Design of Irrigation Structures PDF

Menoufia University
Faculty of Engineering
Shebin El-Kom
Civil Engineering Department ShebinEl-kom
DESIGNOF IRRIGATION
STRUCTURES
PREPARED BY
Dr.Eng.
Esam El-Deen Helal
Associate Prof.
Civil Eng. Dept.
Menoufia University
2017
Design of Irrigation structures Contents
Content Page
Chapter (1) Introduction………………………………………………… 1
1. General considerations…………………………………………………………. 1
2. Need for flow control……………………………………………………………. 5
3. Instructional objectives…………………………………………………………. 5
4. Basic concepts in civil engineering design……………………………………... 8
5. Scour as a cause of failure of structures……………………………………….. 8
6. Sediment deposition (sedimentation)………………………………………….. 8
Chapter (2) Culvert………………………………………………………. 10
1. Definition………………………………………………………………………… 10
2. Culverts for Stream Crossings…………………………………….…………… 10
3. Culverts for Runoff Management……………………………..……………….. 11
4. Difference between Culvert and Bridge……………………………………….. 14
5. Functions of culvert and practical problems………………………………….. 15
6. Culvert design…………………………………………………………………… 17
7. Required Design Information………………………………………………….. 17
8. Shape of culvert cross section………………………………………………….. 19
9. Factors of consideration………………………………………………………... 20
10. Hydraulic design of culvert closed conduit…………………………………... 22
10.1 Design considerations…………………….………………………………. 25
10.2 Heading up for horizontal culvert….…………………………………… 25
10.2.1 Coefficient of head loss due to rack Kr…………………………... 27
10.2.2 Velocity upstream the culvert Vu.s………………………………... 28
10.2.3 Coefficient of head loss due to the entrance and exit culvert…... 29
10.3 Energy Losses…………………………………………………………….. 30
II
10.3.1 Inlet Losses………………………………………………………… 30
10.3.2 Outlet Losses………………………………………………………. 31
10.4 Friction Losses……………………………………………………………. 31
11. Culvert Outlet………………………………………………………………….. 33
12. Minimum Slope………………………………………………………………... 33
13. Outlet protection………………………………………………………………. 33
13.1 Local Scour………………………………………………………………… 34
13.2 General Stream Degradation……………………………………………... 34
14. Structural design of culvert…………………………………………………… 36
14.1 Estimating empirical dimension of box culvert…………….…………… 37
14.2 Calculating vertical loads…………………………………………………. 37
14.2.1 Dead load…………………………….……………………………… 37
14.2.2 Live load………………………………………………………….…. 38
14.3 CalculatingLateral load……………………………………………….….. 41
14.3.1 Dry Earth Pressure (D.E.P)……………………………………..… 41
14.3.2 Surcharge pressure due to uniform live load……………………... 42
14.3.3 Wet Earth Pressure (W.E.P)……………………………………… 42
14.4 Calculating Internal water pressure( pw)……………………………….. 43
15. Straining actions ………………………………………………………………. 43
15.1 One vent……………………………………………………………………. 43
15.2 Two vent …………………………………………………………………... 45
15.3 Tension force in circular cross-section due to internal water pressure... 49
16. Cases of loading………………………………………………………………... 51
17. Design for crack control………………………………………………………. 59
17.1 Conditions to be satisfied for crack control……………………………... 60
III
17.2 Classification of R.C sections according to exposure of tension side

61
to water ……………………………………………………………………
17.3 Factors affecting crack width…………………………………………….. 61
18. Steps of design of un-cracked section (water section)………………………. 65
18.1 Design of sections subjected to axial tension (T)………………………... 65
18.2 Design of sections subjected to pure bending moment….…………... 67
18.3 Design of sections subjected to B. M, Normal force…………….…….. 70
18.4 Summary of water sections design……………………………………….. 78
19. Construction…………………………………………………………………… 94
19.1 Foundations………………………………………………………………... 94
19.1.1 Culvert Foundation Report………………………………………... 94
19.1.2 Soil Profile…………………………………………………………... 95
19.1.3 Foundation Types and Treatment………………………………… 95
19.2 Backfill around the Culvert………………………………………………. 96
19.3 Culvert Foundation Preparation…………………………………………. 97
19.4 Reinforcement……………………………………………………………... 98
19.5 Forming……………………………………………………………………. 98
19.6 Joints in Barrel…………………………………………………………….. 99
19.7 Concreting…………………………………………………………………. 99
19.8 Backfilling………………………………………………………………….. 100
20. Solved example………………………………………………………………… 101
21. Practical application for culvert……………………………………………… 117
Exercise (2-1) ……………………………………………………………………… 137
Chapter (3) Syphon……………………………………………………..... 139
1. Definition ………………………………………………………………………... 139

2. Waterway of low water level beneath the highest one. Selection of water
139
way crossing up works type…………………………………………………….
IV
2.1 Selection of suitable site for water way crossing up works…………….. 140
3. Inverted Syphon………………………………………………………………… 141
3.1 Purpose and Description………………………………………………….. 141
3.2 Application…………………………………………………………………. 141
3.3 Structure Components…………………………………………………….. 141
4. Material of construction………………………………………………………... 144
5. Hydraulic design consideration………………………………………………... 151
5.1 Head losses which should be considered…………………………………. 151
6. Structural Design of Syphon…………………………………………………… 153
7. El-Salam Syphon project under Suez Canal………………………………….. 158
7.1 El-Salam Canal…………………………………………………………….. 158
7.2 El-Salam Syphon under Suez Canal……………………………………… 159
7.3 Project Hydraulic data…………………………………………………….. 159
8. Solved Example…………………………………………………………………. 161
Exercise (3-1) ……………………………………………………………………… 170
Chapter (4) Aqueduct……………………………………………………. 173
1. Introduction……………………………………………………………………... 173
2. Shapes of aqueduct……………………………………………………………… 175
3. Uses of Aqueduct……………………………………….……………………….. 176
4. Main parts of the aqueduct…………………………………………………….. 180
5. Hydraulic design of steel pipe aqueduct………………………………………. 182
6. Structural design of pipe Aqueduct……………………………………………. 182
6.1 span of aqueduct…………………………………………………………… 182
7. Loads on aqueduct……………………………………………………………… 183
8. Design of steel pipe……………………………………………………………… 184
V
9. Design of anchorage of the steel pipe…………….…………………………….. 184
10. Open through aqueduct……………………………………………………… 188
11. Hydraulic design……………………………………………………………….. 188
12. Check heading up in open trough Aqueduct………………...………………. 189
13. Calculating the values of head loss…………………………………………… 190
14. Design of Reinforced concrete Aqueduct……………….……………………. 193
14.1 Design of upper slab……………………………………………………… 193
14.2 Design of lower slab………………………………………………………. 194
14.3 Design of main beam……………………………………………………... 195
14.4 Design of walls as a deep beam……………………….…………………. 196
15. Smaller Internal Forces Example: Alloz Aqueduct…………………………. 204
16. Solved Example………………………………………………………………... 207
Exercise (4-1) ……………………………………………………………………… 218
Chapter (5) Escapes……………………………………………………… 219
1. Definition………………………………………………………………………… 219
2. Types of escapes……………….………………………………………………… 219
3. Tail escape……………………………………………………………………….. 222
3.1 Steps of design……………………………………………………………... 223
3.1.1 Design of weir………………………………………………………... 224
3.1.2 Design of orifice……………………………………………………… 226
3.1.3 Design of Drainage pipe………………………………..…………… 226
4. Solved example…………………………………………………..……………… 232
Exercise (5-1) ……………………………………………………………………… 235

Chapter (6) Retaining Walls…………….………………………………. 236
Introduction……………………………………………………………………... 236
VI
Definition…………………………………………………………………………… 236
Types of Retaining Structures………………………….……………………….. 237
1. Gravity type retaining wall……………………………………………….. 237
2. Semi gravity retaining walls………………………………………………. 238
3. Cantilevered retaining walls………………………………………………. 238
4. Counterfort retaining walls……………………………………...………… 239
5. Buttress retaining walls…………………………………………………… 240
6. Gabion or crib walls…………………………………….………………… 240
7. Wood retaining walls…………….……………………….……………….. 241
8. Segmental retaining walls (SRWs)………………………………………… 242
9. Bridge abutments………………………………………………………….. 242
10. Sheet pile and bulkhead walls……………………………………………. 243
11. Restrained (Non-yielding) retaining walls………………….…………… 243
12. Anchored (tieback) walls……………………..…….……………………. 244
Wall Selection Criteria………………………………………………………….… 246
General…………………………………………………………………….………. 246
1. Project Category……………………….…………………………………... 246
2. Cut vs. Fill Application……………………….………………………..…. 246
3. Site Characteristics……………………………………….………………. 247
4. Miscellaneous Design Considerations……………………………..……... 247
5. Right of Way Considerations……………………………………………… 247
6. Utilities and Other Conflicts………………………………………….…… 247
7. Aesthetics…………………………………………………………………… 247
8. Constructability Considerations…………………………………………… 247
9. Environmental Considerations…………………………………………….. 248
VII
10. Cost………………………………………………………………..……... 248
11. Mandates by Other Agencies…………………………………………... 248
12. Requests made by the Public……………………………….…………… 248
13. Railing………………………………………………………..…………… 248
14. Traffic barrier…………………………..…………………...…………… 248
Important definitions…………………………………….……………………… 249
Categories of Lateral Earth Pressure…………………………….………. 250
Stability Requirements………………………………………………….………... 251
The Primary Concerns for the Design of Nearly any Retaining Wall are…… 252
Design Criteria Checklist………………………….…………………………….. 253
Establish Design Criteria…………………………………………..…………….. 254
Designing of gravity retaining wall………………………………………………. 255
Designing of cantilever retaining wall…………………………………………. 262
Counterfort retaining walls………………………..………………...………… 268
Systematic Design of a counterfort Retaining Wall…………………………… 270
Drainage system behind retaining walls……………….…….………………… 281
Wall drainage…………….……………………….…………………………….. 283
Wall joints………………………………………………………………………… 284
Failure of Retaining walls………………………………………………………….. 285
Retaining Wall Failures……………………………………………………………. 286
Exercises ………………………………………………………….…………… 288
Chapter (7) Small Span Bridges………………………….……………………. 292
Type of bridges…………….…………………………………………………….… 292
Type of Reinforced concrete bridges…………………………………….………. 293
VIII
Design of bridge……………………….…………………………………………... 296
Hydraulic design……………………….…………………………………..…. 296
Structural design……………………………………………..………………. 299
1. Design of slab……………………………………..……………...……... 301
2. Design of side walk……………………………………………………… 304
3. Design of main girder……………………………………………...…… 305
4. Design of pier…………………………………………………………… 309
Solved example…………………………………………………..…………… 311
Rolled steel joist Bridge………………………………………………………….. 321
Main steps to construct any irrigation structure …………….……….. 324
IX
Design of Irrigation structures List of figures
List of Figures
Figure Page
Figure (1.1): Networks ramifying…………………………………………………….. 1
Figure (1.2): Sketch of different irrigation and drainage structures………………. 3
Figure (1.3): Pipe conduits for canals crossing small roads………………………… 6

Figure (1.4): Inverted syphon below roads showing rectangular section, circular
6
section also possible……………………………………..………………
Figure (1.5a): Canal full supply level and road level are nearly same……………... 7
Figure (1.5b): An example of an inverted syphon of small canal crossing a road… 7
Figure (2.1): Schematic sketch for a canal crosses a road…………………………... 12
Figure (2.2): Layout of a canal intersects a road……………………………………. 15
Figure (2.3): Layout of a culvert at a canal intake…………………………………... 16
Figure (2.4): Culvert’s Cross Sectional Shapes……………………………………… 19
Figure (2.5): Inlet configuration of culvert…………………………………………... 20
Figure (2.6): Plan for box wing wall type……………………………………………. 21
Figure (2.7): Plan for Broken wing wall type…………………….………………….. 21
Figure (2.8): Plan for warped wing wall type…………………….………………….. 21
Figure (2.9): Inlet Components……………………………….………………………. 22
Figure (2.10): Canal cross section…………………………………………………….. 23
Figure (2.11): Outlet submergence…………………………………………………… 25
Figure (2.12): Drop in canal bed……………………………………………………… 25
Figure (2.13): Schematic Sketch for head loss through culvert…………………….. 26
Figure (2.14): Values of φ for different rack cross sections…………..…………….. 28
Figure (2.15): Values of φ for different rack cross sections……………..………….. 28
Figure (2.16): values of Entrance and Exit coefficients………………………….….. 31

Figure (2.17): Schematic sketch for culvert length…………………………………..
32
X
Figure (2.18): Empirical dimensions of culvert………………………………..…….. 37
Figure (2.19): Weight of soil on culvert………………………………..…………….. 38
Figure (2.20): Distribution uniform live load on culvert……………………………. 38
Figure (2.21): Wheel loads and dimensions of standard trucks……………………. 39
Figure (2.22): Distribution of wheel loads on culvert (case of no interference)…… 40
Figure (2.23): Distribution of wheel loads on culvert (case of interference)…… 41
Figure (2.24): Lateral load due to D.E.P and surcharge of live load………………. 42
Figure (2.25): Lateral load due to W.E.P………………………………..…………… 42
Figure (2.26): Lateral load in case of stratified soil…………………………………. 42
Figure (2.27): schematic sketch for internal water pressure……………………….. 43

Figure (2.28): Bending moment and normal force diagrams for vertical loads
43
(one vent R.C box culvert) ………………………………..…………...
Figure (2.29): Bending moment and normal force diagrams for lateral loads (one
44
vent R.C box culvert) ………………………………..…………...........
Figure (2.30): Bending moment and normal force diagrams for vertical loads
45
(two vents R.C box culvert) ………………………………..………….
Figure (2.31): Bending moment and normal force diagrams for lateral loads (two
46
vents R.C box culvert) ………………………………..…………..........
Figure (2.32): Internal water pressure on steel pipe culvert………………………... 49
Figure (2.33): Shape of absolute design moment for one vent cross-section………. 52
Figure (2.34): Types of sections according to exposure of tension side to water….. 60
Figure (2.35): section subjected to (M,T) ………………………………..…………... 71
Figure (2.36): flange subjected to compression………………………………..…….. 75
Figure (2.37): flange subjected to compression………………………………..…….. 76
Figure (2.38): flange subjected to tension………………………………..…………... 77
Figure (2.39): 3-D layout for 2-vent R.C box culvert ……………………………….. 82
Figure (2.40): 3-D layout for 2-vent steel pipe culvert ……………………………… 83
Figure (2.41): Arch Culvert ………………………………..…………........................ 84
XI
Figure (2.42): Two vent steel pipe culvert………………………………..………….. 85
Figure (2.43): Two vent R.C Box culvert………………………………..…………… 86
Figure (2.44): one vent arch culvert at a canal intake………………………………. 87

Figure (2.45): Cross-and longitudinal reinforcement details for one-vent R.C box
88
culvert ……………………………………………………..…………..
Figure (2.46): Concrete dimensions of 2-vent R.C box culvert………….………….. 89
Figure (2.47): Reinforcement details of 2-vent R.C box culvert……….…………… 89
Figure (2.48): Concrete dimensions of 3-vent R.C box culvert…………………….. 90
Figure (2.49): Reinforcement details of 3-vent R.C box culvert……………………. 90

Figure (2.50): Cross-and longitudinal reinforcement details for 2-vent R.C box
91
culvert……………………………………………………..…………...
Figure (2.51): Plan for one vent R.C box culvert with rectangular cross section…. 92
Figure (2.52): Concrete dimensions of one-vent R.C box culvert with rectangle
93
cross Section…………………………………………………………...
Figure (3.1): Inverted syphon under construction…………………………............... 141
Figure (3.2): Plan and section of a small canal crossing road………………………. 143
Figure (3.3):Plan and section of canal syphon…………………………...................... 143
Figure (3.4): Syphon from stone and bricks…............................................................. 144
Figure (3.5): Sloped steel pipe syphon…....................................................................... 149
Figure (3.6): Waterway cross section…........................................................................ 151
Figure (3.7): Elbow at Syphon…................................................................................... 152
Figure (3.8): Bent at Syphon…...................................................................................... 152
Figure (3.9): Critical Sections for different cases of loading….................................. 153

Figure (3.10): Bending moments for pipe section for vertical loads and Earth
155
pressure…...............................................................................................
Figure (3.11): 3-D view for brick arch syphon with two vents……………………... 155
Figure (3.12): two vent Arch syphon…......................................................................... 156
Figure(3.13): Layout of El Salam canal…................................................................... 158
Figure (3.14): El-Salam Syphon under Suez Canal…................................................. 160
XII
Figure (4.1): Layout of Aqueduct….............................................................................. 174
Figure (4.2): Different cross sections of aqueduct….................................................... 175
Figure (4.3): Barrel Type aqueduct…........................................................................... 178
Figure (4.4): Trough type aqueduct….......................................................................... 178
Figure (4.5): A typical plan of a barrel Type aqueduct…........................................... 179
Figure (4.6): Cross sections of the barrel type aqueduct…......................................... 179
Figure (4.7): Longitudinal section showing culvert part & aqueduct part………... 180
Figure (4.8): Structure system for aqueduct part (Double over hanged beam)…… 180
Figure (4.9): outlet Submergence….............................................................................. 182
Figure (4.10): Aqueduct part length and supports….................................................. 183
Figure (4.11): Thickness of steel pipe…........................................................................ 183
Figure (4.12): Uplift pressure acting on the lower cord of the pipe of length L’….. 184
Figure (4.13): Distribution of uplift pressure………………………………………... 185
Figure (4.14): Fixation of steel pipe by steel hope…………………………………… 185
Figure (4.15): Steel hope…............................................................................................. 186
Figure (4.16): Shapes of open trough aqueduct…....................................................... 188

Figure (4.17): Cross sections at upstream, through the aqueduct, and
188
downstream…........................................................................................
Figure (4.18): Longitudinal section through open trough aqueduct……………….. 189
Figure (4.19): Empirical dimensions of the aqueduct….............................................. 193
Figure (4.20): Loads and bending moment on the upper slab…................................ 193
Figure (4.21): Loads and Straining actions on the aqueduct in the short direction. 194
Figure (4.22): bending moment on the main beam in the short direction…………. 195
Figure (4.23): loads on the main beam in the long direction….................................. 196
Figure (4.24): Bending moment on simply supported deep beam………………….. 196
Figure (4.25): Reinforcement details for simply supported deep beam …………… 197
XIII
Figure (4.26): Reinforcement details for simply supported deep beam carrying
198
vertical loads……………………………………………………………
Figure (4.27): Bending moment for continuous deep beam ………………….......... 199
Figure (4.28): Reinforcement details for continuous deep beam…………………… 200
Figure (4.29): Reinforcement details for continuous deep beam, El-Behairy …….. 201
Figure (4.30): Calculation of shear reinforcement for deep beam, El-Behairy.…... 201
Figure (4.31): 3-D Layout of open trough (one vent) ….............................................. 202
Figure (4.32): R.C box aqueduct…............................................................................... 203
Figure (4.33): Loads on Alloz aqueduct…................................................................... 205

Figure (5.1): Spill the excess water to the nearest drain by a structure called
219
escape or spillway…..................................................................................
Figure (5.2): Types of Escapes according to its position…......................................... 220
Figure (5.3): Well escape ( circular or rectangular)………………………………… 220
Figure (5.4): Intermediate escape at intersection of two waterways……………….. 221
Figure (5.5): Different types of tail escape…................................................................ 221
Figure (5.6): Longitudinal cross section for the tail escape….................................... 222
Figure (5.7): The outlet at drain…................................................................................ 222
Figure (5.8): General layout for the well…………………………………………….. 223
Figure (5.9): cross section of canal and drain…........................................................... 223
Figure (5.10): circular weir…........................................................................................ 225
Figure (5.11): Rectangular weir…................................................................................. 225
Figure (5.12): well layout…............................................................................................ 227
Figure (5.13): Tail escape layout…................................................................................ 229
Figure (5.14): Tail escape (Circular well type) …........................................................ 231
XIV
Design of Irrigation structures List of photos
List of Photos
Photo Page
Photo (2.1): Pipe culvert in nature with two vents…................................................... 13
Photo (2.2): Culverts for Crossing Natural Drains….................................................. 13
Photo (2.3): Culvert rack…............................................................................................ 27
Photo (2.4): Outlet protection against local scour….................................................... 35
Photo (2.5): Standard truck 60 t…................................................................................ 39
Photo (3.1): Inlet of El salaam syphon…...................................................................... 160
Photo (4.1): Different uses of aqueduct…..................................................................... 176
Photo (4-2): Alloz Aqueduct…....................................................................................... 204
XV
Design of Irrigation structuresChapter (1) Introduction
DESIGN OF IRRIGATION STRUCTURES
1. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
An irrigation system comprises all the physical and organizational facilitiesand

services required to convey water for the irrigation of crops from a source ofsupply to
the farmers' fields. Systems may vary in size, scope and design fromone merely
aiming at spreading the flood water of a river over adjacent areas, orconveying small
flows from a surface or ground water source over limiteddistances and areas to large
networks ramifying over the land like the branches ofa tree (Figure 1.1)
Figure (1.1):irrigation Network
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-2-
Networks for gravity flow irrigation may consist of open canals and ditchesor of low
pressure buried pipes, or both, in the tail portion of the system.Buried pipes are not
usually economicalin gravity flow irrigation systems wherethe pipe diameter has to be
large enough for a flow exceeding 1000 L/sec.
A canal conveying water from the head works has to run for largedistances and has to
maintain the water levels appropriately, as designed along its length. It has to run
through terrains which generally would have a different slope small than the canal.
The surrounding areas wouldinvariably have its' own drainage system ranging from
small streams tolarge rivers. The canal has to carry the water across these water
bodies as well as across artificial obstacles like railway line or roads .The
mainstructures of a canal system for conveyance of canal flow and control of water
levels are as follows:
1. Pipe conduits, culverts, inverted syphons, and bridges to carry flow under
railways and highways.
2. Aqueducts, syphonacross natural drainage courses or other depressions.
3. Transitions at changes in cross sections, figure (1.2).
Figure (1.2): Sketch of different irrigation and drainage structures
-3-
-4-
NEED FOR FLOW CONTROL
Irrigation is in effect synonymous with artificial flow control from thewater source to
the plant. Planning and design of a flow system should extendfrom the farmer fields
towards the source of water supply. The basic data forthe entire system are those
related to the soil, the climate, the plant, the farmerand his fields. The adequacy of
these data and their correct application willultimately determine the success of the
project. The distribution system mustallow the delivery of a definite quantity of water
to each field and it must bepossible to vary the quantity with time. The need to
savewater and to provide accurate metering facilities from which realistic unit costsof
water can be computed must always be the primary consideration. The amountof
water to be supplied to each farm plot varies from year to year, and evenduring the
same year, depending on the crops grown and the needs of the plantsduring the
various stages of their growth. And, lastly, the effects of the weatherduring the
growing period have to be taken into account.
2. INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
This course deals with the concepts of planning, layout and design of canal structures
for flow conveyance across artificial and natural obstacles. On completion of this
course, the student shall learn the following:
1. The need for structures of a canal irrigation system for conveying water from
one point to another.
2. Designing of structures for conveying water across, over or under natural.
streams
3. Transitions in canals at change of cross section.
Structures for crossing canals across roads and railway linesthese are structural
elements to convey canal water under roads or railway lines.For small roads, carrying
relatively less traffic, the pipe conduit issufficient. A general view of the pipe conduit
is shown in Figure (1.3). For canals crossing undermajor highways and railway
tracks, reinforced concrete culverts are more commonly adopted. These roads or
railway crossings are usually having a straight profile along its length. The water level
in the canal for this type ofcrossing is lower than the level of the obstruction it
crosses, as may be noticed from Figure (1.4) and the flow through the pipe may be
free or under mild pressure.
-5-
Figure (1.3):Pipe conduits for canals crossing small roads
Pipe road crossings are relatively economical, easily designed and built, and have
proven a reliable means of conveying water under a roadway. Pipe installations are
normally installed by cut and cover method below minor roads but for important
roads, where traffic cannot be interrupted, it may be accomplished by jacking the pipe
through the roadway foundation.
The inverted syphons are structures for canal water conveyance below roads, railway
lines and other structures Figure (1.4). The longitudinal profile is not exactly in a
straight line and the central portion is seen to sag beneath the object to be crossed. The
inverted syphon, therefore, is provided where the water level in the canal is about the
same as the level of the obstruction (Figure 5).
Figure (1.4):Inverted syphon below roads showing rectangular section,

circular section also possible
-6-
Figure (1.5a):Canal full supply level and road level are nearly same
Figure (1.5b):An example of an inverted syphon of small canal crossing a road
The inverted syphon is a closed conduit designed to run full and under pressure. If
made of pressure pipes, they should be able to withstand the load of cover and wheel
from outside and the hydrostatic head from inside. Transitions for changes in cross
sections are nearly always used at inlet and outlet of a syphon to reduce head losses
and prevent erosion in unlined canals caused by the velocity changes between the
canal and the pipe.
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3. BASIC CONCEPTS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING DESIGN

Structures are placed in rivers and canals in order to:
1. Control water levels and flows,

2. Facilitate the abstraction of water,
3. Maintain navigation,
4. Control flooding,
5. Measure the discharge.
4. SCOUR AS A CAUSE OF FAILURE OF STRUCTURES
Local scour downstream hydraulic structure is a severe problem as several hydraulic

structures were failed as a result of scouring activities behind the toe of these
structures. Local scour downstream hydraulic structures can be defined as a
phenomenon caused by turbulence and disturbances of the flow pattern due to the
presence of the hydraulic structures. As a result of non-formation of hydraulic jump
on solid floor, the excessive flow energy will be escape towards the alluvial bed
downstream the solid floor. The escaping energy may erode the boundary material
and carry it either in suspension or as bed load movement further downstream.
Consequently, serious scour immediately below the structure may endanger its
foundation.
Scour can present a particular problem for structures placed in rivers as it can lead to:
1. Undermining and instability of the various elements of the structure;
2. Failure of the complete structures.
Some important methods to reduce this effect include:
1. Streamlining of structures to avoid the onset of turbulent eddies,
2. Scour protection on vulnerable surfaces,
3. Establishing the structural foundation and support below the anticipated depth
of scour.
5. SEDIMENT DEPOSITION (SEDIMENTATION)
When the flow velocity falls below critical velocity (which depend on the particle size
and density),bedload ceases and sediment is dropped from suspension. This is called
deposition. If the depositionoccurs in a spatially defined area, it can produce bedforms
on many scales from ripples through tobars, spits and islands. Deposition produces a
corresponding reduction in flow cross section and istherefore self-limiting and often
cyclic.
-8-
Deposition presents an issue for the performance of fluvial structures by restricting the
potential flowcapacity and by blocking intakes. In canals and navigable rivers,
sedimentation can reduce the draughtavailable for navigation.
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Design of Irrigation structures Chapter (2) Culvert
Culverts
1.Definition
The function of a culvert is to convey surface water across a highway, railroad, or
other embankment. In addition to the hydraulic function, the culvert must carry
construction, highway, railroad, or other traffic and earth loads. Therefore, culvert
design involves both hydraulic and structural design considerations.
Culverts can be divided into two functional types: Stream Crossing and Runoff
Management.The first culvert type, stream crossing culvert, is self-defining. A culvert
is required where theroadway crosses a stream channel to allow water to pass
downstream. The second type culvert, runoff management culvert, is one which is
strategically placed to manage and route roadway runoff along, under, and away from
the roadway. Many times these culverts are used to transport upland runoff,
accumulated in road ditches on the upland side of the roadway, to the lower sidefor
disposal. These culverts are commonly called cross-drains.
Culvert: is an artificial irrigation conduit constructed to pass discharge of canal or

drain under an embankment, road or rail way.
A culvert is a closed conduit used to convey water from one area to another,
usually from oneside of a road to the other side.
2. Culverts for Stream Crossings

When installing culverts (and bridges) for stream crossings, seek to maintain the
original andnatural full bank capacity (cross-sectional area) of the channel.
Constrictions at these points arecontributing factors in costly bridge and culvert
- 10 -
“blow-outs” which generate a large volume ofsediment deposited directly into the
stream. Align and center the culvert with the existingstream channel whenever
possible. As a minimum, align the culvert with the center of thechannel immediately
downstream of the outlet. If channel excavation is required to help alignthe culvert, it
is frequently best to excavate the upstream channel to fit the culvert entrance andalign
the outlet with the existing natural channel. Minimal disturbance of the channel at
theculvert outlet should be the priority consideration. Inasmuch as possible, the grade
of culvertsshould be determined by the grade of the existing channel, but usually not
less than 0.5% normore than 1%. The outlet should discharge at the existing channel
bottom. A professionalengineer, experienced in hydrology and culvert hydraulics,
should be consulted for determinationof actual culvert grades when dealing with
peculiar alignment or laying conditions, and upon anydeviation from normal and
usual installation procedures. Keep disturbance of the channelbottom, sides, adjacent
land, and surrounding natural landscape to a minimum duringinstallation. Install
energy dissipating structures and/or armor at the outlet where scour anderosion are
likely to occur from high exit velocity due to steep culvert installation, near
proximityto channel banks, drops at the end of the culvert, etc.
3. Culverts for Runoff Management

Where cross-drains are needed in conjunction with “turn-outs”, it is ideal to place
culverts nomore than 500 feet apart along the roadway to control the volume and
velocity of flow withinroad ditches. Steeper road slopes may require closer spacing to
discharge accumulated runoffin excess of ditch capacity and/or to keep velocities
down. Inasmuch as possible in non-streamcrossing locations, a “turn-out” (“tail-
ditch”) should coincide with the outlet location of a crossdrainculvert to “dump”
transported and accumulated water from the receiving ditch. Whereprivate roads and
driveways intersect public roadways, install culverts to maintain continuity offlow
- 11 -
within the ditch while allowing access across the ditch. In cases of no head wall,
install
Enoughculverts to extend each end at least two (2) feet past the toes of the road bank
slopes.Install energy dissipating structures and/or armor at the outlet where scour and
erosion are likelyto occur from high exit velocity due to steep culvert installation, near
proximity to ditch banks,drops at the end of the culvert, etc.
Culverts are available in a variety of sizes, shapes, and materials. These factors,
along with several others, affect their capacity and overall performance. Sizes and
shapes may vary from small circular pipes to extremely large arch sections that are
sometimes used in place of bridges.
Figure (2.1): Schematic sketch for a canal crosses a road
- 12 -
` Photo (2.1): Pipe culvert in natural with two vents
Photo (2.2): Culverts for Crossing Natural Drains
- 13 -
4. Differencebetween Culvert and Bridge

1- Using Bridge in case of HighTraffic.
2- Using Bridge in case of MainCanal.
3- Velocity through culvert is bigger than through bridges.
4- Culvert section is smaller than bridge.
5- Culvert section is submerged (running full) in case of bridges the water passing
with free surface.
6- Heading up caused by the culvert is much bigger than that caused by bridges.
7- The cost of culvert is smaller than that of bridge.
Culverts Bridges
Is constructed when a road crosses a Is constructed when a road cross a
small waterway big waterway or
If it is a navigable waterway or
in case of high traffic
The water passes completely full The water passes with a free surface
under a certain head (pipe flow) (open channel)
A bigger heading up results from A small heading up results from the
the construction of a culvert (15- construction of a bridge (5-10)cms
20)cms
Culvert section is smaller than Velocity through bridges is smaller
bridge. than through culverts.
Cost of culvert is cheaper than the
bridge
- 14 -
5. Functions of culvert and practical problems:

1-Water crossing structure where road way is to intersect a water stream (canal or
drain).
(8.50) (8.50)
(7.25) 3:2 3:2 (7.25)

(7.00)
(6.62)
( 6.25 ) ( 6.25 )
1:1 1:1
(5.00) (5.00)
(4.75) (4.75)
(4.00) (4.00)
ELE
(8.50)
3:2 3:2
(7.25) (7.25)
(8.50) (8.50)
1:1 1:1
X 6.000 X
(7.25) (7.25)
(5.00)
1.80 1.75 1.80 (5.00)
(7.50)
UPSTREAM DOWNSTREAM
(7.25) (7.25)
PLAN
Figure (2.2): Layout of a canal intersects a road
- 15 -
2-Regulation and control of flow at canal’s intakes.

