CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 TROLLEYS:
Trolleys can be defined as a large metal basket or frame on wheels, used for
transporting heavy or large items, such as supermarket purchases or luggage at an
airport or railway station.
There are places where goods need to be taken to the targeted places or for
handling equipment at workplaces. A trolley can be used to lift those goods to the
targeted places or can be used to shift heavy goods in a workshop or used to handle
them.
1.1.1 Types of trolleys:
i. Hand trolleys
ii. Wheel trolleys
iii. Aluminium trolleys
iv. Folding trolleys
v. Stainless steel trolleys
vi. Collapsible trolleys
vii. Office trolleys
viii. Tool trolleys
ix. Pallet trolleys
x. Trolleys for heavy duty items
xi. Box dollies
xii. Warehouse trolleys

1
1.1.2 PROBLEMS WITH TROLLEYS:

Figure 1.1 Trolley

In industries, when transporting a large, heavy product from one place to another
place, turning a trolley would be the biggest problem. Also, after transporting goods,
park a trolley is also a problem. Because to turn a trolley, human labor need to use
more energy than his ordinary works. Schematic diagram of trolley as shown in
figure 1.1.

1.1.3 SOLUTION TO THE PROBLEM:

To overcome this problem, turning a trolley with steering, using shaft, roller
chain and sprocket is one of the viable solution. So, the need for spending more
energy than usual works reduced substantially. Also, parking trolleys in the small
place can be solved.
1.2 POWER TRANSMISSION:
Power transmission is the movement of energy from its place of generation to
a location where it is applied to perform useful work. Power is defined formally as
units of energy per unit time.

2
 Mechanical power transmission refers to products used in systems with
moving parts as opposed to systems powered electrically. Some mechanical power
transmission elements are
i. Shafts
ii. Gears
iii. Belt and pulleys
iv. Chain and chain drive(sprocket)
1.2.1 SHAFT:
A shaft is a rotating machine element, usually circular in cross section, which
is used to transmit power from one part to another, or from a machine which
produces power to a machine which absorbs power. The various members such as
pulleys and gears are mounted on it. There are two types of shafts.
a) Transmission shafts- used to transmit power between the source and the
machine absorbing power
b) Machine shafts- the integral part of the machine itself
1.2.2 GEARS:
A gear or cogwheel is a rotating machine part having cut teeth, or cogs, which
mesh with another toothed part to transmit torque. Geared devices can change the
speed, torque, and direction of a power source. Gears almost always produce a
change in torque, creating a mechanical advantage, through their gear ratio, and thus
may be considered a simple machine. The teeth on the two meshing gears all have
the same shape.
Types of gears are
a) Spur gear
b) Helical gear
c) Double helical
d) Bevel gear
e) Spiral bevel
f) Worm and worm wheel
g) Rack and pinion
h) Epicyclic gear

3
1.2.3 BELT AND PULLEYS:
A belt is a loop of flexible material used to link two or more rotating shafts
mechanically, to transmit power efficiently or to track relative movement. Belts are
the cheapest utility for power transmission between shafts that may not be axially
aligned. Power transmission is achieved by specially designed belts and pulleys.
Types of some belt drives are,
a) Flat belts
b) V-belts
c) Rope drives
d) Round belts
e) Multi groove belts
f) Timing belts
1.2.4 CHAIN AND SPROCKET:
In this mini project 360-degree rotating trolley, chain and sprocket are used to
transmit power from steering to wheels.
Chain drive is a way of transmitting mechanical power from one place to
another. It is often used to convey power to the wheels of a vehicle, particularly
bicycles and motorcycles. It is also used in a wide variety of machines besides
vehicles. Most often, the power is conveyed by a roller chain, known as the drive
chain or transmission chain, passing over a sprocket gear, with the teeth of the gear
meshing with the holes in the links of the chain.
A sprocket or sprocket-wheel is a profiled wheel with teeth, or cogs, that mesh
with a chain, track or other perforated or indented material.
1.3 CHAINS:
From industry stand point, the major types of chains are (i) roller chains, (ii)
leaf chains, (iii) silent chains, (iv) engineering steel chains, and (v) flat-top chains.
Regardless of the types of chains, their styles are classified as follows.
a) Straight link chains, which have alternate ‘outside’ and ‘inside’ links. These
include chains with rollers and chains that are similar to chains with rollers,
but are roller-less.

