B-SAHF (Be Safe): A Fire Behavior Indicators Tool
Understand key indicators and what changes they are likely to bring
INDICATOR
The type of building construction will have an
enormous impact on how the fire develops and
how long the structure will be stable.
The use or occupancy of the building may
BUILDING give some indication of the likely fire load and
location.
LOCATION AND VOLUME
Volume can vary with the size of the fire com- be read with other indicators that are present
partment, available air supply, and combustion in the fire compartment itself.
process. A small fire burning for a long time
can lead to a large volume of smoke.
COLOR—Varies with
FUEL:
-Type
-Form (gas, liquid, solid, shavings, dust)
COMBUSTION PROCESS:
SMOKE -fuel-controlled or ventilation-controlled
HEIGHT OF NEUTRAL PLANE
(smoke layer/air interface)
THICKNESS (Optical/visual density)
BUOYANCY
(how rapidly/readily the smoke moves
upwards)
VELOCITY AND DIRECTION
(read in conjunction with the velocity and
direction of the smoke)
FLOW—TUBRULENT OR SMOOTH
(interface of the air/smoke through openings)
AIR
PULSATIONS
WHISTLING SOUNDS
INDICATOR
PAINTWORK BLISTERED OR DISCOLORED
(Heat indicators may be less obvious struc-
tures with heavy insulation)
DARKENED OR CRACKED WINDOWS
(May be absent with double- or triple- glazed
window construction. Water application could
HEAT cause sudden failure.)
SURFACES THAT ARE HOT TO TOUCH
(May be absent in structures with heavy
insulation)
SUDDEN INCREASE IN INTERIOR TEMPERATURE
LOCATION AND VOLUME
COLOR
FLAME (Can be influenced by a large number of
variables)
WAVE SHAPE AND LENGTH
(May be difficult to see)
CAUTION!!!
• Never rely on one indicator.
• Remember: There may be more than one air track.
• The indicators are most reliable when looking at the compartment involved, rather than the smoke that has travelled some distance from the fire room.
• Risk assessments can only be as complete as the information gathered. There are a great number of variables and it is almost impossible to know all the factors.
• Building construction features such as thick walls and/or energy-efficient insulation may make it difficult to see heat indicators until the fire is well advanced.
• Skill in reading the fire is best developed through a combination of sound theory, large-scale realistic live-fire training, visual aids and case studies.
FLASHOVER
Flashover will occur in most buildings if suffi-
cient air is available. Compartments with lim-
ited natural air flow are less likely to flash over
before the available air is consumed. Heavy
brick or cement rendered walls will absorb a lot
of energy, which could delay flashover.
This can be an unreliable indicator that must
Flashover requires a reasonable air supply
so the smoke will show evidence of flaming
combustion, which means it will have soot
present giving a grey to dark grey color. As the
fire gets closer to flashover it may become fuel-
controlled, which will darken the color of the
smoke toward black.
Pre-flashover height is high and drops to lower
half closer to flashover.
Becomes thicker as flashover approaches.
Highly buoyant smoke rising rapidly as the
temperature increases closer to flashover.
Low velocity when the fire is fuel-controlled,
increasing as the fire moves to ventilation-
controlled
Smooth while fire is fuel-controlled, becoming
turbulent (with lowering neutral plane) as
the compartment fire becomes ventilation-
controlled.
Not seen in the fuel-controlled phase, but may
be present to some extent in the ventilation-
controlled phase.
Not likely.
FLASHOVER
Often present on outside of exterior doors or
walls. Can give an indicator of the location of
the fire compartment.
Darkening will most likely be present. Windows
may crack if the heat build up is sudden (or if
jets are applied to super-heated glass).
Often present in lightweight construction.
A very late indicator and therefore of no use in
giving early warning. Gas cool and/or remove
the smoke.
Isolated flames traveling in the hot gas layer
(ghosting) or more substantially across the
ceiling (rollover). These flames may or may not
be visible without a thermal imaging camera.
Yellow coloring at the base of the fire often
indicates good air flow. Reddish-orange flames
may indicate less air is available or the condi-
tions are fuel rich.
Turbulent flames present near the ceiling.
Clear to yellow flames with a long wave due to
the ignition of pyrolysis products can indicate
flashover is imminent.
