Part 2 of a 3-part series

Control of shrinkage and curling

in slabs on grade
By Robert F. Ytterberg

How to deal with warping and curling

Slab curling is a function
of the moisture gradient
and temperature differential
across the slab thickness.
Moist subgrades increase
slab curling, but even a so-
called dry subgrade keeps
the bottom of the slab
damper than the slab sur-
Figure 4. Relat-
face. This article continues ing slab curling to
a series started in the No- concrete shrink-
age shows that
vember issue (page 825), the greater the
and figures and tables are shrinkage, the
numbered consecutively greater the curl-
ing (from Ref. 7).
with that beginning article.

lab edges that curl upward and cen-

S ters of slabs slightly depressed from
their original elevation are common in
slabs on grade. Curling makes a mockery
of the commonly specified 1⁄8-inch flatness
tolerance because slab edges can curl up-
ward 1⁄8 inch or more above a spot only 4
to 5 feet from the edge. At slab corners the
uplift can be greater—3⁄16 to 1⁄4 inch above
a location 4 to 5 feet from the slab corner. F i g u re 5. O n e
Heavy loads on the slab can cause the un- year of shrink-
age data for a 15-
supported, curled-edge cantilever to crack.
inch-thick slab as
Curling is caused by drying shrinkage a function of rela-
and by moisture or temperature differ- tive humidity with
ences across the thickness of the slab. only the top sur-
Negative moisture gradients are usual in face exposed to
slabs on grade and they cause upward drying (from Kee-
edge curling. Such moisture gradients and ton as cited in
Ref. 6).
curling increase when:
• The slab is made from high-shrinkage
concrete

• The slab surface is exposed to low- Either temperature or moisture gradi-
humidity air ents or both can cause curling in slabs on
• The subgrade or subbase under the grade, and researchers frequently express
hardened slab has a high moisture moisture gradients in terms of equivalent
content temperature gradients. Temperature gradi-
ents are easier to measure than moisture
• The concrete has a high modulus of gradients. The latter are caused by the
elasticity ambient relative humidity at the upper
The most common positive tempera- slab surface, the free water in the concrete
ture gradient with its downward edge (drying shrinkage potential), and the
curling is that caused by heat from the sun moisture content of the subbase or sub-
on the upper slab surface. Upward edge grade below the slab.
curling already caused by negative mois- Heat of hydration of cement can cause
ture gradients can be increased by cold early upward curling (negative tempera-
slab surface temperatures or by hotter slab ture gradient) in slabs on grade (Ref. 15).
bottom temperatures. Vertical deflection In high-cement-content slabs the hydra-
is greater at slab corners than at slab tion process creates an exotherm, which
heats the slab bottom more than the top
edges simply because that is what hap-
pens when two adjacent, perpendicular and can cause significant internal stresses
edges in a flat plane both roll upward. and cracks. The exotherm can be con-
trolled with ice, post-cooling, special ce-
Definition of terms
The terms curling and warping are Table 2. Drying Shrinkage Gradients Expressed as Equivalent
used interchangeably in this article, in Temperature Gradients, and Critical Slab Lengths for
conformance with ACI terminology (Ref. Various Temperature Gradients (From Ref. 7)
14), which defines them as follows:
Curling – The distortion of an original- Equivalent
Shrinkage strain
ly essentially linear or planar member into temperature
gradient through
a curved shape such as the warping of a gradient through
slab (millionths)
slab due to creep or to differences in tem- slab (° F)
perature or moisture content in the zones
adjacent to its opposite faces. 275 50
Warping – A deviation of a slab or wall 220 40
surface from its original shape, usually 165 30
caused by temperature or moisture differ- 110 20
entials or both within the slab or wall.
Critical slab length (ft.) for various temperature gradients
Slab
Curling and differential shrinkage
thickness
6
Although not all slab-on-grade curl- (in.) E 5 10 psi
ing is caused by drying shrinkage, Fig- T 20 T 30 T 40
ure 4 shows that the potential for curl- 6 25 28 – 26
ing will be reduced if drying shrinkage 8 – 34 37
of the concrete is reduced. 10 – 39 41
Figure 6. Enclosed slabs (bottom)
curl only upward from the negative
moisture gradient. Outdoor slabs
exposed to the sun (top) may curl
downward at the edges.
ments, insulation, restrictions on the rate
and time of placement, or admixtures.
Long-term relative humidity at the sur-
face of the slab has a tremendous effect
on the moisture gradient. Figure 5 shows
shrinkage at various slab depths at 1 year,
making it clear that drying shrinkage and
upward curling of slabs on grade increase
as the ambient relative humidity decreases.
Drying shrinkage can continue for
years. Even when dried from both faces,
it takes 28 months for a relative humidity
of 50% to be reached at mid-depth in a 6-
inch-thick concrete member with 35%
relative humidity on both faces (Ref. 16).
In a typical enclosed slab on grade (Fig-
ure 6, bottom), the absence of heat from
the sun on the upper surface leaves only a
moisture gradient (partially offset by slab
weight) which produces upward curling.
The moisture content is much higher in
the lower half than in the top half. The
slab can only dry from its upper surface
and therefore shrinkage is greatest at the
upper surface and the slab curls upward.
Shape of slab curling
ACI’s Concrete Craftsman booklet,
Slabs on Grade (Ref. 17), incorrectly
states on page 61 that the amount of curl-
Equivalent temperature
gradient for various slab
thicknesses (° F per in.)
6 in. 8 in. 10 in.
– – 5.0
– 5.0 4.0
5.0 3.8 3.0
3.3 – –
(T, ° F)
E 3 106 psi
T 20 T 30 T 40
27 –
– 34 35
– 38 40
 Figure 7. Comparison of curling de-
flections for a 30° F gradient. Note
that deflections are less for the slab
represented on the right, which has
the lower modulus of elasticity (data
from Ref. 18).