ARCH CULVERT 6.0 (8.50)
1
0.5 2:
(7.50) 0.50 3:2
(7.25) (7.25)
0.38 (7.00)
(6.62) 1.8
( 6.25 )
2
3: 10.0 1:1
(5.00) 0.25 (5.00)
(4.75)
(4.00) (4.00)
SEC.ELEVATION X-X
(7.25) 3:2
3:2 2:1
2.0m
1:5
(7.25)
=m
(8.50)
75
(7.50)
.3
r3
(4.00)
1:1
X (7.25) X
(5.00)
1.75 (5.00)
(7.50)
UPSTREAM DOWNSTREAM
S.V
PLAN
Figure (2.3): Layout of a culvert at a canal intake
3- Cross drainage structure to safeguard high ways from damage caused by

torrential flows.
4- Crossing bridge on small streams.
5- Pipe culvert is used as adrainage pipe to escape excess discharges of main canal
into drain.
6-Stream flow measurement device in open channel.
- 16 -
6. Culvert design
Desing of irrigation
structures
Hydraulic Structural
design design
7. Required Design Information
The hydraulic design of a culvert essentially consists of an analysis of the
required performance of the culvert to convey flow from one side of the
roadway (or other kind of embankment, such as a railroad) to the other. The
designer must estimate the design discharge, and set an allowable headwater
elevation based on the selected design flood and headwater considerations. The
culvert size and type can be selected after the design discharge, controlling
design headwater, slope, tailwater, and allowable outlet velocity have been
determined.
The design of a culvert includes a determination of the following:
• Alignment, grade, and length of culvert.
• Size, type, end treatment, headwater, and outlet velocity.
• Amount and type of cover.
• Public safety issues, including the key question of whether or not to include a
safety/debris rack.
• Pipe material.
- 17 -
• Type of coating (if required).

• Need for fish passage measures, in specialized cases.
• Need for protective measures against abrasion and corrosion.
• Need for specially designed inlets or outlets.
• Structural and geotechnical considerations, which are beyond the scope of this
chapter.
 Hydraulic design: concerned with determination of internal dimensions.
 Culvert may by run with full section (closed conduit) or partially full (open
channel flow).
 Culverts are made of variety materials.
 The main basis of selection of material type are
1. Cost
2. Availability
 Material :
The material selected for a culvert is dependent upon various factors, such as
durability, structural strength, roughness, bedding condition, abrasion and
corrosion resistance, and water tightness. The more common culvert materials
used are concrete and steel (smooth and corrugated).Culverts may also be lined
with other materials to inhibit corrosion and abrasion, or to reduce hydraulic
resistance. For example, corrugated metal culverts may be lined with asphaltic
concrete.
1-Concret
2- Steel
3- Brick
- 18 -
8. Shape of culvert cross section:

The most commonly used culvert shape is circular, but arches, boxes, and elliptical
shapes are used, as well. Pipe arch, elliptical, and rectangular shapes are generally
used in lieu of circular pipe where there is limited cover. Arch culverts have
application in locations where less obstruction to a waterway is a desirable feature,
and where foundations are adequate for structural support. Box culverts can be
designed to pass large flows and to fit nearly any site condition. A box or rectangular
culvert lends itself more readily than other shapes to low allowable headwater
situations since the height may be decreased and the span increased to satisfy the
location requirements.
1-Box sections
2- Pipes
3- Arch
Figure (2.4): Culvert’s Cross Sectional Shapes
- 19 -
9. Factors of consideration:
“The selection of shape is based on the cost of construction, the limitation on

upstream water surface elevation, roadway embankment height, and hydraulic
performance.”
Inlets:
Another factor that significantly affects the performance of a culvert is its inlet
configuration. The culvert inlet may consist of a culvert barrel projecting from the
roadway fill or mitered to the embankment slope. Other inlets have headwalls,
wingwalls, and apron slabs or standard end sections of concrete or metal.
Figure (2.5): Inlet configuration of culvert
- 20 -
Figure (2.6):Plan for box wing walltype
Figure (2.7): Plan for Broken wing walltype
Figure (2.8): Plan for warped wing wall type
- 21 -
Entrance arrangements
Figure (2.9): Inlet Components
10. Hydraulic design of culvert closed conduit

Available head, economy, and allowable culvert velocities determine the size and
the shape of the culvert cross-section. Thus, it is necessary to assume internal
dimensions for the culvert and compute head losses such asrack, friction,entrance, and
exit. The sum of all the computed losses should approximate the difference in energy
grade elevation between the upstream and downstream ends of the culvert (available
head) and should not exceed 20 cm.
- 22 -
Figure (2.10): Canal cross section
A= (B+Z*y)y
 B Bed width of canal

 Y water depth
 Z side slopes
 = (2
 1
 =
 Choose the culvert dimension pipe, box culvert


Where S is the vent width, H is the vent height or the flow water depth at the
culvert in case of culvert running under free flow condition.
t2
t1
R.C. R.C.
H H
S S S
Single vent and 2-vents R.C. Box Culvert
- 23 -
Different shapes of the R.C Box section Culvertare:
a) Square section (S = H)
It has maximum area for a given perimeter and minimum friction losses, it easier
constructedand it has a simple framework.
b) Rectangular section (S < H)
It is economical under heavy loads as horizontal slabs have small spans and it may
require big depth at entrance.
c) Rectangular section (S > H)
It gives better condition at entrances and outlets, but it is uneconomical from

structural point of view due to the big spans.
 Generally, the width of the culvert is chosen to be equal or bigger than its height (S
= H or S > H). If the width is bigger than the height, more than one vent can be
used. For economical design S = (0.8 →1.5) H
 The sum of vents’ width should be smaller than the canal bed width.
 The invert level of the culvert is chosen at the canal bed level or lowers in order to
have at least (20→ 30 cms) submergence at the lip of the culvert at its entrance.
 If the submergence condition (20→30 cms) not achieved. The bed upstream the
entrance of the culvert, is lowered not more than 0.50 m, through a slope 5: 1 at a
distance of 5.0 ms. A similar arrangement should be made at the downstream side
of the culvert to achieve that culvert should be submerged by the tailwater with 10
cms at least.
 The culvert slope should follow the canal slope.
 Suitable wing walls i.e. box wing walls for upstream and splayed types at exit of
culvert may be employed but for large irrigation works warped-type wing walls are
used (Egyptian code of Water Resources and Irrigation Works, 2003)
- 24 -
10.1 Design considerations

1. The culvert should be submerged by the tailwater with 0.1m at least.
Figure (2.11): Outlet submergence
2. Lowering of culvert with respect to canal bed is allowed up to 0.5m.
W.L. 20 cms decking 10 cms W.L.

Lip
S
5:1 5.0 m 5.0 m 5:1
50 cm
Invert Level 50 cm
Culvert Length
Drop at U.S Drop at D.S
Figure (2.12): Drop in canal bed
3-whenever possible, the culvert barrel should follow the canal slope.
10.2 Heading up for horizontal culvert
: head loss between U.S. and D.S. water levels or heading up.
:Gravitationalacceleration.
- 25 -
: Coefficient of head loss due to rock.
: Velocity up stream culvert.
: Velocity through the culvert.
:Coefficient of head loss due to entrance.
: Coefficient of head loss due to exit.
: Coefficient of head loss due to friction.
Heading-up upstream and downstream the culvert
Figure (2.13): Schematic Sketch for head loss through culvert
- 26 -
Photo (2.3): Culvert rack
10.2.1 Coefficient of head loss due to rack Kr
= ( )
: Coefficient depends up on cross section for different shape of steel bar.
- 27 -
t: steel bar thickness(1→2) cms.
b: distance between bars(5→15)

cms.
: Angle of inclination of rack from

60º to 70º.
Figure (2.14): Values of for different rack cross sections
10.2.2 Velocity upstream the culvert
=
L
Figure (2.15): Values of for different rack cross sections
- 28 -
10.2.3 Coefficient of head loss due to the entrance and exit culvert
 Inlet Control
A culvert operates with inlet control when the flow capacity is controlled at the
entrance by these factors:
• Depth of headwater
• Cross-sectional area
• Inlet edge configuration
• Barrel shape
When a culvert operates under inlet control, headwater depth and the inlet edge
configuration determine the culvert capacity with the culvert barrel usually flowing
only partially full.
 Outlet Control
If the headwater is high enough, the culvert slope sufficiently flat and the culvert
sufficiently long, the control will shift to the outlet. In outlet control, the discharge is a
function of the inlet losses, the headwater depth, the culvert roughness, the culvert
length, the barrel diameter, the culvert slope, and sometimes the tailwater elevation.
In outlet control, culvert hydraulic performance is determined by these factors:
• Depth of headwater
• Cross-sectional area
• Inlet edge configuration
• Culvert shape
• Barrel slope
- 29 -
• Barrel length
• Barrel roughness
• Depth of tailwater
10.3 Energy Losses

In short conduits, such as culverts, the form losses due to the entrance can be as
important as the friction losses through the conduit. The losses that must be evaluated
to determine the carrying capacity of the culverts consist of inlet (or entrance) losses,
friction losses and outlet (or exit) losses.
10.3.1 Inlet Losses

For inlet losses, the governing equations are
Where:
Q = flow rate or discharge
C = contraction coefficient (dimensionless)
A = cross-sectional area
g = acceleration due to gravity,
H = total head
He = head loss at entrance
Ke = entrance loss coefficient
- 30 -
v = average velocity
10.3.2 Outlet Losses

For outlet losses, the governing equations are related to the difference in velocity
head between the pipe flow and that in the downstream channel at the end of the pipe.
Figure (2.16): values of Entrance and Exitcoefficients
10.4 Friction Losses

Friction head loss for turbulent flow in pipes flowing full can be determined from the
Darcy-Weisbach equation.
Where:
Hf= frictional head loss

f = friction factor (dimensionless)
L = length of culvert
D = Diameter of culvert
v = average velocity
- 31 -
g = acceleration due to gravity

The friction factor has been determined empirically and is dependent on relative
roughness, velocity, and barrel diameter. Moody diagrams can be used to determine
the friction factor. The friction losses for culverts are often expressed in terms of
Manning’s n, which is independent of the size of pipe and depth of flow. Another
common formula for pipe flow is the Hazen-Williams formula. Standard hydraulic
texts should be consulted for limitations of these formulas.Coefficient of head loss
due to friction
= f forcircular section
= f fornon-circular section
f:friction Coefficient moody diagram 0.02( Hunter Rouse Diagram)

D: inner pipe diameter
L: Total culvert length= Road width+ 2{(road level – Berm leve) z} + 2
:Distance may between (1
R: hydraulic Radius R =
P: wetted perimeter
Figure (2.17): Schematic sketch for culvert length
- 32 -
The Egyptian code give another method for rectangular sections

For box- sections
 b L
C f  a. (1  ) 
 R R
n. S . H
R: hydraulic radius for culvert= A/p=
n x 2 (S  H )
L: culvert length
a, and b: coefficients depends on the culvert’s materials (Egyptian code)
b A ‫المادة‬
0.0305 0.00316 ‫برابخ أسمنتية ملساء‬
0.0256 0.00497 ‫برابخ حديد ملساء‬
0.0265 0.00996 ‫برابخ حديد غير قابلة للصدأ‬
0.0701 0.00401 ‫مبانى طوب وواجهات دستور‬
11. Culvert Outlet

The outlet velocity must be checked to determine if significant scour will occur
downstream during the major storm.
12. Minimum Slope

To minimize sediment deposition in the culvert, the culvert slope must be equal to
or greater than the slope required maintaining a minimum velocity. The slope should
be checked for each design, and if the proper minimum velocity is not obtained, the
pipe diameter may be decreased, the slope steepened, a smoother pipe used, or a
combination of these may be used.
13. OUTLET PROTECTION

Scour at culvert outlets is a common occurrence. It must be accounted for, as
discussed below. The natural channel flow is usually confined to a lesser width and
greater depth as it passes through a culvert barrel. An increased velocity results with
potentially erosive capabilities as it exits the barrel. Turbulence and erosive eddies
- 33 -
form as the flow expands to conform to the natural channel. However, the velocity
and depth of flow at the culvert outlet and the velocity distribution upon reentering the
natural channel are not the only factors that need consideration.The characteristics of
the channel bed and bank material, velocity, and depth of flow in the channel at the
culvert outlet, and the amount of sediment and other debris in the flow are all
contributing factors to scour potential. Due to the variation in expected flows and the
difficulty in evaluating some of these factors, scour prediction is not a very exact
science.Scour in the vicinity of a culvert outlet can be classified into two separate
types called local scour and general stream degradation.
13.1 Local Scour
Local scour is typified by a scour hole produced at the culvert outlet. This is the
result of high exit velocities, and the effects extend only a limited distance
downstream.
Coarse material scoured from the circular or elongated hole is deposited

immediately downstream, often forming a low bar. Finer material is transported
further downstream. The dimensions of the scour hole change due to sedimentation
during low flows and the varying erosive effects of storm events. The scour hole is
generally deepest during passage of the peak flow. Methods for predicting scour hole
dimensions are found in Hydraulic Design of Energy Dissipators for Culverts and
Channels.
13.2 General Stream Degradation
General stream degradation is a phenomenon that is independent of culvert

performance. Natural causes produce a lowering of the streambed over time. The
identification of a degrading stream is an essential part of the original site
investigation.
- 34 -
Both local and general scour can occur simultaneously at a culvert outlet.
Protection against scour at culvert outlets varies from limited riprap placement to
complex and expensive energy dissipation. At some locations, use of a rougher
culvert material may alleviate the need for a special outlet protection device. Pre-
formed scour holes (approximating the configuration of naturally formed holes)
dissipate energy while providing a protective lining to the streambed.
As discussed riprapped channel expansions and concrete aprons protect the

channel and redistribute or spread the flow. Barrel outlet expansions operate in a
similar manner. Headwalls and cutoff walls protect the integrity of the fill. When
outlet velocities are high enough to create excessive downstream problems,
consideration should be given to more complex energy dissipation devices. These
include hydraulic jump basins, impact basins, drop structures, and stilling wells.
Design information for the general types of energy dissipators.
Photo (2.4): Outlet protection against local scour
- 35 -
14. Structural design of culvert

Structural designof culvert structure including the following item:
1. Calculation of acting load

 Vertical loads
1. Liveload
2. Died load
 Lateral load
1- Due to earth.
2- Due toground water.
3- Due to internal water pressure.
4- Due to live load.
2. Analysis of the straining actions
1. Moments
2. Normal force
3. Shear force
3. Calculation of material thickness and the required Reinforcement.
4. Draw all required views and reinforcement details.
- 36 -
14.1 Estimating empirical dimension of box culvert
Figure (2.18): Empirical dimensions of culvert
K=
K: coefficient of rigidity
14.2 Calculating vertical loads

14.2.1 Dead load
Dead load acting on the culvert equal the weight of earth over the culvert and half
the own weight of the culvert.
- 37 -
Weight of earth /m`
=( )
⁄ 0.w of culvert /m`
⁄
=
Dead load = +
Figure (2.19): Weight of soil on culvert
14.2.2 Live load
 For uniformly live load

p1 t/m2 p1 = 500 -- 1000 t/m2
L1: Road width
L2: Width of load distribution at the upper cord of the culvert.
L2= L1+ d p1
p2=p1* L1/L2
L1
1
d
2
p2
L 2 =L1+d
Figure (2.20): Distribution uniform liveload on culvert
- 38 -
 For wheel loads
Figure (2.21): Wheel loadsand dimensions of standard trucks

C=0.10m a= 0.50m p= 6.0tLorry 20t
C= 0.20m a= 0.60m p= 10tTruck 60t
Photo (2.5): Standard truck 60 t
- 39 -
a. No interference between the distributions of loads.

f2= p /( (a+d)(c+d))
Figure (2.22): Distribution of wheel loads on culvert (case of no interference)
- 40 -
b. In case of interferencebetween the distributions of loads.

= t/
( ( ))
Figure (2.23): Distribution of wheel loads on culvert (case of no interference)
Continue Figure (2.23): Distribution of wheel loads on culvert (case of no interference)
14.3 Calculating Lateral load
14.3.1 Dry Earth Pressure (D.E.P)
The surrounding earth about structure induces a lateral forth on the side of the
structure due to earth pressure and surcharge pressure due to uniform live load.
- 41 -
: repose angle
Figure (2.24): Lateral load due to D.E.P and surcharge of live load
14.3.2Surcharge pressure due to uniform live load
Surcharge pressure = P*Ka
In which P : uniformly live load equal from 500 to 1000 Kg/m2
14.3.3 Wet Earth Pressure (W.E.P)
: repose angle
e1=ka*γ1*h+ka*γ2*h’+γw*h1 Figure (2.25): Lateral load due to W.E.P
e2=e1+ka*γ2*h2+γw*h2
* For stratified soil
e1=ka1*γ1*h1+ka2*γ2*h2
e2=e1+ka2*γ2*h2’+ka3*γ3*h3
Figure (2.26): Lateral load in case of stratified soil
- 42 -
14.4 Calculating internal water pressure
Pw =
: Specific weight of water
: Distance between upstream water surface and centerline of culvert

Figure (2.27): schematic sketch for internal water pressure
15. Straining actions
Straining action for one vent could be calculated

empirically as follow:-
o Box section
As shown the critical sections is 1-1 & 2-2 & 3-3 &4-
4
15.1 One vent
= = =
= =0
= =
- 43 -
Figure (2.28): Bending moment and normal force

diagrams for vertical loads (one vent R.C box culvert)
One vent
= = =
= =
= =0

diagrams for lateral loads (one vent R.C box culvert)
- 44 -
15.2 Two vent
= = =
=0
= = =0
= = ( )comp
= ( ) comp

diagrams for vertical loads (two vents R.C box culvert)
- 45 -
Two vent
= =
=-
=-
=0
= = =- comp
= =- comp
=e tension
Figure (2.31): Bending moment and normal force diagrams

for lateral loads (two vents R.C box culvert)
- 46 -
1- B.M. and N.F. due to Vertical loads
s' s' s'

w w
3
1 2 5 3 1 2 3
4 6 H' 4
w w
Two Vents One Vent
 wS   1 
2
 wS   1 
2
M1    N1  0.0 M1    N1  0.0
12  1  2k  12  1  k 
 wS 2  1  3k  wS 2  1  3k 
M2    N 2  0.0 M2    N 2  0.0
24  1  2k  24  1  k 
M 3  M1 N3  0.4 wS  M 3  M1 N 3   0.5 wS 
M 4  M1 N 4  N3 M 4  M1 N 4  N3
 wS  2  1  3k 
M5    N 5  0.0
12  1  2k 
M 6  0.0 N6  1.2 wS 
- 47 -
-
+ + +
B.M.D B.M.D
-
-
+ + +
-
-
--
--
-
N.F.D N.F.D
2- B.M. and N.F. due to Horizontal loads
s' s' s'
1 2 5 3 1 2 3
3
e
4 6 H' e e H' 4 e
Two Vents One Vent

 e H  k 
2
 e H  k 
2
M1    N1  0.5 e H  M1    N1  0.5 eH 
6  1  2k  12  1  k 
 e H 2  k 
M2    N 2  0.5 e H  M 2  M1 N 2  N1
24  1  2k 
M 3  M1 N 3  0.0 M 3  M1 N 3  0.0
 e H 2  6  4k   e H 2  3  k 
M4    N 4  0.0 M4    N 4  0.0
48  1  2k  24  1  k 
 e H 2  k 
M5    N5  0.5 e H 
12  1  2k 
M 6  0.0 N 6  0.0
- 48 -
B.M.D B.M.D
N.F.D N.F.D
15.3 Tension force in circular cross-section due to internal water pressure
P=
T=
Figure (2.32): Internal water pressure on steel pipe culvert
- 49 -
s' s' s'

1 2 5 3 1 2 3
3
4 pw 6 pw H' pw 4
Two Vents One Vent

M1 

pw S   2kH 
2 2
 N1  0.5 pw H  M1 

pw S   kH 2
2
 N1  0.5 pw H 
12(1  2k ) 12(1  k )
M2 

 pw S 2  3kS 2  kH 2  N 2  N1
 p S 2
M 2   w

 M1  N 2  N1
24(1  2k )  8 
M 3  M1 N3  0.4 pw S  M 3  M1 N 3  0.5 p w S 
M4 

 pw 6 H 2  4kH 2  4S 2  N 4  N3
 p H 2
M 4   w

 M 3  N 4  N3
48(1  2k )  8 
M5 

pw S 2  3kS 2  kH 2  N5  N1
12(1  2k )
M 6  0.0 N6  1.2 pw S 
- 50 -
B.M.D B.M.D
N.F.D N.F.D
16. Cases of loading

Bending moment values and normal force values for each studied case should be
arranged in the case of loading table. From this table one can calculate the design
moment and normal force for each critical section.
The design straining action for each section could be calculated as
 The design positive straining action is the vertical dead loads + any load increases their
values.
 The design negative straining action is the vertical dead loads + any load decreases their
values.
 Moment due to concentrated live load is always bigger than moment due to uniform load.
 One of the two earth pressures must be taken dry or wet not both of them.
- 51 -
 Considered only the normal force corresponded to the taken bending moment.
Vertical Loads Horizontal Loads Case of Case of
Internal
Rolling Dry Wet Surcharge Water Max. Max.
Load Dead
Live Earth Earth Lateral pressure
Loads +ve -ve
Load pressure pressure pressure Pw
(g1+g2)
P edry ewet es
Moment Moment
Sec. M N M N M N M N M N M N M N M N
1
2
3
4
5
6
Figure (2.33): Shape of absolute design moment for one vent cross-section
Check Stress on Soil

Case of just after construction (during test)
f= weight of earth + own weight of culvert + wheels loads+ weight of water
f= g1 + 2. g2 + P + weight of water ≯ allowable stress of soil
Weight of water = n. S. H/(S’)
Case of during Repair (No Live Load)
f= weight of earth + own wt of culvert – uplift pressure
Net stresses, f= g1+2. g2 -u ≯ q allowable of soil and not tension force
Uplift pressure, u = γw x h
h= Upstream water level (GWT) – invert Level - t2
- 52 -
Hydraulic design of pipe culvert:

Calculate Qc and take Qcul.= Qc
Calculate Vcand take Vcul = 2 – 3 Vcor 1 – 2 m/s
Calculate the culvert area (Acul.)= Qcul./ Vcul.
 xD 2
Acul .  n x
4
Inner Diameter of pipe culvert (D) = DS water depth (y) - 0.10
Assume n = 1, 2 or 3 (starting with 2)
Calculate D, if D < y - 0.10 (ok), if D > y - 0.10 (use drop at canal bed)
Check velocity
Calculate heading as mentioned before
But, R = D/4, bcul = n D + (n-1).t , where t ≈ 0.5 → 0.8
D + (0.5---0.8) m
0.5 m
D
For D 70 cms, t =0.2 D +0.30 m

2-pies steel Culvert
Empirical Dimensions:
Thickness of pipe (t) cm = 0.35 (D (m) +1) +1(mm) ≥ 15 mm
Thickness of foundation tf (m) = 0.2 D (m) + 0.30 m
Check of thickness to resist maximum internal pressure

t cul . 
PD
 1 (mm) P = γw.h
2 fs
Where h = (upstream water level – invert level –D/2)
fs is maximum allowable tensile stress of steel ≈ 1.4 t/cm2
Leg of flange angle a (cm) = 2.8 [D (m) + 1]
Rivet diameter (φ) = 2t
Pitch = 4.φ
The pipe may be riveted or welded. The sections of the pipe may be constructed of 2 or 3
parts, each part from 1.0 to 1.5 m wide. Intermediate flange angles may be used to stiffen the
plates.
- 53 -
Structural design of pipe culvert:

1- Vertical loads (weight of embankment over culvert, own weight of culvert, live load)
2- Horizontal loads (earth pressure, side pressure due to surcharge)
Weight of embankment over culvert

W = weight of earth = D h γe
F = resistance acting at each side of the wedge earth = μ E
Where μ = tan φ, and φ is the angle of internal friction
 k  e h2    e h 2 1  sin  
F    tan   x 
 2   2 1  sin  
g1 (t/m2)= net load on the pipe = (W – 2F)/D
At a depth exceeding five times the diameter there will not be effect of the weight of the
earth fill, ( h ≥ 5 D)→→ g1 = 0.0.
Own weight of culvert

g2 = half weight of the culvert/m’

g2 
8
( D  2 t ) 2

 D 2  steel (t / m 2 )
g2
g2  (t / m ' )
D
Total vertical dead loads g = g1 + g2
Live load
For h < 3 m →→ p2 = p1 (live load intensity at road level)
p1 D
For h > 3 m →→ p2 
B
Where B ≈ D +1.2 h
- 54 -
Horizontal loads
Earth pressure
Case of dry earth pressure Case of wet earth pressure
Side pressure due to surcharge

es =p K
- 55 -
Internal water pressure

Internal water pressure is considered to be uniformly distributed on both vertical and
horizontal culvert side.
P = y γw
y = U.S.W.L. - Centerline level
U.S.W.L. = D.S.W.L +hup
Calculation of straining actions:

1- For Vertical loads (w):
w D2
M1  N1  zero
16
 w D2 wD
M2  N2 
16 2
2- For Horizontal loads (e):

 e D2 eD
M1  N1 
16 2
e D2
M2  N 2  zero
16
- 56 -
3- For internal water pressure (pw):

pw x D = 2 T
pw D
T1  T2  
2
F= T/A ≤ f all
Check of Stresses
Section (1) is critical for maximum +ve moment
Section (2) is critical for maximum -ve moment
Section (1) Max. +ve:
Wmax = g1 +g2 + p (live load)
emin= edry
(Wmax  emin ) D 2
M max. 
16
D
N max.  ( p w  emin )
2
N max 6 M max
f max.    f t .all
t t2
fsteel all = the maximum allowable tensile stresses for steel
Section (2) Max. –ve:
Wmax = g1 +g2 + p (live load)
emin= edry
(Wmax  emin ) D 2
M max. 
16
D
N max.  Wmax
2
N 6 M max
f max.  max   f c. all
t t2
fsteel all = the maximum allowable compressive stresses for steel
- 57 -
For Reinforced pipe culvert

 Assume pipe thickeness t ≈ 10 cm
 Determin the bending monents and normal forcess as in case of steel pipe and
 Design crak cotrol sectios subjected to M, N as in RC box culvert.
Design of RC sections
- 58 -
17. Design for crack control
Reinforced concrete structures are exposed to harmful environmental effects like,

humidity, chemical attack which negatively effect on structure’s reinforcement.
Categories of structures are divided according to the degree of exposure of

concrete tension surface to the environmental effects as follow:
Category one (protected tension side)
Structures with protected tension side such as:
a) All protected internal members of ordinary buildings

b) Members permanently submerged in water (without harmful materials) or
members permanently dry.
c) Roofs well isolated against moisture and rains.
Category two (unprotected tension side)
Surfaces with unprotected tensile side, such as:
a) Structures in open air, e.g. bridges and roofs without good isolation.
b) Structures of category on built nearby sea shores.
c) Structures subjected to humidity such as open halls, sheds, and garages.
Category three (severely exposed tension side)
Structures with severely exposed tension side, such as:
a) Members with high degree of exposure to humidity

b) Members exposed to repeated moisture saturation
c) Water tanks
d) Structures subjected to vapor, gases, or weak chemical attack
Category four (very severely exposed tension side)
Structures with tension side that are very severely exposed to corrosive
influences of strong chemical attacks, which cause rusting of steel:
a) Structures subjected to conditions resulting in the rust of steel, such as gases,

and vapors including chemicals.
b) Other tanks, sewage and structures subjected to sea water.
- 59 -
17.1 Conditions to be satisfied for crack control
To ensure the formed crack width will not allow rusting the steel, the crack width
shouldn’t exceed the following values:
Category Maximum crack width Wcr max. (mm)
category one 0.30

category two 0.20
category three 0.15
category four 0.10
17.2 Classification of R.C sections according to exposure of tension side to
Figure (2.34): Types of sections according to exposure of tension side to water

(B.M.D of a strip in a water tank)
Sec (1 – 1)
Tension side is outside the water ⟾ Air section ⟾ category three
Sec (2 – 2) & (3 – 3)
Tension side is inside the water ⟾ Water section ⟾ Category three
Sec (4 – 4)
Tension side is outside the water ⟾Air section ⟾category three
Section (2, 3) must be checked as un cracked sections to prevent water access to steel
to prevent steel rusting.
- 60 -
17.3 Factors affecting crack width
1- Concrete cover
Crack width decreases as the concrete cover increases
2- Types of steel used (steel 36/52 is better than Steel 24/35)

Steel (36/52) is High tensile steel while steel (24/35) is mild steel so the bond for
steel (36/52) with concrete is greater than the bond for steel (24/36) and the crack
width will decrease.
3- Diameter of steel bar (ϕ)

If As = 1100 mm2 ⟾ choose As = 6 ϕ 16 is better than 5 ϕ 18
The surface area of (6 ϕ16) is greater than the surface area of (5 ϕ 18)
4- Characteristic strength of concrete (Fcu)

As the characteristic strength of concrete (Fcu) increased the bond with steel
reinforcement increase so the crack width decrease.
5- Stress in steel RFT. (Fs)

As the tensile steel strength (Fs) increased as the crack width increase.
From the above, to control the crack width the following factors should be
considered:
1- Concrete cover
Concrete cover depends up on the characteristic strength and the structural
element (slab or beam)
- 61 -
All elements except R.C.

