Basic Course On Pig Husbandry - Pig Nutrition: Maintenance

BASIC COURSE ON PIG HUSBANDRY - PIG NUTRITION 1
INTRODUCTION
Feed represents 60 to 80% of the total cost of commercial swine production. Thus it is very important to provide
economical and nutritionally balanced feed during all phases of the life stages. Properly balanced feeds that
meet the pig’s daily nutrient requirements can maximize production levels to produce profits or minimize
losses.
Proper feeding and nutrition, along with optimum health care of animals and good management practices,
contribute a lot to the success of a piggery enterprise.
Pigs have no fixed nutrient requirement; instead, the main consideration is the level of production where
these specific nutrients will be used. Hence, the guarantee of maximum profitability can only be seen
based on the total cost per kilogram gain of lean meat produced.
As the whole range of the pig’s body functions responds in a continuous manner to each nutrient, our main
option is to provide the level of dietary nutrients that maximize these functions.
With this topic on feeding, you will gain information on the basic nutrient requirements of pigs, the different
factors that have to be considered in determining the amount of feeds for the different classes of pigs as well
as the feeding scheme.
Stages or physiological states that require nutrients:
 Maintenance
Nutrients for maintenance are needed by the animal to keep its body functioning without any gain or loss
in body weight. The maintenance requirement for food depends upon the body size, temperature and
activities. About 30-40% of the total feed intake of growing-finishing pigs and 40-50% of the level of fat
growth are considered part of the maintenance activities of growing pigs.
 Growth or production
Nutrients for growth are primarily utilized for the increase in size of muscles, bones, internal organs and
other parts of the body of the growing pigs. A certain level of fat growth is also considered part of the
growing activities of growing-finishing pigs. The requirement for growth depends upon the age, breed, and
sex of the animal..
 Reproduction
This is mainly considered in breeding herds and replacement stocks. Nutrients are needed for ova
production in sows and sperm cesss for boars as well as for fetal growth and development in gestating
animals.
 Lactation
The lactation requirements of females for moderate to heavy milk production are much more rigorous than the
maintenance or pregnancy requirements. Fortunately, females can store up body reserves during pregnancy
and then draw upon them during lactation. But, if there is no proper body storage, something must "give" -
and that something will be the mother.
The growth of the fetus and the lactation that will follow shall take priority over the maternal requirements.
Hence, the female's body will be deprived, or even stunted if she is young, before the developing fetus or milk
production will be materially affected, when there is nutrient deficiency.
INTERNATIONAL TRAINING CENTER ON PIG HUSBANDRY (ITCPH), P.O. Box 1, Lipa City, PHILIPPINES
Chapter 1 NUTRIENTS
Nutrients absorbed from the digested feeds are used for the different body processes. The usage varies
with age and productivity of the animal. Part of it are used to carry on the essential body functions such
as metabolism, maintenance of the body temperature and maintenance of the body itself through repair
and replacement of body cells and tissues.
The portion of the absorbed nutrients used for growth is known as “production requirement”
1. WATER
Water is the most essential but most often neglected nutrient. Pigs need plenty of clean, fresh water at
all times. Performance of all types of pigs is reduced when they are lacking in water. The rate of gain and
the amount of feed consumed are all affected by water restriction.
Many pig farmers tend to underestimate the value of

water. It is not enough to make water available but the
quality should also be considered. This means that
water must have no bad smell and/or bad taste and
must contain low levels of chemicals, bacteria and must
be free of toxic substances and pesticides. This can be
determined by having the water checked at least every
6 months.
The water requirement of the pigs both in quantity and

quality should not be taken for granted. The pig’s body
weight constitutes 70-80% of water, where it performs
most vital functions. Therefore, pigs should have a
continuous supply of clean water.
Water Sources
Water can be obtained from three sources:

(1) drinking water (2) water contained in feed (3)
metabolic water derived from the breakdown of
carbohydrates, fats, and proteins.
Functions of water
 Solvent; water is the major transportation medium for nutrients and metabolic wastes
 Lubricant; water aids in movement of joints and passage of materials through the digestive tract
 Regulation of body temperature by evaporative cooling
 Medium for the conduct of biochemical reactions of the digestive and metabolic processes
 Production; water is a part of body tissue and of milk.
Quantity of drinking water
The required quantity of water depends on the age of pigs, production level and climate. All feeds contain
water in different amount. But pigs will have to drink additional water to satisfy their requirements. It is said
that pigs requires 3 – 5 liters of water for each kg. of feed consumed. In practice this means that there
should be a reliable and continuous supply of clean, fresh drinking water.
On the other hand, excessive as well as limited water consumption may reduce actual feed intake, thus
decreasing feed efficiency.
The required water quantity depends on the age of the pigs, production level and environmental
temperature or climate.
Young pigs and lactating sows require higher amounts of water for growth and milk production. Moreover,
the higher the temperature, the greater the water comsumption.
For a good milk production, lactating sows require a water intake of 20 – 25 liters per day. To meet this
high water intake, lactating sows must have access to water ad libitum.
A good quality drinking water of sufficient quantity has a big influence on the performance of the pigs.
Water requirement for different swine categories ( from nipple drinker)
Water Supply Yield of drinker

per minute
Piglets 3 - 6 weeks Ad libitum 300 ml

6 weeks - 30 kg. Ad libitum 600 ml
30 kg. - 50 kg. Ad libitum 600 - 750 ml
50 kg. - 110 kg Ad libitum 750 - 1000 ml
Sows and boars Ad libitum at least 2 liters
Source: John Gadd, Pigs – Misset Sept./Oct. 1989
Estimated water requirements of pigs housed in thermoneutral environments:
Class of Pigs Liters/head/day
Sows and litter 30
Nursery pigs 4
Growing pigs 11
Finishing pigs 15
Gestating sows 23
Boars 30
Source: Feding Pigs under Stressful Conditions; Infonews bulletin, U.S. Grains Council
November, 2003
Note: Under stress conditions, these water requirement increase
2. PROTEIN
Protein is essential for the growth and maintenance of organs and muscle tissues. Proteins are also
essential in the formation of hormones, enzymes and antibodies. In spite of these, protein is frequently
the limiting factor in the diet. This is because grains and their by-products are deficient in both quantity
and quality of protein. Further, protein supplements are expensive such that some farmers tend to feed
little protein.
In general it can be stated that animal by-products have high quality protein as well as legumes while
cereals have low quality protein.
True proteins are made of many amino acids combined with one another. Amino acids are the building
blocks of protein. Animals cannot produce amino acids; they must have a dietary source of these. But,
some amino acids can be synthesized out of other amino acids; these are called the non-essential amino
acids.
On the other hand, there are 10 amino acids that cannot be synthesized in the pig’s body. These are
called essential amino acids.
Moreover, an animal needs a specific amount of each particular amino acid for continuous growth and
reproduction. Once one or more of these required amino acid is used up and cannot be synthesized from
other amino acids, growth and production stops. The amino acid that is used up first is called the
“limiting amino acid”. Often lysine and methionine are the limiting amino acids. It must be remembered
that excess protein cannot be stored as amino acid except in limited quantity. If amino acid is not
immediately required, it is broken down and used as an energy source.
Protein and the Environment
High protein diets tend to pollute the environment, first, the volume of wastewater is increased due to
increased water needs, then more nitrogen and maybe phosphorus excreted.
On the nutrition side, lowering the protein content of the feed then fortified with added synthetic amino
acids can minimize nitrogen excretion. Such formulations maintain the performance of high protein diets.
3. CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates provide the largest source of energy in the pig’s diet. It includes simple sugars, starches
and fibers. Excess energy will be deposited as fat, while a small amount will be deposited in the liver as
glycogen.
Increasing the level of fiber in the ration results in reduced available energy by minimizing digestion of
sugar and starch (these are ready source of energy). However, pigs can also digest crude fiber (CF),
although in very small quantity. Its value therefore, as nutrient source is very limited. But crude fiber in
the ration does have positive effects by activating the peristaltic movement of the intestines resulting in
increased secretion of enzymes, which facilitates better digestion and increased water retention. Also,
fiber adds bulk to the feed giving the animal a feeling of satisfaction.
Fiber in the diet also creates a medium for microflora to live and thrive in the large intestine. This
microflora produce the cellulase, which enables the animal to digest cellulose (the main component of
fibrous materials), into glucose, effecting a more efficient digestion. In the meantime, Vitamin B12 and
Vitamin K are synthesized.
A maximum of 5 % CF is recommended for piglets and 12 % CF for adult pigs.
Feeding fiber during Gestation
Gestating sows are well suited to consume high fiber diets. Sows can obtain some energy from dietary
fiber using hindgut fermentation. Low energy and high fiber diets reduce constipation problems and are
useful to prevent obesity in sows. The larger gut fill with low energy and high fiber gestation feed
enhances feed intake when the sows are transferred to their higher energy diets.
In addition, increased dietary fiber during gestation reduce stress behaviour in sows such as kicking, bar
biting and sham chewing.
4. Fats
Generally, most of the feed ingredients used for pig feeds contain more fat than required, such that fat
deficiency is very seldom seen. Fats provide the most concentrated source of energy to the body.
Dietary fats provides 2.25 times more eneergy on a weight basis than does carbohydrates. It also
contains vitamins (A, D, E, and K) while making feeds more palatable and less dusty. Dietary fats also
contain the essential fatty acids that are used for the synthesis of various hormones. The presence of fat
in the intestinal tract is essential for the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins.
Dietary fats releases less heat when it is digested and metabolized, and thus will impose less heat stress
on the animal when environmental temperatures are high. Because the lower heat increment from
dietary fat produces less heat, the inclusion of fat in swine diets during the summer months can result in
improved weight gains and feed conversion responses.
The addition of fat to the gestating sow ration during late pregnancy and lactation increases milk yield
and the fat content of colostrum and milk. Consequently, more energy is available to the pigs. This
increases pig survival from birth to weaning between 2.7 and 6.2 % if survival for the herd is below 80 %.
Fat supplementation reduces weight loss during lactation and decreases the interval from weaning to
service. Consideration should be given to fat quality in terms of fatty acid composition. Oxidation should
be prevented as rancid fats are not palatable and have a negative effect on feed quality and animal
metabolism.
5. Vitamins
Vitamins are very important in the normal functioning of the body of the animal. Although vitamins are
required in small quantities, they serve several essential functions in maintaining normal growth and
reproduction. Some vitamins are found in adequate amounts in the feedstuffs used in pig diets, others
must be supplemented.
If vitamins are not supplemented in the diet, visible and invisible deficiency symptoms occur. But the
assessment of exact vitamin requirement is very difficult. In practice, vitamin supplementation must be
high enough to prevent signs of deficiency and retarded growth.
A good premix will supply all the necessary vitamins. But it must be remembered that vitamins are
destroyed by heat and light.
6. Minerals
The pig requires at least 14 minerals are known to be required by pigs including calcium, phosphorus,
potassium, sodium, chlorine, magnesium, sulfur, iron, managanese, copper, iodine, selenium and
chromium. Pigs also require other trace minerals which have been shown to have physiological role.
The functions of these minerals are extremely diverse, ranging from the formation of bones and teeth,
muscle contraction, osmotic balance and other regulatory functions.
Most pigs are now raised in confinement, without access to soil or forage, this rearing environment may
increase the need for mineral supplementation.
Nutrient Requirement:
Nutrients are required to satisfy the various metabolic functions of the body for maintenance, growth, lactation
and reproduction.
Most of the nutrients are contained to some extent in feedstuffs but other nutrients are in not enough levels
to meet the needs of the pig. For example calcium have to be added to pig feeds to obtain the levels required
for good animal performance.
The requirement for each nutrient depends on several factors. Among the most important are:
 Level of performance required

