OUR INDUSTRY T O D A Y
Whey Utilization and Whey Products I
It always has been that way. Since about
5000 B.C. when man started cheesemaking, the
secondary product, whey, has shown up to
challenge him to put it to some use, any use
initially as long as this yellowish-green, slightly
sticky liquid was not there on the following day
to plague him.
During early centuries and into the recent
past our forefathers, with primitive facilities
and equipment, made a valiant effort to utilize
whey in different forms. For example, in the
middle ages whey was applied as a pharmaceuti-
cal drug, a component of soothing salves for
burns, a skim balm, a potion to inspire vitality
and to restore hair, but rarely was it used as a
food for humans.
As cheese grew in popularity, an increasing
volume of fluid whey accompanied it for which
there was little demand. It became customary
to divert much of this mass of whey into the
nearest stream or river, and many cheese
factories were built over or near such waterways
for this purpose. Little fuss was made of the
resulting odor or lethal effects upon fish, which
were competing for the available oxygen, until
the age of conservation. Then the cheesemaker
came face to face with strong new regulations
prohibiting the dumping of whey, because of its
corrosive nature, into streams and rivers and
even into municipal sewerage systems. A new
order evolved, and many chseesemakers who
could n o t or would not adapt were to find their
plants closed to production. Of course, some
fluid whey over the years was fed to farm
animals, spread over fields, or locally processed,
but certain limitations of the period tended to
restrain such outlets.
In modern times the adaptable cheese
manufacturer was faced with a need to under-
s t a n d the nature of whey, to concentrate or
Received December 14, 1978.
1Presented, in part, as an invited lecture at the
20th International Dairy Congress, Paris, France, June
30, 1978.
1979 J Dairy Sci 62:1149-- 1160
F R A N K V. KOSIKOWSKI
Department of Food Science
Cornell UniversiW
Ithaca 14853
modify whey, to organize collection centers,
and finally, to dispose of whey so as not to
offend his fellow citizens or, better still, to
utilize it for the betterment of mankind. The
challenge was met. Much has been done, but it
is not nearly enough, and utilization of whey
remains perhaps the most serious problem
facing the dairy industry worldwide. A report
of a widely representative regional committee,
sponsored jointly by the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture and the National Associa-
tion of State Universities and Land-Grant
Colleges (68), recently identified the whey
processing and utilization researchable problem
to have the greatest urgency for solution
among all the current problems in dairy tech-
nology and production.
It is my intent here, based on my own
personal research, to explore the present state
o f whey utilization, types of products available
and current research, and to comment on the
future.
N A T U R E A N D A M O U N T S OF W H E Y
What is this product called whey, and why
does it cast such a heavy shadow over an
otherwise exuberant and dynamic cheese
industry?
Whey is the watery portion or serum that
separates from the curds during conventional
cheesemaking or casein manufacture (42). It
constitutes about 85 to 90% of the volume of
the milk used for transformation into ripened
cheese, and it retains about 55% of the milk
nutrients. These, among the best that milk can
offer, include soluble proteins, lactose, mineral
elements, and vitamins (Table 1). Additionally,
whey contains variable amounts of lactic acid
and nonsoluble nitrogen.
From ripened cheeses the whey is sweet, pH
5.9 to 6.3, but from unripened, fresh cheeses
the whey is acid, usually pH 4.4 to 4.6. There is
more lactic acid, calcium, phosphorus, and
lactose in acid whey and more resistance to
acceptance by consumers because of the acid
1149
1150
TABLE 1. Composition of wheys, a
Fluid Fluid
Component sweet whey acid whey
Total solids 6.35 6.5
Moisture 93.7 93.5
Fat .5 .04
Total protein .8 .75
Lactose 4.85 4.90
Ash .5 .8
Lactic acid .05 .4
aFrom (42).
flavor. This makes it difficult for acid whey, in
any form, to enter standard channels of whey
utilization.
In present day cheese plants the fresh liquid
whey, after removal from vats, is usually
defatted by centrifuges to conserve butterfat
and pasteurized to prevent further lactic acid
development or growth of contaminating
organisms. Thereafter, the whey may be con-
centrated, dried, and/or modified.
No standard rule exists to predict geographi-
cally where whey is being produced. It is
produced in urban areas, in villages, on farms,
along mountain streams, or at shaded oases by
nomads engaged in their daily cheesemaking,
and it is produced in the casein plants of
Europe, North America, and Oceania. What is
predictable is that the total amounts are huge.
