Numeros

Robert Garotta
Section 1. Historical Overview
Exploration geophysicistsmaybelievethatshearwavehistorybeganwhentheystarted
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usingshearwavesin oil exploration.

In fact,threeearlier"prehistoric"
agesoccurred
beforethis "historic"period:
ß The ageof physicists and mathematicians.
ß The ageof earthquake seismologists.
ß The ageof civil engineers.
1A. Early Scientists

At theheadof thelistis Poisson
(Fig. 1.A.1).He wasthefirstto studyP andS equa-
tionsof motion(1828).In thenineteenthcentury,otherscientistsinterestedin the
problemof wavepropagation developed the theoryof elasticmedia.Stokes,Kirchhoff,
Cauchy,Green,Rayleigh,Knott,KelvinandLameareamongthem.
lB. EarthquakeSeismology
Fromthe endof thenineteenthcenturythree-component (3C) datawererecorded,
especially to determinethe causeandlocationof earthquakes.Oldhamwasthe first
(1897) to identifyprimary,secondaryandsurfacewaveson fielddata.
A typicalrecord(Fig. 1.B.1)clearlyexhibitsthemaincharacters thatguidedthe
analysis'firsta primaryevent(P) appearson thethreecomponents, somewhat higher
on thevertical;thena secondtrend(S) appears. The secondtrendtravelsslower,is very
energetic andis muchstrongeron the horizontalcomponents thanon the vertical.Fine
analysisis not simple,asseveralwavemodes,includingmultiplereflections, refractions,
conversions and their combinations,
aresuperimposed. However,a main factwasascer-
tained:shearwavesdo not travel from the sourceto the other sideof the earth,while P
waves do.
More precisely, consideringthe anglebetweenthe verticalsof the sourceand the
recordingstations, shearwaveenergyvanishes for apertures
closeto 105ø (Fig. 1.B.2).
The presence of a fluidat somedepthwasthenpredicted. Deeperanalysis of records at
growingdistancefromthe sourceallowedseismologists to definethe thickness of the
solidmantle,andtheradiusof thesolidcoreof theearth,by interpreting thevelocity
diagramof Fig. 1.B.3.Thesefigures,whichtodayappearin anyhighschoolcourse,are
theresultof thefirstmulticomponent survey,whoseacquisition, processing andinter-
pretationrequiredaround25 years.
1C. Civil Engineering

Civil engineers
sawthepotentialuseof shearwavesin theirindustrybeforegeophysi-
cists(Rickerpatent,1941).In favorableconditions,
a light energysourceanda short
refractionspreadaresufficientto readthecompressional
andshearvelocitiesof near-
surface materials.
Aswill beseenin moredetail,thesevelocities,together
with a density
estimate,areenoughto deriveelasticmoduli,whicharelinkedto mechanical properties
2000 DistinguishedInstructorShort Course ß 1-1

Shear Waves From Acquisitionto Interpretation
of the rocksand thusto the safetyof constructionworkssuchasdamsor tunnels

(Suyama,1984).
Fig. 1.C.1is an exampleof a shortrefractionrecord.It clearlyshowsP and$
arrivalsrefractedon the firstconsolidated

layer.
1D. ShearWavesin Oil Exploration

Explorationgeophysicists
movedcautiouslyto shearwaves.Reasons
for thisareat least
three-fold:
ß As longasstructuraltrapswerethe maingoalof exploration,compressional(P)

wavesdid thejob alone,mostoftenbetterthanshearwaves.
ß Theoreticianswerenot enthusiastic
aboutshearwavesasan explorationtoolsthe
magnitudeand complexityof the shearwavevelocityanisotropywerethe main con-
cerns(Jolly,1956).
ß Usingshearwaveswasnot easy•shearenergysources weredifficultto developand
operate,and shearwaveprocessing encountered
severestaticcorrectionproblems.
1Da. SH waves
Nevertheless, somegeophysicists experimented with shearwavesin the reflection

mode.It probablystartedin the 1960sin Russiawith Puzyrevet al. (1966), thenBrodov
et al. (1968), who described shearsources fromexplosivesequential patterns.In the
U.S.,patentsweredeliveredfor vibratingsourcesby CherryandWaters(1968) and
Eriksonet al. (1968). Meanwhile,Frenchand RussianResearch institutesagreedto
undertakeshearwaveexperiments,but their emphases varied.
ß The Russians emphasizedthe particularsof SH (or $h) wavepropagation. As shown
in Fig. i.D. 1, an $H waveis polarizedhorizontallyperpendicularto the incidence
plane.In theirview,somegeophysical problemswouldbe bettersolvedthrough
$H waves than P waves for two main reasons:
1) $H waves have no conversion, at least in a one-dimensional (1D) environment.

2) $H wavesaremoresensitiveto lithology,particularlybecauseof higherand
simpleraxial isotropy.
The Frenchinsistedon usingcompressional and shearmodes.The aim wasto com-
pareresponses•toanalyzeand interprettime and amplitudedifferences between
the two wavemodes,whichweresupposed to essentially
occurin the presence
of fluid.
P and $H waveexperimentalseismiclineswererecordedin Aktanysh,Russia

(1975), in Chambon, France (1977), and in the U.S. with the Conoco $ wave
Groupshoot.Resultswerepublishedin 1976 (Polskovet al., EAEG), 1977 (Garottaet
al., SEG), and 1980 (Anno: M.S. thesis).
To summarize,theseauthorsmentionedparticularsof $H wavetransmission and
processing,and tried to benefitfromshearwaveanisotropy. However,all sawthe impor-
tanceof thevelocityratioVp/Vs,whichcouldbe simplyobtainedby observing the travel-
timesbetweenpairsof eventsassociated in the P and $ modes.
1-2 ß Society of ExplorationGeophysicists

Robert Garotta
Anotherrecognizedcapabilityof shearwaveswasthe validationof P waveampli-

tudeanomalies.As "brightspots"weresupposedto originatefrom gas,theyshouldnot
showup in the S wavemode.This validationprocesswassuccessful. However,after
Ostrander's
publication(1984) on the AmplitudeVersusOffset(AVO) behaviorof
the P wavereflectivity,
it wasclearthat P wavedataalonecouldprovidethe answer.
SH wavedatawere no longerneededfor this purpose.
1Db. PS Converted Mode
Furtherexperimentallinesin Franceand Siberiawereconductedwith realmulticompo-

nent acquisitionsemittingand receivingin threeorthogonaldirections.It wasobserved
that the Vs/Vpratio, or its equivalentPoisson's
ratio, couldbe obtainedfrom a pair of P
and SH sections,or from a pair of P and PSconvertedwaves,aswell (Figs.1.D.2 and
1.D.3). Bypassing the shearsourceproblemand reducingthe shearstaticcorrection
problemthroughPSconvertedmodewasa definitestepforward,in spiteof some
uncomfortable particularsof the PSmodepropagation and reflectivity.
1Dc.S WaveBirefringence
Boreholeseismology wasthe startingpoint for analyzingthe birefringence phenome-
non, dubbedshearwavesplitting.In the early 1980s,Galperinin Russia,Crampinin
Scotland,and Navillein Francedeliveredanalysesand measurements that pointedout
the magnitudeand extentof shearwavebirefringence.
In surfaceseismology,experimentsfor splittinganalysisbeganin 1980 by Amocoin
Texas,CGG in Alberta,and the ColoradoSchoolof Minesin Wyoming.They confirmed
that azimuthalanisotropycouldno longerbe ignoredwhen handlingshearwaves.In
return,thisazimuthaleffectopeneda way to investigatefractureorientationand density.
Fig. 1.A. 1.
Shear Wave History
I - Scientists
ß Poisson: P and S equations of motion (1828)
2- Earthquake seismologists
ß Oldham: Analysis and recognition of P,S and
surface waves (1897)
3- Civil engineers
ß Derivation of rock parameters from Vp and Vs
velocities (Ricker patent - 1941)
4- Exploration geophysicists
ß Sh wave sections from 1965
ß PS converted mode sections from 1975
ß Birefringence analysis from 1980 (wells)
and 1985 (surface)

Shear Waves FromAcquisitionto Interpretation
Fig. 1.B.1.
Typical Earthquake Record
4 5 6 mn.
orth (Y
East tO()
up (z)
Fig. 1.B.2.
Earthquake Wave Propagation
Inner core (solid)

.
ß __.____• Out
core
(fluid)
Mantle
Sourc:- / /--
Fig. 1.B.3.
Como essiona an Sea e ocities
e sus De t
Out core Inner core

L. Mantle (fluid) .,Lso"d2,
U' 'T'
v I
K sl I
!
!
12 I
I
I
10
5 6
1-4 ø Societyof ExplorationGeophysicists

Robert Garotta
Fig. 1.C.1.
Short Refraction Spread
0.0
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
Fig. 1.D.1. The SH Component
front
Fig. 1.D.2.
Vs/Vp Section Derived from P and $H
Vs
.42
.46
.50
.54
.58
2000 DistinguishedInstructorShort Course ø 1-5

Fig. 1.D.3. Vs/Vp Section Derived from P and PSV

Ms
vp
.42
.46
.50
.54
.58
.62

This page has been intentionally left blank

Why Use ShearWaves?

Robert Garotta
Section2. Why Use ShearWaves?

Evenif mostdifficulties in usingshearwavestodayhavebeensignificantly reduced,
shearwavesremainmoredifficultto operatethancompressional waves,andoftendo

notproduce a betterseismic image.Shearwaveusehastobejustifiedbybringingaddi-
tionalinformation.While someadvantages to usingshearwaveshavealreadybeen
identified,we canexpectfurthershearwaveapplications to be revealed
astechnology
advances, particularlyprocessing,amplitudepreservationandimagingtechnologies.
In practicetoday,andin thefollowingtext,to useshearwavesmeansto useshear
andcompressional wavestogether, eventhoughthefinalshearwaveimageis theobject
of the exercise.This mainlyoccursfor practicalreasons:
ß Acquiringshearwavesmostoftenmeansacquiring PSconverted waves,thusaddi-
tionalrecordingof P wavesis of marginalcost.
ß Evenwhen the shearmodeversionis expectedto be the bestone,prior P wavepro-
cessingof thesamesurvey•vill greatlyhelpshearmodeprocessing.
The followingsituations
andexamples
illustratehowshearwavescanmakean
efficient contribution. These cases will be examined in more detail in Section 6 on
interpretation.
2A. When Compressional

Mode Fails
2Aa. TakingAdvantage
ofHigherVelocity
Contrasts
Sand-shale
boundaries mayproducepoorP wavevelocitycontrasts. Thisis thecasefor
theturbiditechannelexampleshownin Fig. 2.A.1.The topof thereservoircouldnot
beseenseismically
Becausetheshearmodecontrast wasmuchstronger, a switchto
PSmodewasmade.The comparison in Fig. 2.A.2(courtesyof Chevron)showshow
the PS converted mode enables the reservoir boundaries to be delineated at 4.0 sec,
PS time.
2Ab.TakingAdvantage
of Converted
ModeGeometry
Gaschimneys disturbP wavepropagation andsometimes causeblindzonesin theseis-
micsections,precisely
in areasof greatinterest.In suchareas,pureshearwavesprovide
a betterimagebecause shearpropagation is notdisturbedby gas.ConvertedPSmode
alsocanbe of greathelp,providedthesizeof theblindzonehasa limitedwidth,as
shownin Fig.2.A.3.Converted modegeometry is usedin sucha waythatseismic
wavesdo not travelin the P modeacrossgaschimneys.
2Ac.ImagingBelowSaltor BasaltDomains
Thispotentialuseof shearmodeonlyconcerns processing,andmoreprecisely
imaging.
Thereis no needto acquireshearmodes.Fig. 2.A.4illustrates
whyimagingbelowhigh-
velocitycontrasts
canbe moresuccessful throughconverted modethanthroughpure
compressionalmode.It compares travelpathsof pureP modewith thoseof converted
PSSPmode (that is conversionfrom P to $ and then from $ to P).

A high-velocitycontrastexistsbetweenthe overburdenand the layerfor constant

wavemodepropagation, disturbingthe raypathgeometry. On the contrary,the com-
pressional velocityof the overburdencanbe close(hereequal)to the shearvelocityof

the layer,resultingin a simpleray geometry.Undoubtly,the convertedmodeis much
easierto focusat the bottomof the high-velocitylayer.In otherwords,focusingP mode
requiresaccuratemodelingof the high-velocitydomain,while convertedmodehasa
betterchanceto be focusedby conventional stackingandimagingroutines.
2B. When LithologicalInformationis Required

2Ba. Poissonk Ratio
As previouslymentioned,Poisson's ratio is directlyrelatedto the Vp/Vsvelocityratio

(seeSection3). Within a givenlayer,the velocityratiois the reverseof the transittime
ratio (Ts/Tp).Thisis easilyobservedfor all mainreflectors, providedthe correlationof
eventsat the top andbottomof the layerareascertained.
OncePoisson's ratio is defined,lithologicalinterpretationbenefitsfrom two parame-
ters(Vsand Vp, or Vp and Vp/Vs)insteadof onlyone,whichis the compressional mode
impedance.
Fig. 2.B.1is a verydemonstrative case.Limestones, sandsand shalesareperfectly
separated in the Vp(Vp/Vs)domain,while theyoverlapon the Vp scale.Fig. 2.B.2illus-
tratesa seismicline recordedin the P and SH modeswith the resultingcolor-coded
Poisson's ratio superimposed on the P wavesection.
2Bb.NaturalAnisotropy
AxisOrientation
Tectonicstresses causepreferredorientationsin rockproperties,thusazimuthalaniso-
tropy.In turn, knowledgeaboutazimuthalanisotropyinformsus abouttectonics,or
paleotectonics. A frequenteffectof tectonicstressesis rockfracturing,whichis of high
interestin reservoirstudies.Shearwavesensitivityto azimuthalanisotropyis higher
than for compressional waves.Polarizationand splittingmakeshearwavesa natural
tool to investigatefracturing.In Fig. 2.B.3the naturalaxisorientationis detectedby a
3D x 3C (three-dimensional by three-component) survey,thanksto shearwavesplitting
observation. Well measurements confirm this orientation.
2Bc. FractureIntensity
Evaluatingthe splittingeffectwithin a layerleadsto a time delaymeasurement between
two shearmodes,a measurement that canbe madeon everydepthpoint of the survey.
Generally,the largerthe delay,the largerthe fractureintensityOf course,suchan inter-
pretationshouldbe supportedby well calibration,asunexpected anisotropymayjeop-
ardizeconclusions derivedfroman a priori model.
In Fig. 2.B.4the anisotropy intensityfromsurfacesheardataandwell datashow
goodcorrelation, supportingthe relationship betweenanisotropy andfractureintensity.