R.C. walls & solid slabs
Walls & solid slabs
Category
Fcu ≤ 25 Mpa Fcu > 25 Mpa Fcu ≤ 25 Mpa Fcu > Mpa
One 25 mm 20 mm 20 mm 20 mm
Two 30 mm 25 mm 25 mm 20 mm
Three 35 mm 30 mm 30 mm 25 mm
four 45 mm 40 mm 40 mm 35 mm
* Note:
Concrete cover must be bigger than the maximum diameter of reinforcing steel.
2- Allowable stress in steel

The allowable stresses for steel are reduced according to (Category, largest bar
diameter & type of steel used)
For deformed high strength bars
Categor Category Category

Fs
y one two Three, four
⁄
St.360/520 St.400/600 Largest bar diameter (mm)
220 1.00 0.92 18 12 8
200 0.93 0.83 22 16 10
180 0.85 0.75 25 20 12
160 0.75 0.67 32 22 18
140 0.65 0.58 ‫ــــــــــــ‬ 25 22
120 0.56 0.50 ‫ــــــــــــ‬ ‫ــــــــــــ‬ 28
Where:
- (Fs): the steel working stress according to working stress design method.
- : the reduction factor of steel yield stresses (Ultimate limit design method).
- 62 -
For Example
Mul = 20 t. m, b = 30 cm, d = 70 cm, Fcu = 250 kg/cm2
St. 36/52, category (2)
70 = C1√ C1 = 4.29 & J = 0.81
As= * assume ϕ18 used ⟾ = 0.85
As= * = 11.53 cm2⟾ 5ϕ18
For structures of category (3,4), it must be checked that the tensile stress in
concrete sections are less than the allowable tensile stress for concrete. To prevent
concrete cracking so the concrete will prevent liquid access to steel.
The tensile strength of concrete Fctr = 0.6√ (N/ mm2)
Remember that, 1.0 N/mm2  10.0 Kg/cm2
The allowable tensile stress in concrete Fct=

Where:
- (η) is tensile stress reduction factor, depends on concrete virtual thickness (t ʋ)
Virtual thickness
≥ 100 mm 200 mm 400 mm ≤ 600 mm
(tʋ)
η 1.00 1.30 1.60 1.70
- 63 -
Where
tv = t [ 1+ ]
(Fct)N = & (Fct)M = =
+Ve sign if (N) is tension & -Ve sign if (N) is compression
* Note:
For sections are exposed to bending moment only (tʋ = t)
- 64 -
18. Steps of design of un-cracked section (water section)
The design will be done through two stages:
Stage (I)
Get the concrete dimension ⟾ calculate Ft = ∓
⟾ Check Ft < Fct (if Ft > Fct ⟾ increase dimensions)
This step is performed to make sure that concrete section is un-cracked section and
impermeable for water.
Stage (II)
Calculate steel RFT. (by using ultimate design equations)
Concrete sections with tension side exposed to water will be designed throughout
two stages (stage 1,2) according to the following cases:
18.1 Design of sections subjected to axial tension (T)
Stage (I)
b * t (cm) = 100 * k * T
Where
K: Factor depends on (Fcu, fs) according the following table

T: working axial force (ton )
t: is increased to the nearest 5 cm
Special Case
For walls and slabs, b = 100 cm (1 m strip)
t (cm)= k * T (ton)
Fcu (KN/mm2) 17.5 20.0 22.5 25.0 27.5 30.0
Fcto (KN/mm2) 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.8 1.9 2.0
k 0.71 0.67 0.63 0.59 0.56 0.53
- 65 -
Stage (II)
As=
⁄
Example (1)
Tworking = 15 ton, b = 100 cm, Fcu= 250 kg/cm2
St. 36/52, Category (3)
Stage (I)
t (cm) = k * T = 0.59 * 15 = 8.85 cm ⟾ take t = 10 cm
Stage (II)
Assume ϕ 12 used ⟾ = 0.85 As=

⁄
As = * = 8.46 cm2 /m' ⟾ use 8 ϕ 12 /m'
Example (2)
Tworking = 200 KN, b = 300 mm, Fcu= 25 N/mm2
St. 360/ 520, category (3)
Stage (I)
b * t (mm) = 1000 * k * T
300 * t = 1000 * 0.59 * 200 ⟾ t = 393.33 mm
⟾ Take t = 400 mm
Stage (II)
As= Assume ϕ 16 used ⟾ = 0.75

⁄
- 66 -
As = = 1278 mm 2 ⟾ use 7 ϕ 16
18. 2 Design of sections subjected to pure bending moment
Stage (I)
t (cm)= √
t is taken for the nearest 5 cm
Where
M: working bending moment (t.m)

b: width of cross section (cm)
Special case
For walls and slabs, b = 100 cm (1 m strip)
t (cm) =√
Values of the factor (Ψ)

2
Fcu (N/mm ) 17.5 20.0 22.5 25.0 27.5 30.0
t ≤ 600 mm 23 25 27 30 32 33
t = 400 mm 25 27 28 32 33 35
t = 200 mm 30 33 35 38 42 43
t ≥ 100 mm 38 43 47 50 53 57
* Note: When using Kg & cm units, values of the factor (Ψ) is divided by (10).
Stage (II)
d = C1 √ & As = *
- 67 -
Example (3)
Mworking= 1.4 t.m, b = 100 cm, Fcu= 250 kg/cm2
Stage (I)
t (cm) = √ =√ = 19.19 cm
⟾Take t = 20 cm
Stage (II)
Mul.= 1.5 * 1.4= 2.1 t.m, assume cover = 4 cm
16 = C1 √ C1= 5.52 & J = 0.826
As = * assume ϕ12 used ⟾ ᵝcr = 0.85
As = * = 5.19 cm2 /m' ⟾ 5 ϕ 12 /m'
Example (4)
Mworking = 2 t. m, b = 25 cm, Fcu=250 kg / cm2
Stage (I)
t (cm) = √ = √ = 53.45 mm
⟾ Take t = 55 cm
Stage (II)
Mul.= 1.5 * 2 = 3 t. m, assume cover = 5 cm
- 68 -
50 = C1√ C1 = 7.2 & J = 0.826
As = * assume ϕ 12 used ⟾ cr = 0.85
As = * = 2.3738 cm2
Check As min = *b*d = * 25*50 = 3.82 cm2 > As
Choose =

 1.3

Then, As min= 3.1 cm2 ⟾ 3 ϕ 12
18.3 Design of sections subjected to B.M & Normal force
Case (a): “Normal force is compression”
Stage (I)
t (cm) = √ - 2 cm
t is taken for the nearest 5 cm
Check stresses → Ft = + ≤ Fct
Stage (II)
- 69 -
√
⁄
Case (b): “Normal force is tension”
Stage (I)
t is increased to the nearest 5 cm
Check stresses
Stage (II)
Figure (2.35): Section subjected to (M & T), small eccentricity
- 70 -
* If
⁄ ⁄
* If
√
⁄
Example (5)
Stage (I)
√ √
Check stresses
[ ] η
- 71 -
√
⁄
Stage (II)
Assume ϕ12 used
[ ]
⁄
- 72 -
Example (6)
⁄ ,
Stage (I)
√ √
Check stresses
[ ]
[ ] η
√
⁄
Stage (II)
- 73 -
Assume ϕ12 used
[ ]
⁄
18.4 Design of T & L sections subjected to (B.M) or (B.M & Normal force)
Figure (2.37): T & L sections
{ {
- 74 -
Case (a): “flange is at compression side”
Figure (2.37): Flange subjected to compression
Stage (I)
Beam depth should be decreased because the inertia for (T &L) sections is greater
than the inertia for (R-section) that have the same (b, t).
Check stresses
- 75 -
Stage (II)
B.M only
B.M & Normal Force is Tension
√
⁄
B.M & Normal Force is Compression
√
⁄
Case (b): “flange is at tension side”
Figure (2.38): Flange subjected to tension
- 76 -
Stage (I)
√ , t is increased to the nearest 5 cm
Check stresses
Stage (II)
*Notice that: the flange located in the tension side, so the section is (R-section)
(B.M only)
B.M & Normal Force is Tension
√
⁄
B.M & Normal Force is Compression
√
⁄
- 77 -
18.5 Summary of water sections design

1- Design of sections subjected to axial tension(T)
Stage (I)
b * t (cm) = 100 * k * T
Special case
For walls and slabs, b = 100 cm,
t (cm)= k * T (ton)
Where
K: Factor depends on (Fcu, fs) according the following table

T: working axial force (ton )
t: is increased to the nearest 5 cm
Stage (II)
As=
⁄
2- Design of sections subjected to pure bending moment
Stage (I)
t (cm)= √
Special case
For walls and slabs, b = 100 cm,
t (cm)= √
Where
M: working bending moment (t.m)
- 78 -
Stage (II)
d = C1 √ & As = *
3-Design of sections subjected to B.M & Normal force
Case (a): “Normal force is compression”
Stage (I)
t (cm) = √ - 2 cm , t is taken for the nearest 5 cm
Check stresses → Ft = + ≤ Fct
Stage (II)
√
⁄
- 79 -
Case (b): “Normal force is tension”
Stage (I)
√ t is increased to the nearest 5 cm
Check stresses
Stage (II)
* If
⁄ ⁄
* If
√
⁄
- 80 -
Figure (2.39): 3-D layout for 2-vent R.C box culvert
- 81 -
Figure (2.40): 3-D layout for 2-vent steel pipe culvert

- 82 -
Chapter (2) Culvert
(8.50) (8.50)
(7.25) 3:2 3:2 (7.25)
(7.00)
(6.62)
( 6.25 ) ( 6.25 )
1:1 1:1
(5.00) (5.00)
(4.75) (4.75)
(4.00) (4.00)
ELE
Figure (2.41): Arch Culvert

(8.50)
- 83 -
3:2 3:2
(7.25) (7.25)
(8.50) (8.50)
Design of Irrigation structures
1:1 6.000 1:1

X (7.25) (7.25) X
1.80 1.80
(5.00) 1.75 (5.00)
(7.50)
UPSTREAM DOWNSTREAM
(7.25) (7.25)
PLAN
PIPE CULVERT
Chapter (2) Culvert
(13.70) (13.70)
15:1 15:1
(13.20) (13.20)
(12.20) 2:1 (12.70) (12.70) 2:1
(12.20)
(11.40)
Figure (2.42): Two vent steel pipe culvert

1:4
1:4
1:1 1:1
(10.00)
(9.60) (9.30)
SEC. ELEVATION
(13.20) 15:1 15:1
- 84 -
(13.70)
2:1 2:1
(12.20)
1:1 1:1
1:1
(10.00)
1:4 1:4
PLAN (H.E.R)
R.C BOX CULVERT
Chapter (2) Culvert
(13.25) 10:1 (13.85) 15:1 (13.25)

2:1 10:1 (12.70) (12.50) (12.70) 2:1
(12.20) 10:1 (12.20)
Figure (2.43): Two vent R.C Box culvert

(10.00) 1:1 10:1 70 (9.50) 10:1 (10.00)
0.2p.c.
SEC.ELEVATION
10:1 15:1
(13.25) (13.25)
- 85 -
2:1 2:1 2:1
(12.20) 10:1 10:1 (12.20)
2:1
(12.50) (13.85)
1:1 1:1
10:1
4.00
(10.00) 10:1 (10.00)
2.00
(9.50)
0.35
(12.70)
X X
plan (H.E.R)
0.20 0.5
1.00
(9.50)
SEC. X-X
Chapter (2) Culvert
ARCH CULVERT 6.0 (8.50)

1
0.5 2:
(7.50) 0.50 3:2
(7.25) (7.25)
0.38 (7.00)
(6.62) 1.8
( 6.25 )
2
Figure (2.44): one vent arch culvert at a canal intake

3: 10.0 1:1
(5.00) 0.25 (5.00)
(4.75)
(4.00) (4.00)
SEC.ELEVATION X-X
(7.25) 3:2
3:2 2:1
- 86 -
2.0m
1:5
(7.25)
= m
75 (8.50)
.3 (7.50)
r3
(4.00)
1:1
X (7.25) X
(5.00)
1.75 (5.00)
(7.50)
UPSTREAM DOWNSTREAM
S.V
PLAN
Figure (2.45): Cross-and longitudinal reinforcement details

for one-vent R.C box culvert
- 87 -
Figure (2.46): Concrete dimensions of2-vent R.C box culvert
Figure (2.47): Reinforcement details of 2-vent R.C box culvert
- 88 -
Figure (2.48): Concrete dimensions of3-vent R.C box culvert
Figure (2.49): Reinforcement details of 3-vent R.C box culvert
- 89 -
Figure (2.50): Cross-and longitudinal reinforcement details

for2-vent R.C box culvert
- 90 -
Figure (2.51): Plan for one vent R.C box culvert with rectangular cross section
- 91 -
Figure (2.52): Concrete dimensions of one-vent R.C box culvert

with rectangle cross Section
- 92 -
19. CONSTRUCTION
Though culverts are frequently considered minor structures their proper
construction is of major importance to the serviceability of the roadway. Foundations
must becarefully prepared. Decisions must be made as to the type and amount of
foundation backfill material required. Forms must be set tightly and adequately
braced. Reinforcement steel must be carefully placed and tied. Good quality concrete
must be produced and poured and must be done in accordance with the Specifications
and sound engineering judgment must be used if the culvert is to fulfill its function.
19.1 Foundations
Culvert foundation conditions, because of the location of culverts and flow line
considerations, are rarely ideal. Fortunately, however, culverts, because of the large
area over which their load is spread, do not require foundation material capable of
supporting high concentrations of loading.
19.1.1. Culvert Foundation Report

The soils section of the Office of Materials and Research will make a foundation
investigation of each culvert site. When the site is accessible to a truck rig, a
combination of wash borings and post hole digger borings will be made. In either
case, a one-page report showing the results of the foundation investigation and giving
specific recommendations for the foundation design will be issued. On projects that
are not solely culverts the culvert information will be included in the Soil Survey
Report. One copy of this report will be sent to the Designer and three copies will be
sent to the District Office. The District Office should keep one copy and send two
copies to the Area Engineer. The Area Engineer should keep one copy for his/her
permanent records and see that the Inspector at the culvert site has the other copy on
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the job site while the culvert is being constructed and backfilled. The culvert
foundation report will normally cover the following topics:
19.1.2 Soil Profile

The culvert borings will be made at intervals along the culvert centerline. The
results of these borings will be plotted and a profile of soil types and sub-surface
conditions will be drawn.
19.1.3 Foundation Types and Treatment

Specific recommendations will be made for the type and amount of foundation
backfill and foundation design.
A) Foundation on Soil
When the culvert is to be founded on soil, which will be the case the majority of
the time, the report will recommend the amount and type of backfill material to be
used. A statement might be made saying “undercut this foundation ____ feet and
backfill
With type ____ backfill”. This statement might be varied to apply only to stated
portions of the foundation area. In this case it would be expected that this amount of
backfill would be provided if the flow line was raised or lowered. Of course, if actual
soil conditions are not as shown on the profile, the amount and type of the backfill
may be changed to reflect the actual field conditions.
B) Foundations on Rock
Any time isolated high points in rock are encountered, a Type II backfill material
may be required for a cushion effect to avoid point loads. If the character of the rock
is such that the bottom slab of the culvert may be omitted and the culvert walls
founded on footings on rock, this will be plainly stated in the soils report. In the
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absence of a specific statement allowing the omission of the bottom slab, the bottom
slab must be poured.
If rock appears in a culvert foundation that is not covered by a foundation

investigation report, the Engineer should determine if the extent of the rock is such
that the omission of the bottom slab would be practical. If this is the case, the
Engineer should then request that the soils section of the Office of Materials and
Research investigate the character of the rock to determine if wall footings can be
used in place of the bottom slab.
C) Foundations on Piles
In some cases, it will be necessary to found culverts on piles. In these cases Special
Design Plans and details will be provided. The construction of the pile foundations
will be as covered in the Specifications and in Chapter 2 of this manual.
19.2 Backfill around the Culvert
Backfill around culverts is placed as part of the embankment construction

operations. There are, however, certain conditions at culverts that will require that the
backfilling around the culverts be specially handled. These two conditions may occur
individually or may occur in combination at any particular site. These conditions are
(1) a fill height of no more than 1.5 times the culvert height and (2) compressible
original ground soils adjacent to the culvert.
These conditions can cause the fill and the riding surface on either side of the
culvert to settle leaving a hump in the riding surface. The soils section of the Office of
Materials and Research has developed two steps to be taken to counteract this
settlement. These two steps may be used individually or in combination. They are: (1)
require 100% compaction to a distance of 50’ from each culvert wall. A Class II or
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better soil according to the Standard Specifications should be used within this area.
(2) Require the removal of compressible material adjacent to the culvert and backfill
with select material requiring 100% compaction. Unless otherwise stated in the
foundation report, the compressible material should be removed to a distance of 50’
from each culvert wall. Where the compressible soils are excavated and the backfill
material will be below the ground water table, Class IA or IA materials according to
the Standard Specification should be used.
If the Office of Materials and Research feels that these steps are necessary this will
be so stated in the culvert foundation investigation report. The design office should
also the Plans the matter should be referred to the District Construction Engineer.
19.3 Culvert Foundation Preparation
The foundation must be excavated to the depth of the footings or the undercut as
called for on the Plans, in the foundation report, or decided upon from field
observations. Care must be taken not to over excavate or to disturb the material below
the plane of excavation. The less the activity within the area the better.
Diversions are required to allow construction of the culvert while at the same time
preventing erosion. Water must be diverted and seepage into the footing area removed
by pumping from sumps outside of the footing area or by diversions. When widening
a two barrel culvert (or larger) water may be dammed up in one of the barrels and
diverted around the construction area by pumping. Diversions can also consist of
plastic lined channels which capture the water upstream of the culvert and carry it
around the construction area. Sometimes a combination of these methods works best.
After the excavation is complete the proper backfill material will be placed and
compacted in accordance with the Specifications.
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19.4 Reinforcement
Reinforcement steel placement is thoroughly discussed in the Standard

Specifications. The Engineer should review this section of the Specifications before
this phase of the work is commenced. The Specifications call for specific types of
supports for specific areas. All of the reinforcement must be checked before the pour
is commenced. Tying of reinforcement steel shall not be done while the concrete is
being poured. All wall steel or dowels must be placed and securely held in position.
This too must be done before the pour is commenced.
It must always be remembered that accurate placement of reinforcement steel is

necessary if a reinforced concrete structure is to achieve its designed strength. Certain
placement tolerances are given in the Specifications. These tolerances represent the
maximum allowable deviation from Plan location. There shall be no tolerance allowed
on the tolerance.
It must also be remembered that the proper quantity of reinforcement steel is

essential to the strength of a reinforced concrete structure. Therefore, not only should
the spacing of each bar be checked but also the size and type of each bar should be
checked against the Plans. The location of the bends in truss bars is particularly
important as these controls where the steel is in the working structure.
In checking the reinforcement particular attention must be paid to barrel steel at

design changes. Spacing and sizes of bars can change at these points of design change.
19.5 Forming
The function of forms is to act as a structural unit in holding and supporting plastic
concrete to the desired configuration until such time as the hardened concrete can
support itself. The forms must be so designed, supported, and tied together so that
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they will not sag, bulge, sway or become misaligned. The forms must be set so that
concrete of the proper configuration will be obtained.
The Engineer must also check the size of the formed footings, the depth of the
forms, the alignment of the forms, the height of the wall forms and all of the details
necessary to produce the finished structure as detailed on the Plans. Every dimension
should be checked during the forming and again after the forms are complete before
the pour is commenced.
Special attention must be paid to the forming of cut-off walls. Weep hole locations
must also be carefully checked.
19.6 Joints in Barrel
Transverse Construction joints must be made in the barrel of the culvert at all
locations indicated on the plans and at all design change locations. These must be full
construction joints, constructed at an angle of 90° with the barrel. After the concrete
has achieved its initial set in a floor or top slab pour, it is permissible to remove a
header and pour the adjacent section. When this is done the concrete surface along the
joint must be coated with curing compound to prevent bond of the two surfaces.
At all transverse construction joints outside the limits of the payment width,
reinforcement steel must not extend through the joint. Construction joints inside the
limits of the pavement width should be avoided. However, if conditions require that
such a joint be made, all longitudinal reinforcement steel must be extended through
the joint for a distance of at least one-foot, with no bond-breaking procedure as in the
above paragraph.
19.7 Concreting
All placement equipment such as chutes, vibrators, tremies, etc. should be checked
before placement commences. Stand-by equipment should also be checked.
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19.8 Backfilling
In placing backfill material around the culvert care must be taken not to damage
the culvert by loading one side more than the other. Backfilling must be done on both
sides of the culvert so that the backfill on one side of the culvert will never be more
than 3’ higher than on the other side of the culvert.
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20. Solved example
A road way crosses a canal at right angle, the canal is proposed to pass
through a culvert under the embankment of the road. the culvert is feeding are
claimed area of 20.000 fed. With maximum water duty 70 m3/ f/day .
Canal data:
Bed level =( 2.75) Bed width =8.0 m
Side slope =3:2 Bank side slope =2:1

from bed to berm from berm to bank
Bank width =8.0m Berm level = (5.50)
Bank level =(6.70) H.W.L = 5.00
Road data :
Road width =12.0m , Side Slope =2:l , Land level = (5.50)
If the heading up not exceeds 20 cm , and the moving load is 60 ton lorry .
γSoil = l.65 tlm3, Φ=250

Lt ,s required to:
-Complete hydraulic design of culvert.
-complete structural design of culvert .
-Draw plan (H.E.R), Elevation, side view .
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Hydraulic calculation
Q= Asurvx W.D
Q=16.20 m3 /sec .
Aw.w = by+zy2
=8x2.25+1.50x2.252
Aw.w = 25.59 m2
Vw.w =
=
Vw.w = 0.63 m/sec.
(2-3)Vw.w = (1.26-1.89)
Vculvert =
1-1.5 m/sec.
Vculvert =(1.26-1.5) m/sec.
Choose Vculvert = 1.35 m/sec.
Aculvert=
= =12 m2.
Try one vent:
b =√ =3.46
bxh=3.50*3.50
Height of vent is greater than water depth, so use dropto

make sure the flow is pipe flow.
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2.25+d =3.5+0.10
d =1.35 0.50m
Try two vents:
Aonevent = =6m2
b =2.45
b*h = 2.45x 2.45
use drop
2.25+d =2.45+0.1
d = 0.30 m <0.5m o.k
Vact =
Check velocity through the culvert
Vact = 1.35m / sec .
Check of head Loses
hL=krack.V2u.s/2g +V2cul(ke+kf+ko)/2g
krack= Φ . (t/b)(4/3).sinα
=1.79*(2.5/30)(4/3) *sin70
=0.0612
Vu.s=
=1.57 m / sec
Use Box type for inlet and outlet walls.
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Kf =f
f=0.02
R=
R = 0.613
Kf = f
= 0.02*
Kf = 0.158
hL = 0.0612*1.572/2*9.8 + (0.50 + 0.158 + 1.0 )
=0.162 m
=16.20 cm ≤20cm O.K
Use 2 vents 2.45*2.45 m with drop 30 cm in canal bed
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Note:
Drop can't be used in this example by using rectangular section instead of square section
with b/h ≤1.50 for economic design.
Structural Design:
t1=h/(6-8)
t2=S/(6-8)
take t1=t2=t
t=245/(6-8)
=40.83-30.63 cm
Take t =35 cm.
Calculating loads on culvert:
1) Vertical loads (g)

1.1 Dead loads.
a) 1/2 Own weight of culvert (g1).

g1 = 1/2 O.wt of culvert
=1/2 *Ac*γc / total width of culvert
Ac= (5.95*3.15) –2*(2.45*2.45)
=6.74 m2.
g1 = (1/2*6.74*2.50)/5.95
=1.42 t/m'.
b) Weight of soil ( g2).
g2 ={1/2(L1 + L2 )*dsoil *Ɣsoil }/L2
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= {1/2(12+13.45)*1.45*1.65 )}/13.45
g2 =2.26 t/m'
g= g1 + g2
=1.42+2.26
g= 3.68 t/m'
1.2 Live Load (60t lorry )
f'=
= 3.85 t/m'
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2) Horizontal loads
2.1) Dead load
a) Dry Earth Pressure (D. E. P)
e1=k.γs.h
K=
K= 0.406
e1=0.406*1.65*1.62
e1= 1.09 t/m
e2= kγs h2
= 0.406*1.65*4.42
e2=2.96 t/m
eavg.=
b) wet earth pressure ( W.E.p)
kƔbh + kƔsubh +Ɣwhw
To getƔsub
Assume n = 30%
Ɣsub= Ɣb +n - Ɣw
=1.65+0.30- 1.0
=0.95 t/m3
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e2= 0.406*1.70+0.406*0.95*2.72
+1*2.72
e2=4.46t/m
eavg=
eavg= 2.78t/m
2.2) Live load
Surcharge
Intensity of live load due to lorry 60t (f1) = 3.85 t/m
The equivalent uniform load of lorry 60t (p) at road level
P =f1*
=3.85*
= 6.79 t/m
Es= k*p
= 0.406*6.79
=2.76t/m
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Horizontal al and vertical loads
Internal water pressure
P= γ.y
Y = 5.26-3.68
Y = 1.58m
P= 1*1.58
=1.58 t/m
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The bending moments and the normal forces values for different cases of loading are
listed in the following table to get the design moment and the corresponding normal force.
V.l Dead V. l live

