Industrial Electronics

KINAL, Technical Center

Summary
Industrial
Electronics

The Electric Motor . . .

The DC Motor
Compounds of a DC
Motor

The Series DC Motor . .

.

The Shunt DC Motor . .

.

Control Diagrams . . .

Independent DC Motor . . .

Compound DC Motor . . .

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THE ELECTRIC MOTOR (Generator,

Transformer and Motor)
An electric motor converts
electrical energy into mechanical
energy. The reverse task, that of
converting mechanical energy into
electrical energy, is accomplished by a
generator or dynamo. Traction motors
used on locomotives often perform
both tasks if the locomotive is
equipped with dynamic brakes.
Electric motors are found in household
appliances such as fans, exhaust fans, fridges, washing machines, pool pumps and
fan-forced ovens. Most electric motors work by electromagnetism, but motors
based on other electromechanical phenomena, such as electrostatic forces and the
piezoelectric effect, also exist. The fundamental principle upon which
electromagnetic motors are based is that there is a mechanical force on any
current-carrying wire contained within a magnetic field. The force is described by
the Lorentz force law and is perpendicular to both the wire and the magnetic field.
Most magnetic motors are rotary,
but linear motors also exist.

Generator
An electrical generator is a device
that converts mechanical energy to
electrical energy, generally using

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electromagnetic induction. The source of mechanical energy may be a reciprocating

or turbine steam engine, water falling through a turbine or waterwheel, an internal
combustion engine, a wind turbine, a hand crank, or any other source of mechanical
energy.
The Dynamo was the first electrical generator capable of delivering power for
industry. The dynamo uses electromagnetic principles to convert mechanical
rotation into an alternating electric current. A dynamo machine consists of a
stationary structure which generates a strong magnetic field, and a set of rotating
windings which turn within that field. On small machines the magnetic field may be
provided by a permanent magnet; larger machines have the magnetic field created
by electromagnets.

Transformer
A transformer is an electrical
device that transfers energy from
one circuit to another by magnetic
coupling with no moving parts. A
transformer comprises two or
more coupled windings, or a single
tapped winding and, in most
cases, a magnetic core to
concentrate magnetic flux. A
changing current in one winding
creates a time-varying magnetic
flux in the core, which induces a
voltage in the other windings. The
transformer is one of the simplest
of electrical devices, yet
transformer designs and materials
continue to be improved. Transformers come in a range of sizes from a thumbnail-
sized coupling transformer hidden inside a stage microphone to huge gigawatt units
used to interconnect large portions of national power grids. All operate with the
same basic principles and with many similarities in their parts. A simple

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transformer consists of two electrical conductors called the primary winding and the
secondary winding. Whenever the amount of current in a coil changes (including
when the current is switched on or off), a voltage is induced in the neighboring coil.
The effect, called mutual inductance, is an example of electromagnetic induction.

The DC Motor
Generally, the rotational speed of a DC motor is proportional to the voltage
applied to it, and the torque is proportional to the current. Speed control can be
achieved by variable battery tappings, variable supply voltage, resistors or
electronic controls. The direction of a wound field DC motor can be changed by
reversing either the field or armature connections but not both. This is commonly
done with a special set of contactors (direction contactors). The effective voltage
can be varied by inserting a series resistor or by an electronically controlled
switching device made of thyristors, transistors, or, formerly, mercury arc rectifiers.
In a circuit known as a
chopper, the average
voltage applied to the
motor is varied by
switching the supply
voltage very rapidly.
Since the series-wound
DC motor develops its
highest torque at low
speed, it is often used in
traction applications such
as electric locomotives,
and trams. Another
application is starter
motors for petrol and small
diesel engines. Series motors must never be used in applications where the drive
can fail (such as belt drives). As the motor accelerates, the armature (and hence
field) current reduces. The reduction in field causes the motor to speed up (see
'weak field' in the last section) until it destroys itself.