Robert Garotta
2Bd.ShearVelocityLog
Full waveformsoniclogsareavailabletodaySeveralauthorshaveproposedthat Vp and
Vs datafrom theselogscanbe usedto detectchangesin porefluid and lithology

(Gassmann,1951;Pickett,1963;Tatham,1982;Castagna,1993, and others).
For example,Krief et al. (1989) mentiona near-linearrelationship
betweenthe
squares of thevelocities
of theP and$ waves(Vp2andVs2),providedthelithologyis
constantandthe onlyvariableis porosity.This relationshipdependson the velocityof
the P wavein the formationfluid, but remainslinearwhateverthe typeof fluid.
Vp
2- Slope
Vs2+ Offset [11
Slopeis a functionof the matrix (ma) and the fluid:
Slope
-(V•2ma
- Offset)/Vs2ma
The slopeis usedto identifythe matrix (in particularthereis an excellentdiscrimi-
nationbetweencarbonates and sandstones, Fig. 2.B.5).
The squareof thevelocityof theP wavein the formationfluid,¾p2(fluid), is
definedby "Offset"in equation[1], asin Fig. 2.B.5.Thus,the offsetgivesa way to dis-
criminateliquids(water,oil) from gas....
2C. When Fluid Content is Involved
An exampleof brightspotvalidationis shownin the followingfigures,althoughP wave

AVO canreplaceshearwavesfor thispurpose.In Figs.2.C.l a and 2.C.lb, greenhori-
zonsfacilitatethe visualcorrelation;P wavesectionsexhibitamplitudeanomalies.
P waveanomaliesin Fig. 2.C.la arenot presentin the S waveversion,they are caused
by gas.In Fig. 2.C.lb amplitudeanomaliesappearin both the P and S wavemodesas
well--the latteronesare causedby lithology,not gassaturation.
2D. When Confirmation is Needed
A pair of P and S modesectionson the sameline delivertwo independentresults.

Fortunately,their usefulmessage is the same,at leastin termsof structuraldefinition.
Fortunatelyagain,theirunwantedfeatureshaveno reasonto be the same.Thus,fea-
turesappearingsimilaron the two versionshavea goodchanceof beingreal.This can
help interpretationin a varietyof cases.
Fig. 2.D.1, showsthe time scalesof the shearandPSconvertedmodestransformed
in a P time scale.The sectioncorresponds to a carbonateenvironment.Someinterfer-
encefeaturesappearyellow.When observedon a singlewavemodesection,eachof
thesecouldbe explainedasnoiseor multiplereflectioninterference. As thesepatterns
areconsistent on severalindependentwavemodes,theyhelp the interpreter.In particu-
lar, the shallowyellowspotin the centralpart of the sectioncorresponds to the edgeof
a producingreef.

Shear Waves From Acquisition to Interpretation
2E. When Shallow-to-MediumDepth Resolutionis Required

Sinceshearwavestravelslowerthan compressional waves,their resolutionwould be
betterif the frequencyspectraof both modeswere the same.However,this usuallydoes

not occur,aswill be seenin moredetailin Section6. Experienceshowsthat P5 convert-
ed modesectionsexhibitbetterresolutionthanP modeat shallow-to-medium depth.
Fig. 2.A.1.
Dipole Sonic Log
I'VDSS (tt)
wevel
63OO
oat-Reservoir
_-
Re•rvoti•
qw•: • ,.,
Pre-Reservo;r
Velocity (fl/s)
Fig. 2.A.2.
P Streamer and PS OBC Data
Courte y of CHEVRON

Robert Garotta
Fig. 2.A.3.
PS Converted Mode Propagation
through Gas
RVS hi • - Io FWD
Sea bottom
Gas
/S
cloud
Target level
Fig. 2.A.4.
Imaging below High Velocity Layers
P mode PSSP converted mode
! B' B A A' !
Vpl = 2 km/s
Vsl = 1 km/s
\ /
ß
_, '\•,.,.\ / ///
Vs2=2km/s x• •/
M l M
P mode .... S mode
Fig. 2.B.1.
Lithology Discrimination in the
Vp,Vp/Vs Coordinates
2.1--
2.0 • o •
1.9 m B
o ss
1.,8 -....
[] SH
1.7 o oo
/• LS
1.6 -
1.5
1.4
3000 4000 5000 6000 7000
vp (ms)
Miller / Stewart 1992

Fig. 2.B.2.
Vs/Vp Automatic Calculation Display
200 150 100 50 7T
.32
.34
.36
.38
.40
.42
.44
.46
.48
.50
.52
.54
.56
.58
.60
.62
.64
,66
.68
.70
ls
Fig. 2.B.3. Natural Axis Orientation Defined through

156 Shear Wave Splitting
.ß Geophone I
I Mile I
150 i Line
ß
ß
ß
•
ß
1
ß
m 144 - ß
.:
ß
2
'
ß 3
•138
.c: 132
+ +
•126
120
114 S1
!
108B, Angle
w
distribution
O%
Fig. 2.B.4.
Percentage of Anisotropy
61 81 101 121 141
60
8%
m o
o o
100
• • 0 •1•
, (
-8%
140
2-6 ß Societyof ExplorationGeophysicists

Robert Garotta
Fig. 2.B.5. Lithology Discrimination in

the Vp2, Vs2 Coordinates
Vp2 (krrds)
2 Dolomite
o
50-
Limestone
o
40-
5
15
30- Sandstone
15
5
20 25
20- lo
25
3O 15
3O 2O
10- 35 25
30
35
V2 Fluid
I I
5 10 15 Vs2 (km/s)2
After Krief (1989)
Fig. 2.C.1. a, b.
Amplitude Anomaly Evaluation
S Waves 0.5 Km s Waves 0.s Km
• ........ - ,,•_•.,,• , , •;,..',%;,.:.•-
(a) (b)
Fig. 2.D.1.
Confirmation of Important Details
-- i ! - iii _ -
"--"---'-----.•.- .... -,•--•_•.z=•_ ls
Filter
12 - 24 - 48 Hz
.6

Theoretical
Bases
Robert Garotta
Section 3. Theoretical Bases
A maximumunderstanding of seismicwavepropagation in geomaterials

is a natural
aim for seismologists.

Althoughtheoreticaldevelopments arenot the subjectof this
course,evenpracticalnotionsbenefitfroma minimumtheoreticalbackground, which
clarifiessomeaspects.A minimumaccuracyis alsonecessary to understandand handle
conceptsrelatedto wavepropagation.
This sectionaimsto remindus of the mostimportantprinciplesand terminology
thatwill be usedin th• followingsections.The descriptionof anisotropyof geomateri-
alsis givenaccordingto a thesisby HocineTabti (1997).
3A. ElasticWave Propagation

When elasticpropagation is considered within geomaterials,the descriptionandmathe-
maticalexpressionof physicalphenomenaarenot simple.However,ongoingadvances
arebeingmadethat allowus to includemoreandmoresophisticated featuresin our
technology.Waveequationis a key point in thisdomain.Derivingthe waveequation
meansgettingoverthreeessentialsteps:
ß Expressing the stabilityof a smallelementin the elasticmedium(cube)submitted
to surroundingstresses.
ß ApplyingHooke'slaw,linking stresses, displacements and deformations with elastic
constants.
ApplyingNewton'slaw,equatinginertialforce(becauseof the passingwave) to the

surrounding
stresses,
and expressingtheseaccordingto Hooke'sconstants.
3Aa. Elastic Materials
In any material,a generalrelationshipdescribeselasticwavepropagationby expressing

the phasevelocity(v) according to threevariables:
wavelength(X) or wavenumber
(k = 2re/X),directionof propagation (perpendicular
to thewavefront)designated
by
vector
g,andlocation
ofthepointofobservation
(M);g = kgisthewave
vector.
The generalrelationshipis'
When:
ß v only dependson k, the materialis saidto be dispersive.

ß v onlydepends
on•, thematerial
issaidtobeanisotropic.
ß v only dependson M, the materialis saidto be heterogeneous.
All combinationsof thesethreecasesarepossiblein the realworld. Fortunately,

bodywavesin geomaterials canbe considered nondispersive. But surfacewavesaredis-
persiveand area concernin seismicprocessing.
When considering anisotropyand heterogeneity of geomaterials,
an importantpoint
is the ratiobetweenthe wavelengthand the dimension(d), which characterizesthe
phenomenon causingheterogeneity.
When d << •,, the actualmaterialcanbe replaced,
2000 DistinguishedInstructorShort'Course ß 3-1

asregards X,,by an homogeneous but anisotropicmaterial.Accordingto Marionet al.

(1994), thisoccursfor d _<K/10,andis, for example,the caseof a seriesof layerswhose
thicknesses aresmallwith respectto thewavelength. When d _>X, thewave"sees"the

boundaries betweenheterogeneities asmacroscopic discontinuities.
The structureof
mostgeomaterials presentsoneor morescalesof heterogeneity ascrystalorganization,
graindimensionand stratification.This is why theycanbe considered ashomogeneous
andanisotropic.
3Ab.Homogeneous
Isotropic
Material
Interestin isotropicmaterialscanbe seenasalmosthistorical,astodaywe generally
contendwith anisotropicmaterials,which we aremoreand moreableto handle.
However,thissimplisticschemehasbeenefficientenoughto processa considerable
amountof data,and is still usedin mostcases.Moreover,this assumptionis what
allowsus to derivea waveequationwithouthigh-levelmathematics. It alsoenablesus
to setrelationshipsbetweenparameters that are directlyreachedby seismic(velocities,
velocityratios,etc.), aswell asthe parameters that arepreferredin rock physics.
The elementarycubeis within an o,x,y,zcoordinatesystem,submittedto normal
and tangentialstresses on eachof its sides.Thereareonly threevaluesfor normalor
tangentialstresses,
because of necessary stabilityconditions:N1, N2, N3 and T1, T2, T3,
asshownin Fig. 3.A.1. If F1, F2 andF3 are the components of the resultingvolume
forceF appliedto the cube,thenN and T aregivenper unit surfaceandF is givenper
unit volume.
ß The firststepconsistsof expressing

the stabilityof the cube:
a,/ax + aN/ay + a;/az + - o

az/a + az,/ay+ aN,/a=+ F, - 0 [3]
ß The secondstepconsistsof writing Hooke'slaw: proportionalitybetweenstresses
and deformation.
Deformationvectorisf (u,v,w).
•w
N (orT)
[41
Twelveconstantsappearto expressthe proportionality.

Sincesix similarequations
can be written, it means a total of 6 x 12 = 72 constants.This number can be
reducedto 36 by makingsimpleobservations; for example,in an overalltranslation,
au/ax and similar onesare zero, becausetranslationdoesnot involve elasticforces.
ThusA1 (and similarones)mustbe zero,giving18 constants less.

Robert Garotta
Other considerations takeadvantage of the symmetries

of the isotropiccase,for
which somesimpledeformations canbe definedwhosesymmetryleadsto the
expressionof the forcesthat producethem.

Therearefinallytwo constantsfor the isotropichomogeneous case,calledthe
Lamecoefficients, or X and •. With:
0 = (au/ax+ away+ aw/az),
[5]
N1- )k0
+2••xx,
andtwo
other
similar
equations.
T•- •(aw/a.y
+av/az),
andtwoother
similar
equations. [6]
Forthethirdstep,thestrainofthecubeisconsidered,
because
ofthepassing
wave
(supposedto be plane).This meansreplacingin [3] F by the inertialforce.
aN•/ax+ oh/ay+ a%/az- pa•u/at

•, [7]
and two similarequations,wherep standsfor density

EliminatingN and T between[3] and [7] leadsto'
[8]
and two similarequationsfor v and w.

Up to now,this appliesto both compressional
and shearmodes.The distinction
comes
froma prohess
thatisratherusualwhenhandling
vectorfields:
thedisplace-
ment vector field 8 (u,v,w) can be seenas the sum of two vector fields, one scalar
and onevectorial.Consideringeachterm of this sumseparatelyleadsto two solu-
tions for [8]. It can be checked that:
The scalarcomponenthasa particlemotion perpendicularto the wavefrontand a
propagationvelocityo•,
• -
I)•+2•
p
[91
is the propagationvelocityof the compressional

mode.
The vectorialcomponenthasa particlemotiontangentto the wavefrontand
a propagationvelocity[•,
[lO]
is the propagationvelocityof the shearmode.

3Ac.Lam• Constants,
BulkModulus,Young•Modulus,Poisson•
Ratio
The Lameconstantsare commonlyusedto expresswavepropagationtheoryin isotrop-
ic homogeneousmedia,but someotherconstants arepopularfor historicaland/orprac-

ticalreasons.
Theyresultfrom classicexperiments,
whererelativechanges of the length
and diameter of a bar under tension are measured:
ß Rigidity(or shear)modulusg = (AF/S)/(AUL) [11]

whereAF = shearing(tangential)force,S = crosssectionarea,
L = distancebetweenshearplanes,and AL = sheardisplacement.
3X+2 B
ß Young•s modu|us E = B [12]
(EAL/L= F/$ for a bar of |½ng•hL, crosssectionarea$, submitted

|ongimdina|s•r½ss F)
Bulk modulusK = X + 2/3B [13]
Poisson's ratio [14]

2k+g
(o =-LAD/DAL for a bar of lengthL, and diameterD)
and • arealsoexpressed
fromK andg, or E ando
o:- k+4g/3
_
- io(l+o)(1
p E(1-
o)20) -
• -• -lip(•+
o) [15]
ando is alsoexpressed
from ot/[3ratio'
[16]
3Ad.Homogeneous
Anisotropic
Materials
As tensorswerespecifically designedto studyelasticityin its generality,
the mathemat-
icsnecessary to performthisanalysiscannotexcludetensors.It is not possibleto go
into detailherein,but the main pointshaveto be mentioned:lookingfor possibleplane
wavepropagation in suchmedialeadsto solvinga cubicequationin (pv2).
For onegivendirectionin the homogeneous anisotropicmaterial,therecanbe three
bodywavestravelingat differentspeeds,andpolarizedaccordingto threedifferent
directions.Because of symmetry,it canbe shownthat the polarizations of the three
wave typesare orthogonalto eachother.

