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Epithermal ore deposits: First-order features relevant to exploration and


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Epithermal ore deposits: first-order features relevant to
exploration and assessment
Jeffrey W. Hedenquist
University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada

Antonio Arribas R.
Akita University, Akita, Japan

Abstract. The general features of ore deposits in the related to volcanic emanations (Ransome 1907). These
epithermal environment are influenced by their tectonic, three endmembers correlate with low-, intermediate-, and
magmatic and geologic associations. Geologic variability high-sulfidation epithermal deposit types, respectively
means that there is a wide variation in features associated (Hedenquist et al. 2000).
with individual districts, deposits, and prospects. In this
The Ag-Au±bms and Au-Ag-Cu-As deposits may be
presentation we review some of the first-order features
spatially associated with one another (Hedenquist et al.
relevant to exploration and assessment of epithermal
deposit targets. Our recommendations combine 2000; Sillitoe and Hedenquist 2003), and either or both
knowledge from traditional and recent geologic and occur in association with (and centered on) subvolcanic
genetic models with personal lessons from exploration and porphyritic intrusions, which, within districts, can be hosts
published exploration case studies. These to more deeply formed (~1.5-3 km) porphyry Cu-Au
recommendations provide a framework for investigation deposits (Sillitoe 2010). These epithermal deposits are
and documentation of key features such as genetic models typically associated with intermediate-composition,
and deposit classification, depth of formation, alteration oxidized magmas and hydrothermal fluids of moderate- to
mineralogy and zoning, and ore and gangue assemblages high-sulfidation state in volcanic arcs. By contrast, Au-Ag
and textures, among others. Use of this framework for the deposits (with very low base metal contents) commonly
design and later interpretation of geochemical and
form in zones of crustal extension, typically in back-arc
geophysical surveys will assist greatly in the development
rifts, and are associated with more reduced and low
and testing of epithermal precious- and base-metals
exploration targets. sulfidation-state bimodal rhyolite-basalt magmatism
(John et al. 2001; Einaudi et al. 2003). Volcanic rocks
1 Introduction most commonly host all epithermal deposit styles, but all
rock types, particularly sedimentary basement, can be
The general features of ore deposits in the epithermal potential hosts, especially where the ore body form is
environment are influenced by their tectonic, magmatic strongly influenced by structures and veins have a large
and geologic associations (Sillitoe and Hedenquist 2003). vertical interval.
While highly variable, alteration and ore minerals plus The low sulfide-content Au-Ag deposits in rifts
textures and zonation patterns have defining typically contain arsenopyrite or pyrrhotite plus Fe-rich
characteristics (Arribas 1995; Hedenquist et al. 2000). sphalerite, indicating a reduced and low-sulfidation state,
These characteristics have implications for the assessment in addition to pyrite; chalcopyrite and other intermediate
of prospects during mineral exploration. sulfidation-state sulfides can be present in minor
Waldemar Lindgren recognized nearly a century ago quantities, caused by sharp cooling (due to boiling). By
(Lindgren 1933) that the group of ore deposits he termed contrast, the more sulfide-rich Ag-Au±bms veins contain
epithermal formed within the upper km or so of Earth's chalcopyrite, tennantite/tetrahedrite, galena and low-Fe
surface. He and his colleagues appreciated that sphalerite, as well as local hematite and pyrite, defining a
geothermal hot springs and volcanic fumaroles are the more oxidized and intermediate sulfidation state, related
active surficial expression of hydrothermal systems that to more oxidized magmas in volcanic arcs. Enargite in
formed epithermal deposits. Lindgren realized that the Au-Ag-Cu-As deposits, also located in volcanic arcs,
epithermal group has characteristic styles of deposits, and define these deposits as high sulfidation state, along with
he distinguished several deposit groups on the basis of fine pyrite, covellite and locally native S; the early
metal association, gangue and alteration assemblages, residual quartz and advanced argillic stage of alteration in
based on relative contents of Au, Ag, base metal (Zn, Pb, these deposits is typically barren and associated with
and/or Cu) sulfide minerals and the abundance of Se or coarse pyrite. The high sulfidation state of these is related
Te. Here we use three precious- and base-metal epithermal to cooling of an intermediate sulfidation-state fluid and
deposit groups, Au-Ag, Ag-Au±base metal sulfides the lack of any buffering capacity of the residual quartz
(bms), and Au-Ag-Cu-As (Table 1). The first two groups host rock (Einaudi et al. 2003). In these deposits, the Au
have gangue and alteration minerals indicative of near- stage mainly follows the Cu stage, and is associated with
neutral pH fluids, whereas the alteration halos of the latter chalcopyrite, tennantite/tetrahedrite and low-Fe
deposit style indicate an initial fluid with an acidic pH, sphalerite.