 Genetics – the potential of an animal to produce or reproduce
 Age and size of the animal
 The productive state of the animal (like lactation, pregnancy)
 Environmental temperature
 Health status
Because of these interacting factors, it is not possible to recommend a precise amount of a particular nutrient
under all conditions. Therefore adjustments must be made to accommodate the feeding program for a
particular set of circumstances.
Example of nutrient requirements of swine1
Type of Feed DE CP Lysine Met. & EE CF Ca P

Cyst.
% % % % % % %
Prestarter 3350 19.00 1.15 0.70 5 5 0.95 0.75
Starter 3250 17.50 1.00 0.65 5 8 0.80 0.65
Grower 3200 16.00 0.85 0.55 8 10 0.70 0.60
Finisher 3200 13.50 0.65 0.50 8 10 0.60 0.50
Breeder/Gestating 3000 14.00 0.68 0.45 10 12 0.90 0.70
Lactating2 3100 16.00 0.78 0.50 10 10 0.90 0.70
DE - Digestible Energy CF - Crude fiber

CP - Crude Protein Ca - Calcium
Met & Cyst - Methionine and cystine P - Phosphorus
EE - Ether extract
1
If ADG exceeds 700 gm, increase Lysine, Meth & Cyst, Ca and P by 5%-6%
2
Lactating feed can be used for gilts
SIGNS OF NUTRIENT DEFICIENCIES
NUTRIENT CLINICAL SIGNS SUBCLINICAL SIGNS
Energy Weakness, low body temperature, loss of Hypoglycemia, loss of subcutaneous fat,
weight, coma and death. reduced blood glucose, Ca and Na.
Protein Impaired growth, unthriftiness, reduced Signs in baby pigs-serum albumin, anemia,
amino acid resistance to bacterial infections gross edema.
Fat Scaly dermatitis may appear. Small gall bladder.

linoleic acid
Vitamin A Incoordination, paralysis of rear limbs, Retarded bone growth.

night blindness, congenital defects, Anestrus,
poor conception, lower disease resistance
Vitamin D Rickets, lameness, stiffness, joint Lack of bone calcification, rib & vertebra
enlargement, osteomalacia fracture.
Vitamin E – Edema, sudden death. Generalized edema, liver necrosis, cardiac

Selenium muscle degeneration, pale dystrophic muscle.
Vitamin K Pale newborn piglets with loss of blood from Increased blood clotting time, internal
umbilical cord, Generalized hemorrhage. hemorrhage, anemia caused by blood loss.
Prolonged blood clotting time
Vitamin B12 Poor appetite, anemia, depressed growth rate,

Reduced sow reproductivity, Weakness and
incoordination, Hypersensitivity.
Biotin Dermatosis and hair loss, Cracked bleeding

hooves. Poor growth, lowered fertility
Calcium Rickets, osteomalacia, tetany Lack of bone calcification, bones easily

fractured.
Phosphorus Poor growth, rickets, osteomalacia. Lack of bone calcification, bones easily
fractured.
Potassium Anorexia, rough hair coat, emaciation, ataxia Reduced heart rate.
Sodium Low water consumption, poor appetite,