If presently the world produces approximately
8 billion kg cheese annually (42) and nine
times this weight is the amount of whey pro-
duced, the current estimated annual world
production of fresh liquid whey is about 72
billion kg and increasing.
WHEY DISPOSAL
Whey disposal is not to be confused with
whey utilization. The former infers, generally,
that the fresh whey of cheese or casein is spread
over fields, oxidized in lagoons or sewerage
systems, funneled into caves, piped into oceans,
or otherwise given away. In developed countries
whey disposal is becoming less common, but it
still represents a major activity. For example, in
Australia a 1974 survey (2) showed that 40% of
the fluid whey was discarded on land, into
Journal of Dairy Science Vol. 62, No. 7, 1979
KOSIKOWSKI
Condensed Dried Dried
acid whey sweet whey acid whey
(%)
64.0 96.5 96.0
33.5 3.5 4.0
.6 .8 .6
7.6 13.1 12.5
34.9 75.0 67.4
8.2 7.3 11.8
12.0 .2 4.2
water, or treated at sewerage works and 18.5%
was used for pasture irrigation. In Norway, 38%
of the liquid whey produced is discarded as
effluents (12).
Disposing of whey by the above means
provides no constructive product, but removing
it from the premises releases pressure on the
cheese plant. Actually, it is costly and labor
demanding for the cheese manufacturer who
generally bears all the direct costs of handling
and transport which are passed on to the
consumer as higher cheese prices. Some benefits
arise from enriching pastures or agricultural
land; but if the practice is overdone, the heavy
deposit of salts which accumulates may reduce
the ability of the land to grow grass or crops.
Feeding Liquid Whey to Ruminants
in the Pasture
In recent years there has been a strong
interest in feeding farm animals fresh liquid
whey as a replacement for water to utilize some
of the current supply and to improve nutrition
(41, 57, 64). Two basic reviews on the subject
by Schingoethe (65) and Nielson (58) show the
state of the practice and its requirements and,
generally, express optimism that it is advan-
tageous. According to Schingoethe, ruminates
can take in up to 30% of their intake of dry-
matter as liquid whey with good results while
swine develop diarrhea when their intake of dry
matter is more than 20% liquid whey.
Feeding liquid whey to farm animals has
been practiced for hundreds of years, but
replacing drinking water for farm animals with
liquid whey perhaps is relatively new. One large
 OUR INDUSTRY TODAY
Cottage cheese company in the Northeast
United States regularly is channelling its acid
whey in this manner (72). It provides the tanks
to the farmer and transports the whey every
other day to the surrounding farms without
charge.
Experience by this firm has shown that
among dairy cattle in a herd a few do not like
whey and will not drink it. These animals must
be removed and given water or they will dehy-
drate. Generally, the majority of cows can be
made to adapt to drinking fresh tasting whey if
started young. However, a free feeding principle,
allowing access to whey or water, is recom-
mended initially.
Feeding of such Cottage cheese whey to
farm animals results in a savings of about
one-third of the farmers' total feed bill. The
system is suggested for cheese manufacturers
making less than 125,000 kg whey daily, and
the optimum working radius is approximately
40 km to the cheese plant.
Elsewhere, similar feeding systems are taking
hold or expanding and perhaps will become
permanent fixtures, at least until the time that
whey is no longer a surplus commodity. How-
ever, feeding cattle and other farm animals
liquid whey is not practical under all conditions.
It requires ready access to rural areas where the
animals are located and full cooperation of
farmers. Also, the entire financial burden of
such whey movement usually falls upon the
cheese manufacturer. Essentially, the successful
utilization of fluid whey by farm animals
depends upon the economics of place for the
location of the cheesemaking site is important
for success.
WHEY U T I L I Z A T I O N
In its most sophisticated and totally profit-
able sense, whey utilization implies that whey
as a concentrate or fraction will be utilized by
man or animal in the form of a nutritious food
or some essential component of a food. Such
whey or whey product has a monetary value to
the cheesemaker, and the market place becomes
important.
Under these circumstances a centralized
collection system for liquid or partly concen-
trated whey is essential to developing the
critical chain for processing and marketing.
Systems are operating in the United States,
1151
France, Denmark, and other prominent cheese
countries, but many more are required. The
new concepts of handling increasing volumes of
liquid whey are strongly influencing the process-
ing sector in developed countries to establish
centers, often in collaboration with the State
using large concentrating, drying, and fraction-
ating units, Figure 1.
