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International Journal of Inclusive

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Inclusive education in South Korea

a
Yong-Wook Kim
a
Department of Special Education, Daegu University, Gyeongbuk,
South Korea
Published online: 24 Jul 2012.

To cite this article: Yong-Wook Kim (2014) Inclusive education in South Korea, International Journal
of Inclusive Education, 18:10, 979-990, DOI: 10.1080/13603116.2012.693402

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 International Journal of Inclusive Education, 2014
Vol. 18, No. 10, 979 –990, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13603116.2012.693402

Inclusive education in South Korea

Yong-Wook Kim∗

Department of Special Education, Daegu University, Gyeongbuk, South Korea

(Received 12 February 2009; final version received 25 April 2012)

The purpose of this paper is to examine the current implementation of inclusive

education in South Korea and discuss its challenges. The history of special
education is first described followed by an introduction to policies relevant to
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special and inclusive education. Next, a critical discussion of the state of

inclusive education follows built upon the basis of perceived benefits and
challenges by teachers involved in implementing inclusive education. This
discussion extends further to include broader issues and factors that impact upon
the successful implementation of inclusive education, such as teacher education
and the relationship between general and special educators.
Keywords: inclusive education; special education; South Korea; policies and
challenges; teacher preparation

Introduction
Inclusion International, a non-governmental organisation, stated that human rights
would be fulfilled once everyone is given the right to participate fully in society
without exclusion (Inclusion International 2000). Inclusive education, which current
special education is oriented towards, is a part of the efforts to guarantee the right to
learn without discrimination for students with disabilities. Inclusive education for stu-
dents with special needs has gained greater prominence to the extent that it is supported
administratively and financially at the national level in South Korea (Korean Associ-
ation for Special Education 2000).
However, there exist both pros and cons in the delivery of inclusive education in
special education settings in South Korea. In reality, among teachers in the education
field, while many advocate the importance and pertinence of inclusive education
many others criticise how it has been realised (Im 2004). One of the reasons for this
may be that inclusion practices have been directly adapted from Western countries
without fully regarding the Korean educational culture and environment (Kim and
Kim 2001; B.H. Kim 2003). Because of differences in historical, cultural, and edu-
cational conditions, South Korea has taken a different path towards establishing
special education compared with Western countries. Therefore, inclusive education
should be approached in a similar manner.
To find a way to establish inclusive education that fits the Korean educational
environment, we first review the history and policies of special education in South

∗
Email: yongkim@daegu.ac.kr

# 2012 Taylor & Francis

 980 Y.-W. Kim

Korea. Second, the current practice and reality of inclusion in South Korea is intro-
duced with a focus on selected main issues. Third, the positive and negative effects
of implementing inclusive education are discussed. These effects are described by tea-
chers working in inclusive settings. Fourth, after summarising critical issues involved
with implementing inclusion, the challenges and tasks that need to be undertaken to
establish inclusive education are addressed.