unthriftiness.
Iron Poor growth, rough hair coat, pallor, anoxia. Enlarged heart and spleen, fatty liver, ascites,
clumping of blood.
Zinc Poor growth and appetite, parakeratosis. Retarded testicular development, impaired
reproductivity of sows.
Iodine Goiter, myxedema, sows farrow weak and Enlarged hemorrhagic thyroid.
hairless piglets.
Water Poor appetite, dehydration, loss of body Loss of temperature regulation, tissue
weight, salt poisoning, death. dehydration.
Major Factors Influencing Nutrient Recommendations and Pig Performance:
1. Environment
Swine experts claimed that extremes in temperature is one of the most economically important stresses in
livestock production. Attention must be given to temperature as it affects feed intake and consequently
may affect weight gain and feed efficiency. Furthermore, it may also affect the animals’ susceptibility to
diseases and infection.
At each stage of production, the physical environment (temperature, humidity and air movement) can have
a profound influence on pig performance responses. There is a range of temperatures at which the pig is
comfortable (Comfort Zone), where weight gain and feed utilization are optimum.
The temperature range wihin the comfort zone can be influenced by several factors such as the type of
housing and bedding conditions. Beyond the range of comfort zone, the pig will modify its behavioral and
physiological responses, which could lower its weight gain and feed-intake responses.
Comfort zone of pigs
The graph presented is another way to illustrate the condition of pigs at different temperature. As the
environmental temperature increases above the comfort zone or thermoneutral zone, feed consumption
declines proportionally, and extreme heat stress causes a drastic reduction in feed consumption.
Susceptibility to heat stress increases as body weight increases. Also high fiber diets increase heat stress.
Thus, nutrient density becomes more important in warm weather to maintain the daily requirement of the
animals.
Wet feeding is another possibility to stimulate the appetite of the animal. In addition, 3 to 4 times feeding
per day and providing a shower to the animals could also help to sustain feed consumption although the
latter would require high water cost.
Conversely, feed consumption increases as ambient temperature is reduced. In a cold environment, pigs
eat more because their energy requirement for maintenance is increased to maintain body temperature.
Generally, growth rate is not affected, but feed efficiency is poorer in cool climates. However, in a very
cold environment the pig's growth rate may be reduced because the pigs can not consume sufficient
energy to meet their requirement for growth and the increased requirement for maintenance.
When restricted feeding is practiced, pigs can not voluntarily adjust energy intake. Thus, the feed level
must be increased in accordance with the severity of the temperature decrease.
2. Facilities
There is a wide range in the types of facilities that are used during each production phase. Proper housing
and ventilation can contribute a lot in the comfort of the pigs. Mangement of a facility that results in a
facility environment low in gases, odors, dusts and waste material will help to maintain pig health and result
in optimum growth and reproductive performance.
Such an environment will also be more healthy for the herdspersons working in that facility.
The social environment of the pig such as the pen space, feeder space per pig and group size can affect
its performance. For example, when pigs are housed in facilities with limited access to feeder space or
when the number of pigs per pen are over or underpopulated, performance responses and cost of gain
are affected.
3. Health
Perhaps no factor can influence the cost of gain and animal performance more than the presence of
subclinical swine diseases. Subclinical health conditions ultimately will influence the pig’s nutrient
requirements, feed intake and cost of gain. A successful preventive herd-health program in coordination
with a veterinarian can be an important investment for the swine producer.
4. Genotype
During the genetic selection process of the past few decades, changes have occurred in the way some
pigs have responded to the environment and to other conditions including the pig’s feed intake response.
Some breeds have demonstrated a lower feed consumption and a lower daily gain than others. Those pigs
with a higher potential for lean tissue growth, but which may also have lower feed intake, must have their
diets formulated differently than pigs of other genetic and appetite characteristics.
5. Management
Mangement will directly influence the decisions of how the various factors will be used and how will they
affect the pig enterprise. For example, the feeding program for pigs, the proper timing of insemination, the
proper timing for changing diets are decisions that can affect pig performance and production costs.
Under optimum environment, facilities, health and nutritional conditions, the daily and long-term
management decisions will greatly affect the pig’s response to different feeding programs.
Chapter 2 DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION
2.1 Digestion
Digestion is the breaking down of feed to a size and solubility necessary for absorption. It includes different
actions:
1. Mechanical action such as chewing and muscular contraction of the stomach and intestines.
2. Chemical action is the action of the enzymes produced by the body itself.
Nutrients from digested feeds are absorbed mainly in the small intestines. The digestive tract extends from
the mouth to the anus. The passage of feeds through the entire digestive tract takes about 24 to 36 hours.
The digestive tract of the pig
Digestion begins in the mouth. By mastication or chewing, the feed is broken down
Mouth into smaller pieces, increasing the surface area to facilitate chemical reactions with
various digestive juices and enzymes.
Saliva moistens the dry feed for easy swallowing, and it contains the enzyme amylase, which initiates the
breakdown of starch.
The tongue helps in the mixing of feed with the saliva. It has a large number of taste buds and determine the
palatability of the feed and the voluntary feed intake of the pig.
The esophagus is the muscular tube that connects the mouth with the stomach.
Esophagus During swallowing, the muscles of the esophagus contracts and relax in a series of
wave like motions towards the stomach, this is called peristalsis moving the food
into the stomach.
The stomach is a bean shaped hollow organ with a capacity of about 6 to 8 liters in
Stomach a 100 kg. Pig.
The stomach is subdivided into the cardia, the fundus and the pyloric area.
The constant churning in the stomach during and some time after the meal futher softens the feed particles.
The wall of the stomach secretes the gastric juice that contains enzymes such as pepsin and hydrochloric
acid (HCL). Pepsin breaks down protein. Pepsin is only active in an acid environment.
Acid in the stomach also serves to protect the animal by inhibiting the growth of disease-causing bacteria
present in the stomach.
In nursing piglets, gastric juice also contains the enzyme rennin that breaks down the protein in milk.
The stomach is protected by a mucous lining from injury by acids and from the action of the digestive
enzymes.
Food usually stays in the stomach for one to two hours. Food leaving the stomach is almost in liquid form
and it is called chyme.
The small intestine is a long tube-like muscular organ which lied folded in
Small Intestine the abdominal cavity. In a 100 kg. Pig, it is about 18 meters long with a
capacity up to 19 liters. It consist of three sections, the duodenum, jejenum
and ileum.
Duodenum the duodenum is the part of the small intestine where the products of two gklands are
deposited.
1. The pancreas secretes pancreatic juice that contains several enzymes
 Amylase - for digestion of starch

 Lipase - for digestion of fats
 trypsin, chymotrypsin and carboxypeptidases - for the digestion of protein
Pancreatic juice also contains bicarbonate which reduces the acidity of the chyme entering the duodenum
from the stomach and bringing the pH to near neutral.
2. The liver secretes the bile which is stored in the gall bladder before being emptied into the intestine. It
helps prepare fats for digestion by breaking it up into very small particles, a process called emulsification.
Jejunum and ileum In these parts of the small intestine, a juice is produced containing digestive enzymes
 erepsin - for the breakdown of protein

 maltase, saccharase, lactase - for the digestion of carbohydrates
Most of the digestion process occurs in the small intestine aided by the churning and mixing action that is
constantly taking place.
The small intestine is also the main site of absorption. It contains the villi, or the finger-like projection that
greatly increase the surface available for the absorption of nutrients.
Action of Enzymes and Digestive Juices on Dietary Nutrients
Dietary nutrient Enzyme Required for Digestion End Product of Enzyme Action
Protein Pepsin, trypsin, chymotrypsin Amino acid

Monoglycerides and free fatty
Fats Lipase and bile acids
Starches Amylase Glucose
Sugars Dissacharidases Monosaccharides
Minerals HCL (acid) buffers Ionic state minerals
Source: Pork Production Manual; AlbertaAgriculture
The large intestine consist of two parts:

Large
Intestine a. Caecum - a sack-like structure and relatively non-functional
b. Colon - in the colon, microbial digestion of fiber occurs producing volatile

fatty acids that are absorbed by the body and used as energy. Dietary energy contribution from this source is
not much but is significant in older animals.
The main function of the large intestines is the absorption of water and water soluble minerals. Here feces
are formed and stored in the rectum for expulsion from the anus.
2.2 Digestibility
Nutrient digestibility or nutrient availability refers to the percentage of a nutrient in a feedstufff that is
digested and absorbed by the pig.
The percentage that is digested is called the digestibility coefficient. Each feedstuff has its own set of
digestibility coefficients for each nutrient present in that feedstuff.
Digestibility of feeds depends on many factors:
 Species of the animals (pigs, cattle, horse, etc.)
 Age of the animal
 State of health
 Composition of feeds (crude fiber)
 Feed preparation (ground, cooked, pelleted)
 Level of feeding (rate of passage of the feed)
Commercial pig feeds have an average digestibility of 80 %
Pigs can hardly digest crude fiber, so the percentage or amount of crude fiber in their ration should be
limited.
2.3. Absorption
Absorption is the process whereby nutrients move across the wall of the intestines and are picked up by the
blood stream. After the digestion of starch, protein and fats has taken place, nutrients are ready for
absorption into the pig’s blood stream. Absorption of these nutrients takes place in the small intestines.
Absorbed nutrients are carried via the blood and lymph to sites in the body where they are needed. The
inner wall of small intestine is designed to ensure the efficient absorption of nutrients. The surface consists of
finger-like projections called villi which increase the surface area of the gut wall and thus increase its
absorptive capacity. Along the villi are further small projections, called microvilli, which further increase the
surface area. The wall of the small intestine consists of very specialized cells to carry out the function of
absorption.
GENERAL FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN FEEDING PIGS
 breed / strain (growth potential)

 sex
animal factors
 class, age / body size or stage in its
life cycle
 production cycle
feed factors
 nutrient composition
 digestibility or bioavailability
 energy density of
formulated diet
 presence or level of additive
 presence of inhibitors
Enzymes aid in increasing the digestibility of feeds (source:

Pig International. Vol. 26, No. 6. June 1996. p. 9)
 environment; temperature,
humidity, housing
 health condition, stress and economics and other factors
level of sub-clinical
disease
Chapter 3 FEEDING OF REPLACEMENT STOCKS
Feeding of Replacement Gilts
Most producers replace 30 to 40 percent of their sow herd each year. As a consequence, the selection and
management of replacement gilts are important considerations in maximizing reproductive efficiency of the
entire herd.
The main objective in feeding the future breeding stocks is for them to reach puberty and start their
productive lives well-developed, with the right weight at the right age.
Gilts reach puberty at an average age of 200 days. Many factors affect the age at which a gilt reaches puberty
like breed, growth rate, housing conditions at which the gilt is raised, degree of exposure to a mature boar and
nutrition.
Replacement stocks can be reared using two systems of feeding (1) Ad libitum feeding until the time of service
or insemination ( 2) Restricted feeding, then flushing 2 weeks before service or insemination.
The aim in feeding gilts is to have her reach at least 130
kg. at 210 days of age, be ready for service at second
TARGET FOR GILTS or third estrus and have a P2 body fat of 18 – 20 mm.
Weight 130 kg These gilts will put on 2 - 4 mm more backfat during

gestation and 25 - 30 kgs. more weight.
Backfat 18 – 20 mm This is ideal, and with proper management and nutrition,

should provide a long reproductive life.
Gilts should be flushed two weeks before service to

promote ovulation.
An ad libitum feeding program is easier to manage and ensures gilts are in good condition at the time of
breeding. Ad libitum feeding can be practiced provided that the gilt will not become too fat
which will result to reduced reproductive performance as a sow, small litter size and higher feed cost.
Gilts that are too thin may experience poor fertility and delayed estrus after weaning. Excessive fatness in
gilts will also lead to poor reproduction.
Flushing or feeding higher nutrient levels to restricted-fed gilts is recommended two weeks before the
expected date of breeding as this increases ovulation rate.
Reproductive problems may result if mid-backfat depth is less than 7 mm. Therefore, sow longevity may be
increased by allowing the gilts to build up fat reserves prior to first service by ad lib feeding.
From 60 kg liveweight onwards, replacement stocks can be fed breeder or lactating feeds.
 Excessive feeding might lead to:  Insufficient feeding might lead to:
 thick back fat  shorter production life

 small litter size  decreased resistance to diseases - more
 high feed cost health problem
 reduced reproductive performance as a  starts productive life at a later stage
sow
Feeding scheme for replacement stocks (gilts and young boars)
Age Feed/day Kind of feed

