GENERATIONS OF FIGHTER AIRCRAFT (2015-16)

Group Captain Harsh Vardhan Thakur, Vayu Sena Medal

Introduction

1. There is widespread debate regarding the nomenclature to use for generations

of fighter jets being employed across the globe. Presently, a universally
acknowledged or accepted datum does not exist. Aircraft manufacturers from around
the world theorize their own classifications, to promote their products. Such
promotions, especially by the western manufacturers, hit the electronic media and
influence our impressions. In addition to this, different air forces have their unique
threat perceptions, which colour their preferences for features and capabilities. For
example, the American philosophy centers around out-of-area operations with
surface attack as their primary strategy, while Russian philosophy pivots around air
defence over own territory. Accordingly, over the years, the Americans have
developed a wide array of surface attack aircraft, while the Russians have primarily
developed air dominance fighters.

2. In the recent years, one often hears reference to modern fighters as fourth-
generation aircraft. The latest buzz word doing the rounds is “Fifth-Gen” fighters.
Certain basic tenets which evolve over the years are difficult to superimpose on old
designs. Technology transitions of a major nature, and not mere capability
improvements, mark the shedding of legacy, to give rise to newer breeds and newer
generations of fighter aircraft. For example, a non-reheated aircraft such as the
highly acclaimed Hawker Hunter of Indian Air Force could simply not be upgraded to
reach high supersonic speeds. With the emergence of faster jets therefore, the
Hawker Hunter was retired from service even though it possessed many enviable
virtues.

3. Jet fighter evolution has thus far witnessed five generations of fighter aircraft,
whilst prototypes of the sixth generation have also taken to the air. With the
incessant cold war threat between USA and the erstwhile USSR, there was a rapid
evolution of various generations of fighter aircraft. Evolution in European nations was
somewhat out-of-phase with these two countries. Therefore, there have also been
some intermediate generations of noteworthy fighter aircraft. Over the last two
decades, competing nations such as China, Brazil, Japan and India have also
jumped into the fray of aircraft design and large scale production. As a result, many
conflicting definitions have emerged to identify the various generations of fighter
aircraft. This paper enlists some salient characteristics, which distinguish, one
generation from the other. The paper intends to bring out these distinctive features,
as also to present a glimpse of what the future beholds.
 Aim

4. The aim of the paper is to list the distinctive technologies, characteristics,

capabilities and features of various generations of fighter aircraft, so as to enable
articulation of a standard definition within the aviation community.

Generations

5. The notion of aircraft generations arose from the leapfrogging of fighter aircraft
technology and the desire of defence analysts to differentiate newer aircraft and
technologies from their older siblings. The term ‘generations’ first appeared with
reference to jet fighters in the 1990s along with the emergence of internet / electronic
media, as a major tool in opinion formulation. A generation typically lasted fifteen
years after which, new technology or inventions altered the philosophy of
employment of the fighter operations across the board. The beginning of the present
millennium witnessed the Americans termed their F-22 Raptor as a Fifth Generation
Fighter Aircraft, indicating that no analogous platforms existed anywhere else in the
world. To date, the F-22 remains the aircraft to beat in aerial combat.

6. The origins and evolution of various generations is enumerated in the

succeeding paragraphs.

First Generation Fighter Aircraft (Origin 1945-60):

“The Advent of Jet Engines”

7. Advent of jet engines during WW-II marked the arrival of the first generation (1st
gen) of Jet Fighters between 1945 and 1955. The first fighter to upgrade from piston
engines to jet engines was the German Messerschmitt Me 262, which undertook its
first flight in July 1942 and entered service with Luftwaffe in April 1944. The 1st gen
constituted aircraft such as American Phanton, Russian MiG-9 and British Vampire
etc. Vampire served in the IAF during the fifties and sixties. Typically, these aircraft
employed straight wings similar to propeller driven fighters of the world wars. Very
soon, it was realised that straight wings caused excessive drag at higher speed and
these 1st gen fighters could not accelerate beyond high subsonic speeds. An
advantage of lower speeds was, the lower control forces due to which, manual
controls could be employed on these aircraft, which enabled a lot of weight and
space saving. Front guns, rockets and small calibre bombs were typically carried by
1st gen fighters, which could be aimed using a fixed gun-sight. However, the
limitation of maximum speed quickly gave rise to the swept wing design.
8. Fighters with swept wings could accelerate deep into transonic flight and
sometimes cross the sound barrier in a steep dive. Indeed, this was the era when
aviation industry was obsessed with the idea of crossing the sound barrier. These
aircraft of the mid 1950s could be deemed to belong to the one-plus generation (1+
gen) of fighters. The 1+ gen constituted aircraft such as F-86 Sabre, Gnat, Mystere
and the Hawker Hunter. Higher speed came with the penalty that pilots were unable
to overcome the aerodynamic forces on the control column. Hence, the 1 + gen also
saw the advent of powered flying controls. Since the swept wings were optimised for
transonic speeds, lift augmentation devices such as multi-position flaps, slats etc
also matured during these years. The first generation of missiles entered service
along with 1+ gen fighters, with improvement in sighting methods, by incorporation of
gyro-gun sights. The first generation of jet fighter aircraft had provided a big leap in
capability, when compared with propeller driven fighters of the war wars era.
However, possessed with the desire to safely and smoothly cross the sounds barrier
had remained unfulfilled thus far. 1+ gen aircraft of various air forces around the
world, retired from service in the nineties.