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 b) Offset link chains, which have all links alike. These include integral link
chains, such as bar-link, flat-top, and welded steel chains, where internal
rollers cannot be installed.

1.3.1 ROLLER CHAIN:

The major purpose of rollers is to reduce friction, but the rollers in chains have two
separate functions, usually being provided by the same roller. Schematic diagram of
single strand roller chain as shown in figure 1.2.These functions are given below.
a) To engage the sprocket teeth and thus transfer any sliding action to the
internal members of the chain, which are designed for that purpose.
b) To serve as a guide or to support a chain and material carried on it on tracks
or ways, as is characteristic of conveyors and some bucket elevators.

Figure 1.2 Single strand roller chain

1.3.2 LEAF CHAIN:
In leaf chains, inner plates are placed one above one. Leaf chains are used
almost exclusively for lifting and counterbalancing. Tensions are very high, but
speeds are slow. Normally the chains work intermittently. The main considerations
in the design of the leaf chains are tensile loads, joint wear, and link plate and sheave
wear. Schematic diagram of leaf chain as shown in figure 1.3.

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 Figure 1.3 Leaf chain
1.3.3 SILENT CHAINS:
Silent chain, also called ‘inverted tooth’ chain, consists of a series of toothed
link plates assembled on joint components in a way that allows free flexing between
each pitch. The great majority of silent chain is used in drives. Silent chains are made
up of stacked rows of load carrying link plates. Increasing the number of rows of
links increases the chain width, tensile strength, and load carrying capacity.
Schematic diagram of silent chain as shown in figure 1.4.

Figure 1.4 Silent chain

1.3.4 ENGINEERING STEEL CHAIN:
Most engineering steel chains are used in conveyors, bucket elevators, and
tension linkages. Only a few are used in drives. The main design considerations for
these chains are tensile loads, several types of wear, lubrication, and environment.
1.3.5 FLAT-TOP CHAINS:
Flat-top chains are used almost exclusively on conveyors. In practice, the flat-
top chains are basically special types of slat conveyors.
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1.3.6 NOMENCLATURE OF SINGLE STRAND ROLLER CHAIN:
Schematic diagram of portion of a single strand roller chain as shown
in figure 1.5.

Figure 1.5 portion of a single-strand roller chain

Pitch:
It is the linear distance between the centres of the rollers.
Width:
It is the space between the inner link plates.
Strand spacing:
It is the linear distance between the centres of two different strands.

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1.3.7 TYPES OF ROLLER CHAIN:
Roller chain can be classified by strands.
a) Single strand roller chain
b) Multi strand roller chain
Single strand roller chain:
The most commonly used chain for drives is the single-strand standard series
roller chain. The power rating capacities of these chains cover a wide range of drive
load requirements.
Multi strand roller chain:
Multiple-strand roller chains are used to provide increased power capacity
without the need for increasing the chain pitch or its linear speed. For a given power
load, a multiple-strand chain with smaller pitch can be run at a higher speed than
single-strand roller chain of larger pitch. Schematic diagram of double strand roller
chain as shown in figure 1.6.

Figure 1.6 Double strand roller chain

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1.4 SPROCKET NOMENCLATURE:
Schematic diagram of nomenclature of sprocket and teeth as shown in figure 1.7.

Figure 1.7 nomenclature of sprocket and teeth

Pitch circle: The Pitch Circle Diameter (PCD) is the diameter of the circle which
passes through the center of all the studs, wheel bolts or wheel rim holes.
Tooth width (C): It is the length of the teeth in the axial direction of sprocket.
Side relief (G): It is a modification of a tooth profile whereby a small amount of
material is removed near the tip of the gear tooth.
Tooth side radius (F): It is the radius of the side of the tooth which is formed by
side relief of the tooth.
1.4.1 TYPES OF SPROCKETS:
i) Double duty sprockets
ii) Hunting tooth sprockets
iii) Skip tooth sprockets
iv) Gap tooth sprockets
v) Draw bench sprockets
vi) Segmental rim sprockets