(weeks) (kgs)
10 1.1 Starter feed
11 1.2 Starter feed
12 1.4 Starter feed
13 1.5 Starter + Grower feed
14 1.6 Grower feed
15 1.7 Grower feed
16 1.8 Grower feed
17 1.9 Grower feed
18 2.1 Grower feed
Grower feed + Breeder or
19 2.1 lactating feed
20 - 21 2.2 Breeder or lactating feed
30 2.5 Breeder or lactating feed
The amount of feed will
31 - 32 depend on when will be the Breeder or lactating feed
first service. Flushing is
recommended 1 – 2 weeks
before service and flushing is
3.0 - 3.5 kg/head /day
(Flushing is only for gilts)
Note: Replacement boars do not need flushing
EFFECT OF FLUSHING ON OVULATION RATE
PREPUBERTY FIRST CYCLE MEAN OVULATION RATE
Ad libitum Ad libitum 13.9
Ad libitum Restricted 11.1
Restricted Ad libitum 13.6
Restricted Restricted 11.1
Replacement gilts and boars should

reach the right age
at the right weight [source: Pig
International.
Vol. 26, No. 4. April 1996. p. 18)
Feeding of Replacement Boars and Boars
“A boar is half the herd”
Not so. These days sow productivity (mostly dependent

on the female traits) is approaching its upper
performance limit, while the male traits have quite
some way to go. These male traits are mainly:
 Lean meat deposition
 Economy of lean gain
 Speed of growth
Today the choice of correct boar is more likely to be
“2/3rds of the herd” in terms of potential profit. It pays
to buy the best boar you can afford – with certain
precautions.
By: John Gadd

PIGS - Misset
Despite the importance of the boar to herd fertility, it has received little attention in the pig unit. If boars are to
be reared for breeding purposes, then physical soundness and future reproductive performance are as
important as good growth rate. Young boars are normally selected according to an index which includes
characteristics as growth rate, feed conversion, backfat thickness and breeding potential. They are normally
fed to appetite and it is assumed that this does not prejudice subsequent reproductive capacity. It may however
affect their physical ability to perform since ad lib fed animals tends to develop leg weakness.
Under normal conditions, boar attain puberty between 5 and 8 months of age, when they weigh 90 – 120 kg
body weight. Age is more important than body weight in determining the onset of puberty. There may be
differences in the age of attainment of puberty, crossbred boars reach puberty earlier than their purebred
counterparts.
Nutrition during the rearing period may influence the attainment of puberty, A 30 % reduction in feed intake
resulted in a 42 days delay in puberty for purebred and 30 days for crossbred boars.
Nutrition during the rearing period can influence both the age of puberty and the rate of sexual development
in young boars. However, unless severely undernourished, this does not appear to impose any lasting
damaging effect upon reproductive capacity other than the obvious effects on the growth and mature body
size of the animal.
In practice, most young boars are fed close to their appetite. When boars reach the weight of 90 kg. , it is
advised to start restricting the feeds to prevent leg problems, but restriction is done gradually so as not to affect
the boar performance.
For working boars, the feed allowance depends on its body condition, which is indirectly influenced by
the frequency of service or semen collection. Breeder or sow feed with Digestible Energy of at least 3,000
kcal/kg and minimum crude protein of 14% can be used for boars.
This amount of feed is needed for  maintenance

 growth
 semen production
 Giving too much feed to the boar

more than it needs might lead to:
 obesity  laziness
 poor libido  poor service results
 too heavy  problems in natural service
 Feed for boars: 2.0 kg/day + 0.5 kg depending on

body condition (Breeder or boar feed)
if feed is less than 2.0 kg, give roughage
Effect of Nutrition on reproductive Performance:
We should remember that the consequences of poor nutrition, or of an environmental challenge, do not
become obvious immediately. Because it takes about 42 – 45 days for the process of sperm production and
transportation to be completed, there can be quite a delay between the “insult” to the boar and the resulting
reduction in his sperm quality.
Generally boars on low plane of nutrition produce smaller volumes of semen than those on higher feed
intakes, research suggests there is little effect on motility, sperm cell concentration or the percentage of
abnormalities. Thus although the number of sperm cells is reduced, no reduction occurs in their fertilizing
capacity.
Overall, supplying about 280 grams of protein and 11.6 grams of lysine per day with an amino acid
pattern similar to that used for pregnant sows will also meet the requirement for the boar.
In the case of minerals and vitamins, there is no clear evidence that the boar’s needs depart substantially from
those of sows.
Certain anti-nutritional properties of feeds influence semen production. For example, mycotoxin such as
zearalenone, binds with estrogen causing decrease libido in boars. Similarly, the intake of high level of
zearalenone (>6000 ppm) by prepubertal boars has been shown to reduce the onset of puberty and cause
a reduction in testes’ size with corresponding reductions in semen quality.
Aflatoxin B1 has also been shown to affect semen characteristics and fertility adversely in breeding boars.
Those animals with the highest levels of aflatoxin B1 residues in their sperm experienced more fertility
disorders, lower sperm concentration, lower survival of the sperm and a larger proportion of the sperm with
morphological abnormalities.
Environmental Effects on reproductive Performance:
The environmental conditions within which the boars are kept not only influences their feeding requirements
but also their reproductive performance. Low environmental temperatures per se do not influence sperm
production, provided, the dietary energy intake is sufficient to compensate for any additional extra
thermoregulatory heat produced by the animal.
High environmental temperatures (29oC), on the other hand, decrease both sperm production and sperm
motility. Boars are more sensitive to higher temperature than males of other species due to their limited
ability to sweat and hence lose heat by evaporation.
Thus, exposure of boars to high environmental temperatures results in rapid increases in respiration rate
and rectal temperature and reduced reproductive performance.
However, the effects of heat stress manifests after 2 – 6 weeks. A period of at least 6 weeks after the end
of exposure is needed for the quality and quantity of semen to return to normal.
Chapter 4 FEEDING OF SOWS
The nutrient requirements of sows

depend on the stage of the
production cycle. This can be  pregnancy period
divided into three main stages :  the lactation period
 dry period (the period between
weaning and service)
The daily nutrient requirements of sows can

be met by providing:

 different feeds
 different amounts of certain
feeds
I. Pregnant Sow
During pregnancy, the need for nutrients
changes as the condition of the sow
progresses to supplement the increase
nutritional need of the rapidly growing
piglets.
Source: Pig International. Vol. 21 No. 4.
April 1991. p. 9
 Excessive feeding might lead to:

 Insufficient feeding might lead to:
 Obesity -sow becoming fat
 More repeat breeding  Poor body condition
 Higher embryonic mortality -  Decreased body resistance
smaller litter size  Poor conception
 More problems during  Fetal resorption, embryonic
farrowing death - smaller litter size
 Leg problem - more crushing  Not enough reserve for the
during lactation lactation period
 Higher feed cost
PREGNANCY / GESTATION PERIOD :
A gestating sow needs feeds  for maintenance

 for growth of the uterus and fetuses
 for her own weight gain and improvement of body condition
In the first month of gestation, the feeds are used  for maintenance
 for restoration of the body condition
 for building up body reserves.
It is important that after service the quantity of feed is lower 

compared with the flushing period. Too much feed/energy feeding schedule
intake causes more embryonic mortality. About 2 months after breeding until the
after breeding, the body condition of the sow should be at its second trimester of
ideal stage. pregnancy
During the last month of pregnancy, a large proportion of

the feed is used for fetal growth and development, which

feeding schedule
is then very rapid. The feed allowance should be increased
after breeding until the
to support the fast-growing fetuses and to prepare the sow's
condition for the coming lactation period.
second trimester of
pregnancy
About 7 days before the expected date of farrowing,

the regular sow feed can be replaced by lactating feed; or 
this can be done as soon as the pregnant sow is transferred feeding schedule one
to the farrowing house/pen. week before farrowing
During the last 3 days before the expected date of

farrowing, it is recommended to decrease the daily feed
allowance. This allows the digestive tract to empty and

stimulates appetite. It also helps reduce the incidence of feeding schedule three (3)
farrowing-related problems. days before farrowing
In the USA, studies showed that sows fed restricted during pregnancy consumed significantly more feed
during their subsequent lactation period, compared with sows fed ad libitum.
Many different feeding strategies exist, but the general idea

 is to start the gestation period with moderate feeding
levels and increase as gestation progresses. This is to
Start the gestation period meet the sow's increasing nutrient requirements and its
with moderate feeding levels piglets.
and increase as gestation
progresses.
Feeding scheme for dry and pregnant sows
 Day of weaning :
no feed, with limited water
 lets milk dry up easily
 prevents mastitis
 provides “positive” stress
 Until the day before breeding