Second Generation Fighter Aircraft (Origin 1960-80):

“The Super-Sonic Flight”

9. With the emergence of Russian and American space programs, the erstwhile
aviation designers had now graduated to aero-‘space’ design and jet engine
designers had gained from the experience of ‘rocket’ design from their space
programs. Through this synergetic experience, emerged the design of the after-
burning (reheated) jet engine, which is rather akin to a rocket burning in the jet
exhaust. Equipped with the after-burning jet engine, fighter aircraft could penetrate
the sound barrier with ease. However, these aircraft had to be designed ab-initio to
withstand the aero-thermo-dynamic forces of supersonic flight and stresses of after-
burning engines. It was generally accepted that a 1st gen aircraft could not be
upgraded to fly super-sonic flights. With evolution of the super-sonic fighters in the
1960s, emerged the second generation (2nd gen) of jet fighters. The 2nd gen
constituted aircraft such as Russian MiG-21, Sukhoi-7 and American F-104
Starfighter etc. These aircraft typically employed a long fuselage, with small, highly
swept, stub-wings. Close Combat Missiles became standard fit on these fighters. To
search and track frontal targets, the first generation of fire control radars also
evolved during this period. The first generations of auto-stabilisers and auto-pilot
also emerged along with these fighters.

10. Evolution in European nations lagged behind the Russian and American
fighters by a few years. In the meantime, microprocessor technology had evolved in
a big way, resulting in the advent of computing platforms for use on aerospace
applications. The French, British and Swedish aircraft such as Jaguar, Mirage-III,
Mirage-V and SAAB Viggen came into service in the late 1970s. These aircraft were
indeed deemed to belong to two plus generation (2+ gen). These aircraft were
equipped with inertial navigation, automated weapon aiming, head up display, multi-
function display, navigation suite (VOR, ILS and TACAN) and radar warning
receiver. As weapons technology improved, runway denial and cluster weapons first
came into service along with 2+ gen aircraft. 2+ gen aircraft are still being employed
effectively, in air forces around the world.

Third Generation Fighter Aircraft (Origin 1980-90):

“Air Superiority Fighters (ASF)”

11. The period of heightened insecurity during the cold war era saw big strides in
military technology development. Highly Manoeuvrable Aircraft Technology (HIMAT)
was constantly being experimented in USSR and US. Emergence of relaxed static
stability platforms allowed for superior manoeuvrability and controllability, far beyond
the capabilities of 2nd gen aircraft. The intrinsic design imperatives called for a
complete revamp of aircraft design, owing to which the erstwhile 2 nd gen aircraft
could not be upgraded to match the levels required for this new generation. Hence,
emerged the third generation (3rd gen) air superiority fighters such as American F-
15, F-16, Russian MiG-29, Su-27 and French Mirage-2000. The 3rd gen aircraft were
typically characterised by a very large wing-area compared to 2nd gen aircraft.
Thrust-to-Weight ratio of greater than one was a typical attribute of 3rd gen aircraft.
Aircraft of this generation were equipped with multi-mode radars and beyond visual
range missiles for the first time. Precision Guided Munitions (PGM) such as Laser
Guided Bombs (LGB) and Anti-Shipping Missiles (ASMs) became popular during this
time. The Russian fighters of this generation were the first to equip an Infra-Red
Search and Track (IRST) and Helmet Mounted Target Designation Sytem (HMTDS)
for missile launch. On the other hand, the western fighters employed Terrain
Following Radars (TFRs), Forward Looking Infra-Red (FLIR) and Night-Vision
Goggles (NVG) for the first time in this era. In-flight refuelling also emerged as a
potent force multiplier of this age. The concept of ‘multi-role’ platforms, capable of
undertaking ground attack, air defence and maritime operations with equal ease
became the norm. However, mission objectives could not be changed in flight, for
example, on a mission with large calibre LGBs or ASMs, multiple BVR missiles could
not be carried and vice-versa (which was to be overcome later by ‘swing-role’
fighters).