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Double duty sprockets:
Double Duty sprockets have two teeth for each pitch so when one set of teeth
is worn the chain can be advanced one half pitch to a new set of teeth. Often used
with long pitch chains. These are similar to Hunting Tooth sprockets.
Hunting tooth sprockets:
Hunting Tooth sprockets have an odd number of teeth with the pitch of the
teeth one-half of the chain pitch. This causes the chain roller to advance one half
pitch for each revolution, doubling the number of contacts and doubling the
sprockets.
Skip tooth sprockets:
Skip Tooth sprockets have a pitch diameter with an even number of chain
pitches with a tooth omitted at every other pitch. To figure the pitch diameter use
twice the number of teeth. Drop - forged chains require this type of sprocket because
of their solid “roller link”.
Gap tooth sprockets:
Gap Tooth sprockets are used with chains having through rods or rollers
located between the chain pin rollers that articulate over the sprocket. clearance in
the tooth form is provided for these rods.
Draw bench sprockets:
Draw Bench chains often have alternate pitches of different lengths and are
skip tooth design, when “roller” link is solid bar. The higher tensile of steel sprockets
is advantageous.
Segmental rim sprockets:
Segmental Rim sprockets have a bolt-on rims in 3, 4 or more pieces. The
sprocket rim can be replaced without removing the chain from the sprocket or the
sprocket from the shaft. This type is ideal for elevators. The hubs can be made in
solid or split construction.

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1.5 BALL BEARING:

Generally, ball bearing is an in-build component in the sprocket. It allows the

freewheel rotates freely.

Rolling function is provided by a ball. Low friction, high speed, light to

medium loading. Light and general machine applications. Commonly found in fans,
roller blades, wheel bearings, and under hood applications on cars etc. there are a
several common design of a ball bearings, each offering various trades-offs. They
can make from the many different materials including: stainless steel, chrome steel
and ceramics (silicon nitride Si3N4). A hybrid ball bearing is a bearing with ceramics
balls and races of metal.

1.5.1 Type of radial ball bearings

i. Single row deep groove bearing.

ii. Filling notch bearing.
iii. Angular contact bearing.
iv. Double row bearing.
v. Self-aligning bearing.

i. Externally self-aligning bearing

ii. Internally self-aligning bearing.

vi. Thrust ball bearing

Single row deep groove bearing:

The ball bearing consists of an inner race which is mounted on the shaft or
journal and an outer race which is carried by housing or casing. The ball bearings
are used for light loads. The deep groove ball bearing is used due to their high load
carrying capacity and suitability for high running speeds. The load carrying capacity
of a ball bearing is related to the size and number of the balls.

11
Filling notch bearing:

These bearing have notches in the inner and outer races which permit more
balls to be inserted then in a deep groove ball bearing. The notches do not extend to
the bottom of the race way and therefore the balls inserted through the notches must
be forced in position. Since this type of bearing contains larger number of balls than
a corresponding unnotched one, it has a larger bearing load capacity.

Angular contact bearing:

An angular contact bearing has one side of the outer race cut away to permit
the insertion of more balls than in a deep groove ball bearing but without having a
notch cut into both races. This permit the bearing to carry a relatively large axial
load in one direction while also carrying a relatively large radial load. The angular
contact bearing is usually used in pair so that thrust load may be carried in either
direction. Ceramics such as silicon nitride are now regularly used in such application
due to their low density (40% of steel).

Double row bearing:

Double row bearing may be made with radial or angular contact between balls
and races. The double row bearing is appreciably narrower than two single row
bearing. The load capacity of such bearing slightly less than twice that of a single
row bearing.

Self-aligning bearing:

Self-aligning bearing permit shaft deflection within 2-3 degrees. It may be

noted that normal clearance in a ball bearing are too small to accommodate any
misalignment of the shaft relative to the housing. If the unit is assembled with shaft
misalignment present, then the bearing will be subjected to a load that may be in
excess of the design value and premature failure may occur.