Robert Garotta
The threetypesof wavesare,orderedby decreasing

velocity:
ß A quasi-P(qP) or quasi-longitudinal
wave,
ß A quasi-S(qS1)or quasi-shear1 wave,and

ß Anotherquasi-S(qS2)or quasi-shear 2 wave.
The socalledqPwaveis mostoftenpolarizedcloseto the normalof the wavefront,

while the socalledqS1andqS2aremostoftencloseto theplanethatis tangentto the
wavefront.But thisis not alwaystrue givenstronganisotropy.When anisotropicmateri-
alshavea planeor an axisof symmetry, the threewavestypeshavepurelongitudinalor
tangentialpolarizations
for the propagationwithin the planeor axisof symmetry.
3Ae.AnisotropyConstants
Accordingto tensorformulation,the "generalized" Hooke'slaw expressinga linearity
relationship
betweenstresses and deformations requires,in three-dimensional
(3D)
space,a fourth-ordertensorto representelasticconstants.This means34= 81 constants,
whose dimension is that of bulk modulus, or Lame'sconstants.
Conditionsof stability,symmetryand alsothermodynamics reducethe numberof
independentconstants to 21 for the mostgeneralanisotropycase,whichis triclinic.
This setof constants
is generallypresentedin matrixformandnotedaccording to Voigt
notation,whichreducesthe numberof necessary indexesfrom4 to 2. Valuesaresym-
metricregardingthe diagonal.
Conventionally,o = stress,œ= strainand C is an elasticconstant:
•(Jll CllC12
C13
C14
C15
C16(
022 C22C23C24C25C26/ l•22
033- C33C34C35C36- / l•33
(J23 C44C45C46 / 2œ23
0• C55C5•
•(Y•2 C66 •28•2 [17]
This equationexpresses Hooke'slaw generalized
to anisotropic
media.It canbe noted
that in the isotropiccase:
Cll- C22
- C33
, and
Pwave
phase
velocity
g- •C•/p [18]
C,2-C2,-C,a-Ca,-C2a-Ca2
andC44
--C55-C66-(Cll-C12)/2 [19]
and
Swave
phase
velocity
• - •(C•
3Af.Anisotropy
in Geomaterials
Mostgeomaterials
areaggregatesof mineralsaffectedby mechanical failuresexpressed
asmicrofractures,
moreor lessorganizedin space.In practice,fivekindsof symmetry

are encountered (Paterson and Weiss, 1961). The characteristicforms of their elastic
matrix areshownin Fig. 3.A.2. Orderedby decreasing symmetrythey are:
ß Isotropic•Rocksconsisting of an aggregateof mineralswhosecrystallographic axes
arerandomlyoriented,and/orwhosemicrofractures arerandomlyoriented.Two
elasticconstantsareenoughto characterizethesemedia.
ß Transverselyisotropic(VTI)•Having a repetitivesequence of thin layers,but also
couldbe a materialthatis initiallyisotropicyet affectedby a singlesystemof paral-
lel fractures. Five elastic constants.
Orthorhombic•Havingthreeplanesof symmetryorthogonalto eachother.For

example,a sequence of horizontalthin layersaffectedby a systemof paralleland
verticalfractures.Tectonicstresses
are supposedto createsuchmaterials.Nine elas-
tic constants.
Monoclinic•Having onesymmetryplane.For example,a materialhomogeneous

and initially isotropic,affectedby two nonorthogonal
familiesof parallelfractures.
Thirteen elastic constants.
Triclinic•Having one symmetriccenter.Twentyone elasticconstants.
One importantfactis that the elasticmatrix in Fig. 3.A.2 is only valid when coordi-
nateaxesor planescoincidewith the symmetryelements.For geomaterials, for exam-
ple, transversely
isotropic,the Z axisis parallelto the symmetryaxis.For the
orthorhombiccase,eachof the coordinateplaneshasto be perpendicular to a symmetry
plane.In practice,for processing3C data,this observation putsthe emphasison the
search for natural coordinates.
3Ag.Terminology
The designation of the wavemodehasto be doneaccordingto the characteristics of the
materialsand the propagationconditions.
SuffixesH and V indicatethat the corresponding shearwaveis polarized,respectively,
in the horizontalplaneor in the verticalplane.The prefixq (asquasi)meansthat the
waveis not exactly,but almost,shear(thereis a displacement perpendicularto the wave
propagation).
In the isotropiccase,the two shearwavesarepure,$H and $V arepolarized,respec-
tively,within a horizontaland a verticalplane.
In the transverse isotropiccase,polarizationscanbe complicated,dependingon the
relationshipbetweenthe symmetryaxisand the acquisitioncoordinates. To be accurate,
the terminologyfor transverse isotropyshoulddependon four cases:
ß Propagation (source,reflection,receiver)within a verticalplanecontainingthe sym-
metryaxis;the adequatedesignation of shearmodesis qSVand $H.
ß Propagation within a planevertically(or horizontally)perpendicular
to the symmetry
axis;the adequatedesignation is $H and $V, asthe two shearwavesarepolarized,
respectively,in a horizontaland a verticalplane.
ß Propagation in a horizontalplanecontainingthe symmetryaxis;the adequatetermi-
nologyis qSand SV.

Robert Garotta
When the planeof propagationis not aspreviouslyindicated,the two shearwaves

canbe polarizedoutsideof theverticalor horizontalplanes;the correctterminology
is qS1and qS2.In thiscase,evena transverse isotropicmaterialappearsasa triclinic
materialin the acquisitionsystem,which includeshorizontalandverticalreceivers.

In practice,when the orientationof the symmetryaxisis unknown,the notation ß
shouldbe qS1andqS2,but is mostoftenS1 and S2.
3Ah.WeakAnisotropy
A few yearsago,the previouslymentioneddevelopments in the anisotropyof geomate-
rialswasof little practicalinterest.Few peoplewereinvolvedenoughin both datapro-
cessingand the handlingof elasticconstants to takerealadvantage of them.Meanwhile,
a pioneeringanalysisfrom L. Thomsen(1986) changedthe situation.
Thomsen's paper,"Weakelasticanisotropy," asincludedherein,givesinsightinto
the practicalway to handleanisotropyin seismicprocessing andinterpretation.Its main
pointsincludethe following:
ß In mostcasesof interestto geophysicists the anisotropyis weak (10-20 %).
ß The mostcommonmeasureof anisotropy(contrasting verticalor horizontalveloci-
ties)is not relevantto problemsof near-vertical P wavepropagation.
ß A commonapproximation usedto simplifythe anisotropic
wave-velocityequation
(elliptical)is usuallyinappropriate andmisleadingfor P andSV waves.
ß UsingPoisson's ratio to estimatehorizontalstress(asdeterminedfrom verticalP and
S velocities)usuallyleadsto significanterrors.Threedimensionless parameters are
introducedto describeweak anisotropy:
I•= , •/-- , 8-- 13 --C33

- C44 [21]
2C• 2C44 2C•(C•- C44)
It canbe notedthat,if v(0) and V(½)are,respectively,
the phaseandthe group
velocityaccording to angle0 of the wavevectorandthe angle(• of the ray to the
vertical(Fig 3.A.3)'
, ?- 8- -1- -1 [22]
Expressions of the phasevelocitiesv(0) andnormalmoveout(NMO or stacking)

velocitiesand VNMO (verticalstackingvelocities)are then derived:
+ + =04+2a
sv(0)-"+0•0(œ_
•)sin20cos2
0 [24]

V,h(0
)--•0(l+• sin:
0) VN•O(,h
)=•0•l+2• [2•]
Notethatœ= 8 meansellipticalanisotropy.
In Fig.3.A.4,P wavefronts correspond to 8 = œand8 = -œ.The NMO velocityis
conditionedby the curvatureof the wavefrontin thevicinityof the vertical.This curva-
tureis respectively
lower(8 = œ)andhigher(8 = -œ)thanthe curvatureof the dotted
circleindicatingthe isotropiccase.It meansthatVNMO is respectively higherand
lower than the groupvelocityat the vertical.
3B. Reflection, Transmission and Conversion of Elastic Waves

3Ba. ZoeppritzEquations
An elasticwavepropagating acrosstheboundaryof two mediaof differentimpedances
is submittedto physicallaws,whichimpliesa partitionof the incidentenergybetween
reflectionandtransmission. For a givenincidentmode,a partitionalsooccursby con-
version,generatingdifferentreflectedand transmittedmodes:
ß The directionsof the reflectedor transmittedwavesobeySnell'slaw.
ß The partitionof the energybetweenthe differentmodesof the reflected,converted
or transmittedwavesis givenby the Zoepprimequations, which expressthe conti-
nuity of the displacement
on two sidesof the boundary.
In Fig. 3.B.1,which is drawnfor an incidentP wave,reflectedand transmitted

waves are in the P mode and in the shear mode (SV), as well.
The Zoeppritzequations describethevariationof the P wavereflectivityasa func-
tion of the incidenceangle.They are the basisof AVO studies.
The full formulation
of Zoeppritzequations is complicated,andgenerally simplified
versionsareadopted,at leastto facilitatecomprehension. For example,theBortfeld-
Hiltermanformulationis accepted up to an incidenceanglearound50øandgivesthe
reflection coefficient of the P wave mode:
RPP
(0i)- Vp2P2
Vpzp2
cosO
int-
- Vp2P2
COSOl
Vpipl
cosO
2 (.--•p•
COSO2
sin0i (Vs2
+ p2+p•
+
[261
In this formula, indexes 1 and 2 relate to the medium in which the incident wave is
firstpropagated(1), then transmitted(2).
Other formulationsare lessambitious (valid to around 30ø), but are much easierto
understand,as theyarelinearversusthe contrastsof velocitiesor densitiesat the
boundary.Theyshouldbe usedfor weakcontrasts(<0.2) only.Notationsbecome:
0 = (01 + 02)/2, AV/V = velocitycontrastat the boundary,Vp = (Vp1 + Vp2)/2,
Ap/p - densitycontrastat the boundary,Vs - (Vsl + Vs2)/2.

Robert Garotta
Aki and Richards(1980) haveproposed:

4 sin • 0
Rpp(O)-•
1- •Vp) sin20
p +2code
[27]
To be complete,threemorerelationships
shouldbe written,givingthe coefficient
for the reflectedPS shear waves•the transmitted PP and PS waves. Moreover, the shear
incidentwaveshouldbe considered, aswell, which meansagainthreemorerelations.
Theseformulationshaveno greatinterestfor our purpose;however,graphicalrepresen-
tationsaredisplayedin Fig. 3.B.2.Theyleadto remarksof generalinterestregardingthe
upperlimit of the incidenceanglerange,whichis safelyhandledin reflectionseismic.
That is, lessthan the criticalpoint for P waves.
Considering the P wavecriticalincidence,the phasesignchangeoccurs:
ß For the sameincidenceangleof the PSvmode.
ß For lower incidenceanglein the ShShmode.
ß For muchlowerincidenceanglein the $vSvmode.
In practice,thiswill conditionthe maximumrecordingdistancefor eachof the

wave modes.
Comingbackto formulations, we hold thatlinearizedformsof Zoeppritz'equations
canbe safelyformulatedfor limitedvaluesof impedancecontrasts and for limitedval-
uesof the incidenceangles.Sincetheselimitationscovermostof the realcases,theyare
preferredfor simplification.
3Bb.Linearized
ZoeppritzEquations
Fromequation[27], and assuming
sin0= tgO,it canbe shownafterShuey(1985) that:
Rpp(O)-Rpp(O)+Gppsin20 [28]
WhereGppstandsfor the "gradient"of Rpp(O) in a coordinate
systemRpp(O),
sin20
andRpp(O)
the reflectioncoefficient
at zeroincidence.That is:
- + [29a]
Rpp(O)
7 Vp •)
and
[2961
Gpp
2 Vp Vt•Vs Vt•D
In the sameway the reflectioncoefficientfor an incidentP waveanda reflectedS
wave is'
Rps(O) -GpssinOp
+ VpzXp
With
Gp•=-2VpV
V•AV• 2Vp p
[29c]

Thesesimplifiedformsinducefour comments:
ß R•(0) doesnot dependon shearwavecontrast,but G• does.
ß G• is saidto be the "gradient"of P wavereflectivity.

ß R•s(0)= 0 (no convertedwaveat zerooffset).
ß Equation[29c] indicatesthat the convertedPSwavereflectivitydoesnot dependon
the compressional wave contrast.
3Bc.AmplitudeonSeismic
Sections
The seismicamplitudeobservedin a commonreceiverpoint (CRP) seismicsectionis
an averageof the amplitudeof individualtracesthatreceivedthe seismicsignalwithin
an incidencerangeof about30ø.
Equations[29a and 29b] indicatethat R•(0) doesnot dependon the shearvelocity
contrast,
while G•sdoesnot dependon the compressional velocitycontrast.In Fig.3.B.3,
hashedzonesrepresentthe seismicamplitudes,theyconcernthe incidentrange(0-30ø);
theyareproportionalto R•(0) and almostproportionalto G•s,respectivelyFinally,a
zerooffsetP modesectionexhibitsdensityand compressibility contrasts,
while a PS
convertedmodesectionexhibitsmainlydensityand rigiditycontrasts.
3Bd.Reflectivity
andAnisotropy
Zoeppritz'relationsareestablished consideringa boundarybetweentwo isotropic
media,which meansthat velocitiesdo not dependon the incidenceangle.Eventhe
simplestcaseof anisotropy, thatis verticaltransverse
isotropy,
involvesa dependency of
Vsand Vp with •. When Thomsen's anisotropyparameters areknown,it is possible(at
leastin theory)to taketheminto account,and thusto adjustthe reflectivityaccording
to the dependency of velocityversusincidence.This dependency shouldbe considered
for AVO purposes.
3Be.Amplitude
Versus
OffsetandMulticomponent
Technologies
It is clearfrom [27] that the reflectivityof compressional
wavesdependson the shear
wavevelocitycontrast,providedthat the recordingoffsetis longenough.This depen-
dencyis an accessto the shearwavevelocitycontrastfrom P wavedataalone.This can
be of greathelp,but it is not the purposeof thiscourse.(AVO techniquehasbeen
describedin a 1993 SEGpublicationby Castagna.)In fact,P modeAVO canprovide
informationon shearvelocitycontrastonly This occursunderfavorablesignal-to-noise
(S/N) ratio in the absenceof complicated structureand,strictlyspeaking,in the absence
of anisotropy. On the contraiT, shearor convertedmodeacquisitions provideinforma-
tion on shearreflectivityand shearpropagation(i.e., comparedP and $ traveltimes,
comparedattenuations)in a morerobustway.
3C. Boundaryand SurfaceWaves

Planewavepropagation is too far fromrealityto describephenomenacloseto the seis-
mic source,or originatingcloseto it. This is the casefor boundarywavesand surface
waves,alsocalledgroundroll.