Special education history and the reality of inclusive education in Korea

Brief history of special education in Korea
Under the royal regime of pre-modern Korean society, welfare policies, in the spirit of
‘Save and Heal’, were enforced for the old, the weak, and the disabled. For example, in
the early years of the Chosun Dynasty, the royal regime during the fourteenth to nine-
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teenth centuries, divinatory education for training fortune-telling, was provided for
intelligent youths with visual impairment. Historically, the origin of education for
the blind went back even further to the Koryo Dynasty in the ninth century. With
these historical examples, Korea may be viewed as a nation with a long history in
special education and a welfare system for the disabled.
Formal special education, however, was not practised until the end of the Chosun
Dynasty. The western system of special education was first introduced by Guiljun
Yu, who visited Europe as the first Korean scholarship student (Hur 1998). He pub-
lished a book entitled ‘The Record of Europe Experience’ on 25 April 1895. The
book introduced education for children with physical disabilities, mental retardation,
visual impairment, and hearing impairment in Europe and the USA (Korean Associ-
ation for Special Education 1995; Yu 2003). Taejik Lee, who was a diplomatic minister
despatched to Japan between May 1895 and March 1896 by Emperor Gojong, intro-
duced the instruction done at the House for the blind and the deaf in the log of his
journey, entitled ‘Journal of Traveling Japan’, which he wrote to share his cultural
experiences in Japan with his wife.
Korea opened its doors to Western countries in the 1880s and was late to becoming
westernised and being transformed into an industrial society compared to other Asian
countries. Most of Korea’s modern special education programmes and services were
founded by American missionaries during the same period. The most notable
example would be Dr Rosetta Sherwood Hall who taught Braille to a person with
visual impairment in Pyungyang City (Kim and Kim 2002). This act was viewed as
the first reported special education instruction in Korea.
During the period of Japan’s colonial rule in the early twentieth century, the
Chosun Education Decree was formulated and revised three times; however, special
education related contents were not included. The colonial Japanese government
formed the Institute of Rehabilitation and Welfare (IRW) in 1913 and started education
for the blind and the deaf at the IRW, which was actually an orphanage under
government management (The Colonial Japanese Government Publication 242
1961). At that time, special education services were minimal and only provided for
the blind and the deaf within the institute. In 1926, Dusung Park developed and pub-
lished the Korean Braille system called Hun-Meng-Jung-Um that is still used today.
The finger-spelling which used Hangul (Korean alphabet) was also developed and
applied in deaf education for achieving communication visually (The Ministry of
Education 1993).
 International Journal of Inclusive Education 981

After Korea gained independence from Japan in 1945, the Department for the Blind
and the Deaf under the IRW, which was established by the colonial Japanese govern-
ment, was renamed as the National School for the Blind and the Deaf under US military
government rule. The democratic educational foundation, through which students with
disabilities could receive education without discrimination, was established during this
period. Special education-related laws, however, were yet to be formulated, and no
administrative organisations related to special education were in operation. During
that time, only the National School for the Blind and the Deaf and a private school
for the blind and the deaf provided programmes and services (Seoul National School
for the Blind 1993).

Legislation relating to special education and inclusive education

Special education policies relating to special schools
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The Korean Constitutional Law, which was enacted and announced in 1948, states, ‘All
citizens have equal rights to receive education according to their capabilities’. The law
also states, ‘All people have rights to receive equal education. At least, elementary edu-
cation is compulsory and free. All educational institutes will be supervised by the gov-
ernment and the educational systems are set by the law’ (The Education Law Publishing
Committee 2004, 5). The Constitution proclaims providing proper education to every
individual without discrimination, compulsory elementary education, and the state’s
rights to supervise educational institutes and educational systems. Section 81 of the
Education Act within the Constitution clearly states the obligation of the state to
provide all people with equal opportunities to receive education without any discrimi-
nation based on religion, social, or financial status, and sub-section 5 includes the pro-
vision of a special school (The Office of Legislation 2000, 96).
Section 96 of the Education Act set the groundwork for compulsory education,
mandating that ‘all people have a responsibility to send children under their protec-
tion to school beginning the first year after children become 6 years old until the last
day of the school year after the children become 12 years old’, with Section 97 rein-
forcing this by stating that ‘using children (i.e. school-aged children) described in the
previous section, should not hinder the school-aged children receiving compulsory
education’ (102). Because of these provisions, which later became the basis for
setting up the compulsory education system, students with disabilities were able to
receive 6 years of elementary education between ages 6 and 12. However, Section
98 (103) of the Education Act became an excuse for not offering compulsory edu-
cation for students with disabilities (Han 2003), because it allowed for schooling
exemptions or postponements due to ‘disabilities, fatal diseases, sickness, underdeve-
lopment, or other unavoidable reasons’ even though these had to be approved by the
President.
In 1949, the Korean Education Bill, with sections related to special education were
included in its Education Act, was announced. It affirmed that the purpose of special
schools was ‘to provide instruction related to life living skills and knowledge, and
special education similar to that of elementary and secondary education for the blind,
the deaf, the feeble minded, and others who have mental and/or physical disabilities’
and that

under special circumstances, elementary schools or secondary schools can organise

special classrooms for students who fall in one of the following categories: (a) person
 982 Y.-W. Kim

with physical weakness, (b) person with abnormal character, (c) person with deafness or
hard of hearing, (d) person with speech impediment, and (e) person with other disabilities.
(The Office of Legislation 2000, 180)