In developing countries producing cheese,
the surplus whey problem, too, has increased
mainly due to lack of capital, poor infrastruc-
ture, and inadequate marketing and utilization
channels. Whey pollution is serious here because
of the presence of many peoples and inefficient
disposal outlets.
An intensive series of reviews on the subject
of whey utilization has been published by Mann
(45, 46, 47).
CONCENTRATING, FRACTIONATING, AND
H Y D R O L Y Z I N G WHEY
Whey powders and fractionated whey
concentrates are important in the utilization of
the whey, and their production has risen greatly
since the past decade as engineering and techni-
cal problems were overcome. For example,
excellent grade, nonhygroscopic, highly dis-
persible acid whey powder now is readily
available resulting from the improvements of
new dryers and the low temperature treatment
Figure 1. Unloading partly concentrated whey at
drying and modification center.
Journal of Dairy Science Vol. 62, No. 7, 1979
1152 KOSIKOWSKI
given condensed whey for developing the
essential alpha hydrate lactose crystals.
Drying and concentrating whey eliminates
water for transport, makes for easier handling
of the product, and increases keeping quality.
Traditional equipment for drying whey into
powders include stainless steel vacuum heat
evaporators for prior concentrating to 45%
total solids, spray dryers designed with highly
durable metal atomizers, and holding tanks for
crystallizing lactose prior to spraying.
Theoretically, conversion of all the world's
fluid or liquid whey annually into powder
would result in about 5 billion kg. The United
States converts 30% of its total whey into
powder form for human and animal use (27,
42), but England converts approximately 1%
(3). As centralized whey collection systems,
pollution regulations, and demand for whey
foods increase, the production of powder and
concentrates also should increase dramatically.
Research activity on the hydrolysis of
lactose in wheys by b, d galactosidase has
subsided to an extent, but some further progress
has been reported (37, 60). It is anticipated
that continuous immobilized lactase industrial
systems for converting the lactose of whey into
monosugars will be common within the next
decade. The new hydrolyzed, sweeter wheys
should provide greater utilization opportunities.
Advances in Membrane Separation
and Concentration Processes
Almost a decade ago, Webb (69) commented
on the high degree of activity involved in the
design of ultrafiltration, reverse osmosis,
electrodialysis, ion exchange, and gel filtration
processes for application to milk and whey. In
the interim these processes have attained
maturity, and much of their equipment is now
standard and of large capacity (1, 17, 42, 57)
(Figure 2).
Units with ultrafiltration rate capacities of
up to 200,000 kg whey per day are operational
in a number of countries making protein
2 By the Union Carbide Company, Tarrytown, NY,
with the advice of J. L. Maubois, Rennes, France, and
Visiting Professor, Cornell University. Industrial pro-
duction will be undertaken by the French Society of
Catalytical Elements (SFEC), Balene, France.
Journal of Dairy Science Vol. 62, No. 7, 1979
concentrates, permeates, and humanized infant
foods. This triumph of engineering skills has
come at an opportune time because membrane
concentration and separation processes conserve
more energy than traditional processes. Addi-
tionally, the proteins which are concentrated
remain largely undenatured at normal operating
temperatures of 50 to 55 C or lower.
Underway is the development of new
ultrafiltration membranes operable over a wider
range of temperatures and pH. The standard
cellulose acetate membrane is being replaced by
membranes of other compositions and forms.
One striking new development in membrane
technology 2 is the application of zirconium
oxide on a carbon support (Figure 3). In this
concept to be operating in industry soon,
benzopyrene is removed by heat treatment
from graphic carbon, and zirconium oxide is
integrated as the membrane. The resulting
system is extremely stable to pH, mechani-
cal stress, and temperature up to 400 C. It will
be used for milk and related foods as well as
selected separations of nonfood materials.
It is uncertain without research whether this
greater temperature and pH flexibility available
in new membranes can be used to advantage in
the processing of milk or whey. Ultrafihrating
milk retentates above 60 C leads to soft gels
after cooling, indicating some degree of protein
denaturation. Wheys exposed to similar high
temperatures may have their proteins signifi-
cantly altered. However, the ability of new
ultrafiltration membranes to function over a
wide range of temperatures or pH should
Figure 2. Electrodialysis unit for demineralizing
whey.