measuring 24 feet between free edges.

ing depends on joint spacing: “ . . . slabs
with 30-foot joint spacing can be expect-
ed to curl about four times as much as
similar slabs with joints 15 feet apart.”
This statement implies that slabs curl in
the shape of a circular arc with some
monumental radius and therefore vertical
uplift at the slab edge increases with the
square of the distance between control
joints. This is incorrect. Enclosed slabs on
grade do not curl upward in a circular arc,
because gravity prevents it. The vertical
displacement at the edges of a 6-inch slab
does not increase as slab length increases
beyond about 20 to 27 feet.
As the free ends of an enclosed slab lift
off the subgrade, the unit gravity load in-
creases on the remaining supporting sub-
grade and the center of the slab buries it-
self into the subgrade an amount which
varies inversely with the modulus of sub-
grade reaction, k. The weight of the can-
tilevered ends prevents them from assum-
ing the shape of a circular arc. Only a few
feet of the slab ends actually are can-
tilevered above the subgrade.
Critical slab length
Large stresses develop in concrete slabs
on grade when they warp or curl, because
the curling is restrained by the weight of the
slab. A study of curling stress data (Ref. 6)
shows that vertical displacement and warp-
ing stresses increase as slab length increases
only up to a certain distance, called the crit-
ical slab length. Critical slab lengths (Table
2) vary from about 15 to 40 feet, depending
on temperature/moisture gradients, slab
thickness, moduli of subgrade reaction
(Ref. 18), and concrete elasticity. The dis-
placement and stresses do not increase as
the slab length increases beyond the critical
length. Increasing the spacing of shrinkage
control joints beyond the critical slab length
will not increase the amount of warping
stress nor will it increase the vertical curling
deflection as is incorrectly stated in ACI’s
Slabs on Grade (Ref. 17). Instead, specify-
ing shorter spacing between shrinkage con-
trol joints will simply increase the number
of locations where curling can occur.
Joint spacing should be either less than
the critical length to reduce vertical curl-
ing deflection and curling stresses, or it
could be much greater than the critical
length without further increasing curling
deflection or stresses.
Warping stress and
modulus of elasticity
Since warping stress is directly related
to the modulus of elasticity E of the con-
crete, it is desirable for slabs on grade to
be cast from low-modulus concrete (Fig-
ure 7). The modulus of elasticity of con-
crete seems to depend mostly on the
modulus of the aggregates used in the
concrete. However, the specifier must
make a trade-off when calling for lower
E values for aggregate, since these ag-
gregates may tend to increase concrete
shrinkage (as pointed out earlier).
Figure 8 shows some computed and
observed deflections of a 6-inch-thick slab
Note that the slab is depressed into the
subgrade over a distance of about 16 feet
with only 4 feet on each end curled above
the original finished floor elevation.
The vertical uplift of the slab ends
above the original elevation is not as great
as the elevation difference between the
top of the slab surface at the free edge and
at the center, because the slab has partially
buried itself into the subgrade.
Slab-on-grade thickness is calculated
by three methods (Ref. 9), assuming that
the slab is fully supported by the subgrade
in accordance with Westergaard’s as-
sumption (Ref. 19). The three commonly
used methods are the Portland Cement
Association (PCA) method, the Wire Re-
inforcement Institute (WRI) method, and
the Corps of Engineers (COE) method.
Instead of using these commonly accept-
ed methods, the thickness of the outer 5
feet of slab-on-grade panels should proba-
bly be based on cantilever design.
The fact that the free edges of most
slabs on grade are only partially support-
ed is not well understood. Increasing the
subgrade modulus k also increases the un-
supported length of slab edges because
the slab cannot sink into the subgrade as
easily. This puts into doubt the standard
PCA, WRI, and COE slab-on-grade
thickness design methods, which general-
ly require less slab thickness as the sub-
grade modulus increases.
Figure 8. Compar-
ing observed and
computed deflec-
tions in a 6-inch slab
showed only 4 feet
curled above origi-