(maximum of 10 days) :
4 kgs/day (flushing)
 promotes ovulation
 reconditions the sow
.,
Feeding of pregnant sows housed in individual feeding-

lying stalls
Option 1.
Stage of Pregnancy : Normal Thin Fat
Breeding - 21 days 2.0 2.5 1.5 + Roughage
22 - 84 days 2.0 2.5 1.5 + Roughage
Note: Very thin sows can be given 3.0 kg feed per day
85 - 110 days 2.5 3.0 2.5

Figure 2. feeding of pregnant sows housed in individual feeding-
111 - 113 days 2.0 lying boxes (source: Pig
2.0International, Vol.2.0
26, No. 2, February.,
1996, p. 25)
Farrowing day No feed No feed No feed

( + 114 day ) w ith plenty of water
Note: One ( 1 ) week before expected date of farrowing change feed from breeder to
lactating feed.
Option 2.
Period Kg. Feed Per Day
Flushing 3.5 - 4.0
Breeding - 60 days 2.0 - 2.3
61 - 84 days 2.5 - 2.8
85 - 110 days 3.0 - 3.3
111 - 113 days 2.0
Day of farrowing no feed, with ad lib water
 Work Sheet: Dry and Pregnant Sows
Sow No. Date of Date of No. of Days Condition Amount of

Weaning Breeding Pregnant / Feed / Day
Dry (thin, normal (kg)
or fat)
Visual scoring systems for sows

Source: Pork Production Course Manual

Animal Industry Division & Field Services Sector
Alberta Agriculture
CONDITION SCORING FOR SOWS
Body Condition Body Shape
1 Emaciated Hips, backbone prominent to the eye. Deep cavity

around tail setting. Individual ribs very apparent
2 Thin Hips, backbone easily felt without applying palm

pressure. Cavity around tail setting. Rib cage less
apparent.
3 Ideal Hips, backbone felt only with firm palm pressure.

No cavity around tail. Rib cage not visible. Very
difficult to feel any ribs.
4 Fat Hips, backbone cannot be felt. Root of tail set deep

in surrounding fat. Ribs impossible to feel.
5 Over Fat Hips, backbone heavily covered. Thick fat cover in

the ribs.
Source: Feeding, Managing and Reproductive Efficiency of Today’s Lean Genotype Swine.
By Dr. Gilbert Hollis and Dr Rob Knox of the University of Illinois, USA.. and
Nutrition of Sows and Boars by WH Close and DJA Cole
Where to Palpate for Condition Scoring
II. Lactating Sow
Important factors to consider in

determining the daily feed
allowance of lactating sows:
1. stage of lactation
2. condition of the sow
3. litter size
Lactating sows should be given the right

amount of feeds to sustain her body
condition and produce enough milk for her
litter.
 Excessive feeding during the first  Insufficient feeding might lead to:
week after farrowing might lead
to:
 sows become very thin (poor body

 over production of milk - diarrhea on condition)
piglets  low milk production  stunted and
 metritis – mastitis - agalactia weak piglets  higher mortality
 fertility problems  delayed
recurrence of heat  lower litter index
Advantages of proper feeding
 maximum number of piglets weaned per sow per

year
 produce healthy and heavier piglets
 longer productive life of sows
 more economical feed cost
Feeding scheme -- farrowing until weaning
Day of farrowing - No feed with ad libitum water
First day - 1 kg/sow/day
Second day - 2 kg/sow/day
Third day - 3 kg/sow/day
Fourth - Seventh day - 4 kg/sow/day (litter size of 7 and above).

(2.0 kg + 0.30 kg per piglet if the litter size is 6 and
below)
Remaining days of lactation - 2.0 kg + 0.30 per piglet (to be given to the sow)
+ half kilo (0.5 kg) depending on the condition of
the sow.
Ad libitum feeding is best for sows with 10 or more piglets .

This will prevent the sow from becoming very thin.
Note: One (1) week before expected date of farrowing until the day before weaning
fed sows with lactating feed.
 Work Sheet: Lactating Sows
Condition
Sow No. Date of Number of (Fat, Normal, Amount of
Farrowing Piglets Thin) Feed / Day (kg)
There are some points of interest if a sow

cannot consume its ration:
1. Slop feeding or wet feeding gives higher consumption

than dry feed. it must be mentioned however that wet feed
easily gets spoiled.  SUMMARY 
2. Pellets are better than meal. comfortable

3. Lactating sows need permanent supply of fresh and
environmental
cool drinking water. During summer months, lactating temperature
sows needs to drink about 30 liters of water daily.
optimum feed intake
4. Keeping the pen cool will induce appetite resulting to
during gestation
higher feed intake.
5. Feed of higher nutrient density can be useful. adequate water

availability
6. Frequent feeding - 3 to 4 times a day where applicable.
Keeping all these in mind will lessen if not totally eliminate proper feeder
sows who get really thin after lactation due to insufficient design
feed intake. Moreover, please note that there is a
direct correlation between milk production and feed intake.
The higher the feed intake, the better the milk production is.
access to fresh,
(see Table 12). unspoiled feed
Table 12 Effect of feed level on milk yield at 21 days
Feed intake (kg/day)
4.5 5.3 6.0 6.8
Daily milk yield Parity 1 5.9 5.4 6.7 6.1
Parity 2 5.4 6.0 6.8 6.6
Parity 3 5.5 6.8 7.3 8.0
Source: Pork Production Course Manual, Animal Industry Division and Field Serices Sector Alberta Agriculture
III. Dry Sow
In the immediate post-weaning period you can continue feeding the lactating feed almost to appetite
Ideally, this should mean a daily feed intake of about 4 kg. It will help the sow to restore the tissues lost
during lactation. Also, the increased nutritional supplies will stimulate her metabolic and endocrinal status
to initiate follicular development and hence estrus.
Weaning to Conception Interval
The factors that affect the weaning to conception interval in sows include endocrine activity, uterine
changes, genotype, parity of the sow, season of the year and level of nutrition during the preceding
lactation.
Under good conditions, the sow usually exhibits estrus within 10 days after weaning, following a lactation
period of at least 3 weeks. Post-weaning anestrus in sows may be any one or a combination of the
following:
 True anestrus due to failure of ovulation

 Silent estrus with normal ovarian activity
 Failure of the herdperson to detect estrus
Underfeeding during lactation and following weaning, particularly in first-litter sows, is considered to be a
significant cause of postweaning anestrus. Approximately 50 % of primiparous sows fail to exhibit estrus
within one week of weaning, whereas almost 80 % of older sows are mated within this period.
Inadequate nutrition of sows during their first lactation and the associated body weight and fat losses have
been implicated as major factors affecting the incidence of postweaning anestrus. Lactating sows,
particularly primiparous sows, are often unable to consume sufficient quantities of feed to satisfy their
requirements for energy and amino acids.
Age and body weight are also important, primiparous sows that are older and heavier at farrowing exhibit
estrus earlier than younger sows, even when body weight losses during lactation are greater in older sows.
Weaning the piglets before three weeks of age can also cause postweaning anestrus in sows. The uterus
requires 14 days to return to its normal size and weight after farrowing and an additional 10 days before it
is ready to accept further implantation.
Practical Recommendations:
 Following weaning, sows can be placed in paddocks, individually or
in groups of 4 – 6 and observed carefully twice a day for the first 10 days
 Boar contact should begin within a few days after weaning

 Adequate level of nutrition during lactation
BASIC COURSE ON PIG HUSBANDRY - FEEDING 28
Feeding cycle of sows
Kg. Feed
6.0
The amount
5.5 of feed will
depend on the
4.5 number of
suckling piglets
4.0
F F
3.5 L L
U U
3.0 S Thin S
H H
2.5 I Thin Normal I
N and N
2.0 G Normal Fat G
1.5 Fat
1.0
0.5
0.0
Weaning Service 85 111 114 Lactating period Weaning
STAGE OF PRODUCTION
 Exercise Sheet: Total Feed Per Sow Per Year

Assumptions:
Condition: _________________________
No. of Piglets: _________________________
Litter Index: _________________________
Period between weaning and service: _________________________
Weaning Age: _________________________
Amount of Number of Total Amount of

Period Feed/Day Days Feeds
(kg) (kg)
Flushing
Breeding - 21st day
22nd day - 84th day
85th day - 110th day
111th day - 113th day
Farrowing day (114th day)
1st day after farrowing
2nd day after farrowing
3rd day after farrowing
4th day - 7th day after farrowing
Succeeding lactation period
Weaning
Total
Feed for _____ cycles
Lost Days
TOTAL FEED PER SOW PER YEAR
INTERNATIONAL TRAINING CENTER ON PIG HUSBANDRY (ITCPH), P.O. Box 1, Lipa City,
PHILIPPINES
Chapter 5 FEEDING OF PIGLETS AND WEANERS
It is highly important that newborn piglets
receive colostrum. Colostrum contains
Feeding Guide for Piglets high levels of nutrients and antibodies
which are essential in protecting the piglets
against common infections.
Nevertheless, it is as important that piglets receive solid feed early in their life. Suckling piglets can be
given creep feed as early as 5 - 7 days of age, with a minimum CP of 22% (out of reach by the
sow).
A good quality creep feed  contains 35-40% milk products

