L-28-29-MET-

SUMMER-I-2019-
MECHANICAL
PROPERTIES OF
MATERIALS-I
DEFORMATION OF MATERIALS
TENSION
COMPRESSION
SHEAR
TORSION
THE SPECIMEN FOR TENSILE TEST
DIAMETER
DIAMETER

Gauge length

GRIP
SECTION REDUCED
SECTION LENGTH

INITIAL LENGTH li or l0

GENERALLY CALCULATIONS ARE MADE OVER GAUGE LENGTH WHERE DEFORMATION IS

DOMINANT.
 Stress and Strain
• TRUE STRESS is defined as the
• ENGINEERIG STRESS is defined instantaneous applied load divided
as the instantaneous load by the instantaneous cross-
divided by the original sectional area.

specimen cross-sectional area.

• TRUE STRAIN is equal to the

natural logarithm of the ratio of
• ENGINEERING STRAIN is expressed
instantaneous and original
as the change in length (in the direction
specimen lengths.
of load application) divided by the
original length.

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Shape of Ductile Specimen at Various Stages of Testing

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VARIOUS STAGES IN STRESS STRAIN CURVE

1: ULTIMATE STRENGTH
2: YIELD STRENGTH
3: Rupture
4: STRAIN HARDENED
REGION
5: NECKING region
A: ENGINEERING (F/A0)
B: TRUE STRESS(F/A))
•)
 Tensile Properties
Tensile properties refer to properties exhibited by Engineering Materials under
TENSION TEST CONDITIONS . THESE ARE DERIVED FROM STRESS-STAIN CURVES
Proportional Limit and Modulus of Elasticity
It is found that the initial portion of the stress vs strain diagram is a straight line for
most materials used in engineering structures/components. In this range, the
stress and strain are proportional to each other. Therefore we can write,

σ = E (Hooke’s Law)

E, the slope of the straight line portion of the stress vs strain diagram is called the
Modulus of Elasticity or Young’s Modulus.

Proportional limit is the maximum stress under which a material will maintain a
perfectly uniform rate of strain to stress. Thus the stress at the limit of
proportionality point P is known as the proportional limit.

If within this stress, the load on the test specimen is removed at any time, the
extensometer needle will return to zero (initial position). This indicates that the
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strain, caused by the load, is elastic.
SIGNIFICANCE OF TENSILE STRENGTH
Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS)
The ultimate strength or the tensile strength is the maximum stress developed
by the material based on the original cross sectional area without fracture.

On loading further, a ductile material will continue to stretch and will fracture. In
case of a brittle material, it breaks when stressed to the ultimate tensile
strength.

It is calculated by dividing the maximum load applied during the tensile test by
the original cross sectional area of the sample

Breaking Strength
For a ductile material, at the maximum stress (ultimate strength), localized
deformation or necking occurs in the specimen, and the load falls off as the
area decreases. This necking elongation is a non-uniform deformation and
occurs rapidly to the point of failure. The breaking strength for a ductile
material, is determined by dividing the breaking load by the original cross
sectional area, is always less than the ultimate strength.

For brittle material, the ultimate strength and breaking strength coincide.
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 DUCTILITY OF MATERIALS

The ductility of a material is indicated by the amount of plastic

deformation that is possible until fracture. This is determined in a
tension test by two measurements
1) Percent Elongation or 2) Percentage Reduction in Area 9
USE OF DUCTILITY AS AN ENGINEERING BASIS FOR MATERIALS DESIGN

The amount of ductility is an important factor when considering forming

operations such as rolling and extrusion.

It also provides an indication of how visible overload damage to a component

might become before the component fractures.

Ductility is also used a quality control measure to assess the level of impurities
and proper processing of a material
RESILIENCE OF AN ENGINEERING MATERIAL

Resilience is the capacity of a material to absorb

energy when it is deformed elastically and then,
upon unloading, to have this energy recovered

Modulus of resilience, Ur, which is the strain

energy per unit volume required to stress a
material from an unloaded state(zero stress) up
to the point of yielding (yield stress)

Schematic representation showing how

modulus of resilience (corresponding to the
shaded area) is determined from the tensile
stress–strain behavior of a material

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 Toughness of a Material
The energy absorbed by a material prior to fracture
is known as tensile toughness and is sometimes
measured as the area under the true stress–strain
curve (also known as the work of fracture)

The brittle metal has

higher yield and tensile
strengths, it has a lower
toughness than the
ductile one, as can be
seen by comparing the
areas ABC and AB`C`

Schematic representations of tensile stress–strain behavior 12

for brittle and ductile metals loaded to fracture
 Fundamentals of Fracture
Simple fracture

• FRACTRE SEPARATES A STRUCTULAL MEMBER TO TWO

DISTINCT PARTS

• CYCLICALLY INDUCED FATIGUE AND CREEP DEFORMATION

CAN FRACTURE A MATERIAL

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON PLASTIC DEFORMATION

• Ductile metals typically exhibit substantial plastic deformation

with high energy absorption before fracture.