SY01 – Gold through time and space 47


Veins of Ag-Au±bms (intermediate sulfidation-state the white mica in the alteration halo is crystalline
sulfides) have local high sulfidation-state assemblages (muscovite) with illite and lower temperature clays in
proximal to the feeder zone, and there can be local halos distal positions or shallow depths over ore veins.
of advanced argillic alteration, consistent with the close By contrast, Au-Ag-Cu-As deposits are proximal to
genetic association of these two sulfide-rich (up to several intrusive centers, hosted by early-formed hypogene
wt% base metals) deposit styles. advanced argillic alteration (Hedenquist and Taran 2013).
Core zones of residual quartz (locally vuggy in texture),
2 Depth of formation closest to feeder zones, form by acidic condensates of
magmatic vapor (pH~1). Alteration halos flare outward as
The Ag-Au±bms and Au-Ag-Cu-As deposits form as deep depth decreases and consist of an inner zone of quartz-
as ~1+ km (Table 1), with vertical ore intervals of ~100 alunite±dickite that grades outward and upward to quartz-
up to 600 m; the top of ore may be 100-300 m below kaolinite, then to clays. Where a structure intersects a
paleosurface. By contrast, Au-Ag deposits form at a horizon of lithologic permeability, a lithocap of advanced
shallower depth, and the top of ore veins may lie a few argillic alteration can form where the acidic condensate
tens of meters below the paleosurface, capped by silica flows laterally (Sillitoe 2010), with this lithocap typically
sinter, with a surficial blanket above the groundwater table being offset from (on the shoulder of) the deep source
of steam-heated acid sulfate water (pH~2.5) and kaolinite- intrusion (Hedenquist and Taran 2013). Pyrophyllite ±
alunite alteration. Temperature at the paleosurface was a diaspore is common in the high-temperature feeder zones,
maximum of ≤ 100°C, whereas temperature increases and similar alteration may occur in proximal positions
along the boiling point-for-depth curve to ~300°C at 1000 along structures that are subsequently reopened by quartz
m depth (Fig. 1). This temperature-depth relation controls Ag-Au±bms veins of a later system, with deep halos of
the distribution of temperature-sensitive alteration white mica.
minerals (Fig. 2).

Figure 1. Boiling-point-for-depth curve in upflow (red) and


marginal (mixing; orange) zones; alteration mineral zonation in
upflow and marginal zones differ, with steam-heated alteration
blankets above the groundwater table. Modified from
Hedenquist et al. (2000).

3 Alteration minerals and zonation


Figure 2. Variation in mineral stability with temperature at
Alteration mineralogy is controlled largely by temperature quartz solubility (dashed curves for stability at amorphous silica
solubility). Modified from Hedenquist et al. (2000).
as well as pH (Hedenquist et al. 2000). In Au-Ag deposits,
their shallow depth of formation (Table 1) means that the
4 Gangue minerals and textures
paleotemperature was low, typically <230°C at
paleodepths <300 m (Fig. 1). At this temperature the
Deposits of Ag-Au±bms and Au-Ag-Cu-As commonly
alteration is dominated by illite next to the vein, plus local
have sulfate minerals such as barite and anhydrite as
adularia and silicification. At distal positions or depths
gangue, which indicate relatively oxidized fluid. By
<150 m (<200°C), interstratified illite-smectite and then
contrast, Au-Ag deposits do not have sulfate minerals, and
smectite are the stable clays. The Ag-Au±bms deposits
the pyrrhotite, arsenopyrite plus Fe-rich sphalerite
typically form at greater depths and hence higher
indicate a reduced fluid.
temperature, to about 1 km and ~300°C. Above ~250°C