 92 to 94 % digestible
 contains soft oils only
 uses heat-treated starches.
The digestive system of piglets is still too immature to deal effectively with plant foods.
How to Start Piglets on Creep Feed
 Start piglets on creep feeds by offering a small amount of feed on a clean, dry, solid floor.
 Continue floor feeding for the first two to four days or until the piglets are eating the feeds.
 Clear away any uneaten feeds and replace it daily. Twice to four times feeding per day is
much better.
 When the piglets are obviously eating the feed, introduce a small feeder large enough to
accommodate all the piglets eg. heavy, shallow, circular trough.
 Increase the amount of feed gradually until ad libitum feeding is achieved.
 Clean water must be available at all times.
 Piglets can be given creep feed (milk-based diet) such as booster

or milk replacer at 3-5 days old, with a minimum CP content of 22%.
A very small amount of feed is given first, then gradually increase the
amount as the piglets start to consume the feeds. 
 Booster feed can be used until 20 days old then gradually shifted
to prestarter feeds.The amount of prestarter feeds should be increased Considerations
gradually (this can be done in 5 – 7 days time) until the piglets are fed at
100 % prestarter feeds. This is to avoid digestive problem. As the piglets
in
grow increase the amount of feed gradually until ad libitum level. Feeding
Piglets
 When there is diarrhea, restrict or withdraw feeds. Making the
stomach acidic will help lessen or avoid this problem.
 Reduce feed intake at weaning time.
PHILIPPINES
 Why do piglets scour when

creep feed is introduced?
 The digestive juices change gradually but radically.
 Young piglets lack the capacity to produce adequate amounts of hydrochloric acid and
pepsin.
 Overuse of milk powders
 Too cold, dirty and stressful conditions interfere with the accelerated change in gut
digestion.
 Antigenicity (the piglet's gut mistakenly recognizes some proteins as pathogens and sets
up a defensive allergic reaction).
 Carbohydrates and sugars from solid sources need a different set of enzymes.
 To avoid the abovementioned problems,

be sure to use highly digestible fresh feeds for your piglets.
Effects of feeding piglets before weaning :  increased hydrochloric

acid and pepsin
production which
improves the
breakdown of proteins
 improved condition of
the intestinal wall
resulting in improved
absorption capacity
 improved enzyme
activity which will
improve the digestion
 improved technical
performance of the
piglets
 improved technical
Weanling pigs are fed ad libitum, usually through performance of
the
self-feeders, toTRAINING
INTERNATIONAL maximize their growthON
CENTER potential (source:
PIG HUSBANDRY (ITCPH), P.O. Boxsows
1, Lipa City,
PHILIPPINES
Pig International, Vol. 26, No. 10, October, 1996, cover)
The period after weaning is an extremely

critical period which may greatly influence the
overall performance and profita-bility of the
market pig. During this period, the young piglet
is very susceptible. (source: Pig International,
Vol. 26, No. 10, October, 1996, p. 17)
The young pig's digestive system is

adapted to digest milk proteins and
fats, and a sudden change to a diet
based on grains, starch and
vegetable fat causes damage to the
intestinal wall, resulting to diarrhea.
Major changes in housing, climatic

conditions and diet can cause
severe stress and health problems,
thereby reducing piglet
performance. To improve
performance, the farmer must focus
on a weaning process that is as
smooth as possible.
Several researches have shown that adequate feed consumption before weaning is essential for a
smooth weaning process and a good post-weaning performance. Adequate feed intake during the
suckling period will prepare the digestive tract for optimal transition from the sow's milk to solid feed.
 When Should I Wean?
Weaning is stressful, but the stress of weaning is even greater when pigs are weaned earlier. A 5-
week old pig is better equipped to handle stress than a 3-week old one. The period after weaning is
an extremely critical period which may greatly influence the overall performance and profitability of the
market pig. During this period, the young pilet is very susceptible. Weaning does not only put stress
on the animals because it separates piglets from its mother, it also antroduces a new feeding regimen
to the young animal.
 Weaning age is dependent on

the following factors:
 maturity of the pig's digestive system.

 maturity of the pig's immune system.
 availability of facilities
 quality of feeds available.
Major sites of enzyme secretion in pigs (source: Pig International. Vol. 26,
No. 2. February 1996. p. 29)
PHILIPPINES
 Feeding Schedule for Weaners
The aim is to feed the weaners ad libitum in order to obtain a fast growth (+ 300 g/day). However,
during the first week after weaning great care in feeding should be observed.
Pigs are usually weaned early in the day (preferably on Thursdays). This is done by removing the
sow from the pen, while the piglets remain.
Feeding of weaners should be restricted to about 80% of the actual feed consumption divided into
three or four feedings per day. The next day inspect the weaners for any problems. Add a little more
feed if there are no visible signs of ill health. Inspection of weaners should be done at least four times
a day. On the third day, check and inspect again. If looseness of feces is apparent, you are feeding
too much, or the feed is not very digestible. If there is no fecal looseness, feed ad libitum or feed two
to three times a day.
Starter feed can be given at the age of 60 days (20 kgs body weight). Shifitng from prestarter to
starter feeds should be done gradually (can be done in 5 to 7 days).
 Clean fresh water must be available at all times.

(source: Pig International. Vol. 25, No. 4, April 1995)
Suggested Feeding scheme for piglets and weaners
Age Weight Feed/head/day Type of feed

(Days) ( kg) (grams)
5 - 20 1.5 - 5.0 40 Booster
21 - 45 5.0 - 12.0 200 - 500 Prestarter
46 - 60 12.0 - 20.0 600 – 1,000 Prestarter
PHILIPPINES
Piglets and Weaners are sensitive to

sudden change of feeds. To eliminate
problems, shifting of feeds should be
done gradually, can be done in 5 – 7
days time.
The creep area should be warm, dry and draft-free. It should be located in an area where the pigs are
least disturbed. Excitement, noise and a change in feeding routine affect eating habits and subsequent
feed consumption. Having the creep area near the sleeping area encourages a more frequent eating.
Arrange and situate the feeding area where it can easily be cleaned so that feed can be changed and
replaced conveniently.
 Advantages of early feeding of piglets
Early availability of quality feed to young pigs will result in:
1. More uniform pigs with fewer runts
2. Heavier weaning weight
3. Less mortality of baby pigs due to starvation
4. Decrease in incidence and severity of baby pig scours
5. Less setback to young pigs when weaned from the sow, the earlier pigs are to be
weaned, the more important it is that they be eating dry feed at an arly age, and finally
6. There will be less weight loss by the sow, because she need not produce
more milk to support her demanding piglets
PHILIPPINES

General Rules for Feeding Weaners
 Do not change the kind of feed at weaning time (7 days before and after weaning).
 Restrict the amount of feed at weaning time.
 Increase feeds gradually until it reaches 5% of the body weight or ad libitum level.
Piglets should be given creep feed, initially on the

floor, then on a piggy bowl, as early as possible.
The key is for the piglets to be fully used to solids
a few days before weaning.
Feeding orphan pigs
An orphan pig can obtain colostrum by being placed with another sow (a foster sow) that has just
farrowed. If no such sow is available, the orphan pig can be fed a commercial colostrum replacer or milk
replacer which are now available in the market.
This replacer should be mixed with lukewarm water and usually fed about every 3 hours. The use of a
shallow pan for feeding is also recommended. Immersing the baby pig's nose in the milk of few times
will result in its drinking freely. Bottle feeding can also be applied but is relatively time-consuming. It is
extremely important that all feeding utensils be kept clean and, otherwise diarrhea will occur. From 5-7
days old they can be creep fed following the sanitary regimen .
In cases where there are more piglets than the teats of the sow, split-sucking can be practiced (split the
number of piglets such that each of them can suck enough milk at one milking time). Infant formula can
also be used although it maybe more expensive.
PHILIPPINES
PHILIPPINES
Chapter 6 FEEDING OF FINISHERS
PIG GROWTH
1. Composition of Growth
Pig growth comes from both nutrient supply and time (age) and pigs have their own potential as to
weight they ought to be by a certain age.
Live growth is the accumulation of lean tissue, fat tissue and bones. Lean is mostly muscle and
includes both carcass lean and lean in the offal and other body parts. Fat are mostly in the form of
fat storage depots under the skin with some other fat accumulation in between muscle bundles and
around kidneys and intestines.
Growth normally proceeds in a sigmoid or S-shaped manner. During early life the rate of weight gain
accelerates, while between 30 and 120 kg. growth is nearly linear. In the later life, as maturity is
approached, there is a slow down in weight gain.
Composition of growing pig Growth curve of a pig. Weight against time.

