A Report

On

Title of the Open Ended Experiment

Submitted by
By
NIKHIL S K USN: 4SO17EC050
NEEMA USN: 4SO17EC049
NIKITHA K USN:4SO17EC051
LAVANYA K USN:4SO17EC031
KAVYASHREE USN:4SO17EC028

Linear ICs and Communication Lab (17ECL48) Open Ended

Experiment

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

(ug program accredited by national board of accreditation, New Delhi)

ST JOSEPH ENGINEERING COLLEGE

Vamanjoor, Mangaluru - 575028, India
APRIL 2019
 ​ VERIFICATION OF NORTON'S THEOREM

Aim:​ To Verify Norton Theorem.

Components required:​ (Virtual lab) Resistors, Voltage source

Theory:
A linear active network consisting of independent and(or) dependent voltage and current
sources and linear bilateral network elements can be replaced by an equivalent circuit
consisting of current sources in parallel with the resistance, the current source being the short
circuited current across the load terminal and resistance being the internal resistance of the
source network looking through the open circuited load terminals. In order to find the current
through RL, the load resistance of the figure 1 by Norton's theorem, let, replace RL by short
circuit as shown in figure 2.

Fig 1: Circuit with source VS and Load RL

 Fig 2: Circuit with RL shorted
Obviously, in Fig 2;

Next, the short circuit is removed and the independent source is deactivated as shown in
figure 3.
 Fig 3: Circuit with source VS deactivated and Load RL open
From Fig 3;

As per Norton's theorem , the equivalent circuit as shown in figure 4, would contain a current
source in parallel to the internal resistance, the current source being the short circuited current
across the shorted terminals of the load resistor.
 Fig 4: Norton equivalent circuit
Obviously, from Fig 4;

Procedure:
 Fig 1: Circuit diagram for Experimental set up

i. Keep all the resistance close to their maximum respective values.

ii. Close the switch s1 to "aa" and s2 to "cc" positions. Observes the load current (IL)
and voltage (VL) readings. The load resistance,
iii.

iv.
v. Short the load terminals and find the short circuited current(Isc).
vi. Next, compute the resistance (Rint) of the network as seen from the load terminals,
 vii. Replace the 220 V source by a short by closing s1 to "bb".
viii. Apply V=110 V at the output terminals by closing s2 to "dd". Read the current
from ammeter (I) and get

ix.
x. Now compute the load current (IL) applying Norton theorem.

xi.
xii. Compare the above computed load current with its observed value in step (2) and
verify the theorem.

Observation:
Application:
1.It is useful for electrical calculation of the circuits.

2.Also used in transmission line drive calculation.

3.Also to determine how long it will take a digital signal to go down a bus or a
backplane

4.This theorem interesting way to simplify circuit diagram allowing to search partial
solution in the selected zone to be analysed.

Conclusion: ​Norton’s theorem is Verified.

​VERIFICATION OF THEVENIN'S THEOREM

Aim: ​To Verify Thevenin’s Theorem.

Components required:​ virtual labs.

Theory: ​Its provides a mathematical technique for replacing a given network, as viewed from
two terminals, by a single voltage source with a series resistance. It makes the solution of
complicated networks quite quick and easy. The application of this extremely useful
theorem will be explained with the help of following simple example.
Fig 1: Circuit with source \(E\) and Load \(R_L\)

Suppose, it is required to find current flowing through load resistance RL, as shown in figure
1.
This expression proceed as under:
1) Remove RL from the circuit terminals A and B and redraw the circuit as shown in figure 2.
Obviously, the terminal have become open circuited
 Fig 2: Circuit with $R_L$ removed.
2) Calculate the open circuit Voltages VO.C. which appears across terminals A and B when
they are open .ie. when RL is removed.
As seen, V.O.C.= drop across R2= IR2 where I is the circuit current when A and B is open.

\begin{align} I & = \frac{E}{r + R_1+R_2} \\ \\ V_{o.c.} & = I*R_1 \\ \\ V_{o.c.} & =

\frac{E*R_2}{r + R_1+R_2} \end{align}
It is also called Thevenin voltage(Vth).
3) Now, imagine the battery to be removed from the circuit, leaving its internal resistance r
behind and redraw the circuit as shown in figure 3.
Fig 3: Circuit with \(R_L\) and $E$ removed
When viewed inwards from the terminals A and B, the circuit consists of two parallel paths:
one containing R2 and another containing (R1+r). The equivalent resistance of the
network as viewed from these terminals is given as,

\begin{align} R_{th} & = \frac{(R_1+r)*R_2}{R_1+r+R_2} \end{align}

The resistance "Rth" is also called Thevenin equivalent resistance.

