a metallic pipe but are not sensitive to dissolved iron. Many
condensate polishing applications and some filtration applications require carbon
steel piping.
Carbon steel pipe is available in several schedule thicknesses and with several flange
ratings to suit different pressure ratings.
Polypropylene Lined Steel (PPL)
PPL steel pipe is an economical material for chemical applications.
PTFE Lined Steel
PTFE lined steel pipe is used for concentrated sulfuric acid applications.

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Hastalloy
Hastalloy pipe is used only in hydrochloric acid applications.
Alloy 20
Alloy 20 pipe is used only in concentrated sulfuric acid applications where PTFE
lined steel is not practical.
I.2 Pipe Sizing
Pipes can be sized after the construction material has been determined. The
optimum line size balances the capital and operating costs of the required pumping
system with the capital cost of the piping. For example, a small-diameter pipe is less
expensive but requires more pumping pressure.
Some pipelines have other restrictions that must be considered. For example, pump
suction lines are particularly sensitive to pressure loss, because they are often under
relatively low pressure and must account for the NPSHR of the pump (see Section
9.2). Concentrated chemical lines are susceptible to erosion; therefore, flow should
be kept at very low velocities.
Suction lines for pulsating pumps have another complication. The instantaneous
velocity during a suction stroke is much larger than the average pumping rate;
therefore, the suction piping must be sized for a flow of p (3.14) times the average.
The guidelines for acceptable maximum velocity (ft/s) in piping with diameters of
less than and greater than 3 inches are summarized below.
> 3-inch diameter < 3-inch diameter
Service lines 10 ft/s 7 ft/s

Waste lines (open to atmosphere) 20 ft/s 15 ft/s
Dilute chemical lines 10 ft/s 7 ft/s
Concentrated chemical lines 3 ft/s 3 ft/s
Pump suction lines 6 ft/s 4 ft/s

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Several detailed and specific algorithms exist to calculate pressure drop through any
particular piece of piping. Because water treatment rarely involves sensitive or critical
applications, it is appropriate to use one of the simpler approximations.
The Hazen Williams equation calculates pressure drop (P, psi/100 ft) as a function of
the pipe inside diameter (ID, inches), the flow (q, gpm), and a roughness coefficient
(C, no units):
P = (0.2083) x (100/C)1.852 x (q1.852)/ (ID4.8655) /(2.3)
The tables that follow are based on this equation. They give the flow (gpm) and
pressure drop (psi per 100 feet of pipe) for common sizes of pipe at different
velocities.
Choose the appropriate table for the selected pipe material. Pick the velocity column
that matches the maximum velocity allowed by the application (from the table
above). Move down the column to the row with a flow rate, q, that is larger than the
flow that the pipe must handle. This row gives the size of pipe that should be used.

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Table I-1: Flow of Water Through Schedule 40 Pipe

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Table I-2: Flow of Water Through Schedule 10 Pipe

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Table I-3: Flow of Water Through Polypropylene Lined Pipe

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Table I-4: Flow of Water Through Schedule 80 PVC Pipe

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Table I-5: Flow of Water Through 10 Bar Polypropylene Pipe

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Appendices
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Appendix J
Unit Conversions for Water Chemistry Calculations
Overview
The quantity of suspended solids or dissolved chemicals in process water can be

expressed using several different units of concentration (parts per million, grains per
gallon or milliequivalents per liter). These units can be readily converted from one to
another, as shown below. It is critical to use consistent units when performing
calculations for any chemical process.
Equivalent Weight
Equivalent weight is calculated by dividing a substance’s atomic or molecular weight

by its valence. For example, the equivalent weight of aluminum (Al) is calculated as
follows:
Equivalent weight of Al = atomic weight = 27 = 9

valence 3
In water treatment chemistry, it is often necessary to know the equivalence of the

process water ion to calcium carbonate (equivalent weight = 50). Equivalence to
CaCO3 is used as the common denominator for placing all constituents on a
common unit weight basis. The equivalence of aluminum to calcium carbonate is
5.56 (see Table J-1 on page A-72a), which is calculated as follows:
CaCO3 equivalence of Al = equivalent weight of CaCO3= 50 = 5.56