Robert Garotta
Surfaceseismicoperations
areoftenconductedfrom energysources
on the ground's
surface (vibrators), or close to it (shallow holes). This is the casefor all shear wave
sources,asnoneexistin practicethat couldwork belowthe weatheredlayer.Because of
the highimpedancecontrasts aboveandbelowtheweatheredlayer,part of the seismic

energyremainstrapped,propagating closeto the surface.
Twotypesof suchpropagation areof interestfor seismicacquisition,
astheyalmost
systematically
affectlandrecordsin a way that dependson the wavemode:Rayleigh(or
pseudo-Rayleigh)wavesmainlydisturbP andPSmodeacquisitions, and Lovewaves
arepresentin SH modeacquisitions.
3Ca. RayleighWaves
In theory,Rayleighwavesarea mixtureof compressional
and shearwavesthat travelat
the free surface of an elastic medium. Their characters are well defined and can be sum-
marized,for example,afterKnoppof(1952):
ß The velocityof propagation doesnot dependon thewavefrequency; it dependson
the Poisson's ratio of the material,and represents
around92% (_+4%)of the shear
velocity
ß The particlemotionremainsin the verticalplaneof the propagation; it is elliptical
andretrogradesthemotionat the top of the ellipseis orientedtowardsthe source.
ß The amplitudediminishes asthe squarerootof the distanceto the source,and
exponentiallywith the distanceto the boundary.
In practice,fieldrecordsareaffectedby wavesguidedby the lowerboundaryof the
weatheredlayer,in the refractionmode.Takinginto accountthe possibleconversions
from the sourceto the receiver,therecouldbe eightpossiblepropagation modes(PPP,
PPS,PSP,PSS,SPP,SPS,SSP,SSS).Only one is purelycompressional andyields"first
breaks," all others can be seen as noise.
3Cb. Love Waves
Lovewavespropagatein the SH mode(not necessarily from an SH source),which is a

favorableconditionfor beingtrappedin a weatheredlayer,especially when the sourceis
insideor aboveit. The lack of conversionof SH modeat upperandlowerboundaries
doesnot allow the main part of the energyto leavethe layer.
Lovewavecharacteristics aredescribedaccordingto Fig. 3.C.1. An SH wavetrapped
in a layerhassuccessive top andbottomreflections with incidenceangle0 higherthan
the criticalangleof the bottominterface.It is importantto noticethat the layeralso
supportsa continuousfamilyof suchtravelpaths,parallelto eachother.This leadsus
to considerthe wavefrontof point M, which alsocontainspoint N andresultsin con-
structiveinterferenceprovidedthat:
m)•= L• + 1• [30]
Wherem is theinterferencemodeindex,)• is thewavelength )• = 2rc[•/•,L•Nis the
lengthalongthe travelpathMN, and l• is the equivalentlengthcorresponding to a
phasechangeof the l• waveat l•, the lowerboundary.

It is clearthatthevelocityof thewavefrontis [•/cos(rr/2-0)= [•/sin0,thusfasterthan

thepropagation velocityof theshearwave.It is alsoclearthatfor a givenwavelength, X,
anda givenlayerthickness, h, thetravelpath,LMN, is proportionalto h/cos0.Thusequa-
tion [30] canbesatisfied for differentvaluesof 0 andm. Severalmodesaregenerally

possible.
For a givenmode,0 depends on •, thuson thewavefrequency, whichmeansthat
thevelocityof thewavefront, •/sin0,alsodepends onfrequency: Lovewavesaredisper-
sive.Analyzing dispersion,thatis therelationshipbetween•/sin0 andfrequency, might
be a way to derivestaticcorrectionslinkedwith theweathered layer.In practice,this
approachhaslittle success,probablybecauseof importantvariationsat shortdistances
of the variablesh and [•.
3Cc.Pseudo-Rayleigh
Waves
Pseudo-Rayleighwavesareproducedby compressionalsources; their conditionsof
propagationaresimilarto thoseof Lovewaves,asshownin Fig. 3.C.2.At the surfaceor
on thelayerbottom,conversion betweenP and$V modesmayoccuror not,provided
that the reflection incidence at the bottom is above critical.
As for Lovewaves,differentconstructive
interference
possibilities
exist.However,
theyaremorecomplicated becauseof the conversionsbetweencompressional andshear
propagations.
3D. Wave Attenuation
Penetrationandresolutionaretwo essential qualitiesfor a seismicresult.Botharelimit-

edby factorsthatdependon theseismicsourceandwavepropagation. Seismic sources
aredescribedin Section4. Hereafter,the effectsof propagation aredetailed.
3Da. Geometrical
Spreading
Seismicwave energyis spreadoverwavefronts,whoseareaincreases
with the time of
propagation (T) or thedistance to thesource(R). In homogeneous isotropicmedia,
geometrical spreading leadsto a decreasein theamplitudeof the elasticwavepropor-
tionalto 1/Ror 1/T. Thiseffectis not frequencydependent,andcompressional or shear
modesare,of course,affectedin the sameway,providedtheirwavefronts arecloseto
homothetic.
3Db. Transmission Losses
Asmentionedbefore(Section3Ba)a partof theincidentwaveenergyis reflectedat

eachinterface;forP or $V modes,thereis alsoa partof converted
energy. The energy
transmittedin theincidentmodeis thusaffectedat eachinterfaceby a factorlowerthan
one.This effectis not frequencydependent.
3Dc.MultipleContributions
Any pair of interfaces
producesan interference
systembetweenthe transmitted
wave
andthepartof thereflected wavesthatis reflected
upwardsby thelowerboundary,

Robert Garotta
then downwardsby the upperboundary(Fig 3.D.1). This combinationcanbe repre-

sentedin termsof convolutionby an additionaloperator(peg-leg),whosetime shiftis
the two-waytraveltimewithin the layer,andwhoseamplitudeis the productof bothup

and downreflectioncoefficients, which is generallysmall.However,asthereis suchan
operatorfor everyadditionalinterface,their summaybe significant,particularlyin the
caseof repetitivesequences.
The effectof suchoperators is obviouslyfrequencydependent; it is a low-passfilter.
In fact,the wavetransmission takesadvantage of the peg-legmultipleswhen the addi-
tionaltravelpath of the multipleis lessthanhalf a wavelength.This is not the casefor
shorterwavelengths, which areattenuated.
These effects,also mentioned as the reconstruction of transmissionlosses,have
beeninvestigated
in detail,takinginto accountall possiblemultiplesin periodical
sequences.
They havebeenpublishedby Schoenberg and Gilbert(1983) for P and$V
waves,andby Helbig(1984) for $H waves.
3Dd.Absorption
Takingabsorption into accountmeansleavingthe assumption of ideallyelasticmateri-
als.Referringto Sections3Ab and3Ad, andbecauseof the energyabsorptionin the
materialby conversionto heat,linearitybetweenstresses and deformations(Hooke's
law) is no longervalid.This leadsto elasticmodulibeingdependenton stresses.
The waveamplitudedecreases moreduringpropagation becauseof the energy
absorption, ratherthanbecause of effectscausedby geometrical spreading, transmission
losses,andmultipleinterferences, if any.
Sinceanelasticpropertiesof the fluid or gascontainedin rocksinfluenceabsorption,
the observation of the phenomenonshouldbe a usefultool in exploration.
The usualway to measureabsorption propertiesof planewavesis the "qualityfactor,"
Q, definedby:
1 Ao •,
A/Ao- exp-(d/XQ)
or--
Q
- logAd [31]
WhereA0is the initial amplitude,A the amplitudeat distanced, and•, thewavelength.
With )• = d, Veappearsasthelogarithmof thedecayin amplitudeafteronewavelength
travelpath.As Q dependsdirectlyon wavelength,absorptionis frequencydependent.
3De.Comparison
of P andS WaveAttenuation
It hasbeenseenthat geometrical
spreading
doesnot dependon wavemode,at leastin
the first order. Transmission losses at interfaces are not the same for P and $ incident
waves,in particularbecausevelocitycontrastscanbe different.Statistically,
in realcases
thisis not a majoreffect.When a strongdifferencein reflectivityoccurslocally,it first
affects the reflection coefficients whose differences are useful indicators.
Multiple contributions
areconditionedby the thicknessof a seriesof layers,which
hasa directeffecton the wavelengthaffectedby interference.
In termsof wavelength,
thereis no difference
betweenP or $ modepropagationswhenresolutionis affected,it
is for the samewavelength.

Absorptionis governedby the Q factor.It actsin termsof wavelength. Absorption

would affectP or $ modesin the samerespect,if their Q factorswereidentical.
However,earthquake observations, samplemeasurements, andwell seismichaveshown

that Qp• Qs.Earthquake seismologists haveobserved that for the Earth'smantle,the Q
factorfor $ wavesis generallylowerthanfor P waves(Helbigin Dambonand
Domenico,1987). Measurements on samples(ToksOz,1979) reportedQpslightlysmall-
er than Qsfor dry rocks.In brineandwatersaturationrocks,Qpis largerthan Qs.
Valuesof QpandQsincrease substantially
with confinement pressure.
Theseindicationsarestill of limitedusefor explorationgeophysics, becauseof uncer-
taintyaboutthevaluesthatshouldbe applied,in particularfor deabsorption routines.
3E. Modeling
Modelingis oftennecessary to understand thebehaviorof wavefieldsfor a givensub-
surfacedescription.Modelinganalysisresultsareusedfrom designing acquisitionsur-
veysto choosingprocessing parameters. Hence,theyarepresentat all stagesof a geo-
physicalprocess.Modelingresultsalsomaybe criticalwhenlookingat the finalpro-
cessedimage,in termsof horizoncontinuityandamplitudes versuslithologicalcontent.
Hereafter,ray tracingand full waveelasticmodelingarecovered.
3Ea. Ray Tracing

Raytracing(2D or 3D) offersa discreteviewof the subsurface response,
andcanincor-
poratestructuralandpropagation features(e.g.,faults,dippingevents,physicalproper-
ties,lateralvariations,horizontalvelocityanisotropy, and others).Suchstudiescanbe
conductedto illuminateareasthatwill benefitfromhighlystructured models(Fig.3.E.1),
or simplerhorizontallylayeredmodels(Fig.3.E.2), asa meansto identifyoptimal
acquisitionparameters.
Raytracinghastheadvantage of beingveryflexiblewhenselecting
the targetreflec-
tor,theraypaths(includingintrabedmultiples),complexraypropagation,andresulting
arrivalangleson the receivers.
3Eb.Full-WaveElasticModeling
Full-wave
elastic
modeling
generally
refersto 1Dmodeling
of horizontally
stratified
medium.It typicallyincludesthe useof "light"tools,suchasthe Osirissoftwarefrom
Odegaard, amongothers.Whereas,2D modelingprograms usingfinitedifference
schemesarestill computationallyheavy.
The analysisof wavepropagation is performedby decomposing thewavefieldinto
up- anddown-going wavesfor usein verticalseismicprofile(VSP)or walkawaysur-
veys,for example.(The wavefieldis alsodecomposed in P and $ waves.)Studiescanbe
performedin time,whichis the mostcommonviewfor a geophysicist. Theyalsocanbe
performedin wavenumberand spectraldomains,whichreflectpredominant wave
velocitiesas a function of wavenumber or slowness,and the transmissionloss at select-
ed receiversasa functionof frequency.
Full-waveelasticmodelinghasprovento be veryefficientwhenlookingat ampli-
tudes.It alsois especially
suitedto lookingat completefieldrecords,includingdirect

Robert Garotta
arrivals,all multiples,changingsourcetypes,transmissionlosses,and others.It also

providesa numberof possiblerecordswith seismicfieldsreadyfor processing tests.In
Fig. 3.E.3, syntheticrecordsare computedfrom a radialshearsource,and respectively

recorded on radial (a) and vertical (b) velocimeters.
3Ec.AmplitudeStudies
Fig. 3.E.4 is an exampleof an anhydriteenvironmentin which the P wavereflectivity
signchanges at 37øincidence,while $ wavereflectivityremainsstrongfor largeoffsets,
justifyinga longerspread.
AVO techniquesarelinking 1D modelswith the behaviorof amplitudesalong
recordedCDP (commondepthpoint) gathers.Logeditions(P and$ soniclogs)and the
creationof AVO synthetics usingfull computationof Zoeppritzamplitudesareper-
formedfirst.The full-waveequationcanbe takeninto account,Zoeppritzor Aki and
Richardsbeingavailableto givea simplifiedoverviewof the simulateddata.A synthetic
CDP gatheris obtained,wherepickingmaybe performedand amplitudematchedwith
real data.
3Ed.Comparing
theModelto RealData
The aim of the modelingdisplayedin Fig 3.E.5 is two-fold:
ß To selectthe mostsuitablewavemodefor imagingthe targetat the top of the Balder
formation.PSVand $S modesappearon the model.PSVmodehasbeenselected.
ß To defineacquisitionparameters suchasmaximumoffsetandrecordlength.The
(X,s) domainindicatedin the figurehasbeenretained.Comparisoncanbe done
with real datadisplayedin the upperleft.
To summarize,modelingtoolsare complementary,aseachanswersa specificques-

tion regardinggeometry,
recordedwaveand amplitude.At all steps,syntheticgathers
and amplitudecurvesmustbe comparedto real,recordeddatafor furtherrefinement.
Fig. 3.A. 1.
Stability of an Elementary Cube
in Elastic Media
N3
i T1
I
I
i T2 T1
I
I
I
N2
.,._ I
" .-- i T2
Y , T3
v T3
X .?
N1

Fig. 3.A.2. Elastic Constant Matrix
Isotropic (2) ø VT! (5)

O•horhombic (9) Monoclinic (13) Triclinic (21)
.....
.....
Fig. 3.A.3.
Wave Vector and Seismic Ray
Source
Fig. 3.A.4.
Wave Fronts in V T I
anisotropic anisotropic
VNMO-•. œ = ,2

Robert Garotta
Fig. 3.B.1. Reflected Transmitted and Converted P Wave
1.0
0.8
•0.6
Ei
0 30' 60 90
Angle of Incidence
Fig. 3.B.2.
Wave Mode Reflectivity
Sh p
0.4-
S¾
Sh
0.2-
PS
0.0
0 30 60 ø
Angle of Incidence
Fig. 3.B.3.
Amplitude on Seismic Sections
E
Ei ' F4ode Ei PS Converted Mode
A
0.4 (a) o4 (b)
0.2 0.2
Rp- ß
0.0
.. _
!
0.0
30 ø
Angle of Incidence Angle of Incidence
2000 DistinguishedInstructorShortCourse ß 3-17

Fig. 3.C.1.
Love Wave Propagation
Fig.3.C.2.
Pseudo-Rayleigh Wave Propagation
......P ..... Sv
Some combinations of reflections, refractions

and conversions in a weathered layer
Fig. 3.D.1.
Multiple Contributions
I I I
Wave i
--i .......... !
(z)Direct
,'1,
......i',
Wave
'
Peg legs
Spike
model
•r
sum

Robert Garotta
Fig. 3.E.1.
Ray Tracing of P and PS Waves
Distance (feet) Distance (feet)

0 25000 50• • • 0 25000
..... ::•:'77:•.-::,•
.....•'•,-- o
I,• • •\\ ..,' [',...:,;'-. ß
'( ,•.. '.,;•7/..• ., ./:
:.'?,-,?:,=.!'
b '"
4 _ "'?'.%7:½:'"
'
•pm
P waves (f•t) PS waves
Fig. 3.E.2.
Horizontally Layered Model
Distance (meters) Distance (meters)

1400 2800 0 1
-' '• 0 ß ' .....................