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This can also be a problem with railway motors in the event of a loss of adhesion
since, unless quickly brought under control, the motors can reach speeds far higher
than they would do under normal circumstances. This can not only cause problems
for the motors themselves and the gears, but due to the differential speed between
the rails and the wheels it can also cause serious damage to the rails and wheel
treads as they heat and cool rapidly. Field weakening is used in some electronic
controls to increase the top speed of an electric vehicle.
The simplest form uses a contactor and field weakening resistor, the electronic
control monitors the motor current and switches the field weakening resistor into
circuit when the motor current reduces below a preset value (this will be when the
motor is at its full design speed). Once the resistor is in circuit, the motor will
increase speed above its normal speed at its rated voltage. When motor current
increases, the control will disconnect the resistor and low speed torque is made
available.
One interesting method of speed
control of a DC motor is the Ward-Leonard
control. It is a method of controlling a DC
motor (usually a shunt or compound
wound) and was developed as a method of
providing a speed-controlled motor from
an AC supply, though it is not without its
advantages in DC schemes. The DC
output from the armature is directly
connected to the armature of the DC
motor (usually of identical construction).
The shunt field windings of both DC
machines are excited through a variable resistor from the generator's armature.
This variable resistor provides extremely good speed control from standstill to
full speed, and consistent torque. This method of control was the de facto method
from its development until it was superseded by solid state thyristor systems.
It found service in almost any environment where good speed control was
required, from passenger lifts through to large mine pit head winding gear and even
industrial process machinery and electric cranes.

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Compounds of a DC motor
In a rotary motor, the rotating part (usually on the inside) is called the rotor,
and the stationary part is called the stator. The rotor rotates because the wires and
magnetic field are arranged so that a torque is developed about the rotor's axis.
The motor contains electromagnets that are wound on a frame. Though this
frame is often called the armature, that term is often erroneously applied.
Correctly, the armature is that part of the motor across which the input voltage is
supplied. Depending upon the design of the machine, either the rotor or the stator
can serve as the armature. This Java applet shows a direct current electrical motor
which is reduced to the most important parts for clarity. Instead of an armature
with many windings and
iron core, there is only
a single rectangular
conductor loop; the axis
the loop rotates on is
omitted. The blue
arrows indicate the
conventional current
direction (from + to -).
You can recognize the
magnetic field lines
(directed from the red
painted north pole to
the green painted south
pole) by the red color. The black arrows represent the Lorentz force which is
exerted to a current-carrying conductor in the magnetic field. The mentioned
Lorentz force is orthogonal to the direction of current and to the magnetic field
lines. The orientation of this force results from the well-known third hand rule.

Exercise No. 1
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Now, read the text again if necessary and answer the following questions.
1. What is the main function of an electric motor?

2. What is the armature?

3. Number the compounds of a DC motor:

4. What is an electrical generator?

5. What does a dynamo machine consists of?

6. What is a transformer?

7. What range do transformers come in?

8. According to the picture in the previous page, what do the black arrows
represent?

9. Once the resistor is in circuit, the motor will:

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10. Why the dynamo uses electromagnetic principles?

THE SERIES DC MOTORS

Condition assessment of DC motors requires a basic understanding of the design
and operating characteristics of the various types available: the series motor, the
shunt motor, and the compound motor. Each type has unique operating
characteristics and applications. These characteristics enable the operator to
perform a wide variety of tasks.
DC motor fault zone analysis is a vital part of any DC motor maintenance
program. Visual inspection and
electrical testing of the armature
and fields give the maintenance
personnel an understanding of
the condition of the motor.
Implementing a predictive
maintenance program takes a PM
program to the next level. We
will review some case studies
that will illustrate the utilization
of an effective predictive
program.
Components of a series
motor include the armature,
labeled A1 and A2, and the field,
S1 and S2. The same current is
impressed upon the armature and the series field.
The coils in the series field are made of a few turns of large gauge wire, to
facilitate large current flow. This provides high starting torque, approximately 2 ¼
times the rated load torque. Series motor armatures are usually lap wound.