Thrust ball bearing:

The thrust ball bearing is used for carrying thrust loads exclusively and at
speed below 2000rpm. At high speed, centrifugal force causes the ball to be out if

12
the races. Therefore, at high speed, it is recommended that angular contact ball
bearing should be used in place of thrust ball bearing.

1.6 APPLICATIONS OF 360 DEGREE ROTATING TROLLEY:

i) In automobile sector, there are so many types of trolleys are used to carry
goods from one position to another position, there is space problem in the
industry so this trolley can be used in automobile applications because this
trolley consumes very less space compare to other type of trolleys.
ii) This trolley can be used in small Industries for transportation of raw material
from one position to another position.
iii) Modern development and economical progression of Indian society resulted
in increase of vehicle in park so there is also problem. In park other vehicle
are taking more space to move from one direction to other direction and 360-
degree wheel rotation vehicle have capability to move parallel direction so
this vehicle is easily move from one direction to other direction in park.
iv) Take easily U-turn because front wheel of this vehicle is rotating freely by
steering, chain drive and sprocket arrangement.
v) It can be used in hospitals to carry the patient from one room to another room
easily.

13
 CHAPTER 2

DESIGN CALCULATION

2.1 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS IN DESIGN:

i) Type of load and stresses caused by the load:
The load on a machine component may act in several ways due to which the
internal stresses are set up. The load maybe horizontal or vertical and the stress
may be compressive stress or tensile stress or shear stress
ii) Kinematic of the machine:

The successful operation of any machine depends upon the simplest

arrangement of the parts which will give the motion required. The motion of the
parts maybe
i. Rectilinear motion which includes unidirectional reciprocating motion
ii. Curvilinear motion which includes rotary and simple harmonic motion
iii. constant velocity
iv. constant or variable acceleration
iii) selection of material:
It is based on the material properties. Some of the important characteristic of
material is: strength, durability, flexibility, weight, resistance to heat and
correction, ability to cast, welded, machinability.
iv) Form and size of the parts:

The form and size are based on judgment. The smallest cross section may be
used, but it may be checked that the stresses induced in the designed cross section
are reasonably safe.
v) Frictional resistance and lubrication:

There is always a loss of power due to frictional Resistance and it should and it
should be noted that the friction of starting is higher than that of running friction. It
is therefore essential that a careful attention must be given to the matter of
lubrication of all surfaces.

14
vi) Conventional and economical features:

In designing, the operating features of the elements should be carefully studied.

The starting controlling and stopping steering should be located on the basis of
convenient handling.
vii) Use of standard parts:

The use of standard part is closely related to cost because the cost of standard
or stock parts is only a fraction of the cost of similar parts made to order.
viii) Assembling:

Every machine or structure must be assembled as a unit before it can function.

Large unit must often assemble in the shop, tested and then taken to be transported
to their place of service. The final location of any machine is important and then
design engineer must anticipate the exact location and the local facilities for
erection.

15
2.2 DESIGN OF SHAFT:
Shaft is designed to transmit the power 0.5 kW at 100 rpm.
C-45 steel is selected
Yield stress, (σy) = 360 N/mm2
Allowable yield stress, [σy] =180 N/mm2
Allowable shear stress, [τ] =108 N/mm2

Torque T =P/(2ΠN)
0.5×60
T= ×103
2×3.14×100
=47.77 N-mm
=47.77×103 N-mm
We know that,
16×T
τ=
𝜋×d3
16×47.77
108= ×103
3.14×𝑑3
16×47.77
d3= ×103
108×3.14
d3=2253.86
d=13.11 mm
Standardized diameter d=14 mm
(from PSG design data book page no:7.20)
For availability of shaft, d=20 mm is selected,