•'......; .......
725 m Dep• 14• m !8• m

(•ters)
P waves PS waves
Fig. 3.E.3.
Full-Wave Elastic Modelling
SS waves (a) SP waves (b)

.............
.._ ;'...... ',':,.;:1:i-:

• il:;1.o
' ':-•;•.:.•;'l 2.0 "!.
]i:•
:•I',
"'
i:ii.:-
' ':,
if:•.
i'•;:•i
"'•1
[{[!!111
i1,.
••,
il
!

Fig. 3.E.4. Reflectivity Curves for P and PS Modes

Reflectivity
0.2 ,•'uu•••.[;t.t,l•tt•l.•u.-. •__• •.

AVO curves-
t lilt [HI il Ill! II I1 Tit tl I I lll [il tl llt ill 1 tll tfl II depth 2965,7 m
I i I I ' ' time 1643 ms
0.1 Itll•ti!tllllflltlllflltfll'• = .•tR• role
1 I!11 [1tl It t i I []•1. •[LLI tl I1 fll I I lli•

J.Jj].] I I !11 I1 III t P!41J_[111tIfl I I1 fl I1 i Iit 1111I1 t I
.J_[!1JJ.l Jl_[ t [Ll.t Z[ tL•' ]•111 I
.t'!1'
i iii i i i ii ii i ii, Jill iii
•ti1!I:tllI1[1tlllIilltllflIIffi
VI!1fllltlltlIIItlItli!flI!l Iltflltll!11II!tfll
•'!fllflllltiilt fitf!11 iltt!11tillt11111111111t
•I] [HTI ITI I ! l III [I 1TI! 1 f fl fl I il fH, ! 11I 11[i • I
• (l II[l Ill 11tl Ii [HI[l] tI t L[ l II 1lt.IIHll l[tl•
• [tl t11 t!11 Ill it III II lilt [Ill ltt [!11 ill I[lt•
•'•111 I11 ffltlIIItlIIIlltllf1111fi!11t
•1 t Illi I! I1lli fl itlti I t!ll t! 111! I I fl 1If
-0.1 ••1 t1II I Ii tlfilft [•1t Iltl •'•:
1l!i1 [ld• •!11tllflI11It •' , PS wave conversion
offset 0 5000 10000 m
angle 0 37 42.76 deg
Fig. 3.E.5.
Real and Modeled Gathers


Shear Wave Acquisition

Robert Garotta
Section4. ShearWave Acquisition

4A. Shear Wave Sources
4Aa. Generalities
Designinga pure compressional sourcein elasticmediais not an easytask,evenin lab-

oratoryconditions•in practicemarineseismiccorresponds to the only situationwhere
pureP wavesourcesare operated.Oncea so-calledP sourceis coupledwith an elastic
material,any difference
betweenthe actualenvironmentanda perfectsphericalsym-
metrygenerates shearstresses,
thusshearwaves.For example,SH waveshavebeen
observed from explosions neartheboundaryof two mediathatpresentlargeimpedance
contrasts(Shtivelman, 1978).
A similarproblemappearsfor designingshearsources, whichshouldbe seenas
sourcesemittingpreferablyshearwaves,or, in otherwords,minimizingthe P wave
emission.An additionalproblemwith shearsources appearswith coupling,asshear
modesmay causelateralsliding,while compression doesnot.
4Ab.Explosive
Sources
To minimizethe P waveenergyemittedfrom an explosive,onemustfirstavoidshoot-
ing belowthe weatheredzone,soexplosivesources areusuallyplacedshallow.There
are severaltypes:
ß Trenchshooting(Fig 4.A.1) usesdynamite,or detonatingcordif fixed to the trench
walls.The trenchis then filledwith loosematerial(sand)(Pusyrev,1967). Shots
from eachsidearerecordedsequentially, thenrecordsaresubtractedin orderto
(almost)cancelthe commoncontentin P waveenergy,and to add the polarized
(Y+- Y-) shearenergy.
ß Three-holepatterns,alsocalled"Camoufiet"(Fig 4.A.2), involvefiringthe central
holefirst,generallyto recordP waves.The chargeanddepthof thisshotareadjusted
to producea "screen"of loosematerialbetweenthe lateralcharges. Remainingshots
arerecordedsequentially, thensubtracted to cancelP waveenergy
Suchpatternscanbe verysatisfactory, providedthe parametersarecorrectly
adjusted.Chargesmustbe shallow,but not blowingout, and the distancebetween
successive shotshasto be shortenoughto providean efficientscreenwithoutfiring
the next shot.
ß Two-holepatterns(Fig 4.A.3) havealsobeenproposed,but the chargeis supposed
to be fixedon the propersideof a cavity,whichis not easyto carryout. However,
givenfavorablesurfaceconditions(sand/shale), detonatingcordin two shallow
paralleltrenches(Fig 4.A.4) is an efficientshearsource,againassociated
with the
(Y+- Y-) procedure.
All parameters of thesekindsof sequential

sources canbe efficientlyadjustedby
considering the ratiobetweenthe Y polarizedenergy,and the non-Ypolarizedenergy,
thatis r = [Y+- ¾-I/1¾
++ ¾-I.One mustalsolook for its maximumvalueaccordingto
charge,depthanddistancebetweenholesor trenches.

An exampleof a pair of recordsin oppositepolarizations,

Y+andY- fromleft to
right,is shownin Fig. 4.A.5, followedby a combination,
Y+- kY-.Note thatcoefficient
k hasbeenappliedto recordY- in orderto minimizethe remainingP modeenergy.
4Ac. Horizontal Vibrators
To activatea vibratormasshorizontallyis not a problemfor manufacturers, who pro-

posedsuchequipment(ConocoGroupshot,1977) quitesometime ago.
The problemwith the shearvibratoris coupling.A P wavevibratorcantransmit
throughthe Earthat a peakforceequalto its ownweight.A horizontalvibratorcan
only transmitthe productof its own weightby the frictionbetweenthe baseplateand
the ground;that coefficientof frictionis typically0.5 for dry ground.
To overcome thislimit, the baseplatesurfacehasto be coveredby anchoring
devices,suchasbladesor invertedpyramids.Fair (1979) investigated the relationship
betweenthevibratorweight(hold-downforce),the horizontalpeakforce,andthe sum-
mit angleof the invertedpyramids.As expected, for a givenhorizontalpeakforcethe
angleshouldincreasewhen the hold-downforcedecreases. However,thereis still a
limit, whichis the horizontalbreakingof the groundmaterialbetweenthe inverted
pyramids.Optimalcouplingshouldavoidthisbreaking,asverticalstackingis generally
used.It alsomaybe necessary to movethe vibratorsbetweensuccessive sweeps,even
if not requiredfor fieldarrayfiltering.At anyrate,anchoringis onlypossiblewhen the
grounddegradation is not a majorproblem.
Sweepsequence characteristics alsomustbe considered whenoperatingvibrators.
ß The baseplatedisplacement is largerfor the low frequencies,thustheyshouldbe
emittedafterthe high frequencies to avoidcouplingdeterioration•adownsweep
shouldbe preferred.Consequently, the sweepsequence hasto be suitedto eliminate
harmonic distortion.
ß Alternatepolaritysequences
arerecommended, to eliminatethe P waveenergythat
is emittedanywayby the horizontalvibrator.
Somehorizontalvibratorcharacteristics
aregivenin Fig. 4.A.6.
4Ad.ImpactSources
Hammershockby handwasprobablythe firstshearsourceusedby civil engineers.
The shockwasappliedon the verticalflankof a trench,or on the sideof a baseplate
anchoredin the ground.Morepowerfulandrepetitivemechanical sources followthis
sameprinciple.
A typicalimpactshearsourceis the Marthor,developed in 1976by InstitutFrangais
du Petrole(Fig4.A.7). The energyoriginatesfromdroppinga weightthatis confinedto
rotationarounda horizontalaxis,thusthe impacton the baseplateis horizontal.At
eachsourcestation,two impactsin oppositedirectionsarerecordedand accruethe
benefitsof the (Y+- Y-) procedure,aspreviouslymentioned.The main characteristics
are given in Fig. 4.A.8.

Robert Garotta
A Marthorshotsequence generallyconsists of a verticalstackingseriesfrom threeto

six pairsof oppositeimpacts.As for vibrators,to preservecouplingit is advisable,and
maybe necessary, to changepositionaftera pair of impacts.Someotherequipmentof

differentsizeshasbeenusedbasedon the sameprinciple,dependingon the required
penetration.
4Ae.Source
Signature
Examples
Sourcesignaturerecordingis a way to evaluatethe emittedfrequencyspectrumof a
givensource,comparedifferentsources, and collectinformationusefulfor signalpro-
cessing.
In Fig. 4.A.9 signatures
fromthreedifferentsources arepresented. Theywere
obtainedfromhorizontalgeophones placedverticallybelowthe sources at a 30-m depth.
In Fig. 4.A.9a,the two components of a pair of shotsfromeachsideof a central
trenchcanbe seen.Residualcompressional energyis clearlyvisible,andkeepsthe same
polarityon eachrecordof the pair.After subtraction,the shearsignalremains.
In Fig. 4.A.9b,the two components of a pair of Marthorimpactspracticallycontain
no P wave energy.
Fig. 4.A.9cshowsa horizontalvibratorsignature.
Note that from the sameexplosivesource,the P-modewavelet,which precedesthe
Y+or Y- shearwavelet,is higherfrequencyThe dominantsignalperiodis 20% to 25%
shorterfor P wave.Alsonotethe higherfrequencycontentof the explosivesourcewhen
comparedto sourcescoupledby a baseplate,and alsothe differencein phasespectra
betweenthe Marthorand vibratorsignatures.
4Af.Importance
of Coupling
The alreadymentionedimportanceof couplingis illustratedby two examples.
Fig 4.A.10 showsthe resultsof an explosive(Camoufiet)source,asdescribedin
Section4Ab. The ratiobetweenY polarizedand non-Ypolarizedenergy,indicatedin the
figureasS/P,canbe computedat eachstation.This ratio is plottedalongthe line, and
showshow wet conditions(on the two endsof the line) canaffectthe emittedpolarized
energy.
Fig 4.A.11 showsthe resultsof a horizontalvibratorsource.It is not possibleto
derivea polarizationindicatorfroma vibratorrecord;however,the qualityof the sec-
tion clearlyreflectsa poorpolarizationzonein the centralpart of the S wavesection.
This is becauseof wet conditions.Note that the P wavequalityis not affected,con-
firmingthe lackof polarizedenergy.
4Ag.Abouta PureShearSource
A tortionalstressarounda verticalaxisappliedto a baseplatedoesnot emit compres-
sionalwaves(Brown,1966). Unfortunately, sucha sourceis inefficient,becausefor a
givenstresstransmittedto the groundat a givenpoint.ofthe platethereis an opposite
stressfrom the symmetricalpoint regardingthe axis.The resultis a radiationpattern
emittingpracticallyzeroenergyto the vertical,thusnot suitablefor explorationseismic.
Suchsourceshavebeenproposedfor engineering seismic(Won, 1982).

4Ah.UsingVerticalVibrators
Theoreticalcalculations
(Miller and Pursey,1956) haveshownthat compressional ener-
gy emittedfroma verticalvibratoris only 7%,while shearwaveproportionis 26%.

However,the shearenergy,which is in the $V mode,is not emittedto the verticalsthe
radiationpatternshowsa maximumat around45øangle(Dankbaar,1983).
The shearenergyof verticalvibratorscanbe exploitedby a methodcalled
"SHOWER"(Edelmann,1981), in which two verticalvibratorsarerun sideby side
with a 180øphaseshift.In thisway,muchof the P waveenergyis eliminatedwhile
the horizontalcomponentof shearwavemayremainstrongenoughto produceshear
wave records.
4Ai. Conversions
Closeto theCompressional
Sourceor Pseudo-SV
Sources
In additionto the previouslymentioned$V radiationpatternfroma vibrator
(Section4Ah), severalconversionmodescanoccurcloseto a compressional source.
Threemodescanbe considered(Fig 4.A.12):
ø Fromvibratoror explosivesources, the conversionby transmission at theweathering
levelproducesan $V wavefield(a).
ß Froman explosivesource,the conversion by reflectionat the freesurfacealsopro-
duces an $V wavefield (b).
ß The S* (c) waveis producedat the freesurface,at theverticalof a sphericalcom-
pressionalwavefront,when the distancebetweenthe sourceand the surfaceis a
fractionof wavelength.It alsocanproducean $V wavefield.
Thesethreewavemodesarenot soeasyto distinguish, and thento separate,

in
explorationoperations. Theycoexistwith differentmagnitudes andphases.Depending
mainlyon theweatheringcharacteristics, onemaydominatethe otherones,andin this
casecouldbe usedasa free$V modesource.An exampleis shownin Section6, where
someconsistency hasbeenobtained,assumingthe secondconversion modelistedabove.
Regarding $*, it is amazingto noticethat its existencehasbeendiscovered through
theoreticalmodelinginvestigations, and only thenhasit beenobserved.Its main char-
acteristics,
accordingto Hron and Mikhailenko,1981, are asfollow:
ø It appearsto originateat surfacepoint O locatedverticallybelowthe buriedcharge.
ø It propagates with theshearvelocity([•).
ø Its amplitudeincreases exponentiallywith decreasing sourcedepth.
ø The particlemotionis linearlypolarizedat right angleto the directionof the
propagation.
ø The 5' arrivalenergyis restrictedoutsideof a cone,havingits summitin O and
summitanglec definedby sin c = [•/o•.In near-surface
materials,[•/o•canbe aslow
as 1/5 to 1/10,whichmeansthat$V energyis emittedwith relativelysmallinci-
denceangles.