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Lap windings are good for high current, low voltage applications because they
have additional parallel paths for current flow. Series motors have very poor speed
control, running slowly with heavy loads and quickly with light loads. A series motor
should never drive machines with a belt. If the belt breaks, the load would be
removed and cause the motor to overspeed and destroy itself in a matter of
seconds.
In SERIES MOTORS, the field windings are connected in series with the armature
coil. The field strength varies with changes in armature current. When its speed is
reduced by a load, the series motor develops greater torque. Its starting torque is
greater than other types of dc motors. Its speed varies widely between full-load
and no-load. Unloaded operation of large machines is dangerous.

Common uses of the series motor include crane hoists, where large heavy loads
will be raised and lowered and bridge and trolley drives on large overhead cranes.
The series motor provides the starting torque required for moving large loads.
Traction motors used to drive trains are series motors that provide the required
torque and horsepower to get massive amounts of weight moving. On the coldest
days of winter the series motor that starts your car overcomes the extreme cold
temperatures and thick lubricant to get your car going.

THE SHUNT DC MOTORS

The shunt motor is probably the most common dc motor used in industry today.
Components of the shunt motor are the
armature, labeled A1 and A2, and the
field, labeled F1 and F2. The coils in the
shunt field are composed of many turns
of small wire, resulting in low shunt
field current and moderate armature
current. This motor provides starting

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torque that varies with the load applied and good speed regulation by controlling
the shunt field voltage. If the shunt motor loses it’s field it will accelerate slightly
until CEMF rises to a value sufficient to shut off the torque producing current.
In other words, the shunt motor will not destroy itself if it loses its field, but it
won’t have the torque required to do the job it was designed for. Some of the
common uses of the shunt motor are machine shop lathes, and industry process
lines where speed and tension control are critical.

Exercise No. 2

1. It’s a vital part of any DC motor maintenance program:

2. It takes a PM program to the next level:

3. The coils in the series field are made of:

4. When the speed of the series motor is reduced by a load, what does it
develop?

5. What do common uses of the series motor include?

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6. Which is probably the most common dc motor used in industry today?

7. If the shunt motor loses it’s field it will:

8. Which are some of the common uses of the shunt motor?

9. The coils in the shunt field are composed of:

10. A series motor should never drive machines with a belt, what might happen
if the belt breakes?

CONTROL DIAGRAMS
Process control diagrams depict that part of the plant or process that the
operator has selected. Color coded diagrams facilitate operator understanding. A
typical plant will have several such diagrams and corresponding Operator Control
Panels.

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Each Operator Control Panel is associated with a process control diagram.

Together, they represent a portion of the plant that can be reached by selecting
from a list of panels that is always available. The operator can view the operation
of the plant, set controls to automatic or manual, open and close valves, start and
stop pumps, set control points, etc. Typically, the panel is laid out in a way that
corresponds to the layout of the corresponding process diagram. Effective use of
color is made so that the operator's attention is immediately drawn to those items
that require intervention. Items that are out of tolerance or which may be critical
are displayed on a special Alarm Panel.

The Alarm control panel is available to the operator on demand. It pulls from all
other panels any meter that is out of tolerance. This gives the operator a single
screen to examine all points in the plant that may need attention.
If a critical point reaches an emergency level, this panel is automatically
displayed (critical points are outlined in red). The system can be set up so that
after a delay, emergency shutdown will occur.

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If a monitored value drifts out of bounds, an alarm is triggered. Alarms can be

either warning (yellow) or emergency (red) and can be viewed at any time on the
Alarm Panel. In the case of an emergency, the system can be set up to shut itself
down in an orderly fashion if an operator does not intervene. You can set the
intervals for how long the system waits before beginning shutdown as well as how
long the operator has to abort. In addition, an external siren can be triggered to
alert plant personnel when an emergency occurs.