Sec D .E .P W. E .P surcharge I . W .P
load (g) load
No.
M M M M M M
Nt N N N N Nt
m.t m.t m.t m.t m.t m.t
- - + - + - + - + +
1
3.2 0.0 3.35 0.0 0.44 2.84 .605 3.89 0.6 3.86 1.03 2.20
+ + - - - - - - - +
2
1.6 0.0 1.68 0.0 0.66 2.84 0.9 3.89 0.9 3.86 0.52 2.2
- - - - - - - - + +
3
0.8 0.0 .838 0.0 0.88 2.84 1.21 3.89 1.20 3.86 1.38 2.2
- - - - - - - + +
4
0.8 4.12 .838 4.31 0.88 0.0 1.21 0.0 1.20 0.0 1.38 1.77
- - - - + + + - +
5
0.8 4.12 .838 4.31 1.11 0.0 1.51 0.0 1.5 0.0 0.52 1.77
- - +
6
0.0 12.3 0.0 12.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 5.3
Design of sections :
Note :
If tension side is exposed to the water in water structures , the se sections should be
designed as non-cracked section .
section I [water section ]
6.7 t (comp.)M design =5.21 m. t , N =
- 109 -
Sec. No. Mdesign N

1 -5.51 -1.57 -6.70 -1.69
2 +1.72 +0.18 -6.70 -1.69
3 -4.05 -0.30 -7.75 -0.64
4 -4.05 -0.30 -8.43 -2.35
5 +0.45 +1.37 -8.43 -2.35
6 0.0 0.0 -25.3 -19.9
Fcu = 250 kg/cm2 ,category (3)
Steel used . 36/52
Stage (1)
t= √ -2cm
=√ -2
=39.7 taket = 40 cm
Check stress
Ft= - +
= + = -1.65+ 19.53
ft=17.88 kglcm2
tv = t [1- ]
= 40[ 1- ]
=36.62 cm
√
fct =
√
=
- 110 -
fct=18.75 kglcm2
Ft fct safe
Stage 2
Mult = 1.50*5.21
=7.82 m.t
Nult = 1.5*6.70
= 10.05 t
e= =
e = 0.78 ⁄ Big ecc.
es = e + ⁄ -c = 0.78 + - 0.04
es =0.94 m
Mus = N.es
= 10.05* 0.94
=9.45t.m
d=40-4=35 cm
d=C1√
36=C1√
C1=5.86 j= 0.826
As= [ - ] Use ϕ16
As = *( )
As= 11.03 cm2 use 6𝜙12 /m'

Section (6) designed as column section
N= 25.3 ton
- 111 -
Nu=1.5*25.3= 37.95t
Nu= 0.35 Ac fcu +0.67 fyAsc
37.95*103= 0.35*100*35*250+0.67*3600-Asc
As= -ve value
Use As min
µmin =0.6% Ac chosen Asmin = *35 *100= 21 cm2 use 20ϕ 12( 5ϕ12/m'
each side )
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21. Practical application for culvert

Menoufia government wanted to cover 260 m from El batnonia canal, Tala,
Menoufia. This request is performed to save the environment and the water quality
from the surrounded pollution at this area. Furthermore, this project would improve
the traffic conditions there.
The director Engineer requested from dean of faculty of engineering and the
director of consulting and research center at faculty of engineering, Menoufia
University to perform a commission. This commission was formed from
1- Prof. Dr./ Mohammed MohammedFouadSobeih,

2- Dr./ EsamEldinYousryHelal, and
3- Eng./ Hamdy Ali Abd El-Wahed
topreview the area and do the required engineering studies including technical reports,
work shop drawings, rough estimation for this coverage.
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Sap output
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Assignment
1. A canal crosses a road at a right angle; the canal is allowed to pass through a culvert
under the embankment of road.
Canal data
Bed width=5.0 m, bed level= (10.50) m+MSL
Water level= (12.20) berm level = (12.70)
Bank level = (13.70) discharge = 6 m3/s
Side slopes from bed to berm =1:1, from berm to road = 3:2,
Road data
Road width =10.0 m, Road level = (14.20), Side slopes 3:2
Soil data
γsoil=1.65 t/m3, ϕsoil = 30oand maximum bearing capacity = 1.6 kg/cm2
If the heading up shouldn’t exceeds 20 cm, and the moving live loads is supposed to be
60ton lorry.
It's required to:
 Complete hydraulic and structural design of the culvert.
 Drawings plan H.E.R., sec. elevation, U.S. sec. side view D.S. side view.
 Draw RFT details of the culvert.
2. For the following data

Drain data
Bed width= 4.50 m, bed level= (6.00) m+MSL
Bank level = (9.40) Discharge = 4.50 m3/s
Road data
Road width = 6.0 m, Road level = (9.00), Side slopes 2:1
Soil data
γsoildry =1.80 t/m3, γsoilsat. = 2.1 t/m3, ϕ= 30o and maximum bearing capacity = 1.6
kg/cm2
If the heading-up shouldn’t exceeds 20 cm, and the moving live loads is supposed to be
a uniform distributed L.L = 1 t/m2, fall tension =1.4 t/cm2, andfall compression =1.2
t/cm2
Design a steel pipe culvert; by carried out the following:
 Hydraulic design
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 Structural design for all the structure’s elements.

 Drawings plan H.E.R., sec. elevation, D.S. side view.
3. For the following data

Canal data
Bank level = (8.20) Discharge = 8.65 m3/s
Road data
Road width = 8.0 m, Road level = (9.00), Side slopes 2:1
Soil data
γsoildry =1.80 t/m3, γsoilsat. = 2.1 t/m3, angle of internal friction = 30o and maximum
bearing capacity = 1.6 kg/cm2
If the heading-up shouldn’t exceeds 6.0 cm, and the rolling load is 60 ton lorry, uniform
live load = 0.60 t/m2, fall tension =1.4 t/cm2, andfall compression =1.2 t/cm2
Design a RC box culvert; by carried out the following:

 Hydraulic calculations and empirical dimension
 Structural design for all elements.
 Drawings plan H.E.R., sec. elevation, U.S. sec. side view.
 Draw RFT details of the culvert.
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Design of Irrigation Structures Chapter (3) Syphon
Syphon
1. Definition
Syphon, it is crossing up structure used to path water way under another water
way to satisfy the following:
 Navigable waterway
The Non-navigable channel passes through the syphon or passes below the
navigable one.
 Greater discharge
The waterway having the smaller discharge may pass through the syphon
 High bed levels
The waterway having the lower bed levels may pass through the syphon
 The syphon is designed to run full (pipe flow).

Syphon Canal
position
Drain
Usually, a drain passes below a canal. But when the drain is relatively large or
navigable, the canal passes below the drain according to the above considerations.
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Another conditions taken in to considerations
a) Relative bed levels

b) Availability of suitable foundation
c) Economical consideration
d) Discharge of the drainage
e) Construction problems
f) Navigation conditions
2.1 Selection of suitable site for water way crossing up works
 At the site, the drainage should cross the canal alignment at right angles. Such a
site provides good flow conditions and the cost of the structure is usually a
minimum.
 The stream at the site should be stable and should have stable banks.
 For economical design and construction of foundations, a firm and strong sub-
stratum should exit below the bed of the drainage at a reasonable depth.
 The site should be such that long and high approaches of the canal are not
required.
 The length and height of the marginal banks and guide banks for the drainage
should be small.
 In the case of an aqueduct, sufficient headway should be available between the
canal trough and the high flood level of the drainage.
 The water table at the site should not be high, because it will create De-watering
problems for laying foundations.
 As far as possible, the site should be selected d/s of the confluence of two streams,
thereby avoiding the necessity of construction of two cross-drainage works.
 The possibility of diverting one stream into another stream upstream of the canal
crossing should also be considered and adopted, if found feasible and economical.
 A cross-drainage work should be combined with a bridge, if required. If necessary,
the bridge site can be shifted to the cross-drainage work or vice versa. The cost of
the combined structure is usually less. Moreover, the marginal banks and guide
banks required for the river training can be used as the approaches for the village
roads.
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3. Inverted Syphon
3.1 Purpose and Description
Inverted syphons are used to covey canal water by gravity under roads, railroads,
another waterway, other structures, various types of drainage channels, and depressions.
A syphon is a closed conduit designed to run full and under pressure. The structure
should be operated without excess head when flowing at design capacity.
Figure (3.1): Inverted syphon under construction

3.2Application
Economics and other considerations determine the feasibility of using a syphon or

another type of structure to accomplish the previous objectives. The use of alternative
flume would be alternative to syphon crossing depression, drain channel or another
manmade channel. The use of a bridge over a canal would be an alternative to a syphon
under a road or a railroad. Generally, for capacities up to 3m3/s, it is more economical to
use a syphon rather than a bridge. Furthermore, for navigation considerations non-
navigable canals must pass under navigable canals as they intersect like El-Salam Syphon
under Suez Canal.
3.3 Structure Components
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a) Pipe
All pipe subjected to internal pressure should have watertight joints. Precast
reinforced concrete pressure pipe (PCP), asbestos-cement pressure pipe (AC), or
reinforced plastic mortar pressure pipe (RPM), all with rubber gasket joints, are used to
insure water tightness. For heads up to 150 feet precast reinforced concrete pressure pipe
is most frequently used but any of the above types may be used depending on their
availability and cost considerations.
The pipe profile is determined in such a way as to satisfy certain requirements of

cover, pipe slopes, bend angles, and submergence of inlet and outlet. Pipe cover
requirements are:
1) At all syphons crossing under roads other than farm roads and syphons crossing
under railroads, a minimum of 1meter of earth cover should be provided. Farm
roads require only 0.6meter of earth cover and are frequently ramped using 10 to 1
slopes ( 10 percent grade) when necessary to provide minimum cover
requirements. If roadway ditches exist and are extended over the pipe, the
minimum distance from the ditch to the top of the pipe should be 0.65 meter.
2) At syphon s crossing under cross-drainage channels, a minimum of 1 meter of
earth cover should be provided unless studies indicate more cover is required
because of projected future retrogressions of the channel.
3) At syphons crossing under an earth canal, a minimum of 0.5 meter of earth cover
should be provided.
4) At syphons crossing under a lined canal, a minimum of 0.15 meter of earth cover
should be provided between the canal lining and the top of pipe.
Pipe slopes should not be steeper than 2 to 1 and should not be flatter than a slope of
0.005.
b) Transition
Transitions are nearly always used at the inlet and outlet of a syphon to reduce head
losses and prevent canal erosion in unlined canals by causing the velocity change
between the canal and pipe to be less abrupt. Concrete, earth, or combinations of concrete
and earth transitions are used for this purpose.
c) Pipe Collars
Pipe collars are not normally required on syphons but they may be needed to reduce the
velocity of the water moving along the outside of the pipe or through the surrounding
earth thereby preventing removal of soil particles (piping) at the point of emergence. Pipe
collars may also be necessary to discourage rodents from burrowing along the pipe.
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d) Canal Freeboard and Erosion Protection
The canal bank freeboard upstream from syphons should be increased 50 percent (1.0
foot maximum) to prevent washouts at these locations due to more storm runoff being
taken into the canal than anticipated or by improper operation. The increased freeboard
should extend a distance from the structure such that damage caused by overtopping the
canal banks would be minimal; but in any event a minimum distance of 50 feet from the
structure.
Figure(3.2): Plan and section of a small canal

crossing road
Figure (3.3):Plan and section of canal syphon
- 143 -
4. Material of construction
a) Stone and Bricks
An old type was used in the past and not used now. It had top and bottom arched
shape. Furthermore, it may consist of one vent or more. In addition, box syphons may be
constructed with one vent or more.
Top and bottom Arched syphon
Bed of water way
Two vent box syphon
Figure (3.4): Syphon from stone and bricks
- 144 -
b) Steel syphons with circular sections (Pipes)
Steel syphon is the most common type in irrigation works till now and the pipe
diameter depends on the hydraulic calculations. The following consideration should
be followed (Irrigation code 2003).
 Pipe diameter should not exceed the bed width of the waterway with suitable
choice of pipe diameter and the number of pipes to avoid eddies and vortices.
 If the diameter of pipes is less than 70 cms, the pipes will lie on the soil without
concrete foundations. A concrete foundation is used for pipes with diameter
larger than 70 cms, and the foundations may be continuous or isolated with
suitable distances under the pipes to avoid the bending in steel pipes. The
continuous foundation thickness should not less than (D/5+0.30) m where D is
the pipe diameter in (ms).
 If the soil is sandy, it is enough to lay the pipe through the sand as it is a good
protective material for steel pipes.
 If more than on pipe is used, from (0.50 → 0.80 m) space between pipelines filled
with concrete.
 Each pipe is made of steel plate (10 → 15 mm) riveted together, to form the
required shape and diameter. Each pipe is formed of short parts, each of about
3.0 ms long
 Cast iron is not used in irrigation works because they are heavy and expensive.
 The diameter of steel pipes may reach 2.0 ms.
 In the case of soft soil, in order to avoid bending in steel pipes, they are
embedded in concrete to protect the pipes from rusting and form a kind of an
arch all around the pipes. It helps in resisting the pressure and works when the
pipe is worn out.
 For 1.0 m length of the pipe
fs. 2t. 1 = p. D
Where fsis the tensile stress of steel (t/m2), t is the thickness of steel pipe (cm), p
is the internal water pressure (t/m2) and D is the pipe diameter (m). The
thickness of steel pipe t (cm) = 0.35 [D (m) +1]
The thickness t has to be increased by 1.0 mm for rusting, t = (10 → 15 mm).
 The flange angle is found by a = 2.8 (D + 1)
Where a is the equal angle in (cms) and D is the pipe diameter in (ms)
Rivet diameter ϕ = 2t, and pitch = 4ϕ. The pipe is made of 3 plates each (1→ 1.5
ms) wide.
- 145 -
Details of Steel pipe
 Masonry heads (Breast Walls) are required at either inlet or end of the syphon for
pipes larger than 70 cms. For smaller diameters, it is sufficient to use pitching at
entrance and exit from the syphon.
 Vertical walls are constructed perpendicular to the flow direction. In the case of
the walls are significantly high, Relief Ring Arches above the pipes may be used
to protect the pipes from damage that may arise due to the weight of the wall
Masonry walls at entrance and exit of steel pipes
 Empirical dimension of the masonry walls (Egyptian code 2003)

Wall width over foundation b = (0.415 H + 0.05 h)
Wall width at berm level b’= (0.165 H + 0.05 h)
Foundation thickness t = (0.40 D + 0.12 H)
- 146 -
Where h= Bank Level – Berm Level, and H is the wall height
The width of the wall at the earth side is decreased gradually by 13 cms each 0.5
m height
Concrete syphons (Pipe or box -sections)

Plain concrete can be used for syphons with circular cross sections (pipes) with
diameter up to 0.60 m with continuous plain concrete foundations.
 For 1.0 m length of the plain concrete pipe

f. 2t. 1 = pD →→ t = p. D/f
Where f is the allowable tensile stress of concrete (t/m2), t is the thickness of
pipe (cm), p is the internal water pressure (t/m2) and D is the pipe diameter
(cm).
Precast reinforced concrete pipes can be used with diameters up to 2.0 ms, and
(2→3 m) length. The pipes are joined with precast collars and should have
watertight joints. Expansion joints are provided and asphalt is used to make these
joints watertight.
- 147 -
For larger sizes R.C. sections, precast box sections are used with one or more vents
and prepared at the site.
Neglecting concrete in tension and all forces will be resisted by steel bars.
 For 1.0 m length of the R.C pipe

2 fs. As = p. D
Where fs is the allowable tensile stress of steel (t/m2), p is the internal water
pressure (t/m2), D is the pipe diameter (m) and As is the area of steel hoops/m’.
Longitudinal reinforcement depends on the foundation of the pipe whether it is
continuous or supported on blocks. It is designed as beam under loads (own weight,
weight of inside water and weight of earth fill).
Circular hoops
 In the case where level in the syphon channel is not low enough, a drop in bed
(either sudden or gradual) is made at the entrance and gradual rise is made at
the exit.
 Velocity through syphon being 1→2 m/s does not allow sediment deposition or
scouring the material of construction.
 Screen may be provided for closed conduits at the upstream side only.
 In the case where the water level in the syphon channel is low, the bed level of
the syphon may be made straight. The banks and berms must be made wide
enough to allow for hydraulic gradient equal at least 7:1. Hydraulic gradient
steeper than 7:1 will result in big velocities or percolation through the soil.
Straight Syphon
Water level of waterway 1 < Bed level of waterway 2
Length of syphon
L= 2 x [Bed width 2/2 + (Berm level 2- Bed level 2) x Z2-1 + Berm width 2+ (Bank level 2 –
Berm level 2) x Z2-2 + Bank with 2 + (Bank level 2 – Berm 1) x Z1-2 + (1→ 1.5 m)]
- 148 -
Required seepage length = (water level 2 –water level 1) x (7/1)
Broken (Sloped) Syphon (Syphon with elbow)

Water level of waterway 1 > Bed level of waterway 2
Continue figure (3.5): Sloped steel pipe syphon

Length of syphon
L= 2 x [Bed width2/2 + (Berm level 2- Bed level 2) x Z2-1 + Berm width 2 + (Bank level 2 –
Berm level 2) x Z2-2 + Bank with 2 + (Bank level 2 – Berm 1) x Z1-2 + (1→ 1.5 m)]
 Syphons may be provided with an intermediate escape to get rid of the excess
water of the canal to the drain.
- 149 -
 Upstream side of syphon is sometimes provided with grooves and closing

devices such as timber logs or steel gates, to allow water regulation or total
closure for cleaning or repairing the conduits. Also grooves may be provided at
the downstream of the syphon.
Syphon provided with gates
- 150 -
5. Hydraulic design consideration
Available head, economy, and allowable pipe velocities determine the size of the
syphon pipe. Thus, it is necessary to assume internal dimensions for the syphon and
compute head losses such as entrance, pipe friction, pipe bend, and exit. The sum of all
Figure (3.6): Waterway cross section
the computed losses should approximate the difference in energy grade elevation between
the upstream and downstream ends of the syphon (available head).
A= (B + Z*y) y
A: Cross section area of:
1. Water way of small discharge.

2. Water way of low water level.
3. Non navigable water way.
 B Bed width of canal

 Y water depth
 Z side slopes
 Vcanal=Qmax/A
 Vsy= (2→3) V_(canal (D.S.))
 1m/sec≤ Vsy≤1.5 m/sec
 Asy= Qmax/Vsy
 Choose the syphon dimensions pipe, box syphon
5.1Head losses which should be considered are as follows:
Screen Losses
Friction Losses
Entrance and Exit Losses
Elbows and Bends Losses
- 151 -
Total head loss is calculated from the following equation:

𝑽𝒖𝒔 𝟐 𝑽𝒔𝒚 𝟐
𝒉𝒍 =𝑲𝒓 + (𝑲𝒆𝒏 + 2𝑲𝒃 +𝑲𝒇 + 𝑲𝒆𝒙 )
𝟐𝒈 𝟐𝒈
Screen, friction, and entrance and exit losses are calculated as explained before in
culvert, while the elbow and bend losses are calculated as follow:
Syphons contain horizontal and sloped parts the joint between the two parts may be
constructed as Elbow or Bend.
For Elbow connection, the coefficient of head loss due to elbow is calculated from the
following equation:
𝜃 𝜃
𝐾𝑏 = sin2 + 2sin4 where 𝜃 angle of elbow with horizontal.
2 2
Table: values of Kb as a function of ϴ
ϴo 20 40 60 80 90
Kb 0.03 0.14 0.39 0.75 1.00 Figure (3.7): Elbow at Syphon
For bend connection, the coefficient of head loss due to elbow is calculated from the
following equation:
𝛳
𝐾𝑏 = 𝐶 ∗ Where 𝜃 angle of bend with horizontal.
90
C is a coefficient depends on the ratio r/R
Where,
r= radius of circular section or half height for box section
R=radius of bend Figure (3.8): Bent at Syphon
Ratio (r/R) 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70

C for circular section 0.14 0.16 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.66
C for box section 0.13 0.18 0.25 0.40 0.64 1.01
- 152 -
Note:The Bends are preferred than Elbows in syphons to decrease the losses.
The velocity through syphon should be (2-3) the velocity through water way and not less
than 1.0m/sec to avoid sedimentation in pipes or box sections.
6.Structural Design of Syphon
Cases of loading
According to the Egyptian code 2003, the general cases of loading for box or pipe section
of syphon are shown in the following longitudinal section
Case I–I: Syphon is empty and canal is full

Loads to be considered are live load, outside water and earth pressure, and dead load
outside the syphon.
Case II-II: Syphon is empty and canal is full
Loads to be considered are water and earth pressure acting outside the syphon and the
earth pressure.
Case III-III: Syphon is full and canal is empty
Loads to be considered are dry earth pressure acting externally and internal water
pressure.
- 153 -
Case IV-IV: Syphon is full and canal is empty

Loads to be considered are dry earth pressure acting externally and internal water
pressure.
Generally the worst cases which have been considered are sections I-I and IV-
IV.
For large syphons seismic load have been considered according to the Egyptian code for
loads and forces calculations in the construction and building works.
The section I-I (culvert part) and section IV-IV (syphon part) can be design as the same
way as the culvert.
(𝑤−𝑒)𝑑 2
𝑀𝑎𝑥 = ±
16
𝑤𝑑
N=
2
- 154 -
Bending moment for vertical loads Bending moment for lateral loads
Figure (3.10): Bending moments for pipe section for vertical loads and Earth
pressure
Figure (3.11): 3-D view for brick arch syphon with two vents
- 155 -
ARCH SYPHON
Chapter (3) Syphon
1:20 (19.00)
2:1
(18.00) (17.75)
(16.50) 3:2 3:2
(14.00) (14.75)
1:1
(10.75) 1:10 (10.87)
(10.25)
Figure (3.12): two vent Arch syphon

(8.75)
SEC. ELEVATION X-X
1:20 (19.00)
(18.00)
- 156 -
3:2
3:2
(16.50)
8.0 m
(14.75)
(17.75)
Design of Irrigation Structures
1:1 3:2
1:1 2:1 3:2
1:1
10:1 (10.25)
(10.75)
1.00
(16.50)
2.75
1:1
PLAN (H.E.R)
- 157 -
7.El-Salam Syphon project under Suez Canal
7.1 El-Salam Canal
El-Salam Canal is located in the North East of Egypt where it supplies water for the
reclamation of new lands in that part of the country. These areas are originally parts of
the sedimentary formation of the ancient Nile branches in that area. The canal intake is on
the right bank of Damietta Branch at Km 219, 3.0 Km upstream the Faraskur Dam. The
canal passes through five governorates: Damietta, Dakahliya, Sharkiya, PortSaid and
North Sinai, it lies between longitudes 31° 45` & 34° 05` and latitudes 30° 42` & 31° 24`.
The total length of the canal is about 277 Km and is divided into two main parts. The first
part is West of Suez Canal, it is about 86 Km long and the second part lies east of Suez
Canal and is about 191 Km long. The western part of the canal is known as El-Salam
Canal. It starts from the intake at Damietta Branch (Nile River) runs in a south-eastern
direction and crosses the Suez Canal through a syphon, it continues after the syphon and
the eastern part of the canal is known as El-Sheikh Gaber Canal as shown in the below
layout.
Figure(3.13): Layout of El Salam

canal
- 158 -
El-Salam Canal was designed to supply the irrigation water to a total area of 620,000
feddans consisting of 220 thousand feddans on the western side of the Suez Canal and
400 thousand feddans east of the Suez Canal in Sinai. The canal was planned to convey a
discharge of 4.45 billion m3/year. About 2.2 billion m3/year would be fresh water
supplied from the Nile and transferred through the canal at its intake. Moreover,about
2.25 billion m3/year is to be supplied from two drains called Bahr Hadous and Lower
Serw drains. Nile water mixed with agricultural drainage water at a ratio of 1:1 so that
salinity ratio would not exceed 1000 particles per million along with selecting the proper
crops combinations.
7.2 El-Salam Syphon under Suez Canal
It considered the second phase of El-Salam Canal Project. The syphon has 4 tunnels,
each of which is 750 m long with an inner diameter of 5.1 m, at a depth of 45m beneath
the Canal, fixing a pipeline to transfer the water of the main canal to Beir Al-Abd, Al-
Saroe and Al-Quareir, constructing 5 pumping and lifting stations and digging about 35
km east Suez Canal.
The external lining of the tunnels is of precast reinforced concrete segments of 30 cm

thickness and an external diameter of 6.34 m with additional layer of water proofing
P.V.C of 2 mm thickness. The internal lining of the tunnel will be normal concrete of 32
cm thickness and internal diameter of 5.10 m.
7.3 Project Hydraulic data

Maximum discharge= 160 m3/sec.
Minimum discharge= 40 m3/sec.
Maximum water velocity inside tunnel=2.0 m/sec.
Water level on west bank is 1.50 m above datum
Water level on east bank is 0.60 m above datum.
Total head loss is 0.90 m
- 159 -
Figure (3.14): El-Salam Syphon under Suez Canal
Inlet and out let structures of El Salam syphon

Flumed reinforced concrete inlet and outlet structure with steel superstructure. Inlet
and outlet canal works, stone pitching protection, inlet and outlet canal transition
works.
Mechanical rakes and stop log screens.
Electric and mechanical operational equipment.
Buildings and services loads.
Photo (3.1): Inlet of El salaam syphon
- 160 -
8. Solved Example
Solved example
A drain passes under a main canal through a steel pipe syphon,
Maximum discharge is 12 m3 / sec and Maximum allowable Heading up = 20 cm.
Drain dada :
Bed level (1.00) , Bed width = 9.0 m
Water level (3.00) , Berm level = (5.25)
Side slopes are 3:2 & 2:1
Bank level (7.00) , Bank width = 6.0 m
Canal data :
Bed level (3.00) , Bed width =8.0 m
Soil data :
Ɣsoil = 1.6 t/m3 , ϕ = 300
It is required to make :
1- Complete Hydraulic Design

2- Complete Structural Design
3- Draw to scale 1:100
a- Plan (H . E .R)
b- Sec Elevation
c- Side .View .
- 161 -
Hydraulic design :
Ad= [y (b +z y )
= 2.0(9.0+ 1.5* 2.0) = 24 m2
Vd = Q/ Ad = 12/ 24 = 0.5 m /sec
(2 − 3)𝑉𝑑 = 1: 1.5𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑉𝑠𝑦 {
1: 1.5 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
Take Vsy= 1.35 m / sec
Asy = Q/V = 12/ 1.35 = 8.89 m2
For one pipe :

𝛱𝐷2
A=
4
𝛱(𝐷2 )
8.89 =
4
D=3.4m
3.4 + 0.1 =2.0 +d
D= 1.5 m > 0.5 Not ok
Use two pipes :
- 162 -
8.89
A of one pipe = = 4.45 m2
2
D= 2.40 m
2.4 + 0.1 = 2.0 + d
d = 0.5 m ok
𝛱(2.4)2
Asy actual =2 * = 9.05 m2
4
Vsy actual = 12 / 9.05 = 1.33 m / sec ⇾ ok
Heading up :
0.4
𝑡𝑎𝑛 ө =
17.625
ө = 1.30
ө
= 0.650
2
- 163 -
𝑉𝑠𝑦 2
HL = { ken + 2kb + kf +kex }
2𝑔
Vsy = 1.33 m/ sec
Ken = 0.3 [Broken wing wall]
Kex = 0.7
Kb = sin 2(θ/ 2 ) +2 sin 4(θ/2)
=sin2 (0.65) + 2 sin4 (0.65 ) = 1.28 *10-4
Kf = f * (L/d )
Take f = 0.013
L = 25*2= 50 m
Kf = 0.013*(50/ 2.4 ) =0.27

(1.33)2
HL = = [ 0.3 +2*1.28*10-4 + 0.27 +0.7] = 0.115 m
2(9.81)
=11.5 cm < 20 ok
Structural Design :
Getting water level at sec (1-1)

1.89 ℎ
=
18 12
h = 1.26
water level = 3.11+ 1.26 = 4.37
- 164 -
Loading
1- For Dead load
D= 2.63- 7.50 = 4.33 m
Weight of earth = Ɣs d = 1.6 * 4.33 = 6.93 t/m'

1 1 𝑜𝐷2 −𝐼 𝐷2 1
owt of syphon = (Π ) *Ɣsteel *
2 2 4 𝐷
1 𝛱 1
* [(2.42)2 – ( 2.4)2]* 7.8* [ take pipe thickness = 1.0cm ]
2 4 2.4
= 0.123 t/m'
2- For live load :
Take p1= 1.0 t/m2