equivalent weight of Al 9

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Measurements by Volume
The concentration of an ion in process water is the ratio of weight of the ions in a
given volume of water to the weight of the water. The ratio may be expressed as
parts per million (ppm), milliequivalents per liter (meq/L), or grains per gallon.
1. Parts Per Million (ppm) as Ion
In the analysis of a water sample, it is necessary to determine the presence of

various substances found in extremely small amounts. The expression of these
concentrations as percentages would require the use of cumbersome figures. For
this reason the results of a water analysis are usually expressed in parts per
million (ppm) instead of percentage. One ppm equals one ten-thousandth of
one percent (0.0001%). A ppm is a measure of proportion by weight and is equal
to one unit weight of dissolved ion per million unit weights of solution. Control
tests do not measure density of the solution.
Therefore, in common practice ppm has come to mean the unit weight by
volume which would be required to give a million unit weights of solution (e.g.,
milligrams per liter–0.001 g/1000 g). For common solutions and suspensions the
density of the solution is very close to 1, so this slight inaccuracy is ignored.
2. Milliequivalents per Liter
Another unit sometimes used in reporting water analysis on an ion basis is

milliequivalents per liter (meq/L). This method is similar to the use of ppm and
consists of reducing all substances or ions to a common denominator: chemical
equivalent weight. Concentration in meq/L is calculated by dividing the
concentration in ppm by the chemical equivalent weight of the ion.
meq/L = _ ppm as ion _

equivalent weight of the ion
The use of meq/L is not recommended for normal plant control; ppm is a
simpler form for expressing results and is accepted as the common standard basis
of reporting a water analysis. However, when extensive calculations must be
performed, the use of meq/L greatly simplifies the calculations. When the
concentrations of all constituents are expressed as equivalent weights, they can
be directly added and subtracted.

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Atomic or Substance Substance to Substance to
Substance Molecular Valence Equivalent CaCO3 Milliequiv.
Weight Weight Equivalent per Liter
Calcium Carbonate 100.0 2 50.0 -- --
Aluminum 27.0 3 9.0 5.56 0.111
Ammonia 17.0 1 17.0 2.94 0.059
Ammonium 18.0 1 18.0 2.78 0.056
Barium 137.4 2 68.7 0.73 0.015
Bicarbonate 61.0 1 61.0 0.82 0.016
Calcium 40.1 2 20.0 2.50 0.050
Carbonate* 60.0 1 60.0 0.83 0.017
CO2* 44.0 1 44.0 1.14 0.023
Chloride 33.5 1 33.5 1.41 0.028
Fluoride 19.0 1 19.0 2.63 0.053
Iron Fe2+ 55.8 2 27.9 1.79 0.036
3+
Iron Fe 55.8 3 18.6 2.69 0.054
Magnesium 24.3 2 12.2 4.12 0.082
Nitrate 62.0 1 62.0 0.18 0.016
Phosphate 95.0 3 31.7 1.58 0.032
Potassium 39.1 1 39.1 1.28 0.026
Silica* 60.1 1 60.1 0.83 0.017
Sodium 23.0 1 23.0 2.18 0.043
Strontium 87.6 2 43.8 1.14 0.023
Sulfate 95.1 2 48.0 1.04 0.021
*Carbonate, carbon dioxide and silica react as monovalent ions in ion exchange
Table J-1: Water Analysis and Conversion Factors for Common Ions
Parts per Grains per Grains per

Million U.S. Gallon Imp. Gallon
1 part per million 1.0 0.058 0.07
1 grain per U.S. gal 17.1 1.000 1.20
1 grain per Imp. gal 14.3 0.833 1.00
Table J-2: Water Analysis as CaCO3

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3. Parts per Million as CaCO3
Constituents are frequently reported in terms of a common unit weight. For

example, calcium (equivalent weight = 20) is reported in terms of calcium
carbonate (equivalent weight = 50). Table J-1, on the opposite page, shows this
equivalence in the column, Substance to CaCO3 Equivalent. Hardness,
magnesium, alkalinity, and free mineral acids are also usually reported in terms of
calcium carbonate. That is, the value reported is the weight of calcium carbonate
that is chemically equivalent to the amount of material present.
4. Grains per Gallon as CaCO3
This unit of concentration is used when converting the capacity of ion exchange
resins to the number of gallons of water that can be treated per cubic foot of
resin.
One grain is equal to 1/7000 lb, and is based on the fact that 7000 average grains
of dry wheat weigh one pound. To convert from ppm as CaCO3 to grains per
gallon as CaCO3 the following steps are followed:
1 grain as CaCO3 = 1 grain / 7000 grains per pound = 0.0001428 pound
Since 1 gallon of water weighs 8.34 lb,
1 grain per gallon (gpg) = 0.0001428 lb/gr x 1,000,000