16
 16×𝑇
τ=
𝜋×𝑑3
16×47.77
= ×103
3.14×203
=88.7 N/mm2 <108 N/mm2
So, design is safe.
2.3 DESIGN OF CHAIN SPROCKET:
Chain and sprocket is designed to transmit power 0.5 kW at 100 rpm.
To design chain and sprocket. sprockets in the side 90cm are selected.
Shaft or sprocket speed N1=N2=100 rpm
Centre distance between the sprockets, a =80 cm =800 mm
Operating chain is roller chain
For availability of sprocket with pitch P= 12.7 mm, width=3.17 mm, teeth Z=18 is
selected.
Design of breaking load on the chain:
𝑃
Q=Ks ×Kn×
𝑉
Factor of safety, KS =7.8
(from PSG design data book page no:7.77)
KS=K1×K2×K3×K4×K5×K6
Load factor, K1=1.0 (constant load)
Factor of distance regulation, K2=1.25(fixed centre distance)
Factor for centre distance of sprocket, K3=1(a=30 to 50 P)
Factor for the position of the sprocket, K4=1(line joining center upto 60°)
Lubrication factor, K5=1.0(periodic)
Revolve factor, K6=1.0(single shaft of 8 hours a day)
Ks=1×1.25×1×1×1.25×1

17
 Ks=1.25
chain velocity:
𝑃×𝑍1×𝑛1
V=
60000
12.7×18×100
V=
60000
V=0.381 m/s
𝑃
Breaking load, Q=Ks × Kn ×
𝑉
Q=2×7.8×0.5×103/0.381
Q=20472.44 N
Q=2047.2 Kgf < 2100 Kgf
Pitch, P=12.7
Chain R 1278H is selected.
(from PSG design data book page no:7.72)
checking for actual factor of safety:
𝑄
Actual factor of safety, Kn=
⅀𝐹
⅀F=Ft + Fc +Fs
Ft=Tangential force
Fc=Centrifugal tension
Fs=Tension due to sagging of chain
i) Tangential force, Ft=P/V
Ft =500/0.381
Ft=1312.33N
𝑊 2
ii) centrifugal tension, Fc= v
𝑔
w=chain weight per meter

18
 w=0.75 Kgf=7.5 N
(from PSG design data book page no:7.72)
7.5
Fc= (0.381)2×
9.81
Fc=0.1109 N
iii) Tension due to sagging of chain:
Fs= K.W.a
K-sagging co-efficient
Chain drive is in horizontal position
K=6
Fs=6×7.5×0.8
Fs=36 N
So, ⅀F=Ft + Fc +Fs
=1312.33+0.1109+36
=1348.44 N
𝑄
Actual factor of safety, [Kn]=
⅀𝐹
Breaking strength of chain R1278H =21000 N
(from PSG design data book page no:7.72)
[Kn]=21000/1348.44
[Kn]=15.57 >Kn
So, selection of chain is correct.
checking for induced bearing stress:
𝑃
Induced bearing stress, σ= Ks
𝐴𝑉
A= Bearing area
A=0.54 cm2=55 mm2

19
 (from PSG design data book page no: 7.72)
500×1.25
σ=
55×0.381
σ=29.8 N/mm2
Allowable bearing stress, [σ] =31.5 N/mm2 for 2000 rpm
(From PSG design data book page no: 7.77)
σ < [σ]
So, selection of chain is correct.
2.4 PARAMETERS DIMENSION OF MAIN PARTS AND OTHER:
i) Pitch circle diameter of sprocket:
Z1=Z2
So, d1=d2
𝑃
d1= 180
sin( )
30
d1=d2=73.1 mm
ii) Tip diameter of the sprocket:
da1=da2
𝑃
da1= 180 + 0.6𝑃
sin( )
𝑍1
12.07
= 180 + 0.6(12.7)
sin( )
18
da1=79.6 mm
iii) Length of chain multiples of pitches:
(𝑍1+𝑍2) 𝑍2−𝑍1 2
Lp=2ap+ + ap ( )
2 2𝜋
Z1=Z2
So, Z2-Z1=0
ap =a0/P
a0=selected initially assumed centre distance.
ap=approximated Centre distance on multiple of pitches
ap=800/12.7
=62.99 ≈63

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 Lp= (2×63) +18
=142 pitches
iv) Length of chain:
L=Lp ×P
=142×12.7
=1803.4 mm
sprocket tooth dimension:
Pitch = 12.7
Roller dia=8.51
Tooth side radius=15.88 mm
Side relief=1.27 mm
Tooth width=7.24 to 6.99