12. In the ensuing years, many other potent and specialised platforms also came
into service during the cold war period, such as the Russian MiG-25, American F-14,
F-18, SR-71, British Tornado and Swedish SAAB Draken etc. The Americans also
launched several reconnaissance and bomber platforms like the U-2, B1B, SR-71, F-
117 and B-2 stealth aircraft, which were not classified as conventional fighter aircraft.
In the late nineties, emergence of newer variants of 3rd gen fighters with glass
cockpit and upgraded EW suites gave rise to what could be deemed as three plus
generation (3+ gen). Newer fighters such as India’s Light Combat Aircraft and
Chinese JF-17 also incorporate 3+ gen capabilities. 3+ gen aircraft are the mainstay
of most air forces around the world, today.

Forth Generation Fighter Aircraft (Origin 1990-2005):

“Net-Centric Warfare (NCW)”

13. Dissolution of USSR in 1991 and acceptance of a unipolar military world

completely altered the outlook towards military aviation. On the other hand, the
imminent emergence of the personal computers (PCs) reshaped the size and design
of sensors and mission suites. The Gulf-wars of the nineties saw employment of 3rd
gen aircraft extensively, however, guerrilla tactics by the ground forces lead to the
need for more precise intelligence. With emergence of unmanned reconnaissance
vehicles, the eye-in-the-sky information had to be shared near-real time with fighter
aircraft. While the Russians relied on point-to-point datalinks on their aircraft, the
Americans started to employ their Joint Tactical Information Distribution System
(JTIDS) to its full potential. This sowed the seeds for the age of net-centric warfare
and emergence of fighter platforms with net-centric capabilities. Hence emerged the
fourth generation of fighter aircraft (4th gen) characterised by net-centric warfare
capabilities. The platforms were typically re-engineered 3rd gen aircraft, with state-of-
the-art EW suites, navigation suites, weapons’ suites and net-centric concepts.
Russian Su-30, American F-15E, F-16 Block 60, F-18 Super Hornet, Swedish Gripen
etc typically belong to the 4th gen. 4th gen aircraft possessed swing-role capabilities,
i.e. with their large payload capability, they possessed the capability to change the
objective of the mission from air dominance (AD) to surface attack and vice-versa in-
flight. On the downside, these aircraft were equipped with a majority of legacy
equipment and systems, which was not in tune with modern Concepts-of-Operations
(CONOPS).

14. During the late nineties, the European nations developed two noteworthy
fighters, which were truly ahead of the other 4th gen aircraft. These were the
Eurofighter Typhoon and the French Rafale aircraft. Their CONOPS and
maintenance philosophies were indeed a step ahead of legacy, baseline platforms of
the 4th gen. Hence, these aircraft are deemed to belong to four plus generation (4+
gen). 4+ gen aircraft employ multi-spectral sensors, complete sensor fusion,
enhanced self defence suites (including missile approach warning and
countermeasures), long range cruise missiles, Radar Cross Section (RCS) control
measures and possess the capability to accelerate into low super-cruising flight
(super-sonic flight without reheat). Russian Su-35 and Swedish Gripen NG boast of
4+ capabilities, albeit with certain limitations when compared with Rafale and
Eurofighter Typhoon. Some of the larger air forces around the world employ 4th gen
aircraft extensively, whilst 4+ gen aircraft are entering service in modern air forces,
including in India.
Fifth Generation Fighter Aircraft (Origin 2005-2020):

“Low Observe-ability (Stealth)”

15. The complete meaning of the phrase “generations of fighters” becomes

intelligible, on study of the fifth generation of fighter aircraft (5th gen), sometimes
termed as FGFA. Aircraft of the 4th and 4+ generations possess some rather
exceptional characteristics by any standards. However, they are easily spotted on
tracking radars, albeit with some degradation due to countermeasures. With rapid
expansion of missiles’ envelopes, it has become increasingly dangerous for even the
most potent 4th gen aircraft to approach the enemy Tactical Battle Area (TBA). War
gaming has repeatedly proven that enemy AD fighters and Surface-to-Air Guided
Weapons (SAGW) would target 4th gen aircraft, before they reach their objective.
This was realised by the Americans even during the cold war days, due to the dense
and potent air defence network of Russia, its allies and now in China. In the bi-polar
scenario therefore (America versus Russia), the Americans realised that reduction of
own RCS to shrink enemy’s launch envelope, became inescapable. This would
enable own aircraft to reach the launch point, before the enemy could initiate a kill.
With this singular and most important objective, the Americans had developed F-117
and B2 stealth bombers. However, those aircraft had many limitations due to which
they could not undertake classical fighter operations. Even basic combat measures
such as self protection, escape, evasion or getaway were not possible on stealth
bombers due to their low speed and poor aerodynamic performance. The desire to
develop fighter aircraft with stealth characteristics led to the development F-22
Raptor, which was indeed the first fifth generation fighter aircraft (5th gen) and the
only one presently in service, anywhere in the world.