8.34 pounds/gallon
= 17.1 ppm as CaCO3
This is the method used to calculate the conversion factors, shown on the
opposite page in Table J-2, for the standard US gallon. The Imperial gallon used
in Canada is larger in volume than the US gallon. The conversion factor for the
Imperial gallon is smaller (14.3). The remaining conversion factors allow
conversions from ppm to grains per US gallon and grains per Imperial gallon as
well as the reverse. For example, the top row of the table shows that 1.0 ppm
CaCO3 is equivalent to 0.058 grains per US gallon or 0.07 grains per Imperial
gallon. The second row shows that 1 grain per US gallon is equivalent to 17.1
ppm of CaCO3 or 1.2 grains per Imperial gallon. The third row shows that 1
grain per Imperial gallon is equivalent to 0.833 grains per US gallon or 14.3 ppm
of CaCO3.

table of contents
Appendix K
Conversion Factors
Prefixes
Mega - one million

Kilo - one thousand
Centi - one-hundredth
Milli - one-thousandth
Micro - one-millionth
Nano - one-billionth
____________________________________________
Abbreviations
ppm - parts per million (parts per 106)

ppb - parts per billion (parts per 109)
ppt - parts per trillion (parts per 1012)
_____________________________________________
Length and Area
1 foot (ft) = 12 inches

= 30.48 centimeters
= 0.3048 meters
1 inch (in.) = 25.40 millimeters
100 ft. per minute = 0.508 meters per sec
1 square foot = 0.0929 sq meter
1 square inch = 6.45 sq centimeters
1 meter = 3.281 feet

= 39.37 inches
1 centimeter = 1 x 108 angstroms (A°)
1 micron = 0.001 millimeter

= 0.000039 inch
_____________________________________________

table of contents
Weight
1 U.S. long ton = 2240 pounds

= 1016 kilograms
= 1.016 metric tons (tonnes)
1 U.S. short ton = 2000 pounds

= 907 kilograms
1 pound (lb) = 16 ounces

= 7000 grains
= 0.454 kilograms
1 metric ton (tonne) = 1000 kilograms

= 0.984 long tons
= 1.102 U.S. short tons
= 2205 pounds
1 kilogram (kg) = 1000 grams

= 2.205 pounds
1 gram (g) = 1000 milligrams (mg)

= 0.03527 ounces (avdp.)
= 15.43 grains
_____________________________________________

table of contents
Volume
1 cubic foot = 28.32 liters

= 7.48 U.S. gallons
1 U.S. gallon = 0.833 imperial gallons

= 3.785 liters
= 231 cu in
= 0.1337 cu ft
1 cubic meter = 1000 liters

(cu m) = 35.31 cu ft
1 liter = 1000 cubic centimeters

= 0.2200 imperial gallons
= 0.2642 U.S. gallons
1 cu ft per min (CFM) = 1.699 cu m per hour

= 1,699 liters per hour
1 cu m per hour = 0.589 cu ft per min

1 cu ft per sec = 646,316 gallons per day
= 448.83 gallons per min
1 gallon per min = 0.00144 million gallons per day (MGD)

= 0.2271 cu m per hr
1 cu m per hr = 4.4 gallons per min
1 MGD = 694.4 gallons per min

_____________________________________________

table of contents
Velocity and Flux
1 US gal per min per sq ft = 2.44 meters per hr (cu m per hr per sq m)
1 US gal per min per cu ft = 8.0 bed volumes (BV) per hr
1 US gal per cu ft = 0.134 bed volumes (BV) (m3 liquid per m3 resin)
_____________________________________________
Density (weight / volume)
1 lb per cu ft = 16.02 kg per cu m

1 grain per cu ft = 2.288 grams per cu m
1 grain per U.S. gallon = 17.11 grams per cu m
= 17.11 mg/liter or ppm
1 gram per cc = 62.4 lb per cu ft
1 gram per liter = 58.4 grains per U.S. gallons