 OUR INDUSTRY TODAY
Figure 3. Zirconium oxide-carbon ultrafiltration
membrane unit. A. Frontal view of short section of
single multi-tube unit enclosed in metal. B. Cross
section -- internal view of carbon zirconium oxide
tubes.
provide greater effectiveness in sanitizing
membrane equipment.
BULK WHEY CONCENTRATES
Presently, there are about ten bulk whey
concentrates or derivatives which are produced
industrially and have found commercial accept-
ance (Figure 4). The most popular and economic
form is sweet whey powder, probably followed
by acid whey powder.
11 53
%a::k
>,,
Figure 4. Bulk whey powder and concentrates with
modifications: sweet whey powder; acid whey powder;
condensed whey; delactosed whey powder; demineral-
ized whey powder; cultured media whey powder; whey
protein concentrate; whey permeate and permeate
concentrate; edible lactose; and lactic ferment.
Delactosed whey powder, the dried protein
concentrate attained through ultrafiltration or
diafiltration, is finding much usage in foods for
humans and in feeding calves and piglets. More
of this product compared to standard whey
can be fed farm animals without danger of
diarrhea developing.
At Irish and French dairy plants demineral-
ized whey powders, obtained through electro-
dialysis, are being blended with milk and spray
dried to give a product high in quality serum
proteins and low in sodium. Also, demineralized
whey powder provides an ideal substrate for
ethyl alcohol production (22, 43). Usually, 60
to 70% of the minerals are removed from
demineralized whey for best economics and for
eliminating salty flavor and mineral precipita-
tion. At these percents and lower, alcohol
fermentation is feasible because lactose-
fermenting yeast will grow readily.
Another bulk whey concentrate, a French
produced whey powder called "lactique fer-
ment", is blended to provide optimum nutrients-
for growth of lactic acid bacteria. This powder
serves as a starter in the fermentation of bakery
goods or pastes and in treating sick calves for
the proper implementation and proliferation of
lactic acid flora in their intestinal tract.
Journal of Dairy Science Vol. 62, No. 7, 1979
1154 KOSIKOWSKI
TABLE 2. The mineral elements of an acid whey powder, a,b
Major elements (%)
K P
1.73 1.30
Minor elements (ppm)
Mn Fe CU
.7 9.5 3.5
CO CD CR
.9 .7 2.5
aF. V. Kosikowski. 1978. Cornelt University, Ithaca, New York 14853.
bBy Inductively Coupled Plasma Spectograph (ATOMCOMP), Jarrell Ash Division, Fischer Scientific
Company, New York.
Deprotenized permeate in concentrated
form is used in making lactose, an important
industrial and food research product of long
history. The late Tom Nickerson, University of
California, was invited to lecture on the chem-
istry of lactose at this same Congress but passed
away just prior to its opening. Walter Dunkley,
his colleague, read the prepared lecture.
The basic types of bulk whey concentrates
can be tailored readily through membrane
processes limited only by the functional require-
ment and imagination of consumers and pro-
cessors.
Composition of Whey Concentrates
With the increased production of whey
powders, concentrates, and fractions, research
goals have turned to acquiring more detailed
and comparative knowledge of the nature of
major and minor components. Since 1972
several in-depth investigations have identified
the nature and concentration of many whey
concentrate components including vitamins,
minerals, free peptides, and free and total
amino acids (13, 16, 18, 20, 21, 23, 29, 48, 49,
50). Great sophistication has been achieved in
the determination of mineral elements of whey.
It is now possible to determine with a high
degree of accuracy 19 elements in whey powder
including nickel, lead, chromium, and cobalt
(Table 2). One characteristic of acid whey
powders is the relatively high zinc, the reasons
for which are not clear.
Journal of Dairy Science Vol. 62, No. 7, 1979
Ca Mg Na
2.27 .21 ,30
B ,Zn Mo A1
6.1 66.0 1.3 12.0
Ni PB AS Ag
.9 7.2 1.6 8.3
Whey powders and concentrates vary signifi-
cantly in their make-up, depending upon
whether the starting whey was sweet or acid,
cheese source, nature of processing, and product
function requirements (Table 1). In sweet whey
powder the free amino acids, peptides, and
minerals usually are lower than in acid whey
powder. This may influence product function-
ality and flavor more than previously thought.
The origin and chemical components of the
typical flavor of whey, sometimes labeled
whey-taint, are unknown and have received
little research attention. As such flavor hinders
widespread acceptance of whey and whey
products, its biochemical nature identification,
and perhaps control, should receive a high
priority in future studies.