48 Mineral Resources to Discover - 14th SGA Biennial Meeting 2017, Volume 1


Both Au-Ag and Ag-Au±bms veins are dominated (Fig. 1) indicate little erosion (Sillitoe 2015). Zonation of
by quartz, with subsidiary adularia, carbonates (bladed alteration mineralogy (Hedenquist et al. 2003), and
calcite, indicative of boiling) and in Ag-Au±bms veins increasingly mineral chemistry (Chang et al. 2011),
only, Mn carbonates ± rhodochrosite (Table 1). provide powerful tools to assist in the location of the
Crystalline quartz occurs in the deeper, higher feeder conduit(s) close to the main upflow center(s).
temperature Ag-Au±bms veins, commonly with banded or Patterns of temperature-dependent alteration mineralogy
crustiform textures, whereas finer quartz and chalcedony and mineral composition can be mapped, assisted by
occur at the shallower depths (and lower temperatures) of SWIR (short wave infrared spectral methods).
Au-Ag veins. Colloform textures are present where Appreciation that residual vuggy quartz and advanced
boiling and vapor loss of an ascending liquid, argillic minerals commonly have zoning asymmetric to
accompanied by sharp cooling (Fig. 3), results in the feeder zone, and are typically barren of Au-Ag-Cu-As
amorphous silica saturation of a colloid, which deposits as (Hedenquist et al. 2000), is essential since, where
a gel, locally banded (Fig. 3, inset). Gold saturation from mineralized, feeder zones of lithocaps typically have
a bisulfide complex – dominant in epithermal systems – is higher metal grades.
strongly driven by boiling due to the loss of H2S to the In this manner, knowledge of the tectonic, magmatic
vapor phase (Hedenquist et al. 2003). The presence of and geologic setting, and documentation in plan view as
such colloidal features in banded quartz veins and breccia well as cross- and long-section of the temperature-
fills are evidence of boiling and potentially gold dependent alteration mineralogy, ore and gangue
precipitation. Indeed, high gold grades in all styles of assemblages, structures and lithological information, and
epithermal deposit are commonly associated with such other potential district- or deposit-scale relevant features
colloform or laminated colloidal features (also seen in (such as ore and mineral textures, mineral composition,
banded quartz veins of porphyry Au deposits, again due to etc.) provide a framework for the design and interpretation
vapor loss). of geochemical and geophysical surveys. For example, the
nature of a geochemical anomaly (anomalous suite as well
as threshold of anomaly, etc.) can be highly variable
between districts and hence requires orientation surveys
to provide confidence in interpretation of stream, soil and
rock results. Clay halos (low resistivity zones) can vary in
width depending on permeability of host rock, whereas
residual quartz (particularly lithocaps) will provide high
resistivity anomalies. Sulfides in narrow veins typically
do not provide chargeable anomalies, whereas sulfides in
lithocaps and disseminated at shallow levels of porphyry
deposits do (unless supergene oxidized). Where alteration
halos are sufficiently wide around veins, etc. (particularly
under cover), magnetic lows may indicate extent of
alteration and/or structural corridors to assist in mapping
efforts. Among others, these observations will assist in the
Figure 3. Silica solubility vs temperature for quartz, cristobalite development and testing of epithermal exploration targets.
and amorphous silica. Boiling and equilibrium vapor loss (red
lines) results in the cooling liquid to shift from quartz to
amorphous silica (sinter or colloid) deposition; non-equilibrium References
vapor loss (e.g., during sharp depressurization; dashed red line)
can cause silica colloids to form with relatively small Arribas, A (1995) Characteristics of high-sulfidation epithermal
temperature decreases. Mixing of any deep liquid with a shallow deposits, and their relation to magmatic fluid. In Thompson JFH
groundwater (cool or steam-heated) will never cause amorphous (ed) Miner Assoc Canada Short Course 23: 419–454
silica to form. Inset: dendritic Au overlain by colloform bands of Chang Z, Hedenquist JW, White NC, Cooke DR, Roach M, Deyell
colloidal silica (Sleeper, NV, photograph by J Saunders; 2 mm CL, Garcia JS, Jr, Gemmell JB, McKnight S, Cuison AL (2011)
width). Exploration tools for linked porphyry and epithermal deposits:
Example from Mankayan, Philippines. Econ Geol
5 Exploration implications 106:1365−1398
Einaudi ME, Hedenquist JW, Inan E (2003) Sulfidation state of
Ideally, exploration for epithermal prospects begins with fluids in active and extinct hydrothermal systems In Simmons,
knowledge of the tectonic setting (e.g., arc vs rift), such SF, Graham, I (eds) Soc Econ Geol Spec Pub 10:285-313
that the style of deposit and the nature of alteration and Hedenquist JW, Arribas A, Gonzalez-Urien E (2000) Exploration
geochemical signature can be predicted and utilized to for epithermal gold deposits. In Hagemann SE, Brown PE (eds)
develop working exploration models. Assessment of Rev Econ Geol 13:245–277
John DA (2001) Miocene and early Pliocene epithermal gold-silver
prospects, once identified, will benefit from an
deposits in the northern Great Basin, western USA:
understanding of the depth of erosion; paleosurface
Characteristics, distribution, and relationship to magmatism.
features such as silica sinters (or laminated colloidal silica Econ Geol 96:1827–1853
formed in acidic lakes) and steam-heated alteration as well Lindgren W (1933) Mineral deposits. 4th edn New York and London,
as the chalcedony blankets formed at the paleowater table McGraw-Hill Book Company