𝑝1 ∗𝑙 1.0∗6
P2 = = = 0.58 t/m'
(𝐿+𝑑) 6+4.33
Total vertical load = D. L + L.L
W = 6.93 + 0.123 + 0.58 = 7.63 t/m'
- 165 -
3- For lateral loads :
e1=kƔsh1
1
= * 1.6 * 3.13 = 1.7 t /m2
3
e2= k Ɣsub * h2
1
= * 1.0 * 3.6 * =1.2 t/m2
3
e3= Ɣw hw
= 1.0 * 3.6= 3.6 t/m2
e4 =k p1
1
= * 1.0 = 0.33 t/m 2
3
1.2+0.4 3.6+1.2
Ʃ e = 1.7 + + + 0.33 = 5.23 t/m'
2 2
- 166 -
4- Internal water pressure :
Pint = Ɣw*y
= 1.0 (3.11-1.7) = 1.41 t/m'
Maximum Moment acting on the pipe :

(𝑤−𝑒 )𝑑 2 (7.63−5.23)(2.4)2
Mmax = ∓ = = 0.85t.m /m'
16 16
𝑤𝑑 7.63∗2.4
N= = = 9.156 ton
2 2
𝑁 𝑀
fmax= - ∓
𝑀 𝑧
−9.156∗103 0.85∗ 105

= -
100 𝑡 100(𝑡 2 /6)
− 91.56 5100
= - ≤ 1200 kg / cm2
𝑡 𝑡2
T ( cm) 1 2 3 2.5 2.2
F (kg / cm2) -5191.56 -1320.78 -597.19 -852.64 -1095.33
Take t = 2.2 cm
Internal water pressure check :
Pint* d = 2 T
1.41 * 2.4 = 2T
T = 1.692 ton
𝑇 1.692∗ 103
F= = = 7.72 kg / cm2< 1200 ⇾ ok
𝐴 100∗2.2
- 167 -
Cost of steel pipe :

𝑜𝐷2 −𝐼 𝐷2
V = A L = (Π ) *L
4
𝛱
= [(2.444)2 – ( 2.4)2] * 50 = 8.73 m3
4
W = Ɣsteel * V
= 7.81 * 8.73 = 65.4 ton
Cost of one ton = 6500 pound
Total cost of the pipe = 65.4 * 6500 = 424894.5 pounds
Redesign as reinforced concrete pipe :
Take t = 35 cm
Mult = 0.85*1.5 = 1.3 t.m/m'
Nult = 9.156 * 1.5 = 13.73 ton
e = M/N = 1.3 / 13.73 = .09 < .5 (small ecc)

Nult 13.73∗103
K= = = 0.0183
𝑓𝑐𝑢∗𝑏∗𝑡 250∗100∗35
e Mult 1.3∗105
K = 2
= = .0058
𝑡 𝑓𝑐𝑢∗𝑏∗𝑡 250∗100∗352
ρ = 1.0
μ = ρ * fcu *10-5 = 1.0 * 250 * 10-5 = 2.5 * 10-3
As = μ * b* d = 2.5 * 10-3 * 100 * 35 = 7.5 cm2 /m'
use 7 ϕ 12 /m'
Cost of reinforced concrete pipe :

𝑜𝐷2 −𝐼 𝐷2
V = A L = (Π ) *L
4
- 168 -
𝛱
= [(2.75)2 – ( 2.4)2] * 50 = 70.8 m3
4
Cost of one m3 = 1600 pound
Total cost of the pipe = 70.8 * 1600 = 113254.5 pounds
Type Steel Pipe R.C Pipe
Volume (m3) 8.73 70.8
Weight (ton) 65.4 177
Cost of one unit (pound) 6500 for one ton 1600 for one m3
Total cost (pound) 424894 113254
Cost Ratio 3.75 1
- 169 -
1. Exercise (3-1)
It's required to design a crossing structure where a drain intersect the way of a
main canal, Maximum discharge is 15 m3 / sec and Maximum allowable Heading
up = 20 cm.
Drain dada:
Canal data:
Soil data:
Ɣsoil = 1.65 t/m3 , ϕ = 25 0
It is required to make:
1- Complete Hydraulic Design
2- Complete Structural Design as steel pipe and R.Cpipe
3- Draw to scale 1:100
a- Plan (H . E .R)
b- Sec Elevation
c- Side .View .
It's required also to make comparison between the cost of the steel pipe and
the R.C pipe
- 170 -
2. For the intersection between the canal and the drain with a given data below,
it is required to
 The hydraulic calculation of the syphon,

 Check of the heading up,
 The necessary structural design for R.C structure,
 Draw the required views of the structure
Canal data
Water level= (13.90), berm level = (14.5)
Bank level = (16.00), bank width = 10.0 m
Berm width = 6.0 m, max. discharge = 25 m3/s
Drain data
Bed width = 7.0 m, bed level= (10.00) m+MSL
Berm width = 5.0 m, max., discharge = 7.80 m3/s
Side slopes from bed to berm =3:2, from berm to road = 2:1
Soil data:
γsoil=1.70 t/m3, ϕ= 30o, allowable bearing capacity = 1.35 kg/cm2
- 171 -
3. For the intersection between the canal and the drain with the following field
data.
Canal data at km (0.0)

Bank level = (6.75) bank width = 12.0 m
Max. Velocity = 0.5 m/s bed slope = 8 cm/km
Drain data at km (0.0)

Bed width = 3.0 m, bed level= (-0.65)
Bed slope = 10 cm/km
Side slopes from bed to berm =3:2, from berm to road = 2:1
The syphon planned to construct at drain at km (5.00) and at 8.0 km downstream of

the head regulator of canal. The berm and the bank levels do not change along the
canal and the drain.
Design a R.C. box syphon where area served of the drain is 90000 fed., and drainage
water duty is 10 m3/fed. Live load is 60 ton lorry, and the expected escaping
discharge is 3% of the canal discharge.
- 172 -
Design of Irrigation Structures Chapter (4) Aqueduct
Aqueduct
1. Introduction
The alignment of a canal invariably meets a number of natural streams

(drains) and other structures such as roads and railways, and may sometimes
have to cross valleys. Cross-drainage works are the structures which make such
crossings possible. They are generally very costly, and should be avoided if
possible by changing the canal alignment and/or by diverting the drains.
An aqueduct is a cross-drainage structure constructed where the drainageflood level

is below the bed of the canal. Small drains may be taken underthe canal and banks by a
concrete or masonry barrel (culvert), whereasin the case of stream crossings it may be
economical to flume the canalover the stream (e.g. using a concrete trough, (Figure
(4.1.a)).
Aqueduct: is crossing up structure use to pass high water

level or navigable water above water oflow level or non-
navigable one.
- 173 -
Figure (4.1): Layout of Aqueduct
- 174 -
Level crossing
Level crossing facilities are provided when both the drain and the canalrun at more
or less the same level.
2. Shapes of aqueduct:
1- Steel pipes for low discharge.

2- Open conduit(trough) aqueductsfor large discharge.
3- Closed box section for multipurpose as aqueduct + bridge.
Aqueduct cross section

(Open trough aqueduct)
Pipe aqueduct
Closed trough aqueduct

Figure (4.2): Different cross sections of aqueduct
- 175 -
3. Uses of Aqueduct
1. Aqueduct used in pass water way over another water way

2. Aqueduct used to pass water way above roadway or railway
3. Romans used aqueduct to transport water to their cities.
4. Aqueduct used widely in tourism.
Photo (4.1)Different uses of aqueduct
- 176 -
Continue photo (4.1) Different uses of aqueduct
- 177 -
Figure (4.3):Barrel Type aqueduct
Figure (4.4):Trough type aqueduct
- 178 -
Figure (4.5): A typical plan of a barrel Type aqueduct
Figure (4.6): Cross sections of the barrel type aqueduct
- 179 -
4. Main parts of the aqueduct
The structure is divided into 3 parts:
1. 2 culvert parts.
2. 1 aqueduct part in the middle of the Structure.
Figure (4.7): Longitudinal section showing culvert part & aqueduct

part
Figure (4.8): Structure system for aqueduct part (Double over hanged beam)
- 180 -
Continue figure (4.8): Structure system for aqueduct part (Continues beam)
- 181 -
5. Hydraulic design of pipe aqueduct:
 𝑉𝑑.𝑠 =𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 /𝐴𝑑.𝑠

 2 𝑉𝑑.𝑠 ≤ 𝑉𝑎𝑞 ≤3 𝑉𝑑.𝑠
Qmax
 𝐴𝑎𝑞 =
𝑉𝑎𝑞
 diameter of the pipe (d)

 d=𝑦𝑑.𝑠 - 0.10m
𝜋d2
 𝑎𝑝 =
4
𝐴𝑎𝑞 Figure (4.9): outletSubmergence
 n of pipe =
𝑎𝑝
 Choose wing walls at inlet and exit to find 𝑘𝑒𝑛 and 𝑘𝑒𝑥 according to the wing
wall.
 Find the rack coefficient 𝑘𝑟 .
 Find 𝑘𝑓 for the total aqueduct length.
 Find ℎ𝑙 ≤ 20 𝑐𝑚 .
𝑉𝑢.𝑠 2 𝑉𝑎𝑞 2
ℎ𝑙 =𝑘𝑟 + (𝑘𝑒𝑛 + 𝑘𝑒𝑥 + 𝑘𝑓 )
2𝑔 2𝑔
6. Structural design of pipe Aqueduct
Aqueduct is consists of aqueduct part and two culvert part.
6.1 span of aqueduct
• Aqueduct can be considered as:
 Continuousbeam.
 Simple beam with over hanging ends.
This depends on aqueduct length.
•Increasing aqueduct length increases number of supports.
- 182 -
𝑀− =𝑀+
−
W𝐿1 2
𝑀 =
2
+
𝑊𝐿2 W𝐿1 2
𝑀 = −
8 2
𝑊𝐿2 W𝐿1 2 W𝐿1 2

− =
8 2 2
𝑊𝐿2
= W𝐿1 2
8
2
2 𝐿
𝐿1 = 8 Figure (4.10): Aqueduct part length and supports
𝐿
∴ 𝐿1 =
√8
7. Loads on aqueduct
Loads = weight of steel pipe + weight of water .

𝜋
Weight of steel pipe (g) = ( 𝑑0 2 - 𝑑1 2 )× 𝛾𝑠 ×1 t/𝑚`
4
Weight of water (𝑤𝑤 )
Figure (4.11): Thickness of steel pipe
- 183 -
𝜋𝑑12
(𝑤𝑤 ) = × 𝛾𝑤 ×1 t/𝑚`
4
∴ W = 𝑤𝑤 + g
8. Design of steel pipe
M= from bending moment diagram the bigger of negative or positive moment

𝑀𝑦
𝑓𝑠 =
𝐼
𝑓𝑠 : is the tensile stress of steel.
𝜋(𝑑0 4 − d1 4 )
𝐼=
64
𝑑0
Y=
2
9. Design of anchorage of the steel pipe
1- Determination of uplift force acting on the pipe.

The uplift pressure happens from rising of waterway of low stream in case of
increasing water depth due to increasing discharge of the canal.
Figure (4.12): Uplift pressure acting on the lower cord of the pipe of length L’
- 184 -
Figure (4.13): Distribution of uplift

𝑑2 pressure
𝑈= (𝜃 𝑟 − sin 𝜃)L`𝛾𝑤
8
Where,
d: pipe diameter.
𝜃 𝑟 : The angle in radian.
𝛾𝑤 : Specific weight of water.
U: uplift force.
Figure (4.14): Fixation of steel pipe by steel hope
- 185 -
Figure (4.15): Steel hope
Force U is resisted by two anchorage if two supports will be used.
If more than two supports U should be divided by number of supports.
Steel Hope
𝑄 = 𝑈⁄2
𝑄 𝑄 ⁄2
𝑞𝑠ℎ = 𝑞𝑠ℎ =
𝑡×𝑏 𝑡×𝑥
Where:
b: width of steel hope .
t: thickness of steel hope.
x: the distance measured from bolt head and the edge of the steel hope .
∗∗∗∗ There are 4 Bolt

𝑈⁄
4
𝑓𝑠 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡 =
𝜋𝜑2 /4
- 186 -
𝜑 : Bolt diameter.
One should check the force transferred from bolts to the support through the
submerged weight of the concrete part
W = γsub * volume of concrete upper part
Factor of safety of concrete volume

𝑊
F.O.S= = (1.2→1.5)
𝑈 ⁄2
Where:
W: Is the submerged weight of the shaded areas of concrete support + weight of empty
pipe of half-length between supports.
**The anchorage length of the embedded bolt should be checked.
- 187 -
10. Open trough aqueduct
 Flow in open trough aqueduct is flowing under gravity as in open channel.

 Open trough is constructed of reinforced concrete, or steel pipes withfree
surface.
 Open trough aqueduct may use as aqueduct with pedestrians or vehicle bridge
 Footpath may be added to aqueduct
Figure (4.16): Shapes of open trough aqueduct
11. Hydraulic design
Figure (4.17): Cross sections at upstream, through the aqueduct, and downstream
2𝑉𝐷.𝑆 ≤ 𝑉𝑎𝑞 ≤3𝑉𝐷.𝑆
1. 1𝑚⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐 < 𝑉𝑎𝑞 < 1.5𝑚⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐

𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥
2. 𝐵𝑎𝑞 =
𝑉𝑎𝑞 ×𝑦𝑑.𝑠
- 188 -
12. Check heading up in open trough Aqueduct
Figure (4-18): Longitudinal section through open trough aqueduct
Heading up is known as head loss between upstream and downstream of the hydraulic
structure.
Heading up (ℎ𝑙 ) = U.S.W .L – D.S.W.L
= ℎ3 + ℎ2 − ℎ1
𝑉2 2 −𝑉𝑢𝑠 2
ℎ3 = (1+𝐾𝑒𝑛 )
2𝑔
𝑉1 2 −𝑉𝑑𝑠 2
ℎ1 = (1−𝐾𝑒𝑥 )
2𝑔
By applying specific energy equation between sec 2-2 and the upstreamone can find:-
𝑉𝑢𝑠 2 𝑉2 2
𝑦𝑢𝑠 + =𝑦2 + + ℎ𝑙(𝑢−2)
2𝑔 2𝑔
𝑉2 2 𝑉𝑢𝑠 2
𝑦𝑢𝑠 − 𝑦2 = − + ℎ𝑙
2𝑔 2𝑔
- 189 -
𝑉2 2 −𝑉𝑢𝑠 2 𝑉2 2 −𝑉𝑢𝑠 2
𝑦𝑢𝑠 − 𝑦2 = + 𝐾𝑒𝑛
2𝑔 2𝑔
𝑉2 2 −𝑉𝑢𝑠 2
ℎ3 = (1+𝐾𝑒𝑛 )
2𝑔
By applying specific energy equation between sec 1-1 and downstreamone can find:-
𝑉1 2 −𝑉𝑑𝑠 2
ℎ1 = (1−𝐾𝑒𝑥 )
2𝑔
Ken is the coefficient of the head loss due to wing walls at entrance,
Kexis the coefficient of the head loss due to wing walls at exit,
V1 is the velocity at section l-l
V2 is the velocity at section 2-2
Vu.s is the upstream velocity
Vd.s is the downstream velocity
13. Calculating the values of head loss
It is known that the downstream water level is given data so that one should calculate
the values of head loss from downstream to upstream direction as follow :-
1. Assume the value of h1 to be which firstly assumed from 1cm to 10 cm.
From the assumption the water depth at section 1-1 is:
y1= yd.s– h1(assumed value)
2. Calculate the value of the velocity at section 1-1 according to the calculated
value of y1, discharge and the width :
V1= Qmax/ (B*y1)
Vd.s =Qmax/Ad.s
- 190 -
Where Ad.sis the downstream area of the canal (trapezoidal shape) .
Calculate the value of h1from the following formula:
h1(calculated)=(1 – kex) ( V12- Vd.s2)/( 2g )
Repeat the previous until the calculated value of h1 equals to the assumed one
then the calculation should be stopped.
Whenh1(assumed)= h1(calculated) then,the value of y1was known .
3. Calculation of the value ''h2''

From the previous step the value of h1 was calculated consequently y1 was
calculated then by applying Manning formula between section 1-1 and section
2-2 considering the flow through this reach is uniform .the average depth
through this reach
yav = (y1+y2) / 2, y2 = y1+ h2, and the energy slop SE = h2 / L where L is the
aqueduct length .
At first assumed h2 = very small values (1 cm)
Get y2 = y1+ h2 (assumed) and yav= (y1+y2) / 2
From manning equation Q = 1/n (A(5/3)/p(2/3) ) Se(1/2)
Q =1/n ((B*yav )(5/3))/((B+2yav )(2/3) ) * (h2/ L)(1/2)
h2= n2* Q2*L* ((B+2yav )(4/3))/((B*yav )(10/3) )
Repeat the previous equation till the calculated value of ''h2'' from the above
Manning equation equals to the assumed value of ''h2''at first, the value of y2is
known.
- 191 -
4. Calculation of the value ''h3''
As mentioned before in calculation of ''h1'' the assumed procedureshould

befollowed:
Assume the value of h3 to be which firstly assumed from 1cm to 10 cm.
Then Calculate the upstream water depthyu.s= y2+ (h3) assumed.
The upstream water velocity is calculated asthe following:
Vu.s =Qmax/Au.s
WhereAu.sis the upstream area of the canal (trapezoidal shape) .
V2 = Qmax / (B*y2), y2= y1+h2
h3 (calculated) = (1+ken) * (V22-Vu.s2)/2g
Repeat the previous until the calculated value of h3 equals to the assumed one
then the calculation should be stopped.
When h3 (assumed) = h3 (calculated)
Finally; heading h= h3+ h2 –h1must not more than the allowable given value
- 192 -
14. Design of Reinforced concreteAqueduct:

14.1 Design of upper slab:
The upper slab deign as simply

supported slab with the following:-
Thickness assumption
S =1.05B
𝑆
t=6−8 ≥ 20𝑐𝑚
Load:
O.W = 𝑡𝑢 × 2.5 𝑡⁄𝑚2
Cover (7 cm) = 0.07×2.2 t𝑚2
Live load = 0.5 to 1.0𝑡𝑚2 Figure (4.19): Empirical dimensions of the aqueduct
𝑤𝑠 2
M= L.L
8
𝑀𝑢 =1.5M (ultimate moment) D.L
𝑀
d= 𝑐1 √𝑓
𝑐𝑢 𝐵
𝑀𝑢
𝐴𝑠 = 2
𝛽𝑐𝑟 𝑓𝑦 𝑗 𝑑 M= W*S
8
𝐴𝑠` = Loads
Figure (4.20): 0.25 𝐴and
𝑠 bending moment on the upper slab
- 193 -
14.2 Design of lower slab:
The lower slab deign as fixed supported slab from the two sides with the following:-
Thickness assumption
S =B + b
The lower slab is design as category 3
And water section then the crack control
Must be taken into consideration
Load:
o.w = 𝑡𝑙 ×2.5 𝑡⁄𝑚2
o.w of water = h × 1 𝑡⁄𝑚2

ℎ ℎ
M` = 𝛾𝑤 × ℎ × ×
2 3
ℎ3
M` = 𝛾𝑤 ×
6
ℎ
N = 𝛾𝑤 × ℎ ×
2
ℎ2
N = 𝛾𝑤 × (tension)
2
Get upper and lower reinforcements.

Figure (4.21): Loads and Straining actions on the aqueduct in the short direction
**** Calculate the reinforcement taken into consideration the 3category and water
section consequently crack control must be spotted in the design
- 194 -
14.3 Design of main beam
The accurate design of the aqueduct wall (main

beam) required the following:-
1. Design of the aqueduct walls in the plan

cross-section, which design as U section
consists of two walls and the lower slab.
2. Design of the aqueduct walls out of the plan
(longitudinal direction) as a system of main
beam supported on pile capes or pier
according to the load of the aqueduct and the
properties of soil.
Figure (4.22): bending moment on the main beam in the short direction
1. In the plain of cross section

N= ow. of water + ow. of lower slab + ow. of upper slab +ow. of wall
𝐵 𝐵 𝐵
N= (ℎ × ) + (𝑡𝑙 ×2.5× ) + (𝑡𝑢 ×2.5× ) +(b ×( ℎ + 𝑡𝑙 + 𝑡𝑢 ) × 2.5) (Tension)
2 2 2
ℎ3
M = 𝛾𝑤 ×
6
Design the section according to the type of eccentricity (Big or Small) as mention
before
2. Design of M.B in Longitudinal direction:
The aqueduct walls may be considered as simply supported beam with two
overhanging beam or continuous beam depending on:-
 the clear span of the beam,

 the aqueduct load, and
 the soil properties
- 195 -
1
W= (o.w of aqueduct + weight of water)
2
𝑤𝑎2
𝑀− =
2
+
𝑤𝑙 2 𝑤𝑎2
= − Figure (4.23): loads on the main beam in the long direction
𝑀 8 2
Or as continuous beam as clarified before.
It is known that, the aqueduct wall in the longitudinal direction designed as deep
beam due to the ratio of the depth of the beam to the effective length as following.
14.4 Design of walls as a deep beam
1-simple beam
Simply supported deep beams are defined as Beams that are deeper than the effective
𝑑
length by (0.8) ≥ 0.8
𝐿
Figure (4.24): Bending moment for simply supported deep beam
- 196 -
0.86𝑙
𝑦𝑐𝑡= 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 {
0.87𝑑
𝑀𝑢.𝑙
→ 𝑇𝑢𝑙 =
𝑦𝑐𝑡
𝑇𝑢.𝑙. 1.1
→ 𝐴𝑠 = > 𝑏𝑑
𝛽𝑐𝑟 . (𝐹𝑦 ⁄𝑦𝑠 ) 𝑓𝑦
1.1
𝑖𝑓 𝐴𝑠 < 𝑏𝑑 → 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝐴𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑓𝑦
1.1
𝑏𝑑
𝑓𝑦
𝐴𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 1.3𝐴𝑠𝑟𝑒𝑞
0.15
{ 100 𝑏𝑑
- 197 -
Figure (4.25): Reinforcement details for simply supported deep beam

The tension steel is to be extended over the whole length of the span and to be well
anchored at supports.
Figure (4.26): Reinforcement details for simply supported deep beam carrying vertical loads
** There is very important note as shown in El-behairy figure in case of loads hung at
the bottom, vertical reinforcements carrying the full reaction are to be introduced for
the full height over a length 0.7 L.
- 198 -
2- continuous beam
Continuous deep beams are defined as Beams that are deeper than the effective length
𝑑
by (0.4) ≥ 0.4
𝐿
Figure (4.27): Bending moment forcontinuous deep beam
Sec (1 – 1) (At mid. Span)

0.43𝑙
𝑦𝑐𝑡= 𝑦𝑐𝑡= 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 { (At mid. Span)
0.87𝑑
𝑀1
→ 𝑇𝑢.𝑙. =
𝑦𝑐𝑡
𝑇𝑢.𝑙. 1.1
→ 𝐴𝑠 = > 𝑏𝑑
Sec (2 – 2) (at supports)
- 199 -
0.43𝑙
𝑦𝑐𝑡= 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 { (At supports)
0.87𝑑
𝑀2
→ 𝑇𝑢.𝑙. =
𝑦𝑐𝑡
𝑇𝑢.𝑙. 1.1
→ 𝐴𝑠 = > 𝑏𝑑
1.1
𝑖𝑓 𝐴𝑠 < 𝑏𝑑 → 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝐴𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑓𝑦
1.1
𝑏𝑑
𝑓𝑦
𝐴𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 1.3𝐴𝑠𝑟𝑒𝑞
0.15
{ 100 𝑏𝑑
Figure (4.28): Reinforcement details for continuous deep beam
** It is recommended to extend the full amount of the tension steel at the middle of the
spans to the supports.
** half the tension steel required at the center lines of the supports must be arranged
over the full length of the adjoining spans and the other half to be extended to a
distance equal to 0.3L on each side of the center line of the support
- 200 -
Figure (4.29): Reinforcement details for continuous deep beam, El-Behairy
Figure (4.30): Calculation of shear reinforcement for deep beam, El-Behairy

- 201 -
Figure (4.31): 3-D Layout of open trough (one vent)
- 202 -
R.C AQUEDUCT
Chapter (4) Aqueduct
(11.50)
(11.50) A (11.50) (10.65)
1:10 (10.65) B
(10.50) (10.10)
(10.10)
(8.30) 60
SEC. A-A
0.30
(7.75)
A 3:2 main drein B (10.10)
6pilesDi 0.48 m
SEC. ELEVATION (4.45)
pile cap (8.30)
.70 *1.4 m
SEC. B-B
Figure (4.32): R.C box aqueduct

(9.85) (11.10) (11.00)
3:2
- 203 -
(10.00) (8.30)
(11.50) Bank level
3:2
(4.45) SEC. C-C
Design of Irrigation Structures
2:1
2:1
1:10
1:10 (11.00)
(10.50)
1:1 Berm level
(8.30)
(10.65)
Dimention of pile cap
C C PLAN (H. E. R)
15. Smaller Internal Forces Example: Allozaqueduct
Concept:
By reducing the internal forces in a structure, the structure becomes stiffer.
Photo (4.2): Alloz aqueduct

Structure:
The Alloz Aqueduct is an aqueduct in the northern Spanish region of Navarre, 25km
south west of Pamplona. The aqueduct crosses the RiverSalado, a small river known locally
for its high salinity. To prevent water contamination an aqueduct was built spanning 1340
feet or just over 400m designed by a famous Spanish engineer called Eduardo Torroja.
A major design factor with aqueducts is seepage, causing structural damage and loss of
flow. For this particular project economy was also a major design issue, due to the economy
of post-civil war Spain. Torroja’s task was to design a structure that satisfied the economical
constraints and was as efficient as possible. Torroja designed a simple structure as seen in
Figureabove. It involves post-tensioned, u-shaped, concrete channels supported by two-
pronged forks. The span between successive supports was 62 feet or just under 20m. The
design incorporates the two main design factors with these supports.
- 204 -
As can be seen in figure (4-32) the aqueduct was constructed in sections 124 feet long or
just over 37m. The two supports are arranged so that in essence each section is a simply
supported beam with two overhangs at eachend, each half the simply supported beam span,
essentially an overhang :span : overhang ratio of 1:2:1. This decreases the bending moment
in the viaduct, hence making it stiffer and less material is needed. This can be proved for any
equally distributed load as with a steady flow in an aqueduct:
Figure (4.32):Loads on Alloz aqueduct

Moment at centre span of simply supported beam (maximum bending moment):
Moment at support for an overhang of a simply supported beam:
- 205 -
This aids the structure in two ways. The channels are in tension over their entire length. This
suits the design as each channel section has post-tensioned steel cables running through the
top edge ofthe channel, as seen in Figure 4. This is where the tension in the channel is
highest. Seepage inconcrete viaducts is usually caused by tension cracks in the bottom of the
viaduct. If there is notension in the bottom of the channel, seepage is more unlikely.If the
maximum bending moment lies over the support thismeans the reinforcement can be
increased over the supportand decreased in the centre span. Torroja used 4
posttensionedcables over the supports and 2 in the centre span,using less steel.The self
balancing overhangs cause the viaduct to be stifferand more efficient in its function and as a
structure. Torrojareports no seepage occurred over the entire length of theviaduct. The
deflections of the spans, potentially damaging togravity driven water flow, are rendered
negligible by theoverhangs.
- 206 -
16. Example
It's required to design a reinforced concrete structure in a crossing branch canal

and main drain
Main Drain data :
Bed Level = (30.00) , Bed width = 16.0
Water Level= (34.50) , Berm level = (32.50)
Road Level = (38.00) , Road width = 10.00
Side slope from bed to berm = 3:2
Side slope from berm to road = 2:1
Discharge = 60 m3 / sec .
Branch canal data :
Bed Level = (35.50) , Bed width = 2.50 m
Water Level =(37.0) , Berm level = (37.50)
Road Level = (38.00) , Road width = 8.00 m
Side slope from bed to berm = 3:2
Side slope from berm to road = 2:1
Discharge = 3 m3 / sec .
It 's required to :
*Make a complete hydraulic design .
*Design different parts of structure .
*Draw plan H. E . R , sec . Elevation , and sec. side view.
- 207 -
Solution
According to levels :
*Bed level of Branch canal is higher than water level in main drain
*According to discharge :
Discharge to main drain is greater than Discharge of branch canal.
The suitable structure for the crossing is an aqueduct
Hydraulic design :
Q = 3 m3/s
A = by+ zy2
= 2.5 *1.5 +1.5 x1.52
= 7.13m2
- 208 -
𝑄 3
V= =
𝐴 7.13
= 0.42 m / sec.
(3 − 2) 0.84 − 1.26
Vstruct = { 𝑣 = { m/ sec.
1 − 1.5 𝑐 1 − 1.50
Take v = 1.15 m / sec .
𝑄
A of aqueduct =
𝑣𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑛
3
=
1.15
= 2.61 m2
2.61
Bstruct = = 1.73 m
1.50
𝑩𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒖𝒄𝒕=𝟏.𝟕𝟎 𝒎
Calculation of h1:
𝑣1 2 −𝑣𝑑.𝑠 2
h1 = (1-kex.) *
2𝑔
- 209 -
vd.s= 0.42 m/sec .