nal floor elevation.
Note that the slab
has buried itself in
the subgrade at the
center (from Ref. 17).
 Subbase, vapor barrier, slipsheet
Table 3. PCA’s Suggested Spacing of Control Joints in A permeable (porous) dry subgrade re-
Plain (Unreinforced) Slabs on Grade (From Ref. 1) duces curling. It allows some of the water
Slab Spacing, ft., Spacing, ft., Spacing, ft., to leave the bottom of the slab before the
thickness, when aggregate when aggregate when slump is concrete takes its final set. This results in
in. is less than 3⁄4 in. is larger than 3⁄4 in. less than 4 in. denser, lower-shrinkage concrete at the
slab bottom. Serious cracking may occur
5 10 13 15 when concrete is cast on an impervious
6 12 15 18 base (such as polyethylene, clay, or tight-
7 14 18 21 ly compacted soil) because excess water
8 16 20 24 cannot leave the bottom of the slab be-
9 18 23 27 fore final set. Floor slabs on grade should
10 20 25 30 be placed over a 1⁄2-inch layer of sand on
Spacing of control joints though there may be hairline-width drying top of a dry subgrade. If the designer
shrinkage cracks between the joints. feels he should specify a granular fill, it
Upward curling of indoor slabs on
should be “choked-off” with 1⁄2 inch of
grade occurs at free slab edges. Construc-
Subgrade moisture control sand or a smaller crushed stone material
tion joints that surround the perimeter of
Another reason that shrinkage cracking so as to provide a smooth surface that al-
each daily slab-on-grade placement are
and curling problems have become more lows the slab to slide as it shrinks or ex-
considered to be free edges. By definition,
common in recent years is that slabs on pands. The subbase or subgrade should
control joints (also known as contraction
grade are being constructed on less desir- be designed so it does not need to be, nor
joints, usually sawcut) must be free to
able, higher-moisture-content subgrades should it be, soaked with water before the
open as the slab shrinks. PCA (Ref. 1,
as the cost of good industrial land has slab is placed.
page 19) states that distributed steel “must
risen. A higher moisture content directly If the subgrade can become moist be-
be discontinued at all control joints.”
under the slab increases slab curling. De- cause of groundwater, ACI 302 (Ref. 2,
Therefore, control joints also can become
signers seldom engineer vapor barriers to Section 2.4.1) recommends a vapor bar-
free edges, just like perimeter construc-
offset high subgrade moisture contents. rier covered with 3 inches of sand. How-
tion joints, if the slab shrinks so much that
Nor is slab thickness often increased to ever, a 3-inch layer of sand can easily be
the control joints open.
offset these problems because slab thick- displaced during slab placement, thus
Notes to Table 3 (from the same PCA
ness design methods account for subgrade causing the slab thickness to vary. I rec-
reference) state that there will be a marked
moisture only indirectly, through the sub- ommend a minimum 50-mil imperme-
loss of effectiveness of aggregate interlock
grade modulus k. Figure 9 shows that able vapor barrier covered with about 6
at shrinkage control joints in the slab if the
edge curling increased about 50% when inches of crushed stone and topped with
joints are spaced more than 15 feet apart.
the subbase under the slab was saturated a 1⁄2-inch layer of sand. The vapor barrier
Table 3 shows that for crack control, joint
with water. and crushed stone fill should be placed
spacing should be from 12 to 18 feet for a
The subgrade should be dry so that it after the roof is tight (for enclosed slabs)
6-inch slab. There is no mention of curl-
does not add to the already large moisture or it should be pitched (for outside
ing, or the possibility that slab edges at
gradient that exists in all slabs on ground. paving) to prevent the fill from becom-
joints may rise off the ground. Reducing
the slab length between control joints to
15 feet reduces, but does not eliminate,
vertical uplift from curling in the typical 6-
inch slab on grade. However, it will in- Figure 9. Upward
crease the number of curled joints. curling deflection
These PCA recommendations that slab of a slab during
lengths between control joints should be its initial drying
cycle on a dry
so short that shrinkage cracking cannot subbase, com-
occur, and that distributed steel be cut at pared with deflec-
these control joints, are not beneficial. tion of the same