SY01 – Gold through time and space 49


Ransome FL (1907) The association of alunite with gold in the Sillitoe RH, Hedenquist JW (2003) Linkages between
Goldfield district, Nevada. Econ Geol 2:667–692 volcanotectonic settings, ore-fluid compositions, and epithermal
Sillitoe RH (2010) Porphyry systems. Econ Geol 105:3-41 precious-metal deposits. In Simmons SF, Graham I (eds) Soc
Sillitoe RH (2015) Epithermal paleosurfaces. Miner Deposita Econ Geol Spec Pub 10:315-343
50:767-795

Table 1: Characteristics of end-member ore deposit styles in the epithermal environment



Deposit style Depth to ore top, m Alteration, proximal Host, gangue Sulfide minerals Ag:Au ratio
(tectonic setting) (vertical interval) to distal with ore
Au-Ag <50 to 400 m il±ad, il, il-sm, sm qz vein host, ad, asp, po, high-Fe spl (low ~20:1 to <1:1
(rift) (<100-300 m) cc sulf’dn), py, Se, Mo, rare cp
Ag-Au± bms 100 to 800+ m white mica (ms), il- qz vein host, ad, py, td/tn, low-Fe spl, cp, Te 10-25:1 to
(arc) (150-500+ m) sm, sm rhod, ba, an (intermediate sulf’dn) >100:1
Au-Ag-Cu-As 100 to 900 m al, ka-dk±pi-ds, (ms), residual qz host, py, en (lz, fa) (high sulf’dn), ~1:1 to ~100:1
(arc) (100-600+ m) il-sm, sm ba, an tn/td, low-Fe spl, cp, Te, Mo
Abbreviations: bms, base metal sulfides; sm, smectite; il, illite; il-sm, interstratified il-sm; ad, adularia; ms, muscovite; ka,
kaolinite; dk, dickite; pi, pyrophyllite; ds, diaspore; cc, calcite; rhod, rhodochrosite; ba, barite; an, anhydrite; qz, quartz; asp,
arsenopyrite; po, pyrrhotite; py, pyrite; spl, sphalerite; td/tn, tetrahedrite/tennantite; cp, chalcopyrite; en, enargite; lz, luzonite; fa,
famatinite; Se, selenides; Te, tellurides; Mo, molybdenum anomalies; sulf’dn, sulfidation state (Einaudi et al., 2003). Arc-related
deposits have variable anomalies of Bi, Sn, Cd (due to magmatic affiliation; Hedenquist et al., 2000; Sillitoe and Hedenquist, 2003)

50 Mineral Resources to Discover - 14th SGA Biennial Meeting 2017, Volume 1


Epithermal ore deposits: First-order features SGA 2017 Quebec City
relevant to exploration and assessement

Epithermal ore deposits: first-order features


relevant to exploration and assessment
GSJ

residual vuggy
quartz, barren

quartz (≤97% SiO2),


alunite, <2 – 29 ppb Au

• First-order features
• 4 examples in Asia
• Transitions, variability

Satsuma Iwojima, Japan: Jeffrey W. Hedenquist, Ottawa


rhyolite dome, pH ~1.5 springs Antonio Arribas R., Akita U

Intrusion-centered systems: tectonic setting

bonanza

Cu-Au

High & intermediate Low


sulfidation

sense... or - Grapefruit, apples


oranges
– know characteristics

Modified from R. Goldfarb, after Groves et al. (2005)

J.W. Hedenquist 1
Epithermal ore deposits: First-order features SGA 2017 Quebec City
relevant to exploration and assessement

Location of Typical Epithermal Gold Deposits:


Largely Tertiary, but also Mesozoic, Paleozoic, to Paleoprot.