Wiper Speed Control

A continuously working wiper in a car may prove to be a nuisance, especially
when it is not raining heavily. By using the circuit described here one can vary
sweeping rate of the wiper from once a second to once in ten seconds. The circuit
comprises two timer NE555 ICs, one CD4017 decade counter, one TIP32 driver
transistor, a 2N3055 power transistor (or TIP3055) and a few other discrete
components. Timer IC1 is configured as a mono- stable multivibrator which
produces a pulse when one presses switch S1 momentarily. This pulse acts as a
clock pulse for the decade counter (IC2) which advances by one count on each
successive clock pulse or the push of switch S1. Ten presets (VR1 through VR10),
set for different values by trial and error, are used at the ten outputs of IC2. But
since only one output of IC2 is high at a time, only one preset (at selected output)
effectively comes in series with timing resistors R4 and R5 connected in the circuit
of timer IC3 which functions in astable mode. As presets VR1 through VR10 are set
for different values, different time periods (or frequencies) for astable multivibrator
IC3 can be selected.

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The output of IC3

is applied to pnp
driver transistor T1
(TIP32) for driving
the final power
transistor T2
(2N3055) which in
turn drives the wiper
motor at the selected
sweep speed. The
power supply for the
wiper motor as well as the circuit is tapped from the vehicle’s battery itself. The
duration of monostable multivibrator IC1 is set for a nearly one second period

Exercise No. 3

Answer the following questions.

1. Items that are out of tolerance or which may be critical are:

2. What panel must be displayed if a critical point reaches an emergency level?

3. How can you vary sweeping rate of the wiper?

4. What can the operator do when there is an available list of panels?

5. What is the function of color coded diagrams?

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INDEPENDENT DC MOTORS
The drive system for
Brannigan consists of two
tank-treads powered by two
independently controlled
Pittman motors. Selection of
wheels and tread material was
the first and most
fundamental process in
designing the drive system.
Since slipping between the
wheel and the tread would be fatal, toothed tread systems were investigated. Pre-
manufactured systems did not fit the specifications because they were either too
light-duty or too expensive. Eventually we came upon timing belts as the treads
and timing belt pulleys as the wheels. Timing belts and pulleys are generally used
in industrial power transmission applications, but we decided to modify the belts
and pulleys to drive our robot. The pulleys are generally manufactured in plastic or
steel. The ribs are important to prevent the belt from slipping off the side. Some
machining was required on each pulley, namely removing the hub protrusion. The
tread system has three wheels (each composed of two timing belt pulleys). The
center wheel is the
driving wheel, since it is
connected to the motor.
The two slave wheels are
smaller in diameter and
run freely. As shown in
the picture above, there
are two tensioners that
provide a large area of
contact between the belt
and the driving wheel. If
these tensioners were not
present, slipping between the belt and the driving wheel would likely occur.

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Timing belt specifications, like those found in Machinery's Handbook, suggest at

least six teeth in contact. The geometry of the belt path was governed by this
criteria and the overall dimensions of the robot.
To maintain the dimensions of the placement of the wheels and tensioners,
the housing of the tread system needed to be strong. It also needed to be
protective; using an upside-down U-channel provided two rigid bearing surfaces via
a through-hole in legs of the channels. We decided on aluminum 1 1/2" x 1/8" Wall
Square U-channels for several reasons: 1. the excellent strength-to-weight ratio of
aluminum coupled with the shape of channels provided complete coverage and
dimensional stability with a reasonable weight. 2. Aluminum channel is extruded,
unlike steel channel which is bent after being rolled. This provides: a. Sharp
corners and b. Better parallelism between the legs of the channels. 3. Machining
the aluminum channel is easier. Most holes in the channel were through-holes,
which ensures that the axes line up. Machining two plates would require the holes
to be matched up perfectly. Also, the channel could be refashioned by rechecking it
in the mill and touching off the original datums. 4. The two channels were the
structural grounding of our robot. Because of the large moment of inertia of the
shape of the channel, he forces required to deflect the channel any reasonable
amount over its entire length were very high. A plate between the two channels
was all that was needed to create a rigid and reliable robot.
Motor selection is one of the major decisions of any moving robot. We decided
on DC motors, rather than stepper motors because we believed that they could
provide the accuracy
we needed without
the complexity of
controlling stepper
motors. We also
wanted to purchase a
motor with a gear
head that would
provide the necessary
speed reduction and
torque increase.