By 31 December 1877, the Education Act had gone through 22 partial amendments.
One notable amendment related to special education in the Act was that a special school
could offer high school courses for a student who graduated from special school. With
this amendment, high school courses could be offered to students attending special
schools, allowing special schools to provide education from elementary to high
school level.
In 1977, Law 3053, the ‘Act on the Promotion of Education for the Handicapped’,
containing 16 sections, was enacted, to promote special education in Korea. This law
has since become the basis for the promulgation of special education policies. The
Enforcement Decree of the Act on the Promotion of Education for the Handicapped
was formulated in 1978 and went into effect in 1979 (The Ministry of Educational
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Affairs 1988). With the legislation of special education policies, elementary education
became compulsory in order to protect the educational rights of students who required
special education services. As a result, 1273 students who needed special education
programmes received education in 51 special schools and 350 special classes in
elementary schools (Korean Association for Special Education 1999).

Special education policies relating to special classrooms

After the Act on the Promotion of Education for the Handicapped was enacted in 1977,
special education grew steadily. In 1981, the Education Acts which were related to
special education were amended several times to adapt to changes in society and the
concomitant evolution of special education. The revisions stated that the role of
special schools was to provide instruction and education in relevant skills needed for
daily living from kindergarten, elementary, secondary, and higher education levels
for people with physical disability, mental retardation, visual and hearing impairments
(The Office of Legislation 2000). These revisions were to expand educational opportu-
nities for learners with special needs who required special education services (Korean
Council for Special Education 1994).
These sections of the Act were also amended to mandate that general schools below
high school, if needed, can establish special classrooms for students with disabilities.
According to this provision, it was possible for schools to establish special classrooms
from kindergarten to secondary school. In 1992, Law 4523 enabled special schools with
high school curriculum to establish extended schooling for more than a year beyond
high school graduation to train students in specialised skills (The Office of Legislation
2000).
Concurrent developments in special education within integrated settings were also
taking place with the formulation and enactment of related laws and regulations, and
this period witnessed the expansion of special classrooms within integrated school set-
tings. The 1990s saw more students with mild disabilities being educated in special
classrooms than special schools (Korean Association for Special Education 2004).
The number of students who received special education in special classrooms in
1993 was three or four times more than the number of students in special classrooms
in 1976. In addition, the 1990s saw amendments to related laws and regulations to
actively improve the quality of special education services.
 International Journal of Inclusive Education 983