_____________________________________________

table of contents
Water at 62° F (16.7° C)
1 cubic foot = 62.3 lb

1 pound = 0.01604 cu ft
1 U.S. Gallon = 8.34 lb
_____________________________________________
Water at 39.2° F (4° C) (maximum density)
1 cubic foot = 62.4 lb

1 cubic meter = 1000 kg
1 pound = 0.01602 cu ft
1 liter = 1.0 kg
1 kg per cu m = 1 gram per liter

= 1 part per thousand
1 g per cu m = 1 mg per liter

= 1 part per million (ppm)
1 ppm = 8.33 lb per million gallons
1 grain per gal = 143 lb per million gallons
1 lb per million gal = 0.12 ppm

= 0.007 grain per gallons
1 lb per thousand gal = 120 ppm

_____________________________________________

table of contents
Pressure
1 atmosphere = 760 mm (29.92 in) mercury

with density 13.595 grams per cc
= 14.696 lb per sq in
= 1.033 kg per sq cm (bars)
= 33.93 ft head of water
1 atmosphere (metric) = 1 kg per sq cm

= 10,000 kg per sq m
= 10 m head of water
= 14.22 lb per sq in
1 lb per square inch = 2.036 in. head of mercury

= 2.309 ft. head of water
= 0.0703 kg per sq cm
= 0.069 bar
_____________________________________________
Temperature
°F = Fahrenheit °R = Rankine
°F = 9/5 x °C + 32 °R = °F + 460
°C = Celcius °K = Kelvin
°C = 5/9 x (°F – 32) °K = °C + 273
_____________________________________________
Energy
1 Btu = 1054.35 Joules

= 0.000293 kilowatt hours
= 252 calories
_____________________________________________

table of contents
1 <--- Atomic Number 2
H <--- Symbol
He
Helium
Hydrogen <--- Name
1.00794 <--- Atomic Number 4.0026
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Li Be B C N O F Ne
Lithium
6.9410
Beryllium
9.0122
Appendix L Boron
10.81
Carbon
12.011
Nitrogen
14.0067
Oxygen
15.9994
Fluorine
18.9984
Neon
20.179
11 12 Periodic Table of the Elements 13 14 15 16 17 18
Na Mg
Sodium Magnesium
Al
Aluminum
Si
Silicon
P
Phosphorus
S
Sulfur
Cl
Chlorine
Ar
Argon
22.9898 24.305 26.98154 28.0855 30.97376 32.06 35.453 39.948
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
K
Potassium
Ca
Calcium
Sc
Scandium
Ti
Titanium
V
Vanadium
Cr
Chromium
Mn Fe
Manganese Iron
Co
Cobalt
Ni Nickel
Cu
Copper
Zn Zinc
Ga
Gallium
Ge As
Germanium Arsenic
Se
Selenium
Br
Bromine
Kr
Krypton
39.0983 40.08 44.9559 47.88 50.9415 51.996 54.9380 55.847 58.9332 58.59 63.546 65.38 69.72 72.59 74.9216 78.96 79.904 83.80
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb
Rubidium
Sr
Strontium
Y
Yttrium
Zr
Zirconium
Nb Mo
Niobium Molybdenum
Tc
Technetium
Ru
Ruthenium
Rh
Rhodium
Pd Ag
Palladium Silver
Cd
Cadmium
In
Indium
SnTin
Sb
Antimony
Te
Tellurium
I
Iodine
Xe
Xenon
85.4678 87.62 88.9059 91.22 92.9064 95.94 (98) 101.07 102.9055 106.42 107.8682 112.41 114.82 118.69 121.75 127.60 126.9045 131.29
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs
Cesium
Ba
Barium
La*
Lanthanum
Hf
Hafnium
Ta
Tantalum
W
Tungsten
Re
Rhenilum
Os
Osmium
Ir
Iridium
Pt
Platinum
Au Hg
Gold Mercury
Tl
Thallium
Pb
Lead
Bi
Bismuth
Po
Polonium
At
Astatine
Rn
Radon
132.9054 137.33 138.9055 178.49 180.9479 183.85 186.207 190.22 192.9479 195.08 196.9665 200.59 204.383 207.2 208.9804 (209) (210) (222)
87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109
**
Fr
Francium
Ra Ac
Radium Actinium
# # # # # # Element synthesized,
but no offical name assigned
(223) 226.0254 227.0278 (261) (262) (263)
58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
* Lanthanides Ce
Cerium
Pr
Praseodymium
Nd Pm Sm
Neodymium Promethium Samarium
Eu
Europium
Gd Tb
Gadolinium Terbium
Dy Ho
Dysprosium Holmium
Er
Erbium
Tm Yb
Thulium Ytterbium
Lu
Lutetium
140.12 140.9077 124.24 (145) 150.36 151.96 157.25 158.9254 162.50 164.9304 167.26 226.0254 226.0254 226.0254
** Actinides 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
Th
Thorium
Pa
Protactinium
U
Uranium
Np Pu Am Cm Bk
Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium
Cf
Californium
Es
Ensteinium
Fm Md No
Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium
Lr
Lawrencium
232.0381 231.0359 238.0289 237.0482 (244) (243) (247) (247) (251) (252) (257) 226.0254 226.0254 226.0254