𝑄 3
V1 = =
𝐵∗ 𝑦1 1.70∗ 𝑦1
y1 =yd.s- h1
y1 = 1.50 – h1
Assume h1 = 1 cm and then check that h1(assumed) equal to h1 that calculated or not.
h 1 assumed V1
y1 (m) h 1calc.
(m) m/ sec.
0.01 1.49 1.1844 0.0188
0.0188 1.412 1.1914 0.0190
0.0190 1.481 1.1916 0.0190
h1= 1.90 cm
y1= 1.481 m
Calculation of h2:
From manning's equation

1
V= . R2/3 . S1/2
𝑛
𝑄 1 𝐴 2⁄ ℎ 1⁄
= *( ) 3 * ( 2) 2
𝐴 𝑛 𝑝 𝐿
𝑄2 𝑝 4⁄
h2= n2 * *( ) 3 *L
𝐴2 𝐴
𝑄2 𝐵+2𝑦𝑎𝑣𝑔. 4/3
h2= n2* 2 * ( ) *L
(𝐵∗𝑦𝑎𝑣𝑔 ) 𝐵∗𝑦𝑎𝑣𝑔
𝑦1+𝑦2
yavg. =
2
At first assume h2 = 0.0
- 210 -
yavg =y2
32 1.7+2𝑦𝑎𝑣𝑔. 4⁄
h2 = 0.0142 * * ( ) 3 * 72.60
(1.7∗𝑦(𝑎𝑣𝑔.))2 1.7∗ 𝑦𝑎𝑣𝑔.
h2 assumed y2 yavg P A h2calc.

0.00 1.4810 1.4810 4.6619 2.5177 0.04594
0.04594 1.5269 1.5039 4.7079 205567 0.04422
0.04422 1.5252 1.5031 4.7062 2.5552 0.04428
0.04428 1.5253 1.5031 4.7062 2.5553 0.04428
h2 = 4.43 cm
y2 = 1.525 m
Calculation of (h3)
𝑣2 2 −𝑣𝑢.𝑠 2
h3 = (1+ken ) *
2𝑔
𝑄 3
V2 = =
𝐴2 𝐵.𝑦2
3
V2 =
1.70∗1.525
V2 =1.157 m/sec .
𝑄 𝑄
Vu.s = =
𝐴𝑢.𝑠 𝑏𝑦𝑢.𝑠+𝑧𝑦2
𝑢.𝑠
3
=
2.5𝑦𝑢.𝑠+1.5𝑦
𝑢.𝑠2
yu.s =y2 + h3= 1.5253 + h3
First assume h3= 1 cm
yu.s=1.5253 +0.01 = 1.5353 m

1.1572 −𝑣𝑢.𝑠2
h3= (1+0.30) *
2𝑥9.81
h3assumed yu.s Vu.s h3calc.

0.01 1.5353 0.4069 0.0778
- 211 -
0.0778 1.6031 0.3816 0.0791

0.0791 1.6044 0.3811 0.0792
0.0792 1.6044 0.3811 0.0792
yu.s= 1.6044 m
hl =yu.s- yd.s
= 1.6044-1.50
= 0.1044 m
hl= 10.44 cm
Structure Design of Reinforced concrete aqueduct
Design the aqueduct pant in short direction
Design of the upper slab :
Take ts = 25 cm
Loads
D.L = t sγc + t cover * γcover
= 0.25x2.5 +0.10* 1.80
=0.805 t /m'
L .L =0.5 t/m'
Total load = D.L + L.L
= 0.805 +0.5
= 1.305 t /m'
𝑤𝑙 2 1.305∗1.792
M=
8 8
- 212 -
= 0.52 t /m'
Mu = 0.78 t.m / m'
0.78𝑥105
D = c1 = √ C1= 12.46 J= 0.826
250 𝑥 100
𝑀 0.78 𝑥 105
As = = = 1.4 cm2 /m2
𝐵𝑐𝑟𝑓𝑦.𝐽 .𝑑 0.85∗3600𝑥 0.826∗22
0.15
Asmin = x100 *22 = 3.3 cm2 /m' Use 6 Ø 12/m
100
Load on lower slab:
W = t sγc+ γwhw
= 0.30 * 2.50 + 1 * 1.50
= 2.25 t / m'
2.25∗1.792
MT= MΠ-Π = 0.563
8
= 0.338 t 'm/m'
NI-I=W.L/2=1.5*1.5/2
NI-I=1.13 ton
𝑤∗𝑙
NII-II= + o.wt of wall
2
2.25𝑥 1.79
= + 0.30*2*2.50
2
= 3.51 ton
- 213 -
Design of sections
Sec. I-I
M = 0.563t,N = 1.13 t ( Tens. ) {Designed as water sections }
Stage I
𝑀 𝑥105
T=√ + 4 cm
𝑏𝑥𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
0.563 𝑥105
=√ +4
100∗3
= 17.7 cm
t = 30 cm
𝑇 𝑀
ft = +
𝐴 𝑧
1.13 𝑥 103 6∗0.563 𝑥105

= +
100𝑥30 100𝑥 302
= 4.13 kg / cm2< fall. safe.
Stage II
𝑀 0.563
E= =
𝑁 1.13
= 0.50 >𝑡⁄2 - c big ecc .

𝑡
es= e - + cover
2
0.3
= 0.5 - + 0.03
2
= 0.38 m
Ms= Tu* es
= 1.13* 1.50 x 0.38
= 0.64 t .m
- 214 -
𝑀𝑢 0.64𝑥105
d =c1√ 27 = C1√ C1 = 16.88J = 0.826
𝑓 𝑐𝑢 𝑏 250 𝑥 100
1 𝑀𝑢 𝑇𝑢.𝑙
As = [ + ]
𝐵𝑐𝑟 𝐹𝑦.𝑑.𝑑 𝑓𝑦/Ɣ𝑠
1 0.64𝑥105 1.5∗1.13𝑥105
= [ + ]
0.85 3600∗0.826∗27 3600/1.15
= 1.58 cm2 / m2 Use 6ϕ12 / m'
Sec.II-II
M = 0.563 , N = 3.51 t
𝑇 𝑀
Ft = +
𝐴 𝑧
3.51 𝑥 103 0.563𝑥 105

= +
100𝑥30 100𝑥302 /6
= 4.92 leg / cm2< fall. safe .

𝑀 0.563
e = =
𝑁 3.51
𝑡
= 0.16 < – cover big ecc.
2
𝑡
es = e - + cover
2
0.3
= 0.16 - + 0.03
2
= 0.04
M s= Tu. * es
= 3.51 * 1.5 * 0.04
= 0.21
1 𝑀𝑢 𝑇𝑢𝑙 1 0.21𝑥105 3.51𝑥 1.50 x
As = [ + ] = [ + ] 103
𝐵𝑐𝑟 𝐹𝑦.𝐽.𝑑 𝑓𝑦/Ɣ𝑠 0.85 3600𝑥0.826∗27 3600/1.15
= 1.94 cm2 /m' Use 6ϕ12 / m'
- 215 -
Design the aqueduct part in longitudinal direction
Dead load
D.L=o.et+0.5*(Wupperslab+Wlower slab)*S+0.50*water weight
1 1.7
D.L = 0.3 *2.3* 2.50 +2 [0.3*1.70*2.5*+0.25x1.70*2.50+0.1x1.80*2.3]+1*1.50* 2
D.L=4.38 t /m'
2.3
L.L =0.50*
2
= 0.575 t/m' T.L = 4.96 t/m'
Choosing location of supports
L1 = 0.35 L2
2L1 +L2 =46 m
2x0.35 L2 + L2 = 46 m
L2 = 27.05 m
Take L2 = 27 m L1 = 9.50
m
𝐿21
MI = T.L *
2
- 216 -
9.82
= 4.96* = 223.82 m.t
2
𝐿22 𝐿21 𝐿22

MII= WD.L*[ - ] + WL.L *
8 2 8
272 9.52 272

= 4.38 [ - ] + 0.575*
8 2 8
= 253.88 m.t
Design of section I-I:
𝑀𝑢
d = C1√
𝑓𝑤 𝑏
223.82𝑥105 𝑥1.50
220 = C1√
250𝑥30
C1 = 3.288 , J = 0.768 use Ø25

𝑀𝑢 223.82𝑥1.50𝑥105
As = =
𝛽𝑐𝑟 ∗𝐹𝑦 ∗𝑗∗𝑑 0.60∗3600∗0.768∗220
= 91.90 cm2 Use 19ϕ25
Design of section II-II:
𝑀
d = c1√ 𝑢
𝑓 𝑏 𝑤
253.88𝑥105 𝑥1.50
220 = C1√
250𝑥30
C1 = 3.087 , J = 0.75
𝑀𝑢 253.88𝑥1.50𝑥105
As = =
𝛽𝑐𝑟 ∗𝐹𝑦 ∗𝑗∗𝑑 0.60∗3600∗0.75∗220
= 100.34 cm2 Use 22ϕ25
- 217 -
Exercise (4-1)
It's required to construct an aqueduct to pass the discharge of the canal across
the drain:
Canal data:
Bed width=2.30m ; bed level= (2.15) ; water surface level = (3.95) ; berm level
=(4.50); bank level = (5.50) and land level=(3.00) ,side slopes 3:2 from bed to
berm and 2:1 from berm to bank, Q= 5.4 m3/s.
Drain data:
Bed width=2.0m ; bed level= (00.00) ; water surface level = (1.50) ; berm level
=(3.00) ; bank level = (4.50) and land level=(3.00) ,side slopes 3:2 from bed to
berm and 2:1 from berm to bank.
Live load is 60.0 ton lorry , specific weight of soil = 1.65 t/m3.
Two alternative solutions are required (pipe aqueduct and R.C aqueduct).
It's required to:-
-Make hydraulic design of aqueduct.

-Structural design of all elements of aqueduct.
-Draw to scale 1:100
a) Plan (H.E.R)
b) SEC. ELEV.
c) Side View.
- 218 -
Design of Irrigation Structures Chapter (5) Escapes
Escapes
1. Definition
Irrigation canals are designed and operated to provide water requirements for their
command areas at all times, i.e.
QS = DDesign
For QS (pass discharge) less than QD = water level decrease (shortage of water).
For QS more than QD= water level increase
If number of water users may shut down after a rain and an overload may result further
downstream with surplus of water level. Excess canal discharge, which have to be diverted
Hence, escapes are constructed to the following two main functions:
1- To escapes surplus discharges

2- To allow empting the canal
Figure (5.1): Spill the excess water to the nearest drain by a structure called escape
or spillway
2. TYPES OF ESCAPES
The type of escape used in a given case depends upon:
1. The kind of structure (canal, dam, ……..),

2. The magnitude of the design discharge,
3. The topography,
4. The layout of the structure, and
5. The location of the escape with respect to the canal
- 219 -
(Tail escape at the end of the canal or intermediate escape added to a syphon or aqueduct at
the crossing of a canal with a drain)
Figure (5.2): Types of Escapes according to its position

Escape is an irrigation structure construct for:
 Escaping the excess water from a canal to drain ( at the crossing of a canal
with a drain with the presence of syphons or Aqueduct)
 Emptying the last reach of the canal in certain time (for periodically
maintaining).
 Controlling the water level.
Escapes classify according to their locations on canals into
 Tail Escape (T.E)
 Intermediate Escape (I.E)
Escapes classify from hydraulic point of view into
The common types of escapes used in Egypt are:
• Well escape (circular or rectangular)
• Straight weir or stepped weir.
• Tail regulator
• Siphon spillway.
Figure (5.3): Well escape ( circular or rectangular)
- 220 -
Figure (5.4): Intermediate escape at intersection of two waterways
Figure (5.5): Different types of tail escape
- 221 -
3. Tail escape
Tail escape is a structure constructed at the end of a waterway to evacuate the water to a
water body.
Tail escape consists of a well where its crest level at the high water level. It is also equipped
with an orifice at its bottom to evacuate all the water in 24 hrs. if necessary.
All branch canals must be protected by escapes at the dead end of the canal
Components of tail Escape:

 A well: its crest level at the high water level.
 An orifice: at its bottom to evacuate all the water in certain time (24 hrs.)
 Drainage Pipe.
Figure (5.6): Longitudinal cross section for the tail escape
Figure (5.7): The outlet at drain
- 222 -
Figure (5.8): General layout for the well

3.1 Steps of design
1- Data
Figure (5.9): cross section of canal and drain
2- Required
 Design of weir (To escape surplus discharge )
 Design of orifice (to empty canal )
 Design of drainage pipe
 Complete drawing
1. Plan H. E. R
2. Sec Elev .
3. Side view
- 223 -
3.1.1 Design of weir (To escape surplus discharge)
Design of Weir (To escape surplus

discharge)
Design of weir to determine
the weir length, B
2
Qw  Cd . B. 2 g h 3 / 2
3
Cd is the discharge coefficient ≯ 0.6,
(0.5 → 0.6)
g is the gravitational acceleration = 9.81 m/s2
Crest level of the weir should above the higher water level (HWL) by 10 cm
Water level of canal does not exceed 15 cm above the crest level
Berm Level = crest level + 0.25 m
h is the water height above the weir crest ≈ 0.15 m
B is the weir length

3
For circular weir B= ( 𝜋D)
4
Where D is the mean diameter of well (D internal +D external)/2
Di = D - 0.50, De = D+ 0.50 m (with assuming well thickness = 0.50 m)
For rectangular or square weir

For two acting sides, B= b1 + b2, for 3 sides B= b1+b2+b3
Where b1, b2, and b3 are the acting side length of the weir
Acting 2 Sides Berm Level

Acting 3 Sides
Rctangular or Square Weir Circular Weir

Qw is the escaped discharge may be assumed as
Qw ≈ (0.20 → 0.25) Qc (normal canal discharge)
Or calculated as Qw = Ts. h . Vs
Ts is the top width of the water surface, (T1+T2)/2 = [b+ 2Z. (d + h)]
Surface Velocity Vs  1.17 Vc h  0.15 m
- 224 -
1
Vc  Qc / Ac Vc  R 2 / 3 S 1 / 2
, n
Get D???? ≮1.0 m
T2
h
T1
1
Z:
1 d Z:
Conclusions :
Vc= Qc/Ac = ✓
1
Vc=𝑛 . R2/3 . S1/2 =✓
Vs=surface velocity = 1.17 vc

Qes =As. Vs = T. h . (1.17 vs)
2
Qse= Qw = 3 *cd*B* √2𝑔*h 1.5
Cd = 0.5  0.6 B=✓
a)circular weir
3
B = 4 Ӆ Dcl  Dcl =✓
DIn = D c. l -0.5 cm
Figure (5.10): circular weir
Dex = Dc.l+0.5 cm
Rectangular ( 3 acting side )
B= 2b1+b2
Rectangular (2 acting side )
B = 2 b1
Figure (5.11): Rectangular weir
- 225 -
Design of orifice (to empty the last reach of the canal)

3.1.2 Design of orifice (to empty canal)
The Egyptian Code (2003) recommended applying the following formula:

2 L. d .be
T
Cd ao 2 gd
Where be is the equivalent width be = (b+B)/2
T is the required time for empty the last reach of canal ≈ 18→24 hrs. (s)
Cd is the discharge coefficient = 0.6.
ao is the area of the orifice pipe = π.do2/4 (m2)
b is the canal bed width (m)
d is the water depth (m)
L is the length of the last reach ≈ (2→ 6 Km) (m)
B is the canal top width (m)
2(𝑙.𝑏𝑒 .𝑑 )
T = L= (2-6) km
𝑐𝑑.𝑎.√2𝑔𝑑
T= 18 → 24 hrs. Cd=0.60
𝛱𝑑𝑜 2
a=  do =✓
4 S.S=1:1 be=b+d
S.S=3:2 be=b+1.5*d
3.1.3 Design of Drainage pipe
 The drainage pipe is made of steel or concrete.

 The drainage pipe is adjusted to be horizontal or it may be have a slope not
more than (1/30). The lower lip the pipe at its exit must be higher than the
maximum water level of the drain with at least 20 cm.
 Plain concrete seats are provided beneath the orifice joints and the drainage
pipes at interval distances of 3.0 – 6.0 ms or the drainage pipes set on
continues foundation may be used.
X
D
1:1 1:1
π/2
(D/5+0.30)m
P.C.
X
D
(D+0.30)m
Sec X-X
- 226 -
Plain concrete seats of drainage pipe
Qp = Qw+ Qo
Qo is the discharge through the orifice (m3/s)
W.L + h (crest level)

Qw Z
ho
h2 h1 So slope hL
bed level dp
do Qo
lp
Figure (5.12): well layout

1st trial
Assume h2 =0 (no water in well)
Qo  C d .ao . 2 gho  h2
ho = d+0.5+0.25-do/2
Assume, mean velocity inside the pipe, Vp = (1→ 2.5 m/s)
d p  4 Q p /  .V p  dp≮0.50 m and dp≮ do
Calculate the losses from the following formula to get h1
Vp  4f. l p 
2
d
hL  1.50    h1  S o .l p  p
2g  dp   2
Where:
lp is the drainage pipe length (m)
So is the drainage pipe slope ≯ 30:1
f is friction coefficient of the pipe ≈(0.005→ 0.01)
Check the following two conditions
1) Z ≮ 0.50 m (for free flow of weir)
2) h1/dp > 0.20 (for submerged condition of drainage pipe)
Then get new h2 = h1 + dp - do/2
2nd trial
Start with new h2, Qo  C d .a o . 2 g (ho  h2 )
Get new dp, and check the two conditions. Get new h1 and use it to calculate h2
3rd trial
Repeat to obtain more accurate value of h1 using the value of h2 from the pre-
trail.
- 227 -
Conclusions
 Assume h2= 0.0

 This means that the well is empty
1st trial (h2 = 0.0)
Qp = Qw+Qo
Qw= as before
Qo = cd . ao. √2𝑔 (ℎ𝑜 − ℎ2)
ho= d+0.5+0.25 –(do/2)
Qo =✓
Qp=Qw+Qo = ✓
Assume vp = (1-2.5 )m / sec

𝛱𝑑𝑝2
Ap = Qp / vp =✓ Ap = dp =✓
4
𝑣𝑝2 𝐿𝑝
hL= [ 1.5 + 4.f. 𝑑𝑝 ] =
2𝑔
hL= hl + (dp /2 ) + ( S. Lp ) h2 = h1 + dp/2-do/2 h2=✓
h1/dp ≮ 0.2 if not ------- decrease dp

2nd trial (h2 =✓)
Repeat the previous steps with the following conditions:
h1/dp ≮ 0.2
ΔH ≮ 0.5 m
- 228 -
Figure (5.13): Tail escape layout
- 229 -
Continue figure (5.13): Tail escape layout
- 230 -
Figure (5.14): Tail escape (Circular well type)
- 231 -
4. Solved example
Design a tail escape for the channel to escape the last reach of length 6.0 km witch velocity
0.45 m/sec through 24 hours according to the following Data:
Required
1- Dimension of weir
2- Dimension of orifice
3- Dimension of drainage pipe
1-Dimensions of weir
T= 3+2 [1.8 +0.1+0.075] = 6.95 m
VS= 1.17 Vc = 1.17 x0.45

VS= 0.527 m / sec
Qes= T. h . vs
VS = 6.95x 0.15 x 0.527
= 0.55 m3/ sec
2
= 3*cd* b*√2𝑔 *h 1.5
= (2/3 )*(0.55)*b*√2𝑥9 .81 *(0.15)1.5

3
B= 5.83 m B = 4 *Π*Dcl
- 232 -
Take Dcl = 2.5 m
DIn = 2.5 – 0.5 = 2.0 m
Dex = 2.5 +0.5 = 3.0 m
2-Dimension of orifice
2.𝐿.𝑏𝑒.𝑑
T=
𝑐𝑑.𝑎.√2𝑔𝑑
2𝑥6𝑥1000𝑥4.8𝑥1.8
24x60x60= 0.6𝑥9𝑥√2𝑥9.8𝑥1.8
𝛱𝑑𝑜 2
a= 0.337 m2 = 4
do = 0.65 m
...take do = 60 cm (available)
= 70 cm
...aact = 0.33 m2
4- Dimension of drainage pipe
1st trial (h2 = 0.0)
Qp = Qw+ Qo
Qw= 0.55 m3/sec
Qo = cd.ao.√2𝑔(ℎ𝑜 − ℎ2)
0.65
Ho=1.8+0.5+0.25 - = 2.22 m
2
Qo = 0.6x0.33√2𝑥9.81𝑥2.22 = 1,31 m3 / sec
Qp=1.31+0.55= 1.86 m3 / sec
- 233 -
1.86
Assume vp = 2.5 m / sec Ap = = 0.744 m2
2.5
𝛱𝑑𝑝2
Ap= ... dp = 0.97 m take dp = 1.0 m
𝑙1
𝛱𝑥12
Ap= = 0.785 ... vp = 1.86 ÷ 0.785 = 2.37 m / sec
4
𝑣𝑝2 𝑙𝑝 2.372 20
Hl= [ 1.5+4. F. 𝑑𝑝] = 2𝑥9.8 [ 1.5 +4 x0.01 x ] = 0.66
2𝑔 1
H1= hl-(dp/2) = 0.66 – 0.5 = 0.16 m

𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝑜
H2= hl+ - = 0.66 + 0.5 – 0.33 = 0.83 m
2 2
2hd trial (h2= 0.83)
Dp= 0.9 m hl= 0.76 hl= 0.31 m h2 = 0.88m
Check
Hl/dp = 0.31 / 0.9 = 0.34 > 0.2 o.k
ΔH= ho- h2= 2.22 – 0.88 = 1.34 m > 0.sec o.k
- 234 -
Exercise (5-1)
Design a tail escape for a canal to escape the last reach of length
1.0km with slope 10 cm/km through 24hrs according to the following
data:-
Canal data:-
Bed width =1.25m , bed level =(6.10),
water level =(7.00), berm level =(7.60),
bank level=(8.25) bank width =6.0m
S.S from bed to berm are 1:1, and from berm to bank 3:2
Drain data:-
H.W.L = (5.50), bed level=(4.50),
Berm level=(7.60), bank level=(8.25)
S.S from bed to berm are 1:1and from berm to bank 3:2
It is required to:
- Give all necessary hydraulic calculations.
- Structural design of the drainage pipe.
- Draw to scale 1:100
a- Plan (H.E.R)
b- SEC. ELEV.
c- Side view.
- 235 -
Design of Irrigation structures Chapter (6) Retaining Wall
Retaining Walls
Introduction
The early engineers in the ancient cultures of Egypt, Greece, Rome and the Mayans were built
retaining walls by trial-and-error what worked and what didn't We marvel at their achievements.
Even the most casual observer looks in wonder at the magnificent structures they created and have
stood for thousands of years – including countless retaining walls. With great skill they cut, shaped,
and set stone with such precision that the joints were paper thin. Reinforced concrete would not be
developed for a thousand years, but they used what they had, and learned how to do it better with
each succeeding structure. Consider the Great Wall of China, for example, where transverse bamboo
poles were used to tie the walls together – a forerunner of today’s “mechanically stabilized earth”.
Major advances in understanding how retaining walls work and how soil generates forces against
walls appeared in the 18th and 19th centuries with the work of French engineer Charles Coulomb
1776, who is better remembered for his work on electricity, and later by William Rankine in 1857.
Today, their equations are familiar to most civil engineers. A significant body of work was the
introduction of soil mechanics as a science through the pioneering work of Karl Terrzaghi in the
1920s.
Indeed, the design of retaining structures has advanced dramatically in recent decades giving us new
design concepts, a better understanding of soil behavior, and hopefully safer and more economical
designs. (Basics Of Retaining Wall Design 10 th Edition A Design Guide for Earth Retaining
structures, Publishing Since 1992, Newport Beach, California, www.hbap.com).
Definition:
Retaining walls are used to provide lateral resistance for a mass of earth or other material to
accommodate a transportation facility. These walls are used in a variety of applications including
right-of-way restrictions, protection of existing structures that must remain in place, grade
separations, new highway embankment construction, roadway widening, stabilization of slopes,
protection of environmentally sensitive areas, staging, and temporary support including excavation or
underwater construction support, etc.
A retaining wall is any constructed wall that restrains soil or other material at locations
having an abrupt change in elevation.
A retaining wall is defined as a structure whose primary purpose is to provide lateral support
for soil or rock. In some cases, the retaining wall may also support vertical loads. Examples
include basement walls and certain types of bridge abutments.
- 236 -
Types of Retaining Structures:

There are many types of structures used to retain soil and other materials. Listed below are the types
of earth retaining structures generally used today.
1. Gravity type retaining wall
This type of wall depends upon the dead load mass of the wall for stability. In other words
gravity retaining wall, which relies on the mass of the structure to resist over turning (h <3 m) where
h, is the retaining wall height.
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2. Semi gravity retaining walls
This type of wall depends upon the dead load mass of the wall for stability and a minimum amount of
reinforcement to resist tension stresses.
3. Cantilevered retaining walls
These walls which retain earth by a wall cantilevering up from a footing are the most common type
of retaining walls in use today. Cantilever retaining wall relies on the bending strength of the
cantilever slab above the base (3 < h < 5m). Cantilever retaining walls are generally made of reinforced
concrete.
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4. Counterfort retaining walls

Counterfort retaining walls incorporate wing walls projecting upward from the heel of the footing
into the stem. The thickness of the stem between counterforts is thinner (than for cantilevered walls)
and spans horizontally, as a beam, between the counterfort (wing) walls. The counterforts act as
cantilevered elements and are structurally efficient because the counterforts are tapered down to a
wider (deeper) base at the heel where moments are higher. The high cost of forming the counterforts
and the infill stem walls make such walls usually not practical for walls less than about 5m high.
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5. Buttress retaining walls

These are similar to counterfort walls, but the wings project from the outside face of the wall. Such
walls are generally used in those cases where property line limitations on the earth retention side do
not allow space for the large heel of a traditional cantilevered retaining wall.
6. Gabion or crib walls
A gabion wall is a type of gravity wall whereby stones or rubble are placed within wire fabric
baskets. Crib walls are a variation of the gabion method whereby mostly steel bins are filled with
stone or rubble. Another variation is to stack a grillage of timbers and fill the interior with earth or
rubble.
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7. Wood retaining walls

Wood is commonly used for low height retaining walls. Wood retaining walls usually consist of
laterally spaced wood posts embedded into the soil, preferably into a drilled hole with the posts
encased in lean concrete. Horizontal planks span between the upward cantilevering posts. Wood
walls are generally limited to low walls because height is limited by size and strength of the posts.
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8. Segmental retaining walls (SRWs)

Many manufacturers offer various systems of stacked segmental concrete units, steel bins, or other
devices that retain soil by stacking individual components. Most are patented systems that are
typically battered (sloped backward), primarily to reduce lateral soil pressure, thus requiring a
minimal foundation. Reinforced concrete footings, steel reinforcing, or mortar are not used. Stability
of SRW gravity walls depends solely upon the dead weight resisting moment exceeding the lateral
soil pressure overturning moment. To attain greater heights – up to 12m and more – SRW’s also
utilize mechanically stabilized earth (MSE), also called reinforced earth, whereby geosynthetic
fabric layers are placed in successive horizontal layers of the backfill to achieve an integral soil mass
that increases resistance to overturning and horizontal sliding.
9. Bridge abutments
These support the end of a bridge and retain the earth embankment leading to the bridge. Bridge
abutments usually have angled wing walls of descending height to accommodate the side slope of the
embankment.
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10. Sheet pile and bulkhead walls
These are generally waterfront structures such as at docks, but steel sheet piling is also used for
temporary shoring on construction sites. Steel sheet units configured for stiffness or concrete panels
are driven into the soil to provide lateral support below the base of the excavation or the dredge line.
11. Restrained (Non-yielding) retaining walls
Also, it is called “basement walls” (for residential and light commercial conditions) or “top tie-back”
walls. These walls are distinguished by having lateral support at or near the top, thereby with less or
no dependence for fixity at the foundation. Technically, these walls are classified as “none yielding”
walls because the walls cannot move laterally at the top, as opposed to cantilevered (yielding)
walls. Such walls are usually designed as “pin connected” both at the top and bottom.
The earth pressure creates a positive moment in the wall, which requires reinforcing on the front of
the wall, that is, the side opposite the retained soil. . In some cases it may be cost effective to fix the
base of the wall to the footing to reduce both the bending in the wall and restraining force required at
the top support.
Footings for these walls are usually designed for vertical loads only. However, it is often desirable to
design the lower portion of a basement wall as a cantilevered retaining wall with fixity at the footing
so that backfill can be safely placed to avoid bracing the wall, or waiting until the lateral restraint at
the top is in place, such as a floor diaphragm. Note that conventional wood floors framed into the top
of a basement wall may not provide a sufficient stiffness to allow for the restrained case.
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12. Anchored (tieback) walls
Anchors or tiebacks are often used for higher walls where a cantilevered wall may not be
economical. Restraint is achieved by drilling holes and grouting inclined steel rods as anchors into
the zone of earth behind the wall beyond the theoretical failure plane in the backfill. The anchors can
be placed at several tiers for higher walls, and can be post-tensioned rods grouted into drilled holes,
or non-tensioned rods grouted into the drilled holes. The latter are also known as soil nails.
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Wall Selection Criteria