Special education policies relating to inclusive education

The Act on the Promotion of Education for the Handicapped went through a major revi-
sion in 1994 to improve and supplement current provisions; expand and provide fair
and appropriate special education opportunities to students who require special edu-
cation according to individual capabilities and degree of disabilities; introduce the
latest special education methods to improve quality of special education services;
and expand special education support systems. This amendment was made to actively
meet the increasing demand for inclusive education in response to developments and
changes in society.
Section 18 of the Fundamentals of Education Act made it clear that schools, both
general and special schools with all the necessary supports, were to be established
for people who require specialised instruction because of their physical and intellectual
disabilities. The responsibilities and obligations of the nation and local autonomous
entities in educating students who required special education were prescribed as well
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in this section. Inclusive education was also added to the Elementary and Secondary
Education Act (The Office of Legislation 2000).
Due to the enactment of related laws and regulations, the 1990s witnessed the
expansion and proliferation of special education in South Korea (Jung, Kim, and
Jung 2001). Special education was being offered not only in special schools and
special classrooms, but also in general classrooms, hospitals, and homes as a form of
itinerant education. The prevalence of students with disabilities was increasing every
year, and students with mild disabilities were progressively assigned to special class-
rooms in inclusive settings as opposed to special schools (OECD 2005).
In 2007, the 1994 law was revised again to stress the importance of full inclusive
education, and focused on the following items: (a) strengthening responsibilities of
federal and local government organisations and diversifying special education
service delivery systems including itinerant instruction, hospital schools, and after
school programmes; (b) stressing early special education for infants and toddlers and
developing appropriate free special education service delivery systems; (c) decreasing
the number of students per classroom to strengthen the quality of education for students
with disabilities; and (d) expanding compulsory education (Korean Association for
Special Education 2007).
By 2007, there were a total of 65,940 students with disabilities, 22,963 of whom
(35%) received special education at special schools, 35,340 (54%) received inclusive
education in special classrooms, and 7637 (11%) were in general classroom settings
(Korean Association for Special Education 2007). Therefore, approximately 65% of
students with disabilities were exposed to inclusive education, either in special class-
rooms or general classrooms. However, the students who were assigned to special
classrooms in general schools were mainly taught by special education teachers. In
reality, these students in special classrooms were not included in general classroom
programmes.
Although more special classes were opened by regular schools, they were mostly
established at the elementary level, making it difficult for students with disabilities to
progress further to a higher level. For example, out of a total of 5753 special class-
rooms, 3892 (68%) were in elementary schools (Korean Association for Special
Education 2007). This has resulted in only a small percentage of students continuing
their education after elementary school since inclusive education has been primarily
conducted in elementary schools.
 984 Y.-W. Kim

The availability of inclusive placement for all students with special needs in the
general school setting was also found to be a problem. Most of the students with devel-
opmental disabilities, i.e. intellectual disability, emotional disturbance, learning disabil-
ities and autism, receive instruction in special classrooms in general schools. Only a few
students with visual and hearing impairments are included in these classes. This is due
to the fact that most general schools lack accommodations for the former. Inclusive
education should be provided to the students who request it without concern for disabil-
ity category or degree. Starting from 2004, newly built general school settings have
been required to provide accommodation for special education recipients within the
budget allowed (The Education Law Publishing Committee 2004). Since the 2000s,
South Korea has emphasised ‘construction of an education community for all students
with and without disabilities’ under the international influence of school restructuring
for full inclusion (The Office of Education Human Resource 2005). However, there
exists a big gap between reality and the practicality of implementing inclusive
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education.

Teachers’ perspectives on inclusive education

Teachers strongly influence the implementation of inclusive education in any country.
A survey by Kim and Kim (2008) on the perspectives of general and special education
teachers highlighted both positive and negative factors in the implementation of inclus-
ive education in South Korea. The findings of this study are reported below.
Teachers from the special education field in Korea indicated that the following
factors may have contributed to successful practice in inclusive education. First,
parents of children with disabilities were greatly interested and enthusiastic about
inclusive education. In fact, Korean parents’ enthusiasm for their children’s education
appeared to be very strong and has been referred to as an ‘abnormal enthusiasm’.
Second, national policies which have created the necessary infrastructure and support
systems, including an increase in professionals, have made it possible to expand the
practice of inclusive education in schools. For example, children with disabilities are
provided with special teachers, paraprofessionals, and classroom aides in general
classes. After the full amendment of the Korean Special Education Law in 1994, the
philosophy and practice of inclusive education has been further clarified and practised
across the nation’s schools. From the year 2000, the Ministry of Education has consist-
ently emphasised ‘building educational community to educate both developing children
with and without special needs together’ (The Ministry of Education 2000, 50). This
explicit articulation pertinent to the practice of inclusive education guides teachers
on a common agenda.
The perspectives of both general and special education teachers in Kim and Kim’s
(2008) survey indicated a positive change towards inclusive education. This change in
teachers’ attitudes can be attributed to the requirement in pre-service training pro-
grammes for general elementary and secondary teachers to be introduced to special
education and learn about the theory and practice of inclusive education. This
finding is corroborated by Park (2003), who noted that increased professional knowl-
edge and better understanding of students with disabilities obtained by teachers
through pre-service and in-service training have resulted in a greater ownership of
responsibilities for catering to the needs of children with special needs.
The positive factors above raised by teachers which have contributed to inclusive
education have at times also acted as barriers. Teachers reported that although young
 International Journal of Inclusive Education 985