Source: Pig Production, The Scientific and Source: Pig Production; The Scientific and
Practical Principles Practical Principles
By: Colin T. Whittemore By: Colin T. Whittemore
Source:
Growth curve of a pig. Gain against time.
PHILIPPINES
Fat Growth
When born, piglets have only about 1 % of fat. In the first month of life the percentage of fat can rise
to about 15 % and the piglets will have attained the rounded appearance. This build-up of fats is
badly needed for the coming stress and change of diet, which results, to low feed intake during
weaning. The fat in the body is used as an energy reserve. When appetite returns, the piglet will
start to accumulate fat to about 10 % of the body weight. Body fat that is physiologically needed is
called “target fat”.
When food supply exceeds the requirements for the growth of lean, target fat and bones, fat level in
the body rises with the level of feeding. At around six months of age the fat level may increase up to
25 % of the body weight.
On the average, target fat is satisfied if the composition of growth is about 20 % fat. Once target
fatness is reached, the rate of fat deposition should be controlled to have a good carcass quality.
Restricting the pig's feed allowance can do this.
Fat tissue has about 2 % protein, 8 – 12 % water. Pigs need more feed to accumulate fat than lean
tissue.
Lean Growth
In the young pig, lean growth is held back below its potential to divert nutrients for the synthesis of
target fat, but towards maturity the pig will primarily increase lean growth.
Lean growth is of major concern to pig producers because lean meat is the product demanded by
consumer and because lean growth requires less feed compared to the same weight of fat growth.
The maximum rate, which is possible for a pig to grow lean, will depend upon the sex and the
genetic merit of the pig. Females can grow lean faster than castrates, but entire or uncastrated
males can grow lean fastest.
Improved strains of pigs selected for fast growth and lean carcasses are also likely to have a higher
limit to their potential lean growth.
Pigs reach their maximum rate of lean growth when they reach about 50 kg. bodyweight. When
maximum lean growth is reached, increased food supply cannot enhance lean growth, but go
towards fat deposition.
PHILIPPINES
at and lean
 Daily gains in grams of fat and

lean by a 60 kg. pig
f fat
pig
PHILIPPINES
Feeding of Finishers
Feed accounts for the biggest part of the cost of pig production. Efficient use of feeds is,
therefore, a very big component of profitable pig production. On the other hand, efficiency of feed
conversion does not guarantee profitability if it is achieved by feeding expensive ration.
The fattening stage of slaughter pigs can be divided into three stages:
1. Starter stage - In most commercial farms, the starting weight of pigs is approximately 20 kg. or
when pigs are about 2 months old. In the case of small farm (backyard), the starter stage begins
immediately upon weaning due to lack of rearing pen and it is also a common practice of the backyard
farmers. The feed used is starter feed containing at least 18 % crude protein and about 3250
kilocalories of digestible energy. This feed is given until they are 30 – 35 kgs.
2. Grower stage - starts from 30 or 35 kg or about 80 – 90 days old. Grower feed is used. Grower
feed contains at least 16 % crude protein and about 3200 kilocalories of digestible energy. The grower
feed is given until they reach about 60 kgs. bodyweight or about 120 to 130 days old.
3. Finisher stage - Finally when the pigs reach 60 kgs., a finisher ration containing at least 14 %
crude protein and 3200 kilocalories digestible energy is given until they are ready for the market. In
the Philippines, fattening pigs are normally sold at the weight of 85 – 90 kg bodyweight.
Most pigs are fed ad libitum in the starter and growing phase, while some are fed ad libitum throughout
the fattening period. For ad libitum feeding, adequate feeding space and access to the hopper are
very important.
Restricted feeding is also a possibility, pigs should be able to eat at the same time. This means there
should be enough feeding space for each of them to prevent or minimize feed competition.
The right spot of the scale between the two mentioned feeding systems is for the pigs to grow as fast
as possible without reducing the carcass value through undesirable fatness.
 Factors affecting choice of feeding system:
 genetic potential
 quality of the feed
 environment - housing, temperature/climate
 health status - presence of diseases
 availability of feeds and raw materials
 influence of carcass quality on selling price
Weight of the animals Type of feed DE ( Kcal) Crude Protein

( kg. Liveweight) (%)
20 – 30 or 35 kg Starter feed 3250 18
30 or 35 kg - 60 kg. Grower feed 3200 16
60 kg. - market Finisher feed 3200 14

weight
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2. FEEDING SYSTEM / METHOD
The growth performance of the pigs is affected not only by the quantity and quality of feed given but
also by the method of feeding. There are three basic feeding systems for grower – finishers: (1) ad
libitum
(2) restricted and (3) combination of ad libitum and restricted feeding.
The level of feeding can vary from restricted feeding which is about 80 % - 90 % satiation to ad libitum
which is 100 % satisfaction.
2.1 Ad libitum feeding
Ad libitum feeding is the system of feeding

wherein feed is available any time. Dry feed
should always be used for this system.
Try to ensure that the self-feeders are

completely emptied and cleaned at least once
a week.
Most problems encountered with ad lib

feeding center on hygiene within the feeder if
feeders are not emptied during a feeding
cycle. It is possible that microbial spoilage can
affect up to 10 % of the diet. The pigs find the Fatteners fed ad libitum usually have higher ADG than
infested feed unpalatable and wastage of feed those that are fed on a restricted basis
is also high.
Ad lib feeding will only give good results if Finishers fed ad libitum, usually have higher ADG
the pigs have high growth potential anf if than those which are fed on restricted basis.
they are in good health condition.
Advantages Disadvantages
 higher average daily gain (ADG) for  thicker backfat

those animals with high growth potential
 less feed competition  higher feed conversion ration (FCR) -

higher feed cost
 less labor  less control on feed intake - more digestive

problems in younger pigs
 less control on health problems
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2. Restricted feeding
Restricted feeding is controlling the amount

of feed given to the animals. The feed is
restricted to about 80 – 90 % of the ad libitum
amount. This system should be used using
a long feed trough wherein all pigs can eat
at the same time. The lengthof the trough
should be in accordance with the space
requirement for each pig.
The leval of feeding under this method can be

Done according to the growth rate (ADG) of the
Pigs. For example, if their ADG is 600 grams/day
Then the feeding scheme to be applied should
be the scheme for ADG of 600 grams. See table
scheme for finishers.
A good criterion is that the trough should be

empty after 15 – 20 min.if feed is given as a
slop. For dry mash or pellets, it normally takes
the pigs to finish the feed from 20 – 30 minutes .
Fatteners fed on a restricted basis, on the other hand, have

better feed conversion efficiency (source: Pigs. Vol. 8, No.
Advantages 2.Disadvantages
March-April 1992. cover)
 good carcass quality  lower average daily gain (ADG) for high
growth potential animals resulting
 better health control to longer fattening period.
 lesser digestive problems  unequal growth especially if feed trough

is not enough to accommodate all
 better feed conversion ratio (FCR) - lower pigs at the same time
Feed cost and better performance
 more laborious
 less chance of coping up with higher
3. ad libitum feeding until 50 kg bodyweight and then restricted feeding until market
weight
Pigs are fed ad libitum until 50 kgs bodyweight then fed restricted until they are marketed. With this
system, the growth potential of the animals can be maximized during its first 50 kg. of growth.
When the pig has reached 50 kg. bodyweight restricted feeding is practices to avoid thick backfat.
PHILIPPINES
Advantages and Disadvantages of combined ad lib and restricted feeding
Advantages Disadvantages
 higher ADG with good carcass quality  higher possiblity of digestive disorder if
shifting of feed is not properly done
 lower feed cost
 less control of health problems and feed
 better use of good feed resulting to intake at the beginning
better FCR
Certainly, prevailing local conditions dictate which of the type of ration scale(s) is/are more attractive
than the other(s). In the same way that ad libitum feeding becomes more recommendable in
cases of:
1. feed is cheaper - lower quality
2. pigs with high growth potential
3. meat/fat ratio does not influence selling price
4. high market price / demand for pork
5. healthy stocks
6. high labor cost
7. high building cost
PHILIPPINES
Feeding scheme for finishers
ADG = 600 g/day ADG = 650 g/day ADG = 700 g/day ADG = 800 g/day
Fatt.
Weeks Weight Feed/Day Weight Feed/Day Weight Feed/Day Weight Feed/Day
(kg) (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg)
20.00 1.00 20.00 1.00 20.00 1.00 20.00 1.00