Consequently , as viewed from terminals A and B, the whole network (excluding R1) can be
reduced to single source (called thevenin's source) whose e.m.f equal to VO.C. and whose
internal reistance equal to Rth as shown in figure 4.

4) RL is now connected back across terminals A and B from where it was temporaily
removed earlier. Current flowing through RL is given by,
\begin{align} I_{1} & = \frac{V_{th}}{R_{th}+R_L} \end{align}
Fig 4: Thevenin's equivalent circuit

PROCEDURE:
Fig 1: Circuit diagram for Experimental set-up for verification of Thevenin's theorem
1) Keep all the resistance close to their maximum respective values.
2) Close the switch S1 to "aa" and S2 to "cc" positions. Observe the load current (IL) and
voltage (VL) readings. The load resistance
\begin{align} R_{L} & = \frac{V_L}{I_L} \end{align}
3) Remove the load by opening the switch S2 and read the open circuit voltage (or Thevenin
equivalent voltage) Vth.
4) Next, compute the resistance (RTH) of the network as seen from the load terminals,
a) Replace the 220 V source by a short by closing S1 to "bb".
b) Apply 110 V at the output terminals by closing S2 to "dd". Read the voltmeter
(V) and ammeter (I) and get
\begin{align} R_{th} & = \frac{V}{I} \end{align}
5) Now compute the load current. Applying Thevenin theorem
\begin{align} I_{L} & = \frac{V_{th}}{R_{th}+R_{L}} \end{align}
6) Compare the above computed load current with its observed value in step (2) and verify
the theorem.

Observation:
Applications:
● Thevenin's Theorem is especially useful in analysing power systems and other circuits
where one particular resistor in the circuit (called the “load” resistor) is subject to
change, and re-calculation of the circuit is necessary with each trial value of load
resistance, to determine voltage across it and current through it.
● Source modelling and resistance measurement using the Wheatstone bridge provide
applications for Thevenin’s theorem.

Conclusion: ​Thevenin’s theorem is verified.

VERIFICATION OF SUPERPOSITION THEOREM

Aim​:​ To Verify Superposition Theorem.

Components required​: virtual labs

Theory:
If a number of voltage or current source are acting simultaneously in a linear network, the
resultant current in any branch is the algebraic sum of the currents that would be
produced in it, when each source acts alone replacing all other independent sources by
their internal resistances.
Circuit Diagram:
Fig 1: Circuit for analysis of Superposition theorem
Fig 2: Circuit with only \(V_2\) short circuited
In given figure 1 apply superposition theorem , let us first take the sources \(V_1\) alone at
first replacing \(V_2\) by short circuit as shown in figure 2. Here, \[ I_{1'} =
\frac{V_1}{\frac{R_2*R_3}{R_2+R_3}+R_1}\] \[I_{2'} = I_{1'}*
\frac{R_3}{R_2+R_3} \] \[I_{3'} = I_{1'} - I_{2'} \]
 Fig 3: Circuit with only \(V_1\) short circuited
Next, removing \(V_1\) by short circuit, let the circuit be energized by \(V_2\) only as shown
in figure 3. Then, \[ I_{2''} = \frac{V_2}{\frac{R_1*R_3}{R_1+R_3}+R_2}\] \[I_{1''} =
I_{2''}* \frac{R_3}{R_1+R_3} \] \[I_{3''} = I_{2''} - I_{1''} \] As per superposition
theorem, \[I_{3} = I_{3'} + I_{3''} \] \[I_{2} = I_{2'} - I_{2''} \] \[I_{1} = I_{1'} - I_{1''}
\]

Observation:
Application: The Superposition Theorem finds use in the study of alternating current (AC) circuits,
and semiconductor (amplifier) circuits, where sometimes AC is often mixed (superimposed) with
DC. Because AC voltage and current equations (Ohm’s Law) are linear just like DC, we can use
Superposition to analyse the circuit with just the DC power source, then just the AC power
source, combining the results to tell what will happen with both AC and DC sources in effect. For
now, though, Superposition will suffice as a break from having to do simultaneous equations to
analyse a circuit.