children have relatively positive attitudes being in the same school settings with chil-
dren with special needs, their attitudes may become rather negative as they age.
Korean education is known for its intense academic competitiveness, which exerts
high levels of psychological pressure on students. Such pressure on students to
achieve excellent academic performance increase in the secondary years (Park and
Kang 2003) can be antithetical to the ethos and practice of inclusive education.
The successful implementation of inclusive education within general classrooms
requires teachers to be familiar and versatile with diverse curriculum and pedagogies
as well as strong collaborative skills between both general and special education tea-
chers. The perception, as reflected in the teachers’ views, is that many teachers do
not possess these requisite knowledge and skills. Another challenge perceived by tea-
chers refers to the insufficient understanding and inactive participation of regular school
principals in promoting inclusive school practices. There are approximately 6000
special education classes already established in regular schools in South Korea and
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the quality of inclusive school practices involving students from these classes can be
strongly influenced by the interest, support, and guidance of school principals.

Salient issues that affect the prospects of successful inclusion

This section discusses various key issues and factors that impact upon the success of
inclusive education in South Korea, namely (i) the competitive school culture; (ii)
school leadership in supporting inclusion; (iii) the partnership between general and
special educators; and (iv) the role of teacher education.

Competition-oriented school culture

In Korea, the ‘Kwageo’ system, the highest-level state examination to recruit ranking
officials, dominated the school education of pre-modern society for over a thousand
years. Later, the ‘Kwageo’ system was changed to ‘an entrance examination system
to upper school’ after the introduction of a modern academic system from the West.
This emphasis on examinations has continued till the present in Korean society,
especially as children progress from elementary to secondary school and beyond
(Y.W. Kim 2003, 98).
As long as an excessive competitive school culture dominates school education in
Korea, implementing inclusive education for students with special needs will face limit-
ations. There are challenges and barriers to transforming the climate of schools from the
current competition-driven system to a cooperative and human-centered system, con-
sidering that a strong culture of competitiveness exists in South Korean society.
However, given the relevancies of the post-modern culture and post-industrial world,
where successful schools are those that can produce young people who can live and
work in a diverse, interdependent, and uncertain global climate, the opportunity
exists for education systems and schools around the world to reconceptualise traditional
paradigms and notions of schooling in order to better prepare students for twenty-first
century realities. Such twenty-first century schools will focus on both excellence and
equity in terms of promoting students’ sense of social responsibility, awareness of inter-
dependence, and appreciation of uncertainty and diversity by cultivating their capacity
for interacting with diverse others, collaborative problem-solving, and reflective dis-
course within a democratic community of interests (Lee et al. 2003; Kang, Kim, and
Kim 2005).
 986 Y.-W. Kim

Skrtic, Harris, and Shriner (2005) considered the reconstruction of schools and reor-
ganisation of special education to be well-suited for the post-industrial and post-modern
era where schools can be educating communities for students to learn about diverse others,
nurture cooperative and collaborative traits, and engage in reflective and democratic dis-
courses. As stated by Kim (2006, 450), ‘Once the competition traits in the school culture
transform into cooperative traits, inclusion would exist as real “inclusion” in Korea’.