Robert Garotta
4Aj. Isotropy
of Source
andReceiver
Arrays
When operating3D surveys,nonisotropic sourcesand/orreceiversmay affectthe rela-
tionshipbetweenthe azimuthsof the source/receiver vectorsandthe seismicampli-

tudes.It will be seen(Section5) thatreliableseismicamplitudesarenecessary to inves-
tigatethe naturalorientationsof orthorhombic media.Consequently, fieldarraysshould
be isotropicwithin the signalbandwidth.In practice,becauselineararraysaremuch
easierto handlethan2D arrays(especially in marineseismic),azimuthalfilteringeffects
shouldbe examined(suchasby modeling)in orderto determineto whatextentthey
couldaffectthesignal.Compensations shouldbe appliedat theprocessing stepwhen
necessary.
4B. Land MulticomponentReceivers

Particularcasesmay involvesinglehorizontalreceivers.For example,an SH-mode,
2D line in a transversely
isotropicverticalenvironmentcanbe recordedfrom horizontal
phonesorientedparallelto the sourcepolarization.In fact,recordingshearwavesmust
coverall possible polarizationsof the emergent wave.This dependsnot onlyon the
polarizationof the sourceand of the wavemode,but alsoon possibledip andaniso-
tropyof the layersthat affectthe polarizationrecordedby the receiver.Moreover,one
singlehorizontalreceiverorientationcannotcoverthe polarizationpatternsinvolved
in a 3D surveythat imply differentsource/receiverorientationsandnecessitatetwo
horizontalreceivers.In practice,therearealsogoodreasonsto recordthe compressional
wavefield,evenin a shearwavesurvey.Finally,the adequatereceiverfor a shearsurvey
is a three-component case.
4Ba.ReceiverCoordinate
Systems
It seemsobviousthat, at leastfor convenience, the threerecordingcomponents must
haveidenticalresponses. It hasbeenconsidered thatvelocimeters havingthe same
anglewith the verticalwould havebetterchancesto satisfythiscondition.A coordinate
systemwith its firstdiagonalon the vertical(alsocalledGalperincoordinatesystem)
wasusedto recordthe experimental linesshownin Fig 4.B.1.Because thesecoordinate
orientationsdo not coincidewith the wavemodepolarizations, thisarrangement
requiresa coordinatechangebeforeprocessing, which is not a majorproblem.However,
the field qualitycontrolof individualrecordsis not easy,eachtraceshowinga mixture
betweenP, SV and SH wavefields.This is why comparisons havebeendoneto confirm
that the Galperincoordinatesystemand coordinates usingthe acquisitionorientation
(vertical,in-line,cross-line)areequivalent.Thesecomparisons finallyled to the most
convenientbeingadopted.
4Bb.NaturalFrequency
Identicalresponse alsomeansidenticalnaturalfrequencyfor verticalandhorizontal
velocimeters.In reflectionrecording,the naturalfrequencyusedfor P wavesranges
between 8 and 14 Hz (Hertz). It can be considered that the ratio between the natural
frequencyfor P wavesandS wavesshouldbe the sameasthe ratiobetweenP and

$ velocities,whichwouldleadto a similarresponse
in termsof wavelengths.
This
would resultin naturalfrequencies
for shearwaverecordingrangingbetween4 and
7 Hz.
Unfortunately,
suchvelocimeters arenot convenientfor extensiveuse.They are
expensiveandrequirespecialcarefor planting.The lowerthe naturalfrequency,
the
lower the tolerance between the velocimeter axis and the horizontal axis. From a 5-Hz
naturalfrequency(andbelow),a levelshouldbe usedto controlthe planting.Finally,
an acceptablecompromise is from 7 to 10 Hz, for verticaland horizontalreceivers.A
signalprocessing
techniquemakesit possibleto recoverfrequencycomponents of shear
wavesaroundone octavebelowthe naturalfrequency
Most manufacturers propose10-Hz, 3C (three-component) cases,with onevertical
and two horizontalorthogonalvelocimeters[suchasGeosource (PE-6), Litton
(LPS-1033),and Oyo]. Omniphoneproposeda 4-Hz, 3C setin the Galperin
configuration.
4Bc.SEGNomenclature
andPolarityConventions
for Multicomponent
Acquisition
The followingaregivenafterStewartand Lawton(1998). Hereafter,recordingframeis
definedfor both surfaceand downholesourcereceivers.Fig. 4.B.2indicatesthe polarity
convention for the receivers.
Nomenclatureand polarityconventions supporta right-handedcoordinatesystem
with the Z axispointingdownwards.The X axispointsin the directionof the source
advancement for the 2D case.In the 3D case,the axiswill haveto be givenaccording
to a defineddirection.A positiverotationangle,when lookingdownfrom abovethe
geophone,shouldbe in the clockwisedirectionfrom the X axisto the Y axis.
Datarecordedwith theseconventions giveP-P and P-SVsectionswith the same
polarity.It is finallyrecommended that the databe processed suchthat on the final
sectionsa peakcorresponds to an impedanceincrease.
Figs.4.B.3aand4.B.3breportthe multicomponent acquisitionsourceand receiver
nomenclature and polarityrecommended by SEG.An alternative,in Figs.4.B.4aand
4.B.4b,takesinto accountthe "north-ing"of the acquisitionreferencedirection,which
canbe easierto handle,especiallyin caseof overlapping3D surveyswhoseline direc-
tions are not the same.
4Bd.CouplingSensitivity
to Noise
It has been observed that horizontal velocimeters are more sensitive to natural noise
thanverticalvelocimeters.
In caseof a combinedP andPSacquisition,this canbe a rea-
sonto increasethe sourceenergyevenif it is not requiredfor the P wavedata.
Concerningthe emittednoise,Fig. 4.B.5 showsa typical3C recordfrom an explo-
sivesource.In theory,pseudo-Rayleighwavesshouldaffectthe verticalcomponent
morethan the in-line component,and shouldnot affectthe cross-component. In prac-
tice,the noisevolumeis quitethe samefor the threeorientations, asindicatedin the
figure.

Robert Garotta
4C. ShearWave Land Operations

4Ca. WaveModesandAcquisition
Coordinates
Wavemodeseparationin acquisitionis carriedout thanksto the wavepolarization.

Becauseof the low velocityof near-surface material,ray directionis closeto the vertical
when leavingthe sourceor reachingthe receiver(Fig 4.C.1). This greatlysimplifiesthe
waveseparation.Compressional or P modehasa particlemotionin the ray direction,
thusrecordedby a verticalreceiver.Shearcomponents havehorizontalpolarization,
thusrecordedby horizontalreceivers.
Strictlyspeaking,and especiallyin casethe weatheredzonedoesnot exist(suchas
on hardrock outcrops),the assumption of quasi-verticalemergence shouldbe reconsid-
ered,aswell asthe projections of the wavefieldson the acquisitioncomponents. In this
way,the verticalcomponentof shearwavesandhorizontalcomponentof compressional
waves should be taken into account.
Stayingin the simplecaseof quasi-vertical
emergence,
a properterminologyshould
distinguish
betweentwo typesof situations:
ß Isotropicor verticaltransversely
isotropicenvironments
in the caseof weak
anisotropy.
ß Other cases,alsoassumingweak anisotropy.
In the first case,which is also valid for orthorhombic environmentswhen R and T

directions coincide with the natural coordinates,reflection recorded modes and coordi-
natesarelinked,asshownin Fig. 4.C.2. This figureonlyignoresa possiblerecordingof
SVSVmodefrom the S* source,that is, from a compressionalsource.Linesand
columnsof cross-linecomponentY showvoid cases:theyexpressthe nonconversion of
SH mode in the assumed conditions.
In othercases,orthorhombicor moregeneralanisotropicenvironments, a quasi-
compressional (qP) and two quasi-shear
(qS)wavesarepropagated and thenreflectedor
converted,which makestheir descriptioncomplicated.For this reason,Fig. 4.C.3 does
not indicatethe propagationmodes,asdoesFig. 4.C.2, but only the mostenergetic
wavemodesreachingthe receivers,still assumingweak anisotropy.
When anisotropyparameters cannotbe considered asweak,all receiversmayrecord
a mixtureof qP,qS1and qS2waves,whateverthe sourcecharacteristics.
4Cb.2D PureShearWaveOperation
A 2D pureshearwaveacquisitionis not common,evenin a VTI environment.
Nevertheless,
it hasbeenperformedin somecaseswhereP waveswerefailing.The
retainedwavemodeis SH, becauseof its advantages,
which include:
ß No conversion at boundaries.
ß Ellipticalanisotropyin a transverse
verticalisotropicenvironment.
ß Reducedmultiplereflections(seeSectionSAd).
The sourcedeliversenergythat is polarizedtransversely

to the line; receiversareori-
ented in the same sense.

4Cc.2D PureShearWaveOperation
in Anisotropic
(non-VTI)Environment
When naturalanisotropydirectionsareknown and stablein an area,the operationcan
be the same,asin Section4Cb, providedthat 2D linesare orientedaccordingto the nat-

ural directions.This situationis moretheoreticalthan realistic.However,suchexperi-
mentallineswereconductedin SH modeby Amoco(seeLynnandThomsen,1990) and
confirmthe importanceof splittingphenomenonin exploration,principallyby observ-
ing the mis-tieson SH line crossings.
In othercases,sourcesandreceivershaveto work in two (orthogonal)directionsto
recordthe shearwavefield.The sourcehasto operateaccordingto in-line and cross-line
polarizations.Receiverstationshaveto includein-line and cross-linereceivers.
4Cd.2D Combined
P andS Operation
This caseis morefrequentlyusedthan the precedingones.Dependingon the expected
conditionsof anisotropy,
the shearwaveinformationhasto be acquiredaccordingto
Section4Cb or 4Cc. An additionalP sourceis operated,and receiverstationsinclude
vertical receivers.
4Ce.2D Combined
P andPSOperation
This caseis probablymorefrequentlyusedtoday,asit doesnot requirea shearsource.
The differencebetweenthe variouscasesof expectedanisotropysetin sections4Cb and
4Cc arestill valid for the receivingstations,which meansthat two horizontalreceivers
arenecessary in the generalcase.
4Cf.3D Combined
P andS Operation
In 3D operations,mostof the receiverstationsarenot "in-line"with respectto the
sourcestation;thereis no morein-line or cross-linepolarization,asin the 2D case.
The convenientnomenclature(seeFig 4.B.3) is radialand transverse with respectto the
source.However,asany receivercannotbe orientedin radialor transverse orientation
for any sourcestation,radialand transverse wavefieldsarereconstituted at the process-
ing stage.The sameobservation is alsovalid for sourcestations.Eachsourcestation
includesa compressional (or vertical)sourcefor the P waveacquisition,and two
orthogonal,horizontallypolarizedshearsources.Eachreceiverstationconsistsof three-
component receivers.
The exampleshownin Fig. 4.C.4 comesfrom an experimental3C x 3D survey
Sourcesusedwereverticaland horizontalvibratorsoperatingin north-southand east-
westpolarizations.The receivergrid is quiteregular;a few displacements
of the source
locationsdo not reallyaffectthe midpointcoveragemap for P and$ modeacquisition.
4Cg.3D Combined
P andPSOperation
Shearsourcesareno longerinvolved.Receiverstationsremainthe sameasfor P and
shearwave3D, that is, three-component receivers.One importantpoint to consideris
the PSwave-stackingchart,asthe traditionalP wavemidpointconceptis no longer
valid.

Robert Garotta
Takinginto accounttheverticalvariationof the Vp/Vsratio,thusthe horizontal

displacement of thePSreflection/conversion point,thereshouldbe asmanystacking
chartsasexplorationtargets.In practice,a stackingchartbaseduponthe asymptotic
locationof the PSreflectionpoint maybe enough.Anyway,in orderto avoidpoor cov-

eragein the corners,or in the edgesof a 3D survey,rememberthat the PSreflection
point is closerto the receiverthan to the source,and that shortoffsettracesreceive
little PSconvertedenergy.
The coveragechartin Fig. 4.C.5 alsoanalyzesthe azimuthdistribution,which is
conditioningthe balanceof the amplitudesof 51and 52wavemodes.In thisparticular
example,the fold of the directionfor the receiverlines(east-west)is muchhigherthan
for other directions;this did not affect the result of convertedwaves,becausethe east-
west direction is close to the bisector of the natural orientations.
4D. ShearWave Land AcquisitionParameters

4Da. Compressional
andShearReflection
Wavelengths
A givenreflectionappearson P and S recordsat differentarrivaltimes,with different
apparentvelocitiesand differentfrequencycontents.At an offsetX, with obviousnota-
tions(Tp, Ts,Vp,Vs,Xp,Xs,fp, fs) thefollowingrelationsareeasilyset:
The apparentvelocityin P mode,VAP= V,•p= V•,

X
x/T•2V•
+X2 [32]
and in S mode,VAS = V•s = V•4Ts2Vs2+X2
X
[33]
•p--VAp/fp;
•s--VAs/fs [34]
For a givenreflector,TPVP= TSVS, thusVAP/VAS

= VP/VS [35]
and •P _ VAp
L _ VpL [36]
It will be seenin Section6 that Vp/Vsis oftenclosetofp/fs, or slightlysmaller,

whichmakes•s closeto •v or slightlylarger.
4Db.Compressional
andPSConverted
ModeReflection
Wavelengths
Observation showsthat the wavelengthof a givenreflectorin the PSmodemaybe
lowerthan the P modewavelengthin the shallowdomain,but increases with depth
morerapidlythan the P modewavelength,andis largerat depth.As a firstapproxima-
tionit canbe considered thatXvs= Xv,but specialattentionis recommended
whenthe
resolutionof shallowreflectorsis of particularinterest.