U T I L I Z A T I O N OF W H E Y POWDERS
AND CONCENTRATES
Sweet Whey Powder
Sweet whey powder is used widely by
dairies, bakeries, confectionaries, meat process-
ing plants, beverage establishments, and infant
food companies (Table 3-A) (7, 10, 14, 15, 25,
33, 34, 58, 61, 62).
United States federal regulations permit up
to 25% addition of dried whey as a replacement
for milk solids-not-fat, an amount which
apparently retains the basic quality of the
product. In Europe, Schingoethe (65) reported
no significant difference between 0 to 20%
 OUR INDUSTRY TODAY 115 5

TABLE 3. Whey foods. whole milk (39). Approximately 2.2 kg of

nonhygroscopic acid whey powder (pH 4.5) per
A. Foods supplemented with sweet whey 100 kg whole milk shifts the milk pH to 5.9 to
or its derivatives
6.0, and at 80 C such milk gives a soft curd.
Ice cream Candy coatings Ricotta cheese obtained in this manner shows a
Ice cream coatings Fudge, caramels, chocolate significantly higher yield than that obtained
Bread Margarine
Sweet rolls Syrups from other precipitants, and the manufacturing
Crackers Infant foods process is easier. Also, Hirschl and Kosikowski
Cookies Toppings (32, 41) have demonstrated that either acid
Cakes Meat sauces whey powder or a liquid acid whey concentrate,
Icings Soups
Snack foods Soft drinks obtained by ultrafiltration and reverse osmosis
Gravy mixes Cheese foods of Cottage cheese whey, can precipitate whole
Seasoning mixes Dulce de leche milk for Queso Blanco at pH 5.3 with resulting
Orange juice Puddings benefits.
Meat products Compound coatings Other uses for acid whey powder are in
B, Foods supplemented with acid whey sherberts, cheese powders, and cheese sauces
or its derivatiTes where a tangy flavor is sought.
Fruit beverages Bread A steady usage of acid whey powder is in the
Fermented milks Crackers making of bread, biscuits, crackers, and snack
Cheeses Sherberts foods which acquire a rich golden surface color
Cheese powders Sausage binders during baking.
Salad dressings Process cheese foods Acid whey powder can be used to advantage
Cheesedips and spreads
in low-pH nutrient fruit beverages but not in
C. Fermented foods from whey or its fractions the neutral pH whey-soy beverages. Holsinger
Vinegar Ethyl alcohol (35) reported that acid whey in whey-soy drink
Lactic acid Single cell protein mixes leads to impaired storage stability and
Wine Dough or doogh yogurt reduced flavor acceptability.
Cordials Cultured milk products Acid whey powder is utilized efficiently in
process cheese foods and spread, margarines,
and in the making of fermented foods (Table
3-C).
additions of sweet whey powder to replace Whey product development has been viable
skim milk powder on the flavor, texture, or and productive, and compared to a decade ago,
meltdown of ice cream. Demineralized whey many marketable products exist. However,
solids increased the viscosity of his mix and accurate information worldwide is not readily
reduced saltiness, although the difference in available to indicate which channel of usage
salty flavor using standard sweet whey powder absorbs the most whey. For sweet whey powder,
was not great. More recently Bhusri et al. (9) apparently, ice creams and bakery goods are
showed that an 8 to 10% lactose hydrolyzed foremost, and for acid, perhaps food precip-
whey could be integrated successfully into ice itants and bakery goods.
cream mixes.
Bakeries use sweet whey powder in bread, SOME FOOD PRODUCTS OF W H E Y
crackers, batters, cakes, cooked fillings, and
Whey Protein Concentrates
icings for cakes (Table 3-A). Other uses for
sweet whey powder are in candies, confectionary Protein concentrates of whey show good
coatings, and margarines. solubility and functionality and contain from
30 to 60% protein. These products are estab-
lishing themselves in standard dairy, bakery,
Acid Whey Powder
and beverage industries as food supplements
Acid whey powder displays more limited (19, 31, 44, 51, 52, 54, 66, 71) or in the
usage (11, 42) (Table 3-B). One important making of milk extenders. Goudedranche et al.
application is as an acid coagulant for the (26), for example, preconcentrated sweet whey
making of heat-acid precipitated cheeses from before ultrafiltration and after processing and

Journal of Dairy Science Vol. 62, No. 7, 1979

1156
Figure 5. Ultrafiltrating whey for SCP production
- one standard membrane module of a number.
obtained a retentate of 16 to 30% total solids
with many of the fine properties of skim milk,
except that whey proteins had replaced casein.