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Exercise No. 4

Answer the following questions.

1. What does the drive system for Brannigan consist of?

2. When were toothed tread systems investigated?

3. Where are timing belts and pulleys generally used?

4. Why did the tread system need to be strong?

5. Which is one of the major decisions of any moving robot?

THE COMPOUND DC MOTOR

When comparing the advantages of the series and shunt motors, the series
motor has greater torque capabilities while the shunt motor has more constant and
controllable speed over various loads. These two desirable characteristics can be
found in the same motor by placing both a series field and shunt field winding on
the same pole. Thus, we have the compound motor.
The compound motor responds better to heavy load changes than a shunt motor
because of the increased current through the series field coils. This boosts the field
strength, providing added torque and speed. If a shunt coil is added to a series
motor at light loads (when a series motor tends to overspeed) the added shunt field
flux limits the top speed, eliminating self-destruction.

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Common uses of the compound motor include elevators, air compressors,

conveyors, presses and shears. Compound motors can be operated as shunt
motors by disconnecting the series field. Many manufacturing process lines are
designed this way. The reason being that, most off the shelf motors are compound
motors, and the series field can always be connected later to provide additional
torque, if needed.

rCom pound
motors can be connected two ways, cumulatively and differentially,
when connected cumulatively, the series field is connected to aid the shunt field,
providing faster response than a straight shunt motor. When connected
differentially, the series field opposes the shunt field. Differentially connected
compound motors are sometimes referred to as “suicide motors,” because of their
penchant for self-destruction. If perhaps, the shunt field circuit were to suddenly
open during loading, the series field would then assume control and the polarity of
all fields would reverse. This results in the motor stopping, and then restarting in
the opposite direction. It then operates as an unloaded series motor and will destroy
itself. Differentially connected motors can also start in the opposite direction if the
load is too heavy. Therefore, it is seldom used in industry.

Fault Zone Preventative Maintenance

Fault zone preventative maintenance on dc motors includes electrical testing and
visual inspection of the armature, commutator, brushes and fields. Over the years,
people have been performing insulation to ground tests on DC equipment to
evaluate the condition of insulation, particularly with regard to moisture and dirt.
These parameters are valuable readings when taken under similar conditions at
various times. High insulation resistance values do not necessarily indicate high
dielectric strength. Insulation that is mechanically damaged may show high

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resistance values but fail at relatively low dielectric test voltages. Insulation
resistance varies inversely to the temperature of the motor. As the temperature
increases, resistance will decrease. Approximately 8 to 15°C temperature rise will
half the resistance.

Armature
Visual inspection of the armature should include the search for cracked or brittle
insulation, loose or broken banding, and any dirt or oil contamination. Leakage to
ground testing of the armature indicates the relative condition of the insulation.
Performing a bar-to-bar resistance check will indicate any shorted windings or
defective solder joints at the risers. Infrared inspection of the armature can reveal
overheating of the brushes, commutator, as well as loose or hot connections on the
risers. The ideal temperature for proper commutation is between 120-140 °F.

Exercise No. 5

1. What do common uses of the compound motor include?

2. What does Fault zone preventative maintenance on dc motors include?

3. What is the ideal temperature for proper commutation?

4. As the temperature increases:

5. when do we have a compound motor?

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