Conclusion: ​Superposition theorem is verified.

VERFICATION MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM

​Aim: ​verfication of maximum power tranfer theorem.

Components required: ​virtual labs.

Theory:
Maximum power is transferred from a source of given voltage and an internal impedance to
the load impedance ZL in the following circuit shown in figure 1, under three conditions.
 [Fig 1: Circuit diagram with source and load impedance(i.e. ZS and ZL )]
1. When only XL is adjustable:
Under this condition the power consumed by the load (I2*RL) is maximum, when I is
maximum, since RL is constant.

This means that if the load reactance(XL) is made equal magnitude and opposite in sign to
the internal reactance(Xs), the power transferred is maximum.
2. When only RL is adjustable:
From equation (1) in section (1), one may write,

Differentiating the equation (3) w.r.t RL and equating to zero, one obtains.

3. When both RL and XL are adjustable:

Under this condition both equation (2) and (4) are valid simultaneously and one obtains.

Procedure:
Circuit Diagram
[Fig 1: Circuit diagram of experimental set-up for verification of maximum power transfer
theorem]

1. When only XL is adjustable:

Take a suitable set of values of Vs, XS, XL as shown in the figure. You can choose XS to be
inductive (Ls) and capacitive (Cs). XL can choose as inductive(LL) and capacitive (CL)
to the load.
Next choose a suitable load resistance (RL).
For the maximum power theorem, the condition would be RL=RS, XS(i.e. X1)=-XL.(i.e.
X2)
Where,
Take an example, put Ls=1mH, Cs=10.1µF.
Now for different value of Cs, note down V1 and V4.

Enter the value of the voltage for different values of Cs and obtain the set corresponding to
the maximum value of (V1*V4). Verify that for this set V2=V6.
2. When only RL is adjustable:
Repeat the procedure of part (1), with Cs fixed and RL varied. At the point of maximum
power check

3. When both RL and XL are adjustable:

Repeat the procedure of part (2), varying Cs and obtain the maximum power condition.
Check under this condition,
OBSERVATION:

R-L-C Circuit Analysis

Aim: ​To study the behaviour of a series R-L-C circuit.

Components required:​ virtual labs.

THEORY:

​Fig 1: Sinusoidal input to series RLC circuit

With reference to figure 1, the application of Kirchoff's law results, $$ V = I R + jIX_L +

\frac{I}{j\omega C}, $$ $$ Where, V_R = IR, V_L=jIX_L, V_C=\frac{I}{j\omega C} $$
$$ V=I(R+j\omega L+\frac{1}{j\omega C}) .......(1) $$ Let Z be the net impedance of the
circuit, this gives from equation(1), $$ V=IZ=I(R+j\omega L+\frac{1}{j\omega C}) $$
$$ Or, Z=R+j(\omega L - \frac{1}{\omega C})=\sqrt(R^2+(\omega L - \frac{1}{\omega
 C})^2) \angle \tan^{-1}(\frac{\omega L - \frac{1}{\omega C}}{R}) ........ (2) $$ Equation
(2) gives the complex impedance(Z) which indicates that the circuit will become
inductive if $ \omega L > \frac{1}{\omega C}$ and then the sign of the angle of Z is
positive. On the other hand, for $\omega L < \frac{1}{\omega C},$ the circuit will
become capacitive and the sign of the angle of Z is negative​.
Phasor Diagram:

The phasor diagram for Inductive and capacitive series R-L-C circuit is given in figure 2 and
3 respectively​.

Fig 2: Phasor diagram for inductive circuit

Fig 3: Phasor diagram for capacitive circuit

Observation:
Applications: ​RLC circuits have many applications as oscillator circuits. Radio receivers and
television sets use them for tuning to select a narrow frequency range from ambient radio waves.

Conclusion: ​The behavior of series RLC circuit is thus studied.