McDonough et al. (53) produced acceptable
whey protein concentrates by ultrafiltration
with a gross composition equivalent to skim
milk. Up to 40% of such concentrate from
sweet whey, or 20% from acid whey, was added
to fresh skim milk without affecting its flavor.
Such milk extenders may be helpful in milk
deficient countries.
Nutritional Beverages
Nutrient beverages from whey or whey
protein concentrate with or without vegetable
protein, like soya, hold much interest for the
researcher (5, 33, 36, 40). One commercial
powdered product developed mainly for
institutional use as a reconstituted beverage
displays pleasing flavor and the following
ingredients: sugar, partially demineralized de-
lactosed whey, citric acid, monobasic calcium
Journal of Dairy Science Vol. 62, No. 7, 1979
KOSIKOWSKI
phosphate, lecithin, dextrins, sodium chloride,
vitamin C, artificial flavor, and assorted vitamins.
Acid whey powder can supplement fruit
juices, like orange and pineapple, but this
development has not attained its full potential
due, in part, to some whey-taint and salty
flavor (40) in the product. Acid whey powder
otherwise is highly compatible with an acid
fruit beverage, and perhaps the blending of
demineralized acid whey powder with fruit
juices will overcome the difficulty.
Single Cell Protein (SCP)
Single cqU yeast protein for animal feed and
human consumption has been available in past
years, but interest has been cyclic (6, 24, 28).
In the United States at least one industrial firm
is actively producing single cell protein from
fresh 6% total solids fluid whey and 12% total
solids whey concentrates (8). End products are
single cell protein yeast and a liquid containing
up to 6% ethyl alcohol which is evaporated for
industrial use. In France three plants are
producing single cell protein from ultrafiltered
whey (Figure 5).
Research activity on whey SCP is increasing
because of conservation pressures. Objectives
are to increase yield and improve flavor and to
maximize operating procedures and utilize
demineralized whey concentrates as substrates
by Kluyveronlyces fragilis yeasts.
The production of ethyl alcohol as a resulting
by-product of whey fermentation has been
stimulated by food and energy needs. For
example, industrially the alcohol developed
from whey fermentations is being converted to
vinegar (Table 3). Researchers are attempting to
produce ethyl alcohol directly as usable product
from whey with improved efficiency and
economics. A recent study (22) showed that
lactose-fermenting yeasts could be adapted to a
whey concentrate and ferment its 24% lactose
content totally to alcohol. Ethyl alcohol,
derived directly from highly concentrated
deproteinized whey demineralized permeates,
was obtained at 12% vol/vol concentrations
with a possibility of attaining 14 to 16% (43).
In Ireland and Australia continuous distillation
of alcohol from whey fermented to 2% alcohol
is in industrial production. The product is
directed for energy and related use and is
finding a receptive market.
 OUR INDUSTRY TODAY
100"
i
x~
0)
60-
40-
C~(3 5% ethanol
CI N10% ethanol
1 I I I I I I I
1 5
Hydrolysis time. days
Figure 6. Hydrolysis of lactose by B,d galactosidase
in the presence of 5 and 10% ethyl alcohol (Gawel and
Kosikowski).
Whey Wines
Under proper processing circumstances some
wine-like flavor develops from whey. However,
liquid fresh whey does not contain sufficient
lactose for conversion into alcohol to make
table wine. Fortifying whey with glucose,
sucrose, or with grape juice to create a richer
fermentable substrate has been a basis for some
published whey wine processes (55, 70). In
other instances the lactose in whey was hydro-
lyzed prior to fermentation with lactase (22,
55, 63). A recent interesting experimental
observation (22), shows that food grade fungal
acid lactase remains highly active during the
alcohol fermentation of whey wine by Saccbar-
omyces cerevisiae yeast (Figure 6).
As the basis of a new whey wine process, a
demineralized, deproteinized whey concentrate
containing 24% lactose is used as a substrate. It
is fermented b y adapted K. fragilis to table.
wine (43). The resulting white whey wine can
be baked to give an acceptable whey sherry. In
this process an acid whey concentrate of 28%
total solids is prepared~ then ultrafiltrated,
demineralized, and fermented with K. fragilis in
5 to 6 days at 30 C. No added lactase is required,
and all of the alcohol o f the basic wine (12 to
14% vol/vol) is derived totally and directly
from lactose.