• Brittle - There is normally little or no plastic deformation with

low energy absorption accompanying a brittle fracture.

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 Fundamentals of Fracture
• Any fracture process involves two steps in response to an imposed
stress
– crack formation and propagation.

The mode of fracture is highly dependent on the mechanism of crack

propagation.

 Ductile fracture is characterized by extensive plastic deformation in the

vicinity of an advancing crack. The process proceeds relatively slowly
as the crack length is extended. Such a crack is often said to be stable.
That is, it resists any further extension unless there is an increase in
the applied stress. In addition, there will ordinarily be evidence of
appreciable gross deformation at the fracture surfaces (e.g., twisting
and tearing).

 For brittle fracture, cracks may spread extremely rapidly, with very little
accompanying plastic deformation. Such cracks may be said to be
unstable, and crack propagation, once started, will continue
spontaneously without an increase in magnitude of the applied stress.
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 Fundamentals of Fracture

• The yielding region for ductile materials often takes up the majority of the
stress-strain curve, whereas for brittle materials it is nearly nonexistent.

• Brittle materials often have relatively large Young's moduli and ultimate
stresses in comparison to ductile materials. These differences are a major
consideration for design.

• Ductile materials exhibit large strains and yielding before they fail. On the
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contrary, brittle materials fail suddenly and without much warning.
Ductile Fracture
(a) Highly ductile fracture in which the
specimen necks down to a point.
(b) Moderately ductile fracture after
some necking.
(c) Brittle fracture without any plastic
deformation.

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MORPHOLOGY OF DUCTILE FRACTURE
• The material exhibits substantial plastic deformation in
the vicinity of an advancing crack with high-energy
absorption before fracture.
• PROCEEDS OFTEN THROUGH VOID COALECENCE
• There is evidence of appreciable gross deformation at
fracture surfaces (e.g., twining and tearing)

• It proceeds relatively slowly as the crack length is

extended

• Crack is stable, i.e., resists any further extension unless

there is an increase in applied stress

• Cup-and-cone fracture type

 Stages of Brittle fracture
Brittle fracture in metals is believed to take place in three stages
1) Plastic deformation that causes dislocation pile-ups at obstacles,
2) Micro-crack nucleation as a result of build-up of shear stresses,
3) Eventual crack propagation under applied stress aided by stored elastic
energy.

Collective Information

• No appreciable plastic deformation

• Crack propagation is very fast

• Crack propagates nearly perpendicular to the direction of the applied stress

• Crack often propagates by cleavage – breaking of atomic bonds along specific
crystallographic planes (cleavage planes). 18
 Brittle Fracture
• Cleavage: In brittle fracture, crack propagation corresponds to successive and
repeated breaking of atomic bonds along specific crystallographic planes.

• Crack surface may have grainy or faceted texture due to changes in orientation
of cleavage planes from one grain to another.
A crack that passes
through the grains within
the material is
undergoing transgranular
fracture. Fracture cracks
pass through grains.
Fracture surface have
faceted texture because
of different orientation of
cleavage planes in grains
However, a crack that
propagates along the grain
boundaries is termed an
intergranular fracture. Cleavage
is transgranular since cracks
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pass through the grains.
 Why Ductile fracture is Preferred more ?
Ductile fracture is almost always preferred for two
reasons.

Brittle fracture occurs suddenly and catastrophically

without any warning; this is a consequence of the
spontaneous and rapid crack propagation.

Ductile fracture, the presence of plastic deformation

gives warning that fracture is imminent, allowing
preventive measures to be taken.

More strain energy is required to induce ductile

fracture in as much as ductile materials are
generally tougher.

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 Ductile to Brittle Transition(DBTT)
• DBTT is best explained by atomic dynamics. Greater
atomic vibration causes bond stretching and
increasing deformation in elastic regime. Ductility
prevails.
• In low temperature, atomic motions are frozen in.
deformation is rendured difficult. Brittleness sets in.

• In covalent solids like diamond is hard and brittle.

Covalent bonding interactions>7eV bring in rigidity.
Brittleness sets in.
• Metals have 2eV bond energy. Electrons itinerant.
Bonds are stretcheable. Hence they are ductile.

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BRITTLE FRACTURE
DUE TO DBTT IN Cargo
vessel "Schenectady" ( (T-2
tanker) in 1943
COMPARISON BETWEEN DUCTILE AND BRITTLE FRACTURES

Ductile Brittle
Deformation extensive little
Crack slow, needs
fast
propagation stress
most metals (not ceramics, ice,
Type of materials
too cold) cold metals
permanent
Warning none
elongation
Strain energy higher lower
Fractured surface rough smoother
HOME WORK
PROBLEMS
EXAMPLE PROBLEM
STRESS-STRAIN
CURVE OF A BRASS
SPECIMEN
EXAMPLE PROBLEM
EXAMPLE PROBLEM2