Tethyan Belt
West
Pacific
Belt
East
Pacific
Belt

(apples)
(oranges)
Arribas et al., 2000 (grapefruit)

Kochbulak, Multiple colloform


Uzbekistan bands, events
(IS, local enargite)

Waihi, NZ
(LS, to deep bms)

Au
Episodic brecciation, Qtz, adularia, Au, Ag ss
vapor loss and rapid
cooling: colloidal
silica + Au deposition
à colloform bands
Altin Nar IS, Mongolia: Bayan Khundii LS, Mongolia:
87 g/t Au, 5% Zn-Pb,Cu, 1.8% Mn 314 g/t Au, 137 g/t Ag, 200 ppm bms

qtz pseudomorph of bladed carbonate

J.W. Hedenquist 2
Epithermal ore deposits: First-order features SGA 2017 Quebec City
relevant to exploration and assessement

Sl
Ya

Wa RMt

Vi To

Waldemar Lindgren, 1922:


“epithermal” = over, above;
<1 km deep (<300 oC)

Arcs Rift alkalic

HS IS LS LS(a)

Hedenquist et al., 1996, 2000

BP depth m 0 50 150 400 1000


Principal temperature-
100 200 oC 300
(depth-) dependent
alteration mineralogy
Low sufidation veins (rifts)
illite, clays; chalcedony, adularia,
calcite (steam-heated blankets;
kaolinite, alunite); minor sulfides

Intermediate sulfidation veins (arcs)


muscovite (“sericite”); quartz
±adularia, carb, rhodochrosite, musc
barite, anhydrite;
local (early?) hi-T advanced argillic
on structures (e.g., kaolinite, alunite,
dickite, pyrophyllite, diaspore);
variable sulfide content
LS: shallow (<200-400 m)
compiled by Hedenquist et al.
<220-230 oC
(1996) from Henley and Ellis IS: deeper (~300-800+ m) LS IS ± HS
(1983), Reyes (1990), unpub. >220-230 oC) rift arc

J.W. Hedenquist 3
Epithermal ore deposits: First-order features SGA 2017 Quebec City
relevant to exploration and assessement

Hishikari, southern Kyushu:


migration of volcanic arc
Footprint of
440 t Au deposit
1 Ma now

0.7 Ma

Temp. oC 100 200 300 Hishikari, Kyushu


Musc
LS veins
(ser)

smectite-
smectite, chl
kaolinite

500 m

Unconformity
Greywacke basement
Izawa et al., 1990;
Faure et al., 2002 100 m

J.W. Hedenquist 4
Epithermal ore deposits: First-order features SGA 2017 Quebec City
relevant to exploration and assessement

Hishikari,
Kyushu
Greywacke
basement
1000 –
4000 g/t Au ~20 g/t Au

<1 g/t Au

Porphyry systems in arcs Residual quartz-hosted


high-sulfidation Au-Ag-Cu
Lacustrine beds

Intermediate
sulfidation
Au-Ag (Pb-Zn)

Base of Diatreme
advanced argillic related
lithocap (perm. IS veins,
lithologic host) polymetal

Porphyry
Cu-Au

Sillitoe, 2010
Economic Geology

J.W. Hedenquist 5
Epithermal ore deposits: First-order features SGA 2017 Quebec City
relevant to exploration and assessement

Nansatsu district, Kyushu, Japan (~30 t Au):


Iwato high-sulfidation (HS) deposit
Inset: qtz-alunite halo, sharp ctc with residual qtz (ore host)

residual
kaol alunite vuggy qtz
>0.5 g/t Au

Urashima et
al., 1981

>1 g/t Au
First recognition of lithocap control

Tuff breccia
Nansatsu Group

J.W. Hedenquist 6
Epithermal ore deposits: First-order features SGA 2017 Quebec City
relevant to exploration and assessement