General
The objective of selecting a wall system is to determine an appropriate wall system that is practical to
construct, structurally sound, economic, aesthetically pleasing, environmentally consistent with the
surroundings, and has minimal maintenance problems.
With the development of many new wall systems, designers have the choice of selecting many
feasible wall systems that can be constructed on a given highway project. Designers are encouraged
to evaluate several feasible wall systems for a particular project where wall systems can be
economically constructed. After consideration of various wall types, a single type should be selected
for final analyses and design. Wall designers must consider the general design concepts and specific
wall design requirements. In general, selection of a wall system should include, but not limited to the
key factors described in this section for consideration when generating a list of acceptable retaining
wall systems for a given site.
1. Project Category
The designer should consider if the wall system is permanent or temporary.
2. Cut vs. Fill Application

Due to construction techniques and base width requirements for stability, some wall types are better
suited for cut sections where as others are suited for fill or fill/cut situations. The key considerations
are the amount of excavation or shoring, overall wall height, proximity of wall to other structures,
and right-of-way width available. The site geometry should be evaluated to define site constraints.
These constraints will generally dictate if fill, fill/cut or cut walls are required.
Cut Walls
Cut walls are generally constructed from the top down and used for both temporary and permanent
applications. Cantilever sheet pile walls are suitable for shallower cuts. If a deeper cut is required to
be retained, a key question is to determine the availability of right of- way (ROW). Subsurface
conditions such as shallow bedrock also enter into considerations of cut walls. Anchored walls, soil
nail walls, and anchored soldier pile walls may be suitable for deeper cuts although these walls
require either a larger permanent easement or permanent ROW.
Fill walls
Walls constructed in fill locations are typically used for permanent construction and may require
large ROW to meet the base width requirements. The necessary fill material may be required to be
granular in nature. These walls use bottom up construction and have typical cost effective ranges.
Surface conditions must also be considered. For instance, if soft compressible soils are present, walls
that can tolerate larger settlements and movements must be considered. MSE (mechanical stabilize
earth) walls are generally more economical for fill locations than CIP (cast in place) cantilever
walls.
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Cut/fill Walls
CIP cantilever and prefabricated modular walls are most suitable in cut/fill situations as the walls are
built from bottom up, have narrower base widths and these walls do not rely on soil reinforcement
techniques to provide stability. These types of walls are suitable for both cut or fill situations.
3. Site Characteristics
Site characterization should be performed, as appropriate, to provide the necessary information for
the design and construction of retaining wall systems. The objective of this characterization is to
determine composition and subsurface soil/rock conditions define engineering properties of
foundation material and retained soils, establish groundwater conditions, determine the corrosion
potential of the water, and identify any discontinuities or geotechnical issues such as poor bearing
capacity, large settlement potential, and/or any other design and construction problems. Site
characterization mainly includes subsurface investigations and analyses.
4. Miscellaneous Design Considerations

Other key factors that may influence wall selection include height limitations for specific systems,
limit of wall radius on horizontal alignment, and whether the wall is a component of an abutment.
Foundation conditions that may govern the wall selection are bearing capacity, allowable lateral and
vertical movements, tolerable settlement and differential movement of retaining wall systems being
designed, susceptibility to scour or undermining due to seepage, and long-term maintenance.
5. Right of Way Considerations

Availability of ROW at a site may influence the selection of wall type. When a very narrow ROW is
available, a sheet pile wall may be suitable to support an excavation. In other cases, when walls with
tiebacks or soil reinforcement are considered, a relatively large ROW may be required to meet wall
requirements. Availability of vertical operating space may influence wall selection where piling
installation is required and there is not enough room to operate driving equipment.
6. Utilities and Other Conflicts

Feasibility of some wall systems may be influenced by the presence of utilities and buried structures.
MSE, soil nailing and anchored walls commonly have conflict with the presence of utilities or buried
underground structures. MSE walls should not be used where utilities must stay in the reinforcement
zone.
7. Aesthetics
In addition to being functional and economical, the walls should be aesthetically pleasing. Wall
aesthetics may influence selection of a particular wall system. However, the aesthetic treatment
should complement the retaining wall and not disrupt the functionality or selection of wall type. All
permanent walls should be designed with due considerations to the wall aesthetics. Each wall site
must be investigated individually for aesthetic needs.
8. Constructability Considerations
Availability of construction material, site accessibility, equipment availability, form work and
temporary shoring, dewatering requirements, labor considerations, complicated alignment changes,
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scheduling consideration, speed of construction, construction staging/phasing and maintaining traffic

during construction are some of the important key factors when evaluating the constructability of
each wall system for a specific site project.
9. Environmental Considerations
Selection of a retaining wall system is influenced by its potential environmental impact during and
after construction. Some of the environmental concerns during construction may include excavation
and disposal of contaminated material at the project site, large quantity of water, corrosive nature of
water, vibration impacts, noise abatement and pile driving constraints.
10. Cost
Cost of a retaining wall system is influenced by many factors that must be considered while
estimating preliminary costs. The components that influence cost include excavation, structure,
procurement of additional easement or ROW, drainage, disposal of unsuitable material, traffic
maintenance etc. Maintenance cost also affects overall cost of a retaining wall system. The retaining
walls that have least structural cost may not be the most economical walls. Wall selection should be
based on overall cost. When feasible, MSE Walls and modular block gravity walls cost less than
other walls
11. Mandates by Other Agencies

In certain project locations, other agency mandates may limit the types of wall systems considered.
12. Requests made by the Public

A Public Interest Finding could dictate the wall system to be used on a specific project.
13. Railing
For safety reasons most walls will require a protective railing. The railing will usually be located
behind the wall. The roadway designer will generally determine whether a pedestrian or non-
pedestrian railing is required and what aesthetic considerations are needed.
14. Traffic barrier

A traffic barrier should be installed if vehicles, bicycles, or pedestrians are likely to be present on top
of the wall. The roadway designer generally determines the need for a traffic barrier.
Selection of Wall Type
Factors that may influence the selection of the type of retaining wall for a site are:
 cost;
 available clearance to boundary fence, stream etc.;
 safety - the exposed face should not be unduly hazardous to an impacting vehicle;
 foundation conditions;
 maintenance - ease and access;
 suitability for use adjacent to footways and pavements;
 compatibility with adjacent wall types; and
 Appearance.
 Specialist structural and geotechnical advice should be obtained before deciding on the
design of retaining walls.
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Important definitions
 Backfill: The soil placed behind a wall.
 Backfill slope: Often the backfill slopes upward from the back face of the wall. The slope is
usually expressed as a ratio of horizontal to vertical (e.g. 2:1).
 Batter: The slope of the face of the stem from a vertical plane, usually on the inside (earth)
face.
 Dowels: Reinforcing steel placed in the footing and bent up into the stem a distance at least
equal to the required development length.
 Footing (or foundation): That part of the structure below the stem that supports and
transmits vertical and horizontal forces into the soil below.
 Footing key: A deepened portion of the footing to provide greater sliding resistance.
 Grade: The surface of the soil or paving; can refer to either side of the wall.
 Heel: That portion of the footing extending behind the wall (under the retained soil).
 Horizontal temperature/shrinkage reinforcing: Longitudinal horizontal reinforcing usually
placed in both faces of the stem and used primarily to control cracking from shrinkage or
temperature changes.
 Keyway: A horizontal slot located at the base of the stem and cast into the footing for greater
shear resistance.
 Principal reinforcing: Reinforcing used to resist bending in the stem.
 Retained height: The height of the earth to be retained, generally measured upward from the
top of the footing.
 Stem: The vertical wall above the foundation.
 Surcharge: Any load placed in or on top of the soil, either in front or behind the wall.
 Toe: That portion of footing which extends in front of the front face of the stem (away from
the retained earth).
 Weep holes: Holes provided at the base of the stem for drainage. Weep holes usually have
gravel or crushed rock behind the openings to act as a sieve and prevent clogging. Poor
drainage of weep holes is the result of weep holes becoming clogged with weeds, thereby
increasing the lateral pressure against the wall. Unless properly designed and maintained,
weep holes seldom “weep”. Alternatively, perforated pipe surrounded with gravel and
encased within a geotextile can be used to provide drainage of the backfill.
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Categories of Lateral Earth Pressure

There are three categories of lateral earth pressure and each depends upon the movement experienced
by the vertical wall on which the pressure is acting.
The three categories are:
 At rest earth pressure
 Active earth pressure
 Passive earth pressure
The at rest pressure develops when the wall experiences no lateral movement. This typically occurs
when the wall is restrained from movement such as along a basement wall that is restrained at the
bottom by a slab and at the top by a floor framing system prior to placing soil backfill against the
wall.
The active pressure develops when the wall is free to move outward such as a typical retaining wall
and the soil mass stretches sufficiently to mobilize its shear strength. On the other hand, if the wall
moves into the soil, then the soil mass is compressed, which also mobilizes its shear strength and the
passive pressure develops. This situation might occur along the section of wall that is below grade
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and on the opposite side of the retained section of fill. Some engineers might use the passive
pressure that develops along this buried face as additional restraint to lateral movement, but often it
is ignored.
In order to develop the full active pressure or the full passive pressure, the wall must move. If the
wall does not move a sufficient amount, then the full active or full passive pressure will not develop.
If the full active pressure does not develop, then the pressure will be higher than the expected active
pressure. Likewise, significant movement is necessary to mobilize the full passive pressure.
Stability Requirements
The modes of failure of retaining wall are as follow:
1. Sliding
2. Over Turning
3. Bearing capacity failure of the supporting soil.
4. Deep seated shear failure, which may occurs if there is a week soil layer below the foundation
within depth of about 1.5 times foundation width.
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The Primary Concerns for the Design of Nearly any Retaining Wall are:
1. That it has an acceptable Factor of Safety with respect to sliding.
2. That it has an acceptable Factor of Safety with respect to overturning.
3. That the allowable soil bearing pressures are not exceeded.
4. That the stresses within the components (stem and footing) are within code allowable limits to
adequately resist imposed vertical and lateral loads.
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Design Criteria Checklist

 What building codes are applicable?
 Do I have the correct retained height for all of my wall conditions?
 Is there a property line condition I need to know about?
 Is there a fence on top of the wall, or does the wall extends above the retained height?
(exposure to wind)
 How deep must the bottom of the footing be (frost considerations?)?
 How will I assure that the backfill will be drained?
 Will there be any axial loads on top of the wall? If so, the eccentricity?
 What about surcharges behind the wall, such as parking, trucks, etc.
 If the wall extends above the higher grade, and is a parking area, is there an impact bumper
load?
 What is the slope of the backfill? Level?
 Is there a water table I need to consider?
 Is a seismic design required?
 Are there any adjacent footing loads affecting my design?
 Should the stem be concrete or masonry, or a combination of the two?
 How high is the grade on the toe side, above the top of the footing?
 Is there a slab in front of the wall to restrain sliding or provisions to prevent erosion of soil?
 Is there lateral restraint at the top of the wall (if so, it’s not truly a cantilevered wall and
requires a different design)?
 Do I have a soil investigation report or other substantiation for soil properties: active pressure,
passive pressure, allowable bearing pressure, sliding coefficient, soil density, and other items
I need to consider?
 Also consider whether a cantilevered retaining wall is the right solution. If the height of the
wall is over about 5m, perhaps a tieback wall would be more economical (caution: be sure
your client has the right to install tiebacks. If the wall is on a property line, there is obviously
a problem). Perhaps a buttressed or counterfort wall would be better for high walls, or using
precast panels, or tilt-up to overcome construction constraints imposed by a restrictive rear
property line.
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Establish Design Criteria

The following information will be needed before starting your design:-
 Retained heights
 Embedment depth of footing required below grade – See geotechnical report
 Allowable soil pressure
 Passive pressure factor
 Active earth pressure factor
 Coefficient of friction
 Backfill slope (don’t exceed about 2:1 horizontal: vertical unless approved by the
geotechnical engineer)
 Axial loads on stem
 Surcharge loads
 Wind, if applicable
 Seismic criteria if applicable
 Soil density
 Concrete and masonry allowable stresses (fcu, fc, fy,….etc)
When you have gathered this information, you’re ready to start.
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Designing of gravity retaining wall

This type of wall depends upon the dead load mass of the wall for stability. In other words
gravity retaining wall, which relies on the mass of the structure to resist over turning (h <3 m) where
h, is the retaining wall height. They are used to support soil banks and shallow water depth. Also
gravity type retaining wall used as wing wall, abutments, and weir. The stability of gravity retaining
walls depends on their own weight. Gravity retaining walls constructed from rocks, bricks, and plain
concrete.
Step-by-Step Design of a gravity Retaining Wall:

The design usually follows this order:
1. Establish all design criteria based upon applicable building codes.

2. Get the empirical dimensions of the gravity retaining wall.
Empirical Dimension
𝐵1 = 0.3 H 𝐵1 = 0.2 H
𝐵2 = 0.6 H 𝐵2 = 0.45 H
𝑡𝑓 = 0.4 𝐵2 𝑡𝑓 = 0.4 𝐵2
B3=0.7 B3= (0.5-0.7) H
Back face slope more than 1:4
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3. Compute all applied loads, soil pressures, seismic, wind, axial, surcharges, impact, or any
others.
 Lateral earth pressure

 Axial loads
 Adjacent footing loads
 Surcharge loads
 Impact forces
 Wind on projecting stem
 Seismic wall self-weight forces and seismic earth pressure force
4. Compute overturning moments, calculated about the front (toe) bottom edge of the footing.
For a trial, assume the footing width, to be about 0.4 to 0.7’s the height of the wall, with 1/3
being at the toe.
5. Compute resisting moments based upon the assumed footing width, calculated about the front
edge of the footing.
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6. Overturning Moments
Overturning moments, are horizontally applied forces multiplied by the moment arm from the
bottom of the footing to the line of action of the force. The primary force causing overturning is:-
a. The lateral earth pressure against the wall. Derived from a triangular pressure diagram, its
point of application is one-third the height above the bottom of the footing. The height used
to compute over-turning is on the virtual plane at the back of the footing (i.e., where this
plane intersects the ground surface).
b. Lateral pressure from a surcharge is a uniform load applied to the back of the wall, therefore
its point of application is one-half the height and the moment arm is from that point down to
the bottom of the footing.
c. The lateral water pressure against the wall due to ground water table.
d. Wind pressure on the stem projecting above the soil or on a fence sitting atop a wall can also
cause overturning. Wind pressures are computed in accordance with the applicable building
code.
e. Seismic, if applicable, will also contribute to overturning.
7. Resisting Moments
By convention, resisting forces are all vertical loads applied to the footing. These forces include:-
a. the stem weight,

b. footing weight,
c. the weight of the soil over the toe and heel, and
d. a surcharge if applicable and any axial load applied to the top of the wall.
The total resisting moment is the summation of these loads multiplied by the moment arm of each
measured from the front bottom edge of the footing. The generally accepted factor of safety against
overturning is 1.5, although some agencies require more. When seismic is included, a factor of safety
is 1.1.
8. Check factor of safety against over turning

9. An overturning factor of safety of at least 1.5 is considered standard of practice.
𝒘×𝒙
F.S = ≥ 1.5
𝑬×𝒚
𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒃𝒊𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕
F.S = ≥ 1.5
𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕
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10. Based upon an acceptable factor of safety against overturning, calculate the eccentricity of the
total vertical load. Is it within or outside the middle-third of the footing width?
11. Check sliding. A factor of safety with respect to sliding of 1.5 or more is standard. A key or
adjusting the footing depth may be required to achieve an accepted factor of safety with
respect to sliding.
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Sliding force (E) horizontal force
Stability force due to (W) vertical force
Sliding force = Ʃ E
Stability force = 𝝁 × 𝒘 + 𝒄`𝑩
𝝁 = tan 𝝋 → 𝟐⁄𝟑 tan 𝝋
C`= (0.5 − 0.75) C
𝝁×𝒘+𝒄`𝑩
F.S = ≥ 1.5
𝑬
In which;
𝝁 Friction force factor between soil and the concrete of footing.
C: soil cohesion.
If the check of sliding force is not safe use a key beneath the footing or increase the footing
width
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12. Calculate the soil pressure at the toe and heel. If the eccentricity, e, is > B/6 (B = width of
footing) it will be outside the middle third of the footing width (not recommended!), and
because there cannot be tension between the footing and soil, a triangular pressure
distribution will be the result.
−𝑵 𝑴𝒚
𝝈𝟏𝟐 = ±
𝑨 𝑰
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13. Check and review. Have all geotechnical report requirements been met?
14. Place a note on the structural sheets and on the structural calculations indicating that the
backfill is to be placed and compacted in accordance with the geotechnical report.
15. Review the construction drawings and specifications for conformance with the design.
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Designing of cantilever retaining wall
Basic Design Principals for Cantilevered Walls

Cantilever retaining wall relies on the bending strength of the cantilever slab above the base
(3 < h < 5m). Cantilever retaining walls are generally made of reinforced concrete.
Stability requires that a cantilevered retaining wall resist both overturning and sliding, and material
stresses including the allowable soil bearing that must be within acceptable values. To resist forces
tending to overturn the wall (primarily the lateral earth pressure against the back of the wall), the
wall must have sufficient weight, including the soil above the footing, such that the resisting
moments are greater than the overturning moments. The safety factor for overturning should be at
least 1.5 – some codes require more.
To resist sliding, the weight of the wall plus the weight of the soil above the footing plus vertical
loads on the wall and any permanent surcharges multiplied by the coefficient of friction between the
foundation soil and the bottom of the footing, plus the passive pressure resistance force at the front of
the wall, must be sufficient to resist the lateral force pushing on the wall. The recommenced safety
factor against sliding is 1.5.
The stem must be designed to resist the bending caused by earth pressures, including the effect of
surcharges placed behind the wall, seismic or wind if applicable, impact loads, or axial loads acting
eccentrically on the wall. The maximum bending and shear stresses in a cantilevered wall will be at
the bottom of the stem. Each of these subjects will be discussed later.
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Step-by-Step Design of a Cantilevered Retaining Wall:


2. Get the empirical dimensions of the cantilever retaining wall.
B = (0.4 → 0.7) H
tf= H/10 : H/12

t stem = H/10 : H/12
3. Compute all applied loads, soil pressures, seismic, wind, axial, surcharges, impact, or any
others.
 Lateral earth pressure

 Axial loads
 Adjacent footing loads
 Surcharge loads
 Impact forces
 Wind on projecting stem
 Seismic wall self-weight forces and seismic earth pressure force
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4. Compute overturning moments, calculated about the front (toe) bottom edge of the footing
at point T. For a trial, assume the footing width, to be about 0.4 to 0.7’s the height of the
wall, with 1/3 being at the toe.
5. Compute resisting moments based upon the assumed footing width, calculated about the
front edge of the footing.
7. Based upon an acceptable factor of safety against overturning, calculate the eccentricity of
the total vertical load. Is it within or outside the middle-third of the footing width?
8. Check sliding. A factor of safety with respect to sliding of 1.5 or more is standard. A key
or adjusting the footing depth may be required to achieve an accepted factor of safety with
respect to sliding.
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- 265 -
−𝑵 𝑴𝒙 𝒚
𝑭𝟏 𝟐 = ±
𝑨 𝑰𝒙
−𝑵 𝟔𝒆
𝑭𝟏 𝟐 = (1 + )
𝑩 𝑩
𝑭𝟏 ≤ B.C of soil )Bearing capacity(

𝑭𝟐 ⊀ 𝟏⁄𝟑 𝑭𝟏
10. Design the stem. This is usually an iterative procedure. Start at the bottom of the stem
where moments and shears are maximum values. Then, for economy, check several
meters up the stem (such as at the top of the development length of the dowels projecting
from the footing) to determine if the bar size can be reduced or alternate bars dropped.
Check dowel embedment depth into the footing. The thickness of the stem may vary, top
to bottom. The minimum top thickness for reinforced concrete walls is usually 30 cm to
properly place the concrete.
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11. Design footing for moments and shears. Select reinforcing.

12. Check and review. Have all geotechnical report requirements been met?
13. Place a note on the structural sheets and on the structural calculations indicating that the
backfill is to be placed and compacted in accordance with the geotechnical report.
14. Review the construction drawings and specifications for conformance with the design.
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Counterfort retaining wall

When the height of the retaining wall exceeds about 5 m, the thickness of the stem and heel slab
works out to be sufficiently large and the design becomes uneconomical. In such a case counterforts
having trapezoidal section fixed at the base slab are provided at intervals of 3 m to 4 m. The
counterforts support the heel slab and the vertical stem. Counterfort retaining walls are generally
made of reinforced concrete. The shapes of the counterfort retaining wall are as follow:-
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- 269 -
Systematic Design of a counterfort Retaining Wall:


2. Empirical dimensions of the counterfort retaining wall:-
The embrical dimensions of the counterfort retaning wall are almost the same as that of the canteliver
retaining wall.
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B = (0.4 → 0.7) H
tf= H/10 : H/12

t stem = H/10 : H/12
3. Compute all applied loads, soil pressures, seismic, wind, axial, surcharges,
impact, or any others.
• Lateral earth pressure

• Axial loads
• Adjacent footing loads
• Surcharge loads
• Impact forces
• Wind on projecting stem
• Seismic wall self-weight forces and seismic earth pressure force
4. Compute overturning moments, calculated about the front (toe) bottom edge of the footing at
point T.
5. Compute resisting moments based upon the assumed footing width, calculated about the front
edge of the footing.
7. Based upon an acceptable factor of safety against overturning, calculate the eccentricity of the
total vertical load. Is it within or outside the middle-third of the footing width?
8. Check sliding. A factor of safety with respect to sliding of 1.5 or more is standard. A key or
adjusting the footing depth may be required to achieve an accepted factor of safety with
respect to sliding.
−𝑵 𝑴𝒙 𝒚
𝑭𝟏𝟐 = ±
𝑨 𝑰𝒙
−𝑵 𝟔𝒆
𝑭𝟏𝟐 = (1 + )
𝑩 𝑩
𝑭𝟏 ≤ B.C of soil )Bearing capacity(

𝑭𝟐 ⊀ 𝟏⁄𝟑 𝑭𝟏
- 271 -
10. Design of vertical slab (Stem)
The stem acts as a continuous slab spanning longitudinally over the counterforts. The horizontal
active soil pressure acts as the load on the slab. Since the earth pressure varies linearly over the
height of the stem, the slab deflects away from the earth face between the counterforts and hence the
main steel is provided at the outer face of the stem and at the inner face near the supporting
counterforts. The bending moment in the stem is the maximum at the base and reduces towards top.
However, the thickness of the wall is kept constant and only the area of steel is reduced. The slab is
designed for bending moment as follow:
Maximum +ve B.M= El2/12 (occurring mid-way between counterforts) and
Maximum -ve B.M= El2/10 (occurring at inner face of counterforts)
The bending moment could be calculated exactly using finite element

technique as software program (SAP&ANSYS&ETAB etc.)
The main reinforcement is provided horizontally along the length of the wall. The ties ( horizontal
stirrups of counterfort, coming later,) are provided horizontally for the full value of reaction to
prevent slab separating from counterforts.
- 272 -
- 273 -
11. Design of horizontal slab (toe and heel)

The base width is approximately taken equal from 0.6 to 0.7 H, where H is the overall height of the
wall.
a. Design of Toe Slab
The projection of toe slab is approximately taken between 1/3 to 1/4 of base width. The toe slab is
subjected to an upward soil reaction and is designed as a cantilever slab fixed at the front face of the
stem. Due to upward soil pressure, the tension develops on the earth face and the reinforcement is
provided on earth face along the length of the toe slab. In case the toe slab projection is large i.e. >
b/3, front counterforts are provided above the toe slab (normally up to the ground level) and the slab
is designed as a continuous horizontal slab spanning between the front counterforts.
P1=t toe * γRC
P2=t heel * γRC +h * γearth
- 274 -
Mtoe = ftoeav. * Ltoe2 / 2
Design of sections according to the principle of crack control

b. Design of Heel Slab
The heel slab is designed as a continuous slab supported over the counterforts, as in the case of stem.
The heel slab is subjected to downward forces due to weight of soil plus own-weight of slab and an
upward force due to soil reaction. The net force acts downward producing tension towards the earth
face between the counterforts and negative moment develops at the support provided by counterforts.
If p is the net downward force and L is the clear span between the counterforts the B.M. is given by:
Maximum B.M+ve = pl2/12 (mid-way between counterforts towards earth face)
Maximum B.M-ve = pl2/10 (occurring at counterforts)
- 275 -
- 276 -
12. Design of Counterforts

Since the active earth pressure on stem acts outward and stem is considered to be fixed at
counterforts, the counterforts are subjected to outward reaction from the stem. This produces tension
along the outer sloping face of the counterforts. The inner face supporting the stem is in compression.
Thus, the stem lies in the compression zone with respect to the bending of the counterforts and hence
the counterforts are designed as a T-beam of varying depth. The main steel provided along the loping
face shall be anchored properly at both ends. The depth of the counterfort is measured perpendicular
to the sloping side. In order that the counterfort and stem should act as one unit, it is joined firmly to
the stem by providing ties in the horizontal plane. The base is tied with vertical ties to prevent its
tendency to separate out under the action of net downward force. The provision of ties ensures
transfer of forces to the counterforts. The net forces acting on the different components of the
counterforts, position of main steel, horizontal, and vertical ties are schematically shown
1. Calculating of main steel
M (overturning moment only) = (E1×y1+E2×y2) ×L
In which; L = the distance between the two consecutive counterfort
𝑀
T= Design of sections according to the principle of crack control
𝑥
The width of the counterfort could be calculated b=M/x2
- 277 -
2. Calculating of horizontal stirrups steel in counterfort
- 278 -
𝑒1+ 𝑒2
𝑇ℎ = (𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 + ( )) ×L
2
Design of sections according to the principle of crack control
𝐴𝑆 = 𝑐𝑚2 /𝑚 this area of steel is the area of one steel mesh is put in each side
Minimum reinforcement for each mesh is 5𝜑12/m`

Note: the horizontal stirrups should closed in the compression side in the
direction of the stem in the opposite of the counterfort main steel.
3. Calculating of vertical stirrups steel in counterfort

(𝐹`𝑛1 +𝐹`𝑛2 )
𝑇𝑉 = × 𝐿 ×1
2
𝑇𝑉 /2
∴ 𝐴𝑆 = 𝑐𝑚2 /𝑚 this area of steel is the area of one steel mesh is put in each side
𝑓𝑦/γ𝑠
- 279 -
Note:
The accurate stresses on the counterfort retaining wall could be

calculated exactly using finite element technique as software program
(SAP&ANSYS&ETAB etc.) as shown in the following figure.
- 280 -
Drainage system behind retaining walls

Construction of retaining walls is one of the major works in road construction in hilly terrain.
There were a number of instances of retaining wall failure and collapse. Even though there was no
specific study and research conducted on such cases, the failure could be attributed to insufficient
foundation preparation, improper backfilling, inappropriate design (wall configuration and
composition), and noncompliance with specifications during construction (i.e. lack of proper bonding
of stone, tying and bracing of gabion). One important but often ignored aspect in the construction of
wall is the provision of drain behind and below the wall. Backfilling with free draining granular
materials is ideal as such type of materials may not be available from nearby road excavation.
The foundation base and heel get most saturated due to the water percolating through the back fill as
well as from the structure itself thereby building up high pore water pressure and softening of the
foundation. The excessive pore water pressure developed there would increase the lateral earth
pressure significantly, resulting in high probability of structural failure. Therefore, if we make some
arrangements to drain off water from the heel and foundation base, this would greatly help to relieve
the pore water pressure thereby contributing to stability of the retaining wall.
In order to increase the stability of retaining wall and prevent structural failure, it has introduced a
subsoil drainage system to facilitate the proper flow of water behind and below the wall. The system
consists of a longitudinal drain running adjacent to the heel (bottom back) of the wall and transverse
drains to drain off the water coming to the longitudinal drain. depth with 3% outward slope is typical
design. The drains shall be filled with broken stone chips (aggregate) or gravel (20 – 70 mm size)
whichever is practicable as per site conditions. The aggregates or gravel shall be wrapped in
geotextile to prevent clogging due to fine-grained soils.
Drainage system and it`s shape behind retaining wall:

 Drainage system is an important parameter to prevent Retaining wall failures.
 Drainage system eliminates excess hydrostatic pressure acting on the wall due to water
seepage and surface infiltration of rainfall.
 Drainage system may be needed to minimize pressure due to swelling of cohesive backfills.
Kind of drainage system depends on:

1- Type of soil backfill.
2- Amount of rainfall.
3- Ground water condition.
- 281 -
- 282 -
Wall drainage
Accumulation of rain water in the back fill results in its saturation, and thus a considerable increase
in the earth pressure acting on the wall. This may eventually lead to unstable conditions. Two of the
options to take care of this problem are the following:
 Provision of weep holes with geo-textile filter on the back-face of wall
This should have a minimum diameter of 10 cm and be adequately spaces depending on the backfill
material. Geo-textile material or a thin layer of some other filter may be used on the back face of
wall for the full height in order to avoid the back fill material entering the weep holes and eventually
clogging them.
 Perforated pipe-draining system with filter.
Type of drainage system behind retaining walls

1- Vertical drain
- 283 -
2- Inclined drains
3- Combination of inclined and horizontal drain used for cohesive soil
4- Top drains used for clay backfills
Wall joints
Expantion joint: these verticl joints are provided in large retaining walls to allow for the expansion of
the concrete due to tempreture changes and they are usually extended from top of the wall to bottom.
These joints maybe filled with flexible joint fillers. Horizontal reinforcing steel bars running across
the stem are continuous through all joints. However, the current thinking is that the large resistance
to expansion / contraction on the back face of the wall from lateral pressure + the friction resistance
of the base. These joints are practically useless.
- 284 -
Failure of Retaining walls
Failure of retaining walls is more frequent as compared to other RC structures due to

 Poor design assumptions
 Changing and unpredictable subsoil and backfilled conditions
 Poor masonry work/material strength and improper bonding
 Lack of drainage facilities and provisions
 Can you think of some more reasons?
- 285 -
Retaining Wall Failures

Introduction
Retaining walls are used extensively throughout Egypt; their primary function is as a stabilizing structure, used
to hold back and give lateral support for elevated ground and to provide leveled building platforms. Although
the purpose of a retaining wall is a constant, no two retaining walls are the same as the variability of ground
conditions, budget, architectural and engineering requirements and material choice means that each earth
retaining structure is unique.
Unfortunately, poor design or lack of maintenance and care can result in a retaining wall becoming badly
damaged with the potential for wall failure and collapse.
Technical: How does it happen?
There are many reasons that a retaining wall may fail:

 from unexpected loading conditions,
 under design of the structure itself,
 ground destabilization,
 poor workmanship and inadequate drainage behind the wall.
The following shows common issues that may lead to the failure of a retaining wall:
 Reinforced concrete walls – If the reinforcement or the concrete filling has been designed or placed
incorrectly there is an inadequate flexural capacity of the structure, leading to wall failures, including
premature cracking, excessive deflections and even collapse.
 Foundation issues – Although a geotechnical report should always be sought before the construction
of a substantial retaining wall, inadequate factors of safety or perhaps unforeseen latent conditions
may lead to in ground slip or bearing inadequacies and failure of the retaining wall.
 Inappropriate backfill material – The retained soil behind the retaining wall requires a vertical
drainage path to prevent the build-up of water behind the wall, which can generate an increase in the
pressure behind the wall. Often a contractor may use a “clayey” soil backfill, which holds moisture,
and unless a vertical drainage layer is installed there is a build-up of water pressure against the wall
and an increased risk of wall collapse.
 Inadequate drainage –As mentioned above, if water is not effectively removed from the back of the
wall by providing a vertical drainage layer, water pressure may build up, increasing the lateral
pressure onto the retaining structure. The base of the vertical drainage layer must have horizontal
drainage pipework to remove the water. Weep holes can also be installed at the base of the wall above
the lower ground level in order to ensure there is no build-up of water pressures. Most importantly,
ongoing maintenance is a must so that the drainage system remains clear for the passage of water
flow.
 Compaction induced pressures –During compaction of the backfill behind the wall with heavy
machinery, excessive surcharge pressures may be generated causing damage to the wall.
- 286 -
 Inadequate backfill compaction – Some walls rely on tiebacks to restrain the facing wall, such as
Reinforced Earth Structures. If the ground is not fully compacted around the tiebacks or the soil is
loosened, the tiebacks can release and the wall will become unrestrained and move.
Technical: Why is it Bad?
An overloaded retaining wall can pose a significant risk to property and person.
A retaining wall structure is not only considered to have failed if it has collapsed, but also significant bulging
and cracking can also lead to the retaining wall being classified as failed and in imminent danger of collapse.
A failed retaining wall may also cause excessive movement of the retained soil and cause damage to any
property foundations within the zone of influence of the wall.
Identifiers
There are several indicators that could signal the beginnings of a failed retaining wall:
 Excessive deflection – A cantilever retaining wall is designed for a small amount of lateral movement,
of the order 1-2mm per metre of height. However, if the retaining wall’s lateral deflection exceeds
5mm per metre of its retained height it needs to be investigated. This can be easily verified with a
plumb bob.
 Bulging – In the latter stages of a wall overload a retaining wall may develop a “pregnant” bulge at
about a third of the height up the wall. This is especially the case with old stone walls.
 Cracking – Cracking along the length of your retaining wall could be caused by settlement or
differential shrinkage movement, and indicates that the structure may be in an unstable condition.
 Weep Holes – If the retaining wall has weep holes and are not ‘weeping’ water, particularly after
heavy rainfall periods, it could mean that the drainage provisions behind the wall are blocked, leading
to excess hydrostatic pressure exerted onto the wall and potential overload.
- 287 -
Menoufia University Irrigation Structures Design (I)

Faculty of Engineering Code: CVE 321
Civil Engineering Dep. Academic year:
(1) Check the stability of the shown plain concrete retaining wall. Consider 1.0 t/m2 live
load.
Soil data: 1.0
γsoil =1.65t/m3, Ø=25o, γsub.=0.90
t/m3, C=0.20 kg/cm2
Soil bearing capacity =1.35
kg/cm2
(2) For the shown weir, it is required to check weir’s body materials (consider critical case
only).
γc=2.2 t/m3
- 288 -
(3) It’s required to design the shown reinforced concrete retaining wall. (the vertical slab
was provided with horizontal beams). Consider 0.50 t/m2 live load.
Soil data:
γsoil =1.80 t/m3, Ø=28o
Soil bearing capacity =1.40 kg/cm2
Beams
(4) In a coastal area, it is required to construct a

tourist sidewalk near the sea. The proposed
sidewalk as shown in the figure. It’s
required to design all elements of the
structure. Sidewalk’s width =1.50m
Live load on side walk=1.0 t/m2, and the
equivalent live load on the road= 3.33 t/m2
γsoil =1.80 t/m3, Ø=30o
- 289 -
(5) It’s required to construct a channel rested on soil to pass water. The proposed channel
layout is as shown. Design all elements of the channel and check it’s stability.
γsoil =1.70 t/m3, Ø=30o
Figure (5)
- 290 -
- 291 -
Design of Irrigation structures Chapter (7) Bridges
Small Span Bridges

R.C. Bridges
Bridges are usually constructed of reinforced concrete or steel, timber sometimes being
for temporary spans, masonry or brickwork is suitable for arch bridges of small span.
• Bridge consists of:
1- Super structure.
2- Supports.
3- Foundation.
•Type of bridges:
1- Arch Bridges:
Those are built of stones, bricks, or plain concrete.
Common types in Egypt:
a. 900 Segmental arch of span up to 5 m.
b. 𝑠𝑒𝑚𝑖 − 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟.
2- Rolled steel joist bridge.
Uses of Rolled steel joist Bridges
1- Light and medium traffic for spans (6−12) m.
2- Bridges over deep drains.
3- Bridges over channels of poor soils.
3- Timber Bridges
- 292 -
Those are used for footpath .usually used temporarily.
4- Reinforced concrete bridge.
•Type of Reinforced concrete bridges:
a- According to structural system:
1- Slab bridge.
For road with Span (2−4m)
2- Girder bridge Span (4−12) m

3- Prestressed bridge. Span (12−50)m
4- Foot path bridge.
Span up to 10m for very light
Slab Bridge
ts = 30 : 40 cm
- 293 -
Girder Bridge
𝑡𝑠 = (20−30) cm
- 294 -
b) according to geometric shape:
1- right angle Bridge
2- Skew Bridge
- 295 -
Design of
bridge
Hydraulic Stractural
design design
Hydraulic design:
A = (b + zy) y
P = b+2y√1 + 𝑧 2
𝐴
R=
𝑃
1 2⁄ 1⁄
𝑉𝑐 = 𝑅 3 𝑠 2
𝑛
𝑉𝑐 =
• 𝑉𝑏 = (2−3 )𝑉𝑐
• (1.5−2 )𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐 > 𝑉𝑏 > 1 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
∴ 𝑉𝑏 =
- 296 -
𝑄
a= = =𝑛 ×𝑠×𝑑
𝑉𝑏
Where:
N: number of vents
S: span of vent
d: water depth
Assume n find S
Check:
𝑛 × 𝑠 + (𝑛 − 1 ) 𝑡𝑝 ⊀ 0.6 𝑏
Check of Heading up:

C
𝑣𝑐 2 𝐴 2
1- ℎ𝑙 = ( ( ) −1)
2𝑔𝑐 2 𝑎 0.72 s< 2m
𝑣𝑐 : Canal velocity. 0.82 2<s<4
A: area of water way. 0.92 s>4
a: area of vents, Area of Bridge cross section.
ℎ𝑙 ⊁ 10cm
𝑣𝑐 2
ℎ𝑙 = 𝛼 𝛽 ⊁ 10cm
2𝑔
- 297 -
𝐴−𝑎
𝛼=
𝐴
- 298 -
1. Structural design:
- Main elements of R.C. Bridge:
 Super structures
1) Slab,
2) Side Walk,
3) Main girder,
 substructures
4) Pier,
5) Abutment,
6) Foundation
Span
1- Live load truck
1. 20T lorry
- 299 -
2. 60 T lorry
1.25 0.50 3.5 0.50 0.75
0.50
2.0
0.1 0.5
0.50
1.5 4.0 1.0
0.50
2.0
0.50
1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
- 300 -
2- Allowable stresses :
𝐹𝑠 = 2000 kg/𝑐𝑚2 𝐹𝑦 = 3600 kg/𝑐𝑚2
𝐹𝑐 = 90 kg/𝑐𝑚2
𝐹𝑐𝑢 = 250 kg/𝑐𝑚2
1. Design of slab:
1. Dead load
𝐿
𝑡𝑠 = → (20−30)cm
(8−12)
𝛾 = 2.5 t/𝑚3
𝑡𝑐 = 12 cm P.C 𝛾𝑐 = 2.2 t/m³
D.L = o.w. of cover = 0.12 × 2.2
o.w. of slab = 𝑡𝑠 × 2.5
D.L = o.w of slab + o.w of cover
𝒘𝑳𝟐
𝑴𝑫.𝑳 = =
𝟏𝟎
- 301 -
2. Live load
B`= b + 𝑡𝑠 + 2𝑡𝑐
A = a + 2𝑡𝑐 + 𝑡𝑠
B = B`+ 𝛼L
𝛼 = 0.3(ratio of secondary steel reinforcement)
- 302 -
𝑃 𝐿 𝑃 𝐴
M= × − ×
2𝐵` 2 2𝐵` 4
𝑃 𝐿 𝐴
= ( − )
2𝐵` 2 4
Due to the continuity of the slab and the moment of simply supported should multiply
by 0.8
𝑷 𝑳 𝑨
M= ( – )× 𝟎. 𝟖
𝟐𝑩` 𝟐 𝟒
- 303 -
4 𝑃 𝐿 𝐴
= × ( – )
5 2𝐵` 2 4
𝑷 𝟐𝑳−𝑨
𝑴𝑳.𝑳 = 𝟓 ( )
𝟐𝑩`
Due to the impact of the lorry the moment due to live load should multiple by impact
factor (I)
24
Impact factor = I = → (20 → 50)%
24+𝐿
𝑀𝐿.𝐿 (1+𝐼) = 𝑀𝐿.𝐿 × (1+I) =
𝑀𝑇 = 𝑀𝐷.𝐿 +𝑀𝐿.𝐿 (1+𝐼) =
DESIGN OF SECTIONS USING CRACK CONTROL PRINCIPLE
2. Design of side walk
- 304 -
D.L = o.w = 0.17 × 2.5
L.L = 500 : 1000 kg/𝑚2

𝑤𝑙 2
M= + 0.1 × h + 0.25 × L
2
3. Design of main girder

1- D.L
𝑳
T= L = 1.05× 𝒔 b = 30−40cm
(𝟕−𝟏𝟎)
A. Dead load
D.L = w from slab+ o.w = 𝑡𝑠 × 𝐿1 × 2.5 + 0.12× 𝐿1 × 2.2 + (t - 𝑡𝑠 ) × b × 2.5
𝑤𝑙 2
𝑀𝐷.𝐿 = =
8
- 305 -
B. Live load
L.L (case of 20t lorry) (for moment)
a) L ≤ 6.4m
b) L > 6.4
- 306 -
∴ 𝑀𝐿.𝐿 =
𝑀𝐿.𝐿 (1+𝐼) =
𝑀𝑇 = 𝑀𝐷.𝐿 + 𝑀𝐿.𝐿 (1+𝐼)
Case of 60t Lorry
- 307 -
Case of loading for shear
For the case of maximum shear force (Q) a tire load is put on the support and the other
tires load are arranged due to the girder span.
M=
Q=
- 308 -
It is T sec.
B = 16 𝑡𝑠 + 𝑏0 →
C.L − C.L →
span
⁄3 →

Check on shear
𝑄
𝑞= > 9𝑘𝑔/𝑐𝑚2
𝑏. 𝑑
𝑛 ∗ 𝐴ø ∗ 𝑓𝑠
𝑞𝑠𝑡 =
𝑏∗𝑒
4. Design of pier:
- 309 -
𝑆
𝑡𝑝 =
6−12
- 310 -
Solved example:
A reinforced concrete bridge is to be constructed across the canal whose cross section
is shown:-
Given that:
 Road width = 7.0m

 Width of foot path = 1.5m , lorry 60 t
 n = 0.025 , s = 8.0cm/km
It is required to make a complete design for the bridge.
Solution:
A = (b + zy) y = (18+1×3) ×3 = 63. 0 𝑚2
P = b + 2y √1 + 𝑧 2 = 18 + 2 × 3 √2 = 26.48 m
𝐴 63
R= = = 2.378 m
𝑝 26.48
1 2⁄ 1⁄
𝑣𝑐 = 𝑅 3 𝑆 2
𝑛
- 311 -
1 2⁄ 1⁄
= × (2.378) 3 × (0.00008) 2
0.025
= 0.6375 m/sec
𝑣𝑏 = (2−3) 𝑣𝑐 = (1.27−1.9) m/sec
Take 𝑣𝑏 = 1.3 m/sec`

𝑄 𝐴𝑐 × 𝑣𝑐 0.638×63
a= = = = 30.90 𝑚2
𝑣𝑏 𝑣𝑏 1.3
a=n×S×d
Assume n = 2 , d = 3 , and 𝑡𝑝 = 1.50 m
30.90 = 2 × S × 3
∴ S = 5.20 m
∴ 𝑎𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 2 × 3 × 5.20 = 31.20 𝑚2
n × S + (n – 1) 𝑡𝑝 ≥ 0.6B
2 × 5.2 + 1.5 =11.90 𝑚 > 0.6B = 10.8 m ok
Check of Heading up:

𝑣𝑐 2 𝐴
ℎ𝐿 = {( )2 −1 }
2𝑔𝑐 𝑎
𝑣𝑐 = 0.6375 , A = 63 𝑚2 , a = 31.20 𝑚2 , C = 0.92
0.63752 63
ℎ𝑙 = (( )2 -1) = 0.069 m = 6.90 cm < 10 𝑐𝑚 O.K
2×9.81×0.92 31.20
𝛼𝛽𝑣𝑐 2
ℎ𝑙 =
2𝑔
63−31.2
𝛼= = 0.505
63
- 312 -
𝛽 = 0.68
0.505×0.68×(0.6375)2
∴ ℎ𝑙 = = 0.0071m = 0.71cm
2×9.81
Design of slab:
Assume 𝑡𝑠 = 25cm cover = 0.12m
O.W. = 0.25× 2.5 = 0.625 𝑡/𝑚2
Cover = 0.12× 2.2 = 0.264 𝑡/𝑚2
∴ Total o.w. =0.889 𝑡/𝑚2

𝑊𝐿2 0.889×1.8372
𝑀𝐷.𝐿 = = = 0.3 m.t
10 10
- 313 -
B=0.1+2× 0.12 + 0.25 + 0.3 × 1.837=1.14 m
A= 0.5+0.12× 2 + 0.25 = 0.99 𝑚

𝑃 𝐿 𝐴 10 1.837 0.99
𝑀𝐿.𝐿 = ( - )= ( – ) = 2.94 m.t
2𝐵 2 4 2×1.14 2 4
24
I= = 0.9
24+1.837
Take I = 0.5
- 314 -
𝑀𝐿.𝐿(1+𝐼) = 2.94 × 1.5 = 4.41 m.t
𝑀𝑇 = 𝑀𝐿.𝐿(1+𝐼) + 𝑀𝐷.𝐿 = 4.41 + 0.3 = 4.71 m.t
T = 25 d = 22
𝑀𝑢 7.07×105
d = 𝑐1 √ 22 = 𝑐1 √ 𝑐1 = 4.14 J = 0.808
F𝑐𝑢 ×b 250×100
1 𝑀𝑢 1 7.07×105
𝐴𝑠 = = × = 13.81 cm2/m'
𝐵𝑐𝑟 𝑓𝑦 ×𝐽×𝑑 0.8 3600×0.808×22
∴ Use 7 Ø 16/m`
𝐴𝑠 ` = 0.3× 𝐴𝑠 = 4.14
Use 7 Ø 12/m`
Design of side walk:
O.wt = 0.16 ×1.5×2.5 = 0.6 t/m`
Cover = 0.12×1.5×2.2 =0.40 t/m`
W = 0.6 + 0.40 = 1.0 t/m`

𝑤𝑙 2
∴M= + P × L + H×h
2
1×1.52
= + 0.25× 1.5 + 0.1 × 1 = 1.6 m`.t
2
- 315 -
𝑀𝑢 2.4×105
d = 𝑐1 √ 18 = 𝑐1 √ 𝑐1 = 5.81 J = 0.826
F𝑐𝑢 ×b 250×100
1 𝑀𝑢 1 2.4×105
𝐴𝑠 = = × = 5.45 cm2/m'
𝐵𝑐𝑟 𝑓𝑦 ×𝐽×𝑑 0.85 3600×0.826×18
Use 5 Ø 12/m`
Design of main girder:

L = 1.05 × S = 1.05× 5.2 = 5.50 m
𝐿 550
T= = = 79 - 55
(7−10) (7−10)
Take T = 75 cm b = 35 cm
D.L = Weight from slab + O.wt
= 0.889×1.837 + (0.75−0.25) ×0.35×2.5
= 1.633 + 0.43 = 2.1 t/m`
2.1×(5.5)2
𝑀𝐷.𝐿 = = 7.94 t/m
8
L.L :
L< 6m
- 316 -
𝑃1 = 0.5 × 1.837 = 0.92 t/m
0.5×1.337×1.337⁄2
𝑃2 = = 0.24 t/m
1.837
24
I= = 0.77 take I = 0.5
24+7
15
R = 15 + + 0.24 × 2.75 = 23.16 t
2
𝑀𝐿.𝐿 = 23.16 × 2.75 −15 × 1.5 − 0.24 × 2.75 × 1.375 = 40.28 m.t
𝑀𝑇 = 𝑀𝐿.𝐿 + 𝑀𝐷.𝐿 = 40.28 + 7.94 = 48.22 m.t
- 317 -
Case of shear
0.92×1×0.5+0.24×4.5×3.25+15×2.5+15×4+15×5.5
𝑄𝐿.𝐿 = 𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = 33.45 t
5.5
5.5
𝑄𝐿.𝐿 + 𝑄𝐷.𝐿 = 𝑄𝑇 = 33.45 + 2.1 × = 39.23 t
2
B = 16ts + b =16 × 0.25 + 0.35 = 4.35 m
Or B = C.L-C.L = 1.837 m
Or B = L/5 +b = 1.45 m
∴ B = 1.45 m
𝑀𝑢 72.33×105
d = 𝑐1 √ 70 = 𝑐1 √ 𝑐1 = 4.95 J = 0.826
F𝑐𝑢 ×b 250×145
1 𝑀𝑢 1 72.33×105
𝐴𝑠 = = × = 53.5 cm2
𝐵𝑐𝑟 𝑓𝑦 ×𝐽×𝑑 0.65 3600×0.826×70
Use 14 Ø 22
4 Ø 18 shrinkage bars
4 Ø 18 stirrup hunger
- 318 -
Shear check:
𝑄𝑢 39.23×1.5×103
q= = = 24.01 kg/cm2 > qall
𝑏×𝑑 35×70
n×As ×fy /γs 4×.785×3600/1.15

qst = 19.17 = S = 14.65 cm
S×b S×35
Use 7 Ø 10/m` 4 Branches
Design of pier :
hpier = 6.0 – 0.12 – 0.25 - 0.75 = 4.88 m
a- case of maximum normal stresses:

N = 2Rt + O.wt of pier +O.wt of Floor
= 2 × 39.23 + 1.5 × 4.88 × 1.837 × 2.2 + 3×1×1.837×2.2 = 120.17 t

𝑁 120.17
F= = = 21.81 t/m2 ( have to be < Bc)
𝐴 3×1.837
- 319 -
b- case of maximum moment:
N = Rt + RD.L+ O.wt of pier +O.wt of Floor
= 39.23+5.78 + 1.5 × 4.88 × 1.837 × 2.2 + 3×1×1.837×2.2 = 86.72 t
X = tp/3 = 1.5 / 3 = 0.5 m
M = (Rt - RD.L ) × X = (39.23-5.78) × 0.5 = 16.73 t.m.

𝑁 6𝑀 86.72 6×16.73
F= ∓ = ∓
𝐴 𝑏𝑡 2 3×1.837 3×1.8372
F1 = 25.65 t/m2 ( have to be < Bc)
F2 = 5.82 t/m2 ( have to be compresion)
- 320 -
Rolled steel joist Bridge
• In this type of Bridges steel I Beam at equal spaces are used as main girders with
space range from ( 1− 1.5) m
• This type of Bridge suitable for span up to 12m
• This type of Bridge always used as temporary Bridge
• This type of Bridge always used for light load.
Different elements of R.S.j. Bridges
1- Timber flooring
a- wearing planks
b- Main planks
2- Main girder
3- Cross girder
Wearing surface
- 321 -
• It is used to protect the main Blanks from damage.
• Thickness of wearing surface range from (0.5→ 7.5) cm.
• Wearing surface placed diagonally 450 with respect to direction of traffics.
• Wearing surface is not carrying load.
Main planks
t = 10−12.5 − 15 − 20 − 25𝑐𝑚 → ‫بالبوصة‬
b = 20−25 − 30𝑐𝑚
be neglected
With comparison with live load
∴ 𝑀𝐷.𝐿 = neglected
𝑝 𝑎
L.L:𝑀𝑙.𝑙(1+𝐼) = 1.2 (𝐿⁄2 − )
2 4
𝑝 𝑎
𝑀𝑙.𝑙(1+𝐼) = 1.2 (𝐿⁄2 − ) ×0.8 → continous
2 4
𝑝 𝑎
𝑀𝑙.𝑙(1+𝐼) = 1.2 (𝐿⁄2 − ) ×1 → simple
2 4
𝑀
Z=
𝑓
𝑏𝑡 2
Z=
6
For timber
𝛾 = (0.8−0.9) t/𝑚3
𝑓𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝 = 85 kg/𝑐𝑚2
- 322 -
𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 85 kg/𝑐𝑚2
𝑞𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 = (8−12) kg/𝑐𝑚2
Design of Rolled steel joist
D.L
𝐿
Assume d =
(15−25)
D.L = o.w of R.S.j. + w of timber floor
D.L = o.w of IB +𝑡𝑠 × 𝐿1 ×1 × 𝛾𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟

𝐷.𝐿×𝐿2
𝑀𝐷.𝐿 =
8
L.L: As mensioned before
- 323 -
‫‪Design of Irrigation structures‬‬ ‫‪Chapter (7) Bridges‬‬
‫الخطوط الرئيسية لتنفيذ منشأ رى‬

‫‪ .1‬عمل قناه لتحويل مجرى الماء ‪ +‬عمل كوبرى مؤقت لمرور الناس‬
‫‪ .2‬نقوم بحفر التربه حتى منسوب التأسيس واخالء األتربه من الموقع‬
‫‪ .3‬صب الخرسانه العاديه لألساسات‬
‫‪ .4‬صب طبقة الخرسانه المسلحة لألساسات‬
‫‪ (wing wall) .5‬صب الحوائط الرئيسية الحامله للمنشأ واالكتاف‬
‫‪ .6‬صب سقف المنشأ‬
‫‪ .7‬صب الحوائط الجانبية للمنشأ‬
‫‪ .8‬تشطيب سطح المنشأ‬
‫‪ .9‬ردم األتربه حول المنسأ وتشكيل شكل القاع‬
‫‪ .01‬تدبيش أرضية المجرى المائى للمنشأ والجوانب‬
‫‪ .00‬اعادة تحويل المجرى المائى وفك الكوبرى المؤقت‬
‫تجهيز مناسيب الطريق فوق المنشأ بالميول والوجة المطلوبين‬ ‫‪.01‬‬
‫‪- 324 -‬‬

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Menoufia University

2. Need for flow control……………………………………………………………. 5

4. Basic concepts in civil engineering design……………………………………... 8

5. Scour as a cause of failure of structures……………………………………….. 8

6. Sediment deposition (sedimentation)………………………………………….. 8

Chapter (2) Culvert………………………………………………………. 10

2. Culverts for Stream Crossings…………………………………….…………… 10

3. Culverts for Runoff Management……………………………..……………….. 11

4. Difference between Culvert and Bridge……………………………………….. 14

5. Functions of culvert and practical problems………………………………….. 15

7. Required Design Information………………………………………………….. 17

8. Shape of culvert cross section………………………………………………….. 19

10. Hydraulic design of culvert closed conduit…………………………………... 22

10.1 Design considerations…………………….………………………………. 25

10.2 Heading up for horizontal culvert….…………………………………… 25

10.2.1 Coefficient of head loss due to rack Kr…………………………... 27

10.2.2 Velocity upstream the culvert Vu.s………………………………... 28

10.3 Energy Losses…………………………………………………………….. 30

10.3.1 Inlet Losses………………………………………………………… 30

10.3.2 Outlet Losses………………………………………………………. 31

10.4 Friction Losses……………………………………………………………. 31

11. Culvert Outlet………………………………………………………………….. 33

12. Minimum Slope………………………………………………………………... 33

13. Outlet protection………………………………………………………………. 33

13.1 Local Scour………………………………………………………………… 34

13.2 General Stream Degradation……………………………………………... 34

14. Structural design of culvert…………………………………………………… 36

14.1 Estimating empirical dimension of box culvert…………….…………… 37

14.2 Calculating vertical loads…………………………………………………. 37

14.2.1 Dead load…………………………….……………………………… 37

14.2.2 Live load………………………………………………………….…. 38

14.3 CalculatingLateral load……………………………………………….….. 41

14.3.1 Dry Earth Pressure (D.E.P)……………………………………..… 41

14.3.2 Surcharge pressure due to uniform live load……………………... 42

14.3.3 Wet Earth Pressure (W.E.P)……………………………………… 42

14.4 Calculating Internal water pressure( pw)……………………………….. 43

15. Straining actions ………………………………………………………………. 43

15.1 One vent……………………………………………………………………. 43

15.2 Two vent …………………………………………………………………... 45

15.3 Tension force in circular cross-section due to internal water pressure... 49

16. Cases of loading………………………………………………………………... 51

17. Design for crack control………………………………………………………. 59

17.1 Conditions to be satisfied for crack control……………………………... 60

17.2 Classification of R.C sections according to exposure of tension side

18. Steps of design of un-cracked section (water section)………………………. 65

18.1 Design of sections subjected to axial tension (T)………………………... 65

18.2 Design of sections subjected to pure bending moment….…………... 67

18.3 Design of sections subjected to B. M, Normal force…………….…….. 70

18.4 Summary of water sections design……………………………………….. 78

19.1.1 Culvert Foundation Report………………………………………... 94

19.1.2 Soil Profile…………………………………………………………... 95

19.1.3 Foundation Types and Treatment………………………………… 95

19.2 Backfill around the Culvert………………………………………………. 96

19.3 Culvert Foundation Preparation…………………………………………. 97

19.6 Joints in Barrel…………………………………………………………….. 99

19.8 Backfilling………………………………………………………………….. 100

20. Solved example………………………………………………………………… 101

21. Practical application for culvert……………………………………………… 117

Exercise (2-1) ……………………………………………………………………… 137

Chapter (3) Syphon……………………………………………………..... 139

1. Definition ………………………………………………………………………... 139

3. Inverted Syphon………………………………………………………………… 141

3.1 Purpose and Description………………………………………………….. 141