4Dc.SpatialSampling
for ShearWaveSurveys
The reflectionwavelengthis the conditioningfactorto definethe spatialsampling.As
longaswavelengths of differentmodesareequivalent,the spatialsamplingcanbe the

sameasdefinedfor P waveacquisition.However,two additionalpointshaveto be con-
sidered:
The scale of the near-surface effects can be shorter in the shear mode than in the
P mode,shorteningthe apparentwavelength,thusjustifying,in somecases,closer
stations.
Sourcenoise(Lovewave)is muchmoredisturbingfor shearwaves,makingefficient

f-k filteringmandatory,
and alsojustifyingcloserstationsthanfor the P mode.
Pureshearwavesare concernedwith both of thesepoints;PSconvertedmodeonly
by the firstone.
4Dd. FieldArray Filtering

Designingfield arraysis a well-knowntechniquein P waveacquisition;the arraymust
preservethe reflectedsignaland cancelnoiseasmuchaspossible.In sections4Da and
4Db, it hasbeensaidthat signalwavelengths canbe considered asequivalent,whatever
the wavemode,in a firstapproximation.Are the noisewavesidentical?Pureshear
acquisitionandPSmodehaveto be distinguished.
ß In the pureshearmode,the Lovewavegenerated by the shearsourceis an addition-
al constraint,becauseof its highleveland the overlappingof its frequencyspectrum
with that of the shearsignal.
ß In the PS mode, noise waves are receivedfrom a P sourcefor both vertical and hori-
zontalreceivers.Thus, thereis no reasonto modifythe P wavearray In theory,the
horizontalRayleighwavecomponentshouldbe evensmallerthan the verticalone.
To summarize,when recordingcompressional and pureshearmodes,arrays
designedfor P wavesrespectshearreflectionsevenbetterthancompressional reflec-
tions,but mightbe too light to attenuateLovewavesfrom an $H source.When record-
ing compressionaland PSconvertedmodes,arraysdesignedfor P wavesmay slightly
affectthe PSshallowreflectionsat largeoffsets,but attenuatethe sourcegeneratednoise
in the sameway as for P waves.
4De.Recording
Parameters
The dynamicrangeof modernrecordingequipmentdoesnot requireprefilteringof
data;all wavemodescanbe recordedwith an openbandwidth.Optimaltime sampling
couldbe different.When 2-mssamplingrateis suitedfor P waverecording,3- or 4-ms
couldbe adopted,respectively, for PSconvertedand shearmodes.However,thisis of
little practicalinterest.
The onlypoint to consideris the recordlength.Factorsof 3/2 to 2 mustbe applied
to the P waverecordlengthin view of exploringthe samereflectorsin the P$ mode,
and factors 2 to 3 in the shear mode.

Robert Garotta
It is well known that to a firstapproximation,

P waverecordingfollowsthe traditional
rule of thumbsmaximumoffsetequalsthe deepesttargetdepth.When recordingP and

pureSHwaves,reflectionraypathsfrombothmodesaresimilarandsignalreflectivity
is governedin a similarwaywith respectto the anglesof incidence,at leastwithin the
rangeusuallyretainedfor stacking(0 _<30ø).Thereis no reasonto adopta different
spreadlengthfor eithermode.A minimumusefuloffsetmaybe different,becauseof
possibleoccurrence of verypowerfulLovewaves(Fig 4.D.1.) that couldmakesignal
recoveryimpossiblefor the inner tracesin the shearmode.
When recordingP and PSconvertedwaves,noisepatternsare the samefor both
modes.But for a givenoffsetX, anglesof incidence,respectively0• and Os,arequitedif-
ferent(Fig. 4.D.2.a).Beyondthe point of maximumresponse, the PSreflectivitydecreas-
esdrasticallyandvanishes.This meansa possiblesignchangein the signalamplitude,
whoselocationis difficultto predict.To avoidstackingsignalsin oppositepolarity,the
PSmaximumoffset(Xps)shouldbe limitedto avoidthe PSincidencerangeof uncer-
tain polarity(OD.It shouldalsobe shorterthanthe P modeoptimaloffset,or Xp, asin
Fig. 4.D.2.b.
•Dg. Pc:•ro.
mcrcrsof Combined
P, S, PSOperations
It is unpracticalto usedifferentspreadsfor P and$ modes,sowhen a shorterintervalis
necessary for the $ modeacquisition,it will be adoptedfor the P mode,aswell. In the
sameway,if someinner offsetis necessary for the S modeacquisitionbut not for the
P modeone,the unwantedshearshorttraceswill be ignoredfor processing.
4Dh. ExtraCos•of Shear¾•vcAcquisition

The extracostof shearwaveacquisitionascomparedto the costof standardP wave
acquisitionhasbeenevaluatedandpublished(Garotta,1987, and Kendall,1996). The
comparison of the firstevaluation(1987) includesprocessing, and amountsto an extra
costof 60% for P+PSacquisitionand 220%for P+PS+SS acquisition. The secondone
(1996) doesnot includeprocessing cost,the extracostsare34% and 137%,respectively
Tablesin Figs.4.D.3, 4.D.4.a, and 4.D.4.b givethe detailof theseevaluations.
The
percentages due to additionalshearwaveprocessing wouldbe considerably reduced
todayAnotherpart of the extracostdue to shearwaveacquisitionis the lack of specific
equipment.Thereis no doubtthat this extracostwould be loweredif shearwaveopera-
tionswere morewidely used.
4Di. Repeated
3C Surveys
Repeatedsu•eys aim to studyoil or gasfieldsduringthe productionstage.They are
not necessarilyasheavyasexplorationsurveys,becausethey canfocuson a well-
definedobjective.On the otherhand,theyhaveto provideresultsaccurateenoughto
makethe differences in responses
betweendifferentsurveyscredible.In thisrespect,
positioningand couplingof the surfacestationarekey points.It is definitelybetterto
bury the receiversand connectthemwhen necessary.

Thisprocedure wasappliedfor monitoringthe extension of the gasdomainin a gas

storagefacilityat Gournay-sur-Aronde,France.The reservoirconsists of sandstonelayers
with an averagethickness of 45 m andan averageporosityof 20%.CombinedP andS

waveseismic wererecorded fourtimesacrossthestructure with differentvolumesof gas
in the reservoir.Recording
parameters areindicatedin Fig. 4.D.5. The extensionof the
gasbubblehasbeenstudiedduringthegasinjection,fourtimesat six-monthintervals
(Fig. 4.D.6).
4E. ShearWave Marine Acquisition

4Ea.Particularsof MarineEnvi•vnments
Shearstresses do not propagatein fluidsand no seabottomshearsourceexistsat pre-
sent.The onlyway to obtaina shearwaveresponse is to benefitfromPSconversion.
It would be very convenient,and possiblein theory,to recordPSPmodes,thusto use
conventional marinereceivers.This hasbeentriedby analyzingconventional marine
records.Somesuccess hasbeenobtainedfromlongoffsetdata,whichessentially means
fromAVO analysis. However,verylittle successhasbeenobtainedfromdatawithin the
offsetrangeusuallyretainedfor stacking.Thereareat leasttwo reasons for this:
ß PSPmodemeanstwo modeconversions, that is, weakremainingenergy
ß The mixturerecordedby the compressional receiverincludeshigh-levelPP mode,
two possiblelow-levelPSPmodes(seeFig. 4.E.1), plusstill lower-levelPSSPmode,
plusmultiplereflections
in the PPmode.As of now,processing routinesarenot
powerfulenoughto discriminate somethingotherthanPPmode,exceptin verypar-
ticular conditions.
Finally,the way to recordan acceptable shearresponse is to capturePSconverted

modefrom dedicatedreceiverssetat the seabottomandpolarizedhorizontally
(Fig.4.E.2). As a consequence, the marinesourcefor shearwavesurveysis a conven-
tionalmarinesource,while seabottomreceivers arespeciallydesignedfor thispurpose.
The marineenvironmentoffersnotableadvantages. A marinesourceis repetitive,its
signatureis well controlled,and aboveall it doesnot producesurfacewaves,asdoesa
land shearsource.Marinedatado not showvariationsdue to variablesourceresponses
andthe subseaenvironment is quietbelowthe tidalzone.Consequently, subsearecords
aregenerallymuch "cleaner"thanland records.
4Eb. Marine Source
Conventional marinesources arecommonlyusedto performmulticomponent seabot-

tomacquisition; however,theyarenot quiteisotropic.Differencesin response around
3 dBhavebeenobservedbetweenforwardand reverseemittedenergyat 30øincidence.
Suchdifferences cannotbe acceptedfor properevaluationof azimuthaleffectsandjustify
a redesignof specificmarinesources.
Isotropyis obtainedby shorteningthe dimensions
of the gun arrayandby rearrangingthe gunpositions.
4-12 oSocietyof ExplorationGeophysicists

Robert Garotta
:,,;•arltl½ Receivers
Marine receiversfor shearwaverecordingare three-component velocimeters.

Twomain
optionshavebeenfollowed.The oneclosestto marinetechnology usesan oceanbot-

tom cable(OBC). The other,which is closerto land technology,
usescasesplantedin
the sea bottom (nodes).
No doubtthat couplingis betterwith the secondoption,but operationis heavier
thanwith OBC.Nodeoperationcanensureaccuratepositioningand orientationof the
receivers,aseachcasecontainsa compass and an inclinometer(Fig. 4.E.3).
When operatingOBC, an importantstepis to recoverthe in-line, cross-lineand ver-
tical components.
It canbe considered that the azimuthof the in-line componentcoin-
cides with the cable orientation, but its inclination and the orientation of the two
orthogonalreceiversareunknown.Onceagain,two optionscanbe followed.
One consistsof obtainingthe requiredorientations(vertical,in-line,transverse)
by
gimbalequipment.The otherusesreceiversfixedin the cablestructure,and leavesthe
orientationproblemto the processing stage.The firstbreakanalysisgenerallyprovides
absoluteorientationrecovery.However,this optioncannotusereceiverswith low natur-
al frequency,astheir response would dependon the axisanglewith respectto the verti-
cal.Receivers at 28 Hz naturalfrequencyhavebeenproposed.This mayseemhigh for
recordinga convertedmoderesponse,but the high S/N level at the seabottomautho-
rizesthe low-frequency recovery.
Somecharacteristics of marinereceivers
maybe of interest:
ß Groupintervalis typically25 rn (2D) or 50 rn (3D).
ß Maximumwaterdepthdependson the receiver•A typicallimit for cableis 300 m,
while.sledgesusingfullygiroballedreceivers
(proposed by PGS)aregivenfor 1,800m,
and nodeshavebeentestedup to 1,500m.
The development
of seabottomtechnologies
is of high interesttoday (SeeMeunier
et al., 1998).
4Ed.MarineReceiver
Positioning
Accuracyof the receiverpositioningon the seafloordependson waterdepth.Three
techniquesareproposedto coverthe rangeof operations, the firsttwo onlyrequire
on-boardequipment.
ß The shortbaseline (SBL)techniqueusestwo transducers 10 to 15 rn apart.The
principleof the operationis "range/range";
the positionaccuracyis 0.5% of the slant
range.
ß The super-short baseline (SSBL)techniqueusesa combined"angle/range" operation.
Its positioningaccuracyis 1% of slantrange.
ß In the caseof deepwater,or the longbaseline technique,auxiliarytransducersare
placedon the seafloor.The principleof operationis "range/range",
the distance
betweenthe seafloor transducers canbe up to 2 km.
2000 DistinguishedInstructorShort Course ß4-13

4Ee. Marine 2D operation

Seafloormarineoperations necessitatetwo boats:onefor shootingandonefor recording.
The cableconceptis shownin Fig. 4.E.4. Cablepositioningis realizedby monitoring

the touchdownpoint of the cableend.The receivercouplingis either"natural"by a
continuouscable,or reinforcedby additionalcouplingdevicessuchassledges. Burying
the receiversalsohasbeenenvisaged.
Typicallya marineprofileis acquiredby a 3- to 6-km cable(Fig. 4.E.5), receiver
stationsbeing25 m apart.Oncethe cableis laid out, the shootingvesseloperatesupon
the cableat up to a 6-km offseteachside,resultingin a "splitspread"acquisition.The
cableis then draggeda wholecablelengthor redeployed.This resultsin high coverage
(> 120 fold) and long offsets,which canbe of interestfor AVO studies.
Dataacquisition with nodesis illustratedin Fig. 4.E.6.The plantingrequiresa
remotelyoperatedvehicle(ROV) guidedfrom a dynamicpositioningvesselthat
remainsstationaryduringacquisition. Shootingoverrepeatedsegments of nodesresults
in a 2D line, asin the cableoperation.Figs.4.E.7 and4.E.8 showan exampleof a node-
based,multicomponentfield record.
4El. Marine3D Operation

Fig. 4.E.9 illustratesan exampleof acquisition
by nodes.The distancebetweennodes
is typically300 m, but canreach600 m. The samplingis madeby shots,typically
50 x 50 m. The shootingareais up to 4 km outsideof the nodearray
The cableacquisitionswathusuallyconsists of two parallelcables,300 to 800 m
apart.The shootingdirectioncanbe eitherin-line or cross-line. In-line shooting
involveslimitationsin lateraloffsetsoutsideof the cable,while orthogonalshooting
producesfull azimuthaldistribution,which canbe requiredfor azimuthalanisotropy
surveys.
An exampleof suchacquisition(courtesyof Statoil)is shownin Fig. 4.E.10. Two
cablesareused;the move-upafterrecordingis a two-cableinterval.The shooting
intervalis 25 m, whichrequiresflip-flopsources. The full coverage
is veryhigh (up
to 1,800 m); however,this experimentalsurveywasperformedin orderto study
possibledecimations.
Cross-linedecimationof the originalgrid, asshownin Fig. 4.E.10, provides
250-folddatain the PSVmode.Resultsof the full coverageand decimation,asdis-
playedin Fig. 4.E.11, aresimilar.
4Eg.MarineRepeated
Operation
Thereis no repeatabilityconcernfrom the sourcewhoseresponse and positioningcan
be accuratelycontrolled.(Problemof isotropy•either the sourceis isotropicor direc-
tivity is repeated).The problemof the receivercouplingandpositioningis different,as
limitationsappearin positioningaccuracyat the seabottomand couplingrepeatability
cannotbe ensured.In fact,the couplingproblemis moresensitivethanpositioning
becausepositioningcanbe controlledand adjustedat the processing stage,basedupon
sourceposition.In this respect,nodesshouldbe preferredto cables.
4-14 øSociety of ExplorationGeophysicists

Robert Garotta
Fig. 4.A. 1.
Trench Shooting
Y- Y+
Explosive
Fig. 4.A.2.
Camouflet Shooting
B
Explosive
Fig. 4.A.3.
Two-Hole Pattern
yam Y-I-
Explosive
2000 DistinguishedInstructorShort Courseß 4-15

Fig. 4.A.4.
Detonating Cor ß
Explosive
' B
Y+
Fig. 4.A.5.
Example of Y*
and Y' Records
Fig. 4.A.6.
Characteristics of Shear Wave Vibrator
ERTZ Model M13
two hydraulic cylinders

3 1/4 in. bore
38 in. stroke
Iso ation air bags vertical and horizontal
Actuabo weight 7200 lbs

stroke 8 in.
piston area 10.30 sq. in.
peak fore 30900 lbs
F min 3.2 Hz
Synch omzat•on cross beam
Vehic e eight 53300 lbs

Robert Garotta
Fig. 4.A.7.
Marthor Impact Source
Fig. 4.A.8.
Characteristics of the Marthor
M 1(1977) 3 1983)
Truck weight 14000 kg Truck weight 22200 kg
Hammer weight 1700 kg Hammer weight 1700 kg
Drop height 3m Drop

height • 1,5m
[..2,4 m
Drop energy 52000
joules Drop
energy
.•r"26000
joules
L 40000 joules
Cycle time 10 s
Fig. 4.A.9. a, b, c.
Examples of Source Signatures
,1.,00ms,
-(Y-+P)
(b) Marthor
,!00 ms,
(a) Camouflet
ß 100 ms.
(c) Vibrator

Shear Waves FromAcquisitionto Interpretation
Fig. 4.A. 10.