2.5 DESIGN OF FRAME:

Bending stress in frame angle:
Assume a simply supported beam
plywood mass
J Assume, m=1.7 Kg
W/m=15/0.90
=16.67 N/m

21
Cross section of angle

Bending moment:
𝑊𝐿2
M=
8
16.67×0.92
=
8
M=1.6878 N-m

To find the centroid:

(𝐴1 𝑥1 +𝐴2 𝑥2 )
x=
𝐴1 +𝐴2
((2.5×0.3)1.25+(2.7×0.3)0.15)
=
(2.5×0.3)+(2.7×0.3)
x =0.678×10-2 m
(𝐴1 𝑦1 +𝐴2 𝑦2 )
y=
𝐴1 +𝐴2
((3×0.5)0.25+(2.5×0.5)1.5)
=
(3×0.5)+(2.5×0.5)

Y=0.72115×10-2 m

22
moment of inertia for section 1 and 2:
𝑏𝑑3
I1 = + 𝐴1 𝑦2𝑦
12
2.5×0.33
I1 = + (3.5 × 0.3)0.6652
12
I1=0.2493×10-8 m4
𝑏𝑑3
I2 = + 𝐴2 𝑦2𝑦
12
0.3×2.73
I2 = + (0.3 × 2.7)0.782
12
I2=0.9848×10-8 m4
I=I1+I2
=0.2493×10-8+0.9848×10-8
=1.2342×10-8
𝑀𝑦
Bending stress equation, 𝜎=
𝐼
Maximum compressive stress occurs at top of the section,
1.673×2.28×10−2
𝜎=
1.0923×10−8
𝜎=3.492×106 N/mm2
Maximum tensile stress occurs at bottom of section,
1.6878×0.72×10−2
𝜎=
1.0923×10−8
𝜎=1.106× 106 N/m2 < 216× 106 N/m2
So, design is safe.

23
 CHPTER 3
FABRICATION PROCESS

3.1 PROCESSES INVOLVED IN FABRICATION:

i) Fitting process:

To fit the ankle according to the required dimension of the frame and fit the chain
in the sprocket.

ii) Lathe work:

To machine the shaft for the required dimension that is safe and fit into the
sprocket.

iii) Drilling operation:

Drilling operation is done on the frame to fit the hub of the sprocket.

iv) Grinding operation:

Performed for finalizing the process.

v) Welding:

Attaching the ankle for making a frame and attach the sprocket with wheel.

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3.2 FABRICATION OF SHAFT:
The following lathe work operations are carried out for the fabrication of shaft.
a. Facing
b. Turning
c. Finishing
d. Undercutting
e. Centering

Shafts are required made up of cast iron. A higher diameter rod is reduced into
required dimensions by conducting facing and turning operations on lathe machine.
Facing is used to reduce the length of the shaft. Facing usually carried out on both
sides of the shafts. Turning is one of the most common of metal cutting operations.
In turning, a work piece is rotated about its axis as single-point cutting tools are fed
into it, shearing away unwanted material and creating the desired part. Turning can
occur on both external and internal surfaces to produce an axially-symmetrically
contoured part. Schematic diagram of shaft as shown in figure 3.1.

Figure 3.1 shaft

3.3 FRAME:
Frames are made up of ankles 3mm×2.5 mm. The complex shape of ankles is
made by bending manufacturing process. For all this purpose, C45 steel is selected
as material for frame. Bending is a manufacturing produces that produces U-shape,
V-shape or channel shape along a straight axis in ductile material. Schematic
diagram of top view of the frame as shown in figure 3.2.

25
 Then the angles are welded by arc welding to make a frame. Arc welding is a
type of welding that uses a welding power supply to create an arc between electrodes
and the base material to melt the metal at the welding point. They can use either
direct current (DC) or alternative current (AC), and consumable or non-consumable
electrode. The welding region is usually protected by some types of shielding gas,
vapour, or slag. Arc welding process can be done by maybe manually or semi-
automatically or fully automated. First developed in the early part of the twentieth
century, arc welding became commercially important in ship building during the
Second World War. Today it remained an important process for the fabrication
process of steel structure and vehicle.

Figure 3.2 Top view of the frame

Figure 3.3 Side view of the frame

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