School leadership in supporting inclusion

Article 15 of the Korean Special Education Law of 1994 outlined ‘inclusive education’
in the following: (a) School principals in general education should comply with the
demands of inclusive education from students with disabilities, their parents, or their
special education consultants if there are no specific reasons to reject; (b) school prin-
cipals in general education should provide accessible facilities for the convenience of
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students with disabilities; and (c) school principals in general education should estab-
lish and manage special classrooms in accordance to the governmental standards when
inclusive education is implemented by the Provision of Clause 1 (The Education Law
Publishing Committee 2004).
It is clear that Korean Special Education Law emphasises the responsibilities of
principals in general education to ensure the implementation of inclusive education.
Principals in general education are to acknowledge the needs of students with disabil-
ities as well as establish the required facilities necessary for inclusive education (Lee
2005). The 2005 Special Education Plan from the Ministry of Education ensures the
rights of accessibility and learning to all students by establishing facilities for students
with disabilities in general schools with special classrooms by 2006 , and furthermore
ensures the establishment of special classrooms in general schools (that are without
special classrooms) by 2007 (The Ministry of Education 2005).
These responsibilities outlined for principals to implement inclusive education
present tensions between official policy and perceived actual practice – evident in
Kim and Kim’s (2008) study of teachers’ views, which reported the insufficiency of
school principals in their understanding of inclusive education and experience to
implement it. There can be further research and strategic developments in leadership
preparation to encourage and guide principals in inclusion efforts.

The partnership between general and special educators

According to the ‘2005 Plan of Special Education’ by the Ministry of Education (2005),
maximising the educational performance of all students through the sharing responsi-
bilities between both general and special education is an important index for successful
inclusive education. This official announcement reinforces the practice of inclusive
education through shared responsibilities between general and special educators. Pre-
vailing practice within schools, however, reveals that there is much room for improve-
ment in current patterns of partnership between general and special educators.
In Korea, special classes in general schools are usually the starting place for the
practice of inclusion for students with disabilities. These classes constitute potential
spaces to foster cooperation and collaboration between general and special educators.
Actual educational practices, however, reveal otherwise. In reality, collaboration
between teachers usually ends up as a ‘one-off’ event rather than an ongoing partner-
ship of sharing and collaboration (Kim and Kim 2008).
 International Journal of Inclusive Education 987

The Korean Special Education Law states that ‘special classes should be
implemented as part of practice in inclusive education’ (Korean Association for
Special Education 1995, 28). Current trends show an increase in special classes
within general schools, testifying to growing inclusion efforts. In addition, there has
been an increase in the number of special classes evolving from part-time to full-
time status. Until 2006, 95% of the special classes were still only operated on a part-
time basis, while only 5% operated on a full-time.
Current practices, however, cast a shadow over the quality of educational experi-
ences for students with disabilities. Many special classes are simply physically included
in general school settings without careful attention to creating quality learning experi-
ences for social and academic inclusions. As a result, many students with disabilities in
general schools have been separated and isolated within special classes. The quality of
change in the inclusive education movement related to the successful delivery of inclus-
ive practices, despite overt developments, is questionable (Ministry of Education
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2005).
With more special classes within general schools, the key to improving inclusive
practices depends on a strong and cohesive partnership between general and special
educators. This basic thrust for improving the quality of inclusion was established by
the Ministry of Education (2000, 95) in its policy pertaining to the ‘maximization of
education accomplishment throughout shared responsibilities of general and special
education’. Teachers themselves agree that the success of inclusion can occur when
cooperative relationships are formed between general and special educators (BK21
Project Force of Special Education 2001).
Barriers to effective collaboration between general and special educators are influ-
enced by various attitudes on both sides. Park (2003) indicated that special classes in
regular schools were recognised as being inferior to regular classes. She also indi-
cated that general teachers perceived educating students with disabilities in their
general classes as out of their charge, while some special education class teachers
misunderstand the period of their students in the general class to be their ‘rest
time’. This author also mentions the lack of careful consideration of general edu-
cation teachers towards students with disabilities and their social and academic learn-
ing needs.