115 7
Extruded Whey Foods
Soya beans have found a profitable outlet in
the production of simulated foods as meat
extenders or snack foods through high heat and
pressure extrusion processes (Figure 7). Two
recent studies (4, 38) demonstrate that whey
powders and whey protein concentrates can
becomes important components of such foods
and add to their nutrition and acceptability.
The potential of whey powder or whey
protein concentrate as a component of extruded
foods is not large presently, but the establish-
ment of the usage principle is important.
Various compounded whey concentrates may
I have an important future role in the making of
10
extruded snacks, nutritious gruels, or simulated
foods.
POTENTIAL FOR NEW WHEY PRODUCTS
New products do not come forward easily
on demand nor can any university course in
new product development automatically lead
its students to new products. Such product
ideas originate in the minds of scientists and
nonscientists by pathways which are not clear,
although technical expertise, imagination, en-
thusiasm, and a good knowledge o f needs are
helpful. It is thus difficult to predict the advent
of new whey products; one can only hope
that the interest of workers in the field has
been catalyzed and that the environment and
rewards for such achievement are favorable.
Successful adoption of new whey products
that emerge is aided by potential large volume
use, low cost production, food grade qualities,
Figure 7. Wenger X-5 extruder at CorneI1 pilot-
plant.
Journal of Dairy Science Vol. 62, No. 7, 1979
1158 KOSIKOWSKI
high functionality, good nutritional characteris-
tics, and acceptable flavor and texture.
The potential for utilizing whey in its
various forms, particularly as concentrates and
powders, is strong, but several conditions raise
questions as to net achievement for the dairy
industries. For one, many likely whey products
of commerce already have appeared in the
market as may be noted from accompanying
tables. It will take more imagination, ingenuity,
and initiative to suggest new whey products
although it can be done. For another, those
whey products which are being utilized in large
volume by dairies and other food establishments
often displace skim milk powder. Under these
circumstances the economic position of t h e
dairy industry, or of society as a whole, does
not advance much as the more expensive skim
milk powder becomes surplus and is disposed of
as conveniently as possible, including feeding it
to farm animals.
The problems of whey utilization are not
only technical and economic but also physio-
logical and sociological. We think a solution
cannot be achieved, so it is not achieved, or if
an image was conveyed earlier to our societies
that whey is an undesirable waste product,
associated with lactose intolerance, pasty
complexions, and weak personalities, these
societies and their people largely will shun
whey despite its excellent food qualities.
In summary, the following suggestions are
offered to help attain the goals of utilizing
whey to the best advantage.
1) Encourage more scientists to participate
in whey utilization research at all levels, and
provide them with adequate funding to accom-
plish their goals.
2) Initiate proportionally greater develop-
ment activity and funding in the more difficult
areas of whey utilization, i.e., converting acid
whey powders or concentrates to new foods,
developing universal nutrient beverages, creating
extruded foods containing substantial amounts
of whey, and identifying the chemical nature of
whey flavor.
3) Maintain the m o m e n t u m to centralize
liquid whey collection and to develop large
evaporating, drying, and membrane process
units to convert effectively and economically
the collected whey into high quality standard-
ized powders, concentrates, and fractions.
4) Establish strong marketing systems and
Journal of Dairy Science Vol. 62, No. 7, 1979
advertising programs for whey powder and
concentrates as foods linked closely to the good
health of consumers and enact reasonable
standards of identity.
5) In areas where it is feasible and where the
term whey creates an unfavorable image,
consider coining an alternate name acceptable
to consumers.
6) Direct whey utilization and research
toward more uses which do not compete
directly with skim milk powders, thus avoiding
the phenomena which now exists at times
between whey and skim milk powders.
The most direct solution to defusing the
whey problem is to utilize more and more of
the product in some form of desirable food for
humans, direct or supplemental, and to stimulate
new whey products. It is a feat more easily
proposed than accomplished for new products
have a long gestation period, but it is a basic
and essential corrective measure.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Appreciation is expressed to M. Paul Rous-
tang, President, Lacto-France, S. A. Baleycourt
55102 Verdun, France, for his generous contri-
bution of photographs and Figures 1, 2, and 4.
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