Kushikino, Kyushu (55 t Au):


Temp. oC 100 200 300
Mt Kamuridake, looking NE,
capped by barren residual qtz,
high-T advanced argillic halos

Kushikino IS ore:
2-3 km west,
qtz-calcite-Au veins

Volcanic setting of Kushikino IS deposit, Kyushu


Volcanism: 3.6-3.9 Ma
Muscovite (halo to pyrophyllite): 3.4-3.8 Ma
Adularia-Au: 3.4-3.7 Ma

Izawa and Zeng, 2001

500 m elev
50-150 m

0m
2 km

J.W. Hedenquist 7
Epithermal ore deposits: First-order features SGA 2017 Quebec City
relevant to exploration and assessement

1 km

A: chl-mont (propylitic)
B: chl-cc-illite-mont
C: kaol-(overprint of
mont-illite-chl, cc gone)
steam-heated blanket

>3 g/t Au

Matsuhisa et al., 1985

Blanket of
Hypogene pyroph-zuny-
steam-heated m
diaspore hi-T alteration
kaolinite alteration SO2 à H2SO4, HCl 500
H2S + 2O2 à H2SO4

hypogene
-500
magmatic
vapor

-1000

Morishita and Takeno, 2008 km

J.W. Hedenquist 8
Epithermal ore deposits: First-order features SGA 2017 Quebec City
relevant to exploration and assessement

Mankayan district, Philippines

Mohong Hill
quartz-alunite
Far lithocap
Lepanto Southeast
epithermal porphyry
Cu-Au Cu-Au
dacite pyroclastics

volcaniclastic
basement
Victoria
epithermal
Au-Ag vns

Looking NNW

12-49 ppb Au
distal qtz-alun

Lepanto HS: >0.9


Mt Cu & 102 t Au
1.3-1.4 Ma Alteration and
surface
~5 Ma
projection of
FSE porphyry: blind ore
1.15-1.3 Ma 892 Mt @ 0.5% deposits
Victoria IS veins Cu & 0.7 g/t Au
11 Mt @ 7.3 g/t Au + 1.3-1.4 Ma
Ag-Cu-Pb-Zn
Guinaoang
porphyry
~2.3 Ma 500 Mt @ 0.4%
Teresa IS veins Cu & 0.4 g/t Au
0.8 Mt @ 5.74 g/t Au >2.9 Ma
Nayak veins ~1.7 Ma
1 km

Chang et al., 2011

J.W. Hedenquist 9
Epithermal ore deposits: First-order features SGA 2017 Quebec City
relevant to exploration and assessement

Lepanto epithermal - Far Southeast porphyry deposits:


variable features in arc-hosted systems

en 1.8-2.2 Ma

1 g/t Au cp
1.45 Ma
0.7% Cu
2 cm
Mo
1.3-1.4 Ma
Concepcion and Cinco, 1989; Garcia, 1991;
Arribas et al., 1995; Gaibor et al., 2013

First-order epithermal features (after tectonics)

 Level of erosion
 Shallow vs deep minerals, steam-heated blanket
 Size, distribution and nature of alteration
 Structural and/or lithologic control (kms scale...)
 Steam-heated and/or hypogene advanced argillic vs
(and) adularia±carbonates (NB: supergene overprint)
 Alteration mineralogy – mineral composition
 Indicates paleotemperature-depth (and environment)
 Zonation to upflow (overprint); T-, pH-, redox-sensitive
 Gangue and ore textures
 Style of system from first-order features

J.W. Hedenquist 10
Epithermal ore deposits: First-order features SGA 2017 Quebec City
relevant to exploration and assessement

Interpretation
 Describe observations
 Document in cross and long sections
 Avoid genetic-related terms (buzzwords)
 Design optimal geochemical (geophysical) surveys
 Wide variation of geochemical associations, geophysical
(mineralogical) signatures: no recipes
 Orientation surveys typically are key
 Interpret data comprehensively à information
 Test anomaly by drilling, not by another survey technique
 Basic concepts not changed
 Some new tools, but no magic bullets
 Be familiar with examples, then walk prospective ground

J.W. Hedenquist 11
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