16. After induction of F-22 into service, the Americans have developed the F-35
Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) 5th gen aircraft. To achieve a counter-balance, the
Russians have developed the PAK FA 5th gen aircraft. 5th gen aircraft typically
employ large internal weapons bays, large internal fuel capacity, internal / conformal
sensors and dug-in / concealed engines. These make 5th gen aircraft distinctly
different from 4th gen aircraft, which cannot be upgraded to incorporate these
essential attributes. Low observe-ability (stealth-iness) of 5th gen aircraft is achieved
through unique shaping and use of stealth materials on the fuselage / skin / exposed
areas. Radio silence assumes utmost importance in stealth missions, therefore, IR /
IIR / passive sensors and weapons are extensively employed. Employment of a Low
Probably of Intercept (LPI) AESA radar, is also essential. Advantages of 5th gen
aircraft are becoming evident with experience and other nations have also started
developing 5th gen aircraft. China has already test flown their low observe-able
fighters (J-20 and J-31) and Japan has also flight tested its experimental 5 th gen
platform. India has embarked on the development of its 5 th gen stealth aircraft called
Advanced Medium Combat Aircraft (AMCA).
Sixth Generation Fighter Aircraft (Origin 2020-2035):

“Unmanned Combat (UCAV)”

17. Stealth fighters have once again demonstrated a big leap in technology and
therefore led to coveted 5th gen tag. However, there has still not been a paradigm
shift from the erstwhile air warfare philosophies. Centrality of the pilot remains pivotal
thus far. With this central issue emerges the limitation and incapability of operating
aircraft in extreme and hostile scenarios / situations / conditions / environment. The
pilot in the cockpit causes vital limitations such as inability to fly more than six to
eight hours and inability to enter extremely hostile territory or NBC affected airspace.
Aspects such as fear, error of judgement, pilot error, etc are omnipresent up to the
5th gen. To overcome these, future battles are intended to be fought from the comfort
of a cabin, safely removed from the tactical battle area, whilst the unmanned aircraft
fearlessly penetrates the enemy’s defences. Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicles
(UCAVs) have heralded a new era and marked the beginning of the sixth generation
of fighter aircraft (6th gen). Propeller driven UCAVs have displayed much promise
even in their early days. Many nations have embarked upon development of jet
powered UCAVs, including US, Israel, European consortium, China, Russia and
India. Jet powered UCAVs such as the American X-45/47 and European nEUROn
are incorporating technologies which shall alter war fighting methodologies
completely.

18. The design intent of the 6th gen is to enable extremely long endurance (many
weeks of airborne time with in-flight refuelling – presently UCAVs can fly
continuously for about 48 hours), extremely long range (inter-continental missions
with and without in-flight refuelling – present range is less than 1000 nautical miles),
large payload (more than 2 Tons – presently four to six missiles with a total payload
of about 200 kg can be carried), high transonic speed (supersonic flight is not
envisaged due range and endurance consideration, but British Terranis has
demonstrated supersonic flight) with stealth capabilities (most jet powered UCAVs
incorporate stealth design). The longer range entails remote control through secure
satellite communication, which is a major component of the 6th gen environment.
India has embarked upon its own stealth UCAV project code-named Indian
Unmanned Strike Air Vehicle (IUSAV).

Conclusions

19. Jet fighter generations include the 1st gen of subsonic fighters along with the
advent of the jet engine, the 2nd gen fighters capable of supersonic flight, 3rd gen air
superiority fighters, 4th gen net centric warfare fighters and 5th gen stealth fighters.
The 6th gen of fighters is expected to be unmanned, capable of global, round the
clock operations, with solo missions extending deep inside hostile enemy territory.
About the Author

Group Captain Harsh Vardhan Thakur VM is an alumnus of the National Defence

Academy, where he was the Academy Cadet Captain. He was commissioned into
the IAF in 1992. He received the CAS sword of honour, stood first in overall merit as
well as flying. He is an experimental test pilot and a qualified flying instructor. He
stood first in test pilots’ course and first in flying in flying instructors’ course, stood
first in weapons’ employment course and stood first during operational conversion
course. He is a recipient of Vayu Sena Medal, CAS, VCAS and AOC-in-C
commendations. He has experience in design, development and flight testing of
modern avionics systems and has been part of India’s fifth generation fighter aircraft
programme. He has 4500 hours of flying with 3000 hours on Jaguar and has flown
12 different types of aircraft.