Effects of Wet Surface Conditions(Explosive)
WET DRY WET

i I
S/P ! I
I I
I i
i I
I I
i I
I
35 8O
Fig. 4.A. 11.

Effects of Wet Surface Conditions (Vibrator)
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34
Fig. 4.A.12.
Conversions Close to a Compressional Source

Robert Garotta
Fig. 4.B.1. Multicomponent Receiver Coordinates

Galperin
z• v
Cartesian
z u w
horizontal
projection
U W
Fig. 4.B.2.
Polarity Convention for the Receivers
+P +SH +Sv Y
Fig. 4.B.3. a, b.
Multicomponent Source and
Receiver Nomenclature (1)
(a) Receiver (b) Source

N
Vertical (V) P(+3)
,•••'•V
(+1) SH (+2)
Cross.line /
2000Distinguished
Instructor
ShortCourse
ß 4-19
Fig. 4.B.4. a, b.
Multicomponent Source and
Receiver Nomenclature (2)
(a) Receiver (b) Source

N N
sv (0,9O)
• •HI(0,90)
•&½/•l/
H2(0+90,90)
..o:x.•.•x.c,e
• SH (0+90,90)
Fig. 4.B.5.
Typical 3-Component Field Records
Y z
..•
Amplitude 1.6tll0s
(rms values)
1.45Ills 1.50108
Fig. 4.C.1.
Quasi-Vertical Emergence of Seismic Waves
Vertical Receiver Horizontal Receiver
W.Z
S S
Horizontal Receiver
W.Z
P S

Robert Garotta
Fig. 4.C.2.
Acquisition Coordinates and
Wave Modes (VTI)
Source
R T V
Receiver
R Sv Sv P Sv
T Sh Sh
V SvP PP
Fig. 4.C.3. Received Wave •odes

(Orthorhombic - Weak Anisotropy)
Source
v R T
Receiver
V qP qP(1,2) qP(1,2)
R qSl,qS2 qSl,qS2 qSl,qS2
T qSl,qS2 qSl,qS2
qSl'q
S2I
Fig. 4.C.4.
Example of 3D x 3C Acquisition
Source Line
I 2 3 4 5 67891011
Station Line'
.
-i, ell
'I i ii i
Geophone ! ß
Source
s ß .I..[.t... ..
ß' !
I I Mile
2000 Distinguished
InstructorShortCourseß 4-21
Fig. 4.C.5.
PSv Mode- Coverage and Azimuths
fold
24
•-1' ' • . 22.5
20
t or
0o
t......... or
16
•., . ' . -• -22.5
12 Maximum offset = 6000 feet
t', ' * - ' qI or o

I'1 o
' . i i' • 67.5
or
t
. : .... T'-"---"•[-67.5 , ,---90 ø

1 mile
i i
Fig. 4.D.1.
Minimum Offset Imposed by Love Waves
Minimum
offset
Optimal Spreads
for P Waves
Love wave
' domain
for Sh Waves
I i i
Target
Fig. 4.D.2.a.
PS Mode Offset Limit (1)
s R
Uncertain
PS polarity
PS
X•)PS
t
ep ePS

Robert Garotta
Fig. 4.D.2.b.
PS Mode Offset Limit (2)
• Xp
Uncertain
PS polarity /
/
e /
PS
0p 0L
Fig. 4.D.3.
Extra Cost of Shear Waves
P Waves P Waves
+ Shear Waves + Converted Waves
P waves 100 P waves 100
Shear source I 130 + P / Sv (in line) 30
Additional component Additional component

35
(equipment + processing) (equipment
+processing) 30
265 Total 160
Shear
source
2 {30
(recording time
and !or equipment)
to
70
3O
Processing 25
Total 320
Fig. 4.D.4. a, b.
Acquisition Parameters
(a) (b)
Acquisition parameters for cost comparison Acquisition costs normalize ß

to P-wave cost/mi 2
"ase Survey type Source Receiver Sweep param. Co. Case 1 Case 2 Case 3
3D P-wave Vertical Vertical 6x10s, 4s listen A I 1.348 2.435

vibrator component B I 1.163 2.000
C 1 1.151 2.772
• 3D 3-comp Vertical 3 orthogonal 6x10s, 8s listen D 1 1.152 1.879
vibrator components E 1 1.500 3.000
F I 1.741 2.111
3D 9-comp Vertical 3 orthogonal 6x10s, 4s listen
vibrator & 2 components for vertical and Avg. I 1.343=• 2.366=•
orthogonal 6x10s, 8s listen 0.240 0.499
horizontal for horizontal
vibrators vibrators
2000 DistinguishedInstructorShort Course 4-23

•:ig.4.D.5.
Gournay-sur-Aronde Seismic Parameters
ß Reception
- 80 cm trenches
- 3 multi-component geophones per station
- 10 m group interval
ß P wave Source
- 1 Vibrator
- 1 Sweep [10-160 Hz] 10 sec./VP
- 10 m VP interval
ß S wave Source
- 1 Vibrator
- 1 Sweep [5-80 Hz] 10 sec.NP
- 10 m VP interval
ß Recording
- 48-fold
Fig. 4.D.6.
Gournay-sur-Aronde
Isochron Map Showing Bubble Extension
650
640
Gas bubble Extension
..... April 1980

November 1980
- May 1981
November 1981
I km "• '%
• • •>Oo
Fig. 4.E.].
PSP Wave Modes in Marine Acquisition
o
S•• 2conversions
2 conversions "•,••,. • !
, 2 conversions
\,•
4-24 ßSociety
ofExploration
Geol•hysicists
Robert Garotta
Fig. 4.E.2. PS Wave Mode in Marine Acquisition

R
sea bottom
I conversion
Fig. 4.E.3.
Geophone Node Description
• ...............
Hydr. ßhone
= ......... ROV handle
24
bit
^•D,
inclinomete
compass
Fixed geophones
seabottom
skid
.I... o ..l
Fig. 4.E.4.
The Cable Concept
Laying
vessel Shooting
vessel
- Coupling- Natural
....••.•
-......-..
..-,.
ß
-,;-..-•:
•ß
?
:::
:.
.........
•Y ....
2000 DistinguishedInstructorShort Course ß4-25
Fig. 4.E.5.
2D Drop and Drag Acquisition
Recording
vessel [Shooting
vessel
to
240
traces
at
25
m
Receiver cable
Sea bottom
I stsequence
3 to 6 km 3 to 6 km 3 to 6 km
Shooting line
2 ndsequence
Etc ...
Fig. 4.E.6.
Data Acquisition with Nodes
4C- 2D Multimode Sea Bed
Fig. 4.E.7.
Common Receiver Gather (1)
P Vz
4-26 øSocietyof ExplorationGeophysicists

Robert Garotta
Fig. 4.E.8.
Common Receiver Gather (2)
Vx Vy
0.0
Fig. 4.E.9.
3D Sea Bed Data Acquisition Configuration (1)
Fig. 4.E.10.
3D Sea Bed Data Acquisition Configuration (2)
25x 25rn Shooting

300 m
Swath
I
Shots
Receivers

.-
Fig. 4.E.11.
Full-Fold vs. Cross-Spread Decimation
Converted waves
Full-Fold = 1800 Cross-spread fold = 250


Processing
of ShearWaveData
Robert Garotta
Section5. Processing
of ShearWave Data
Processing problemsarequitedifferentwhenconsidering pureshearwavepropagation
(i.e., SHSHand SVSV)or PSconvertedwaves.A pureshearwaveprocessing sequence is

basicallysimilarto a conventional
P modeprocessing sequence, providedthatbirefrin-
gencecanbe ignored.A converted modeprocessing sequence (PSor SP)impliesthe cor-
rectgatheringof the data,whichcanbe a delicatestep,to conditionthefinalresolution.
5A. Pure ShearMode Processing

in Isotropicor VTI Environments
In theserestrictiveconditions,thereare two significantdifferences
between$HSH or
SVSVmodeprocessing.
ß The first onerelatesto the 180øphasechangethat affectsthe two wavemodesat a
givenincidenceangle.This phasechangeoccursin mostcasesaround30-40øin the
SH mode,andmay occurfrom 20-30øin the $V mode(Fig. 3.B.2). Practically, this
meansonehasto carefullycontrolthe mute appliedin the $VSVmode.
ß The seconddifferencerelatesto anisotropy. SH waveanisotropyis elliptical;it is
definedby onesingleanisotropyparameter.$V waveanisotropyneedstwo param-
eters(seeSection3Ah.). Practically,
thismeansa hyperbolicmoveoutfor the
$H wave,anda hyperbolicmigrationpattern,which entailmoreaccurateand
easierfocusingthan for the $V wave.
5Aa. SS Mode Static Corrections
The methods used to determine P mode static corrections can be used in the shear
wave domain:
ß Staticcorrections
fromupholesurveysareobtainedby usinghorizontalreceivers,
and possiblyhorizontallypolarizedsources,
suchashammershocksor light shear
sources.
ß Staticcorrections
by refractionare obtainedsimilarly,on shorthorizontalreceiver
spreads,preferablyfromhorizontallypolarizedsources.
ß Trace-to-trace
staticsareinterpolatedbetweencalibrationpointsby pickingreflec-
tionsand usingmultiplecoverageredundancy
Usingthe samemethodsasfor P wavesdoesnot meanthat the difficultyis the

same.Shearstaticshavemuchlargervariationsat a muchsmallerdistancescalethan
compressional statics.This originatesfrom the highervariabilityof the shearvelocityin
near-surface inhomogeneous material,and alsofrom the transparency of the water table
for the shearpropagation.
Fig. 5.A.1 showsa near-surface situationquitedifferentfor compressional or shear
wavestaticsdetermination. A highlyrugoseinterfaceseparates the low-velocitysurface
materialand the consolidated layerfor shearwaves,while the watertablestabilizesthe
boundarygoverningthe staticsof the compressional waves.

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Section 1. Historical Overview

usingshearwavesin oil exploration.

1A. Early Scientists

1C. Civil Engineering

2000 DistinguishedInstructorShort Course ß 1-1

of the rocksand thusto the safetyof constructionworkssuchasdamsor tunnels

arrivalsrefractedon the firstconsolidated

1D. ShearWavesin Oil Exploration

ß As longasstructuraltrapswerethe maingoalof exploration,compressional(P)

Nevertheless, somegeophysicists experimented with shearwavesin the reflection

1) $H waves have no conversion, at least in a one-dimensional (1D) environment.

P and $H waveexperimentalseismiclineswererecordedin Aktanysh,Russia

1-2 ß Society of ExplorationGeophysicists

Anotherrecognizedcapabilityof shearwaveswasthe validationof P waveampli-

1Db. PS Converted Mode

Furtherexperimentallinesin Franceand Siberiawereconductedwith realmulticompo-

2000 DistinguishedInstructorShort Course ß 1-3

Inner core (solid)

Out core Inner core

1-4 ø Societyof ExplorationGeophysicists

Fig. 1.D.1. The SH Component

2000 DistinguishedInstructorShort Course ø 1-5

Fig. 1.D.3. Vs/Vp Section Derived from P and PSV

1-6 ß Society of ExplorationGeophysicists

This page has been intentionally left blank

Why Use ShearWaves?

Section2. Why Use ShearWaves?

shearwavesremainmoredifficultto operatethancompressional waves,andoftendo

2A. When Compressional

2000 DistinguishedInstructorShort Course ß 2-1

A high-velocitycontrastexistsbetweenthe overburdenand the layerfor constant

pressional velocityof the overburdencanbe close(hereequal)to the shearvelocityof

2B. When LithologicalInformationis Required

As previouslymentioned,Poisson's ratio is directlyrelatedto the Vp/Vsvelocityratio

2-2 ß Society of ExplorationGeophysicists

Vs datafrom theselogscanbe usedto detectchangesin porefluid and lithology

2C. When Fluid Content is Involved

An exampleof brightspotvalidationis shownin the followingfigures,althoughP wave

2D. When Confirmation is Needed

A pair of P and S modesectionson the sameline delivertwo independentresults.

2000 DistinguishedInstructorShort Course ß 2-3

2E. When Shallow-to-MediumDepth Resolutionis Required

betterif the frequencyspectraof both modeswere the same.However,this usuallydoes

2-4 ß Society of ExplorationGeophysicists

P mode PSSP converted mode

P mode .... S mode

2000 DistinguishedInstructorShort Course ß 2-5

Fig. 2.B.3. Natural Axis Orientation Defined through

61 81 101 121 141

2-6 ß Societyof ExplorationGeophysicists

Fig. 2.B.5. Lithology Discrimination in

S Waves 0.5 Km s Waves 0.s Km

• ........ - ,,•_•.,,• , , •;,..',%;,.:.•-

2000 DistinguishedInstructorShort Course ß 2-7

Section 3. Theoretical Bases

A maximumunderstanding of seismicwavepropagation in geomaterials

aim for seismologists.

3A. ElasticWave Propagation

ApplyingNewton'slaw,equatinginertialforce(becauseof the passingwave) to the

3Aa. Elastic Materials

In any material,a generalrelationshipdescribeselasticwavepropagationby expressing

ß v only dependson k, the materialis saidto be dispersive.