The role of teacher education for promoting inclusion

In Korea, the responsibility for the education for students with special needs has been
considered that of the special education teacher (Park and Kang 2003). Therefore, most
general education teachers have seldom or never taken courses in special education
during their teacher training. However, recently, both general and special education tea-
chers have come to realise that they both play a key role in the successful implemen-
tation of inclusive education (Im 2004).
Less than 20% of general classroom teachers in inclusive schools have received
either in-service or pre-service training in special education. Many colleges of edu-
cation that train general and special education teachers have not provided sufficient
training related to practical inclusive education in their teacher preparation programmes
(Kim 2006). A systemic approach across relevant universities to include special edu-
cation courses at the pre- and in-service training levels is needed for ensuring
uniform standards for teacher education in special and inclusive education. A key com-
ponent in teacher education to preparing teachers for implementing successful inclusion
 988 Y.-W. Kim

is facilitating their greater awareness and knowledge of individuals with disabilities and
the various types of disabilities, and working with their students to do likewise.
The Ministry of Education (2000) established guidelines for inclusive education in
three qualitative aspects of school culture where teachers and students can gain more
awareness and understanding about persons with disabilities, and play a part in
helping build a more inclusive school culture. These guidelines include (i) the develop-
ment of curriculum and teaching materials for raising awareness and knowledge about
different disabilities; (ii) creating opportunities in school settings where students with
and without disabilities can work together; and (iii) providing opportunities for volun-
teering activities with people with disabilities.
Research, however, appears to indicate that negative attitudes towards persons with
disabilities still prevail, for example, feelings of uneasiness in situations involving
persons with disabilities (Lee et al. 2003) and the lingering tendency or sentiment to
view disabilities as an individualised pathology or disease (Wu, Ashman, and Kim
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2008). In spite of the developments and progress made in inclusive education in

South Korea, negative attitudes still remain in the general populace. Teacher education
occupy a very important role in helping bring about more positive attitudes for both tea-
chers and students, which can then advance the state of inclusive education in South
Korea.

Conclusion
South Korea has placed the inclusion of students with special needs as an important
national educational agenda since the middle of the 1990s. Since then, Korean educa-
tors and administrators have developed and revised special education policies to guar-
antee the rights of students with special needs to learning within an inclusive education
framework. Both general and special education teachers have also been part of this
national framework.
Although these efforts have contributed to the progress of inclusive education in
South Korea, there is still much to do to advance the quality of inclusive practices.
To meet this end, there needs to be a transformation of the existing climate of
intense competitive schooling to one that progressively values the nurturing of
cooperation and human-centered traits in the young. To aid in this transformation,
there needs to be strong leadership on the part of principals and administrators in sup-
porting inclusive practices, closer collaboration between general and special educators,
and greater teacher and public education to promote more positive attitudes towards
people with disabilities.
The success of inclusive education in South Korea is influenced by social, cultural,
economic, and political conditions. Historically and culturally steeped in Confucian-
ism, Buddhism and Taoism, South Korean society strongly values familial and commu-
nity ties, traits which extend naturally and informally to safeguarding its more
vulnerable members. These cultural assets can be seen as formidable allies to imple-
menting inclusive education within a highly competitive society and education system.

Acknowledgements
I would like to specifically acknowledge the contribution of Dr Ming-Gon John Lian, who was
the Honorary Director at the Center for Advancement in Special Education, Faculty of
Education, the University of Hong Kong, for his comments on this paper.
 International Journal of Inclusive Education 989

Note on Contributor
Yong-Wook Kim obtained his Ph.D. in Special Education. From 2009 to 2011 he was Dean of
the Graduate School of Education, Daegu University. He was General Director, Korea National
Institute of Special Education, Korea Ministry of Education from 2003 to 2006 and from 1995 to
the present, he has been Professor at the Department of Special Education, Daegu University.

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