They increase the number of curled joints slab on a saturat-
in a floor, even though the amount of ver- ed subbase (from
tical uplift will be less than if the joint Ref. 17).
spacing were slightly greater.
I believe the lowest maintenance cost is
achieved by using continuous distributed
reinforcement to increase joint spacing,
even though these fewer joints may curl
to a greater vertical deflection and even
ing saturated. The advantage of this
thicker stone/sand cover over the vapor
barrier is that the vapor barrier will not
be punctured nor will the fill material be
easily displaced as construction equip-
ment is driven over it.
If the designer intends only to reduce
friction between the slab and subgrade, a
polyethylene slipsheet can be installed di-
rectly under the slab without a stone and
sand cover, but holes should be punched
in the polyethylene (or drilled before the
polyethylene is unrolled) to allow water
to escape at the bottom before the slab
concrete takes its final set.
Curing and curling
Since curling and drying shrinkage are
both a function of excess “workability”
water in the concrete, curing methods that
retain that excess water will only delay
the shrinkage and curling of enclosed
slabs on grade. Chemical means, such as
high-range water reducers, to reduce ex-
cess water do not necessarily reduce
shrinkage, as explained earlier.
Remember that all cures (water, plastic
film, paper, or curing compounds) have
limited life-spans when exposed to wear.
Therefore, curing does not have the same
beneficial effect as long-term high ambi-
ent relative humidity. Extended curing on-
ly delays shrinkage curling. Childs and
Kapernick, cited in Ref. 6, found that curl
was reduced by ponding water on curled
slabs, but after the water was removed,
the slabs again curled to the same vertical
deflection they had before the surface wa-
ter was applied.
PUBLICATION #C920883, Copyright © 1992, The Aberdeen Group, All rights reserved
References
NOTE: This reference list includes
some references from Part 1 that also
are cited in Part 2.
1. Concrete Floors on Ground, 2nd
ed., Portland Cement Association
(PCA), 1983.
2. ACI 302.1R-89, “Guide for Concrete
Floor and Slab Construction,” Ameri-
can Concrete Institute (ACI), 1989.
6. Robert F. Ytterberg, “Shrinkage and
Curling of Slabs on Grade” (published
in three parts), Concrete International,
April 1987, pp. 23-31; May 1987, pp.
54-61; and June 1987, pp.72-81.
7. Bailey Tremper and D. L. Spell-
man, “Shrinkage of Concrete—Com-
parison of Laboratory and Field Per-
formance,” Highway Research
Record No. 3, 1963, pp. 30-61.
9. ACI 360.1R-92, “Design of Slabs on
Grade,” ACI, 1992.
14. ACI 116R-90, “Cement and Con-
crete Terminology,” ACI, 1990.
15. Ernest K. Schrader and David R.
Lankard, “Inspection and Analysis of
Curl in Steel Fiber Reinforced Con-
crete (SFRC) Airfield Pavements,”
Bekaert Steel Wire Corp., Pittsburgh,
April 13, 1983.
16. Ralph E. Spears, “The 80 Percent
Solution to Inadequate Curing Prob-
lems,” Concrete International, April
1983, Vol. 5. No. 4, pp. 15-18.
17. Concrete Craftsman Series: Slabs
on Grade, ACI, 1982.
18. G. A. Leonards and M. E. Harr,
“Analysis of Concrete Slabs on
Ground,” Proceedings, American So-
ciety of Civil Engineers, New York,
June 1959, Vol. 85, SM3, pp. 35-58.
For more information
For additional information about
slabs on grade, consult Designing
Floor Slabs on Grade, by Boyd C.
Ringo and Robert B. Anderson.
This comprehensive book provides
a single-source answer for selecting
the most cost-effective approach for
each job in order to achieve superior
crack control, stability, flatness, and
overall strength. The book features
step-by-step procedures, as well as
charts, tables, and equations.
For more information and to order,
call 800-323-3550, ext. 6.
19. H. M. Westergaard, “Analysis of
Stresses in Concrete Roads Caused
by Variations of Temperature,” Public
Roads, May 1927, Vol. 8, No. 3, pp.
54-60.
Robert F. Ytterberg is president of
Kalman Floor Co., Evergreen, Colo., a
national subcontractor specializing in
construction of exposed concrete floors
for industrial and warehouse use. He is a
member and former chairman of ACI
Committee 360, Design of Slabs on
Grade, and a former member of ACI
Committee 302, Concrete Floor Con-
struction.
Editor’s note
This 3-part series has been con-
densed and updated from Ref. 6. Part
3 will appear in January.