BACKDRAFT
Backdraft is more likely in energy-efficient
buildings with good insulation and sealed
windows or double/triple glazing. Smoldering
fires may consume the available oxygen before
the fire is able to become free-burning. Heat
indicators may be less obvious due to the
superior insulation associated with this type of
construction.
Large volumes of smoke will be concentrated in Smoke can emerge and accumulate some distance from the
the fire compartment. Other parts of building source. This can give a false indicator of the location of the fire
may have a variety of smoke conditions. Unreli- compartment
able unless read with other indicators.
White smoke may indicate the contents are
undergoing pyrolysis and not flaming or smol-
dering combustion. Yellow/brown can indicate
decomposition of wood. Black will generally
indicate at least active smoldering combustion
of energy-rich products.
Low or at floor level in the compartment of
origin.
Usually thick. When at a high temperature it
will expand and roll at a high velocity.
Buoyant, expanding smoke indicates higher
internal temperature and pressure—very dan-
gerous. Low buoyancy (or lazy smoke) indicates
lower temperature.
Sudden total outrush of smoke followed by a
sudden total inrush of air through an opening
is a common indicator of impending backdraft.
Can vary depending with the internal tempera-
ture. Likely to become increasingly turbulent
after opening.
Often seen. Rapid pulsations usually mean
higher temperatures.
Air forced in and out of small gaps may make
this sound.
BACKDRAFT
Discoloration may be present and possibly give
indication of heat layering. A light application
of water in the external surface will evaporate
at temperatures over 212° F (100° C) and give
a heat indicator that may reveal the height of
the neutral plane.
Darkening indicates rich conditions. Cracking
indicates high heat conditions. Crazing may
indicate a more gradual temperature increase
has occurred.
Surfaces may be hot, and the temperature will
gradually decrease as the available oxygen is
consumed.
A very late indicator and therefore of no use in
giving early warning. Anti-ventilate and/or cool
smoke. If the tactics involve ventilation, cool
gases first if possible and have charged hose
line in place!
Little or no visible flame pre-backdraft, but
conditions can vary widely in different parts
of the structure. Super-heated fuel-rich smoke
may auto-ignite after leaving the compartment
of origin.
Red or orange may indicate fuel-rich condi-
tions. Pockets of blue flames are said to be
from the auto-ignition of carbon monoxide.
When an opening is created, flames may occur
around the smoke/air interface as air is drawn
in toward the fire base. Very late indicator.
FIRE GAS IGNITION
Voids, ducts, shafts, balloon frame, large open plan, high ceil-
ings, false or suspended ceilings allow smoke to be transported
and accumulate in areas adjacent to the compartment of origin,
or some distance from it. Modifications can create unexpected
openings or voids. Poor or damaged smoke/fire stopping can be
found in original or modified buildings. The unburnt fuel in the
smoke is often partially mixed with fresh air and can accumu-
late to flammable concentrations.
Smoke that has travelled some distance from the fire compart-
ment may appear lighter in color due to partial mixing with
cooler air as it moves through the structure.
Usually not well defined due to pre-mixing with cool air.
Can often appear to be thinner (to some extent) due to pre-
mixing with cooler, fresh air.
Generally not very buoyant due to cooling from pre-mixing with
cooler air.
Smoke velocity will slow as it moves further from the source and
spreads out (mushrooming). Any air drawn in through openings
in adjacent or remote areas is generally slower moving.
The further the smoke moves from the compartment or origin,
the more likely the interface will be smooth.
Highly unlikely.
Highly unlikely.
FIRE GAS IGNITION
A lack of heat indicators could be deceptive as cooler smoke
is often not perceived as a risk. The further the smoke has
travelled, the greater the cooling effect in the early stages. If the
fuel has pre-mixed with air, and the concentrations are within
flammable limits, it is possible for explosive ignition to occur.
Darkening may be present as the smoke accumulates. Cracking
is less likely in the early stages especially if the smoke has
travelled an extended distance.
May not be hot, particularly in the early stages.
None until the fire gas ignition. Fire gas ignition can be very
sudden and even explosive. The explosive power depends on
the amount of fuel and how well it has pre-mixed with the
available air.
No flame may be present in the space prior to ignition. Once
ignition has occurred it is likely to progress very rapidly (even
explosively). Cool the gases and/or remove the accumulated
smoke to prevent or delay ignition.
No flame may be present in the space prior to ignition.
No flame may be present in the space prior to ignition.