3/10/2018
Real world is complex – How do we represent features in GIS?
Features are shown as spatial objects: points, lines, or polygons
There are three fundamental forms that may be used
to represent map information:
(1) Line map.
(2) Photographic or ortho‐photographic map, and
(3) Digital map.
Types of Maps
An orthophotographic map is similar to a photographic map with the
exception that, in generating the orthophotographs from
conventional aerial photographs, image displacements caused by
both camera tilt and terrain relief are removed.
Photographic images on an orthophotographic map are therefore in
their correct orthographic map position.
Photographic/ Orthophotographic
Photographic/ Orthophotographic Map
A base map is the graphic representation at a specified scale of
selected fundamental map information; used as a framework
upon which additional data of a specialized nature may be
compiled.
What is a Basemap
What is a  Basemap??
The conventional line map is a line and symbol representation of
natural and selected man‐made features on a coordinate reference
system.
Different line, symbol, and area colors are used to aid in
distinguishing between water features, man‐made objects, wooded
areas, and contours.
A line map is produced from scribed, inked, or pasted‐on line copy.
Line Map
Digital maps have evolved in recent years with the development of
powerful data‐processing systems that have made it possible to
collect and store digitized map data.
Manipulation and merging of the digitized data and selective
retrieval of desired levels of map information, either in graphic form
as a plot or a printout or in numerical form as a body of data, make
the digitized representation of map information (virtual map) a very
flexible form
Digital Map
Why do I need a basemap
Why do I need a basemap??
A photographic map is a photograph or assembly of photographs on
which descriptive cartographic data, marginal information, and a
coordinate reference system have been overprinted.
The photographs may be uncontrolled, nominally vertical aerial
photographs, or they may be rectified photographs, with image
displacements due to camera tilt removed.
Photographic/ Orthophotographic
Photographic/ Orthophotographic Map
A line map can selectively control the type and amount of information to be shown on
the base map. However, line maps are the most difficult and expensive to update in a
timely fashion.
Photographic maps can be readily updated with the collection and processing of new
photography, and they contain a large amount of terrain surface detail. As a base map,
however, the photographic map may have more detail than desired, without the
possibility for control of the type and amount of information to be shown.
Digital mapping promises to be the form most responsive to the requirements for
flexible selection of type and amount of base‐map information and for regular base‐
map updating at different scales and in different formats.
Advantages & Disadvantages
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Design of the base‐mapping data content and structure must be flexible

There are three alternatives to be considered when evaluating the
source materials to be used for base maps in a multipurpose
cadastre:
(1) existing maps (line, photographic, or digital),
(2) existing maps updated with new map information during the
course of the cadastre operation, and
(3) new maps.
The tradeoffs among the alternatives are map uniformity and
accuracy versus the cost of new mapping.
enough to allow a variety of users to relate the cadastral parcels to
specific types of base information. This objective can readily be
achieved by creating and maintaining the base‐mapping data in a
coordinated series of different levels or overlays.
The primary base‐map datum is the geodetic reference framework used
to establish the location of all other features. The following reference
systems are in current use:
Geographic Coordinates (latitude and longitude)
Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) rectangular coordinates
Natural and cultural features that are relatable to a cadastral parcel form
the next most important levels of base‐map data.
One of these levels includes all streets, roads, railroads, and airports, with
their associated names.
Another level includes all permanent buildings and other structures
greater than a specified size.

Source Material Content Content

Suggested Base‐Map Scales

A third level includes all water features such as perennial and intermittent
streams, natural and man‐made lakes and ponds, reservoirs, canals, and
aqueducts and their associated names.
• A basemap is used for locational reference and provides a framework on which users
overlay or mash up their operational layers, perform tasks, and visualize geographic
A fourth level includes boundaries of civil (governmental) jurisdictions at information.
all levels: state, county, city, and township. Other secondary levels of • Basemaps are designed to be used at certain map scales. It portrays appropriate
natural and cultural features, such as contours, floodplains, wetlands, content at different map scales.
vegetation cover, land use, and utility lines, may be included selectively in
Suggested basemap scales:
the base‐map composite.
Type of Area Metric‐Map Scales Contour Intervals
Urban 1:500 0.5 m
Urban 1:1000 1m
Suburban 1:2000, 1:2500 2m, 2.5m