table of contents

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APPENDICES

Appendix B Alkalinity ............................................................................................................. 9

Appendix C Resistivity/Conductivity ................................................................................. 13

Appendix D ph Measurement of Pure Water .................................................................... 16

Appendix E Silt Density Index ............................................................................................ 18

34a_m16_r0 A-1 Appendices

Appendix G Valves ............................................................................................................... 24

34a_m16_r0 A-2 Appendices

Appendix I Piping ............................................................................................................... 60

34a_m16_r0 A-3 Appendices

Appendix K Conversion Factors .......................................................................................... 73

Appendix L Periodic Table of the Elements .................................................................... 79

34a_m16_r0 A-4 Appendices

34a_m16_r0 A-5 Appendices

Thus, if a particular water sample had 30 ppm of calcium, 10 ppm of magnesium, 60

Hardness (Total) = 30 ppm calcium + 10 ppm magnesium = 40 ppm

34a_m16_r0 A-6 Appendices

• WAC Resin in the Hydrogen Form

• SAC Resin in the Sodium Form

• SAC Resin in the Hydrogen Form

• Cold Lime Softening

• Nanofiltration and Reverse Osmosis

34a_m16_r0 A-7 Appendices

Applebaum, Samuel B. 1968. Demineralization by Ion Exchange in Water Treatment and

34a_m16_r0 A-8 Appendices

Total Alkalinity = Bicarbonate + Carbonate + Hydroxide

TA, ppm as CaCO3 = ([HCO3-] + [CO32-] + [OH-]), ppm as CaCO3

Conversion of Free CO2 to Bicarbonate Alkalinity

(CO2)gas in solution + H2CO3 + 2OH- → 2HCO3- + H2O

34a_m16_r0 A-9 Appendices

As pH increases, bicarbonate alkalinity converts to carbonate alkalinity according to

HCO3- + 2OH- → CO32- + H2O

Further addition of hydroxide ions converts more bicarbonate alkalinity to carbonate

Figure B-1. Carbonate Species vs pH

34a_m16_r0 A-10 Appendices

Ca2+ + CO32- → CaCO3 ↓

Mg2+ + OH- → MgOH ↓

The most common laboratory method for determining alkalinity is colorimetric

P Alkalinity = OH- + CO3 2- / 2

M Alkalinity = OH- + CO3 2- + HCO3-

Bicarbonate Carbonate Hydroxide

34a_m16_r0 A-11 Appendices

In cold-lime softening, hydrated lime, Ca(OH)2, is added to the process water,

34a_m16_r0 A-12 Appendices

Conductivity is a measure of the ability of a substance to conduct, or carry, an

R (W) = V (volts) / I (amperes)

Resistivity is a characteristic of the material itself and is not dependent on geometry.

Conductance is the reciprocal, or inverse, of resistance, and conductivity is the

Conductivity is a measure of how freely electrical current can pass through a

34a_m16_r0 A-13 Appendices

As the conductivity decreases, the measurement becomes much more sensitive to

The conductivity of water is strongly dependent on the temperature of the solution.

Resistivity of Water as a Function of Temperature

34a_m16_r0 A-14 Appendices

Figure C-2: Resistivity Probe

34a_m16_r0 A-15 Appendices

pH Measurement of Pure Water

pH is a measure of the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) in a solution. A basic

There are different types of pH electrodes,

34a_m16_r0 A-16 Appendices

To measure pH in highly resistive solutions, it is necessary to add a source of

34a_m16_r0 A-17 Appendices

Feedwater Supply (30-80 psig)