Content Rural
Resources
1:2000, 1:5000
1:10,000, 1:25,000
2m ‐ 5m
10m ‐ 25m

 A statistical representation of the continuous surface
of the ground by a large number of selected points
with known X,Y, and Z coordinates.
 Provide the means for representing the continuous
surface in a digital form using a finite amount of
storage.
 Provide the means for representing the earth’s
surface in the computer.
 Digital Elevation Model (DEM)  DHM (Digital Height Model):
 Generally refers to a regular array of elevations (squares 
or hexagon).  Similar as DEM but less commonly used.
 Digital Terrain Model (DTM)  The term originated in Germany.
 More complex concept involving elevations and other   DGM (Digital Ground Model):
GIS features (e.g., rivers, ridges, break lines, etc.).
 More emphasis on the digital model of the solid/continuous surface of 
 It encompasses terrain relief, planimetric, and derived 
data (slope, aspect, visibility, etc.). the earth.
 The term in is general use in the UK.
 Digital Surface Model (DSM)
 The previous terms usually refer to bare terrain models.
Source: wikipedia.org
 DTED (Digital Terrain Elevation Data):
 DSM refers to digital models including features above   Term used by the US National Imaging and Mapping Agency (NIMA) 
the surface of the earth (e.g., buildings).
 Very important for ortho‐photo generation.
formerly known as the Defense Mapping Agency (DMA).
 Usually refers to girded/regular arrays.

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Methods for obtaining elevation

Types of DEM data used to create DEMs

Raster
a grid of squares, also known as a  Lidar  Real Time Kinematic GPS
heightmap when representing elevation
referred to as a secondary (computed) DEM  Easy to use  Stereo photogrammetry  Topographic maps
from aerial surveys  Theodolite or total station
Vector
 Importance of terrain in hydrology and   Block adjustment from  Doppler radar
Triangular irregular network (TIN). environmental modeling optical satellite imagery  Inertial surveys
 Interferometry from radar 
referred to as a primary (measured) DEM.
 Visualization of landscapes data
Surveying and mapping
drones

340 335 330 340 345  Tasks involved in DTM production and use.  Data acquisition techniques

337 332 330 335 340
 Surveying
 Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing
330 328 320 330 335  Laser ranging
328 326 310 320 328  Using current topographic maps
320 318 305 312 315
 Model construction
 Interpolation techniques
DEM as matrix of elevations with a uniform cell size

 Modification and refinement of DTMs, and   Extraction of terrain related attributes and   Orthographic techniques

derivation of intermediate models. This might 
include: features through quantitative analysis ▪ Contours
▪ Hill shading
 Editing: correcting errors and updating DTMs. ▪ Geomorphometric analysis ▪ Combination with 2D data
 Filtering: smoothing, enhancing, compression and  ▪ DTM quality assessment
 Perspective techniques
Resampling. ▪ Error detection
Block diagrams
 Merging and Joining DTMs: combining DTMs from  ▪ Quality control
▪

▪ 3D perspective
several sources (possibly at different epochs).
▪ Planning and engineering applications ▪ Virtual Fly
 Converting DTM from one data structure to another: 
for example: TIN to grid conversion. ▪ Visibility analysis

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 Slope angle  Civil Engineering:
 Slope aspect  Cut‐and‐fill problems involved with road design. Horizontal alignment
 Slope curvature  Site planning.
 Slope length  Volumetric calculations in building dams and 
 Hillshading reservoirs.
 3D display
Digital Terrain Models by M. Varshosaz 29 Digital Terrain Models by M. Varshosaz 30

Longitudinal Profile Cross Sections

(vertical alignment)

SCO

cut & fill volumes P

Digital Terrain Models by M. Varshosaz 33

 Earth Sciences:  Analysis and interpretation of terrain   Planning and Resource Management:

 Drainage basin network development and  morphology  The management of natural resources.  
delineation.  Site location.
 Hydrological run‐off modeling.  Support of image classification in remote sensing by 
 Geo‐morphological simulation and classification. DTM derivatives.
 Geometric and radiometric correction of remote 
 Geological mapping. sensing images
 Generating slope and aspect maps.  Wind flow and pollution dispersion models.
A vertical view of a computed drainage system

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 Military Applications:


Consumers and producers (e.g., NIMA).
End objectives are very specialised and demanding.
 Military service
 Inter‐visibility analysis for battlefield management.  3D visualization and 
 3‐dimensional display for weapons guidance systems and flight simulation. Flight simulation 
 Radar line‐of‐sight analyses.
▪ Topographic mapping.  Intervisibility analysis
 Surveying and Photogrammetry:  Weapon guidance
100 m  DTMs are useful for various surveying and photogrammetric activities:  etc 
▪ Ortho‐photo production
▪ Topographic mapping
▪ Data quality assessment

Digital Terrain Models by M. Varshosaz 39

 Surveying and photogrammetry
 Orthophoto production
 Topographic mapping

Digital Terrain Models by M. Varshosaz 40