1
21.20 1.10 21.40 1.10 21.60 1.10 22.00 1.10
2
22.70 1.20 23.10 1.20 23.50 1.20 24.30 1.30
3
24.60 1.30 25.20 1.30 25.80 1.40 27.00 1.40
4
27.00 1.40 28.00 1.40 29.00 1.50 30.80 1.50
5
30.50 1.50 32.00 1.50 33.50 1.60 36.30 1.70
6
34.50 1.60 36.50 1.60 38.50 1.70 42.30 1.80
7
38.70 1.70 41.40 1.70 44.00 1.80 48.80 1.90
8
43.20 1.80 46.40 1.80 49.60 1.90 55.60 2.00
9
48.00 1.90 51.80 1.90 55.50 2.00 62.70 2.20
10
53.10 2.00 57.40 2.00 61.60 2.10 70.00 2.30
11
58.40 2.10 63.50 2.10 68.00 2.20 78.00 2.40
12
64.00 2.20 69.70 2.20 74.80 2.30 86.20 2.50
13
69.70 2.30 76.00 2.30 81.80 2.40 94.50 2.70
14
75.50 2.40 82.40 2.40 88.80 2.50 103.00 2.80
15
81.50 2.50 88.90 2.50 96.00 2.60 111.00 2.90
16
87.50 2.60 95.50 2.60 102.60 2.70 118.00 3.00
17
93.50 2.70 101.00 2.70 108.30 2.80 124.00 3.10
18
99.00 2.80 106.40 2.80 113.30 2.90 129.00 3.20
19
104.00 2.90 111.00 2.90 118.00 3.00 132.00 3.30
20
 Exercise: Feeding of Finishers
PHILIPPINES
Estimated Real Weight Actual Feed Kind of Feed

Pig Number Weight Allowance
(kg) (kg) (kg)
Average
Recording the feed intake of fatteners is

very important in gauging whether they are
performing optimally or not (source: Feed
International. Vol. 18, No. 9. September
1997. p. 41)
WET FEEDING VS. DRY FEEDING
Wet feeding means mixing the dry feed with 2 – 3 times its weight of water in the trough. ( 1:2-3).
Water should be added just before feeding. This method is only suitable for feeding regimen in
which the pigs are able to eat up all the feed they are offered, otherwise the wet feed is likely to
ferment in the trough as well as attract flies.
Comparison between Wet and Dry Feeding

WET FEEDING DRY FEEDING
Reduces feed wastage Higher feed wastage
Increase digestibility Lower digestibility
Higher feed intake Lower feed intake
Laborious Less labor
Spoilage if not consumed immediately Less spoilage
Attract more flies Needs separate feed trough and waterer
Wet Feeding Dry Feeding
PHILIPPINES
Feed Density
Pigs grow according to their protein and energy intake. They tend to eat to satisfy their energy
requirement. When the energy density of the diet is altered, the pigs tend to adjust their feed intake to
compensate for it.
 Factors affecting density of the diet:
 raw materials used; fiber content

 formulation of the diet
 texture / fineness of the ingredients
A simple test to check bulk density.
Option 1:
Figure 9 A simple test to check feed density
Option 2:
Another option to check the feed density is to weigh several liters or scoops of feed (ideal is 10
liters/scoops). Weigh the feeds and compute the feed density using the given formula below. If using
scoops use the number of scoops instead of liters.
To determine feed density, the formula to be used is:
Mass (kg)
Feed Density = ---------------------
Volume (li)
PHILIPPINES
Example:
Breeder feed, mash
10 liters of breeder feed = 5.50 kgs
Compute the feed density:
5.50 kg.
Feed density =
10 liters
= 0.550 kg / liter
Different kinds of feed will have different densities, and therefore different weights. In the absence of
a feed scale, knowing the feed densities of your specific type of feed, you can make the necessary
adjustments on the use of feed scoop or container for the exact amount of feed.
Container Breeder Feed Pre-starter Feed Starter Feed

(g) (g) (g)
One liter can
Large can
Scoop
PHILIPPINES
PHILIPPINES
1. PHASE FEEDING
Weaning at 21 days of age has become a standard practice for modern farm production. Weaning
this early often leads to a “post-weaning lag”. Newly weaned piglets frequently experience
decreased feed intake which results to decreased gain. To avoid this post-weaning lag and to
achieve optimum growth, nutritionists introduced the phase feeding program.
PHASE FEEDING CAN PREVENT POST-WEANING GROWTH

DEPRESSION
Phase feeding is the process of feeding several rations for a short 
period of time to more closely match the young pig’s rapidly
changing digestive capabilities and nutrient requirements with the
most economical ration for maximum performance.
Phase feeding rations should be highly palatable and digestible.
The main targets in nursery feeding management are:
 Smoothly adjust pigs to a low-cost diets

 Accomplish this transition as soon as possible after weaning
 Avoid post-weaning growth depression
All these are achieved by a three or four-phase feeding program that introduces low
cost ingredients in a progressive way, to gently enhance maturation of the
gastrointestinal system
and at the same time to supply special
ingredients that will encourage
maximum growth performance.
The phase feeding program was devised to gradually

 1st Diet
convert the young pig from high fat, high lactose, Must be highly
liquid diet prior to weaning to a low fat, low lactose,
high carbohydrate ration composed of cereals grains dense in nutrients
and protein supplement and complex in
terms of special
ingredients.
PHILIPPINES
The first diet must be highly dense in nutrients and

complex in terms of special ingredients.  2nd Diet
The second diet should be characterized by a
a rather dense
rather dense nutrient profile but special ingredient nutrient profile
concentrations should decrease to allow pigs to
adjust to lower cost ingredients.
but special
ingredient are
The rest of the nursery diets must be quite simple
and inexpensive. decreased
The three main factors which are important in the establishment of the phase feeding management
plan are:
 Dietary specifications
 The number and time of diet changes
 The amount of each diet to be fed per pig
The allotment of feed in the different phases and the timing of diet changes can be based on three
different approaches:
 Ad libitum for a specific

period of time
 According to body
weight
 For the piglets to
consume a
predetermined amount
of each diet
PHILIPPINES
2. FEED ADDITIVES
2.1. FEED ADDITIVES USED AS ALTERNATIVE TO ANTIBIOTICS:
2.1.1 NUTRACEUTICAL
Veterinary nutraceutical was defined in 1997 by the North American Veterinaran

Nutraceutical Council, Inc. (NAVNC), a Veterinary nutraceutical is “a substance which is
produced in a purified or extracted form and administered orally to patients to provide
agents required for normal body structure and function and administered with the intent of
improving the health and well-being of animals”.
There is no debate as to the proven efficacy of in-feed antibiotics (Antibiotic growth

promoters or AGPs) over the years. Due to legislation, up till now, only four AGPs are still
allowed for use (avilamycin, flavophospholipidol, monensin and salinomycin), but their
future is uncertain.. Not surprisingly the Eu regulatory activity is giving a huge boost to the
demand for non-pharmaceutical growth promoter alternative
Antibiotic alternatives includes :
 Probiotics
 Organic acids/ acidifiers
 Zinc oxide
 Mannan Oligosaccharides
 Enzymes
 Plant extracts
2.1.2 PROBIOTICS
Probiotics are live microbial products. Probiotics increase the population of desirable
microflora in the gut at the expense of disease-producing organisms. Other benefits include
a reduction in intestinal pH and a reduction of toxic amines whereby improving the daily gain
and feed efficiency.
PHILIPPINES
2.1.3. ACIDIFIERS
Organic acids and their salts appear to potential alternatives to prophylactic in-feed antibiotics and
growth promoters.
In the gastro-ileal region, the lowering of pH by organic acids

inhibit undesirable microbes suchas E. coli and Salmonella,
hence reducing the proliferation and /or colonisation of
potentially pathogenic bacteria and thus reduces diarrhea
Acidifier in both
incidences. sow and piglet
However, Rot and Kirchgessner (1989) found that the diets reduced the
bactericide mode of action of organic acids is not only caused
by a pH lowering effects of acids, but also by direct effect of incidence of
the acid anion. Organic acids especially short chain fatty acids
like formic acid, acetic acid, propionic acid and lactic acid can diarrhea
penetrate the cell wall of bacteria.
Organic acids may have anti-agalactic properties for sows and alleviate piglet diarrhea caused by
antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Lactic acid and fumaric acid based blends can effectively improve growth
performance of young growing pigs and sow productivity.
The nutritional benefits of organic acids include lowering gastric pH, resulting in increased activity of
proteolytic enzymes and gastric retention time and improved protein digestion. They may affect
mucosal morphology, as well as stimulate pancreatic secretions and contribute to improved
digestion, absorption and retention of dietary nutrients.
2.1.4. ZINC OXIDE
Zinc oxide is added piglet diets at levels between 2,000 and 3,000 ppm. Zinc has
been shown to improve starter pig growth rate.
2.1.5. MANNAN OLIGOSACCHARIDES
Oligossacharides are complex carbohydrates extracted from yeast cell walls. It protects the health
of animals by at least two mechanisms:
 bind several species of pathogenic microorganisms

 modulate the animals immune system
PHILIPPINES
2.1.6. PLANT EXTRACTS
The initial effect of adding plant extracts to animal feed is stimulating appetite. Many plants also
contain active ingredients which increase secretion by the salivary glands and of gastric and
pancreatic juices (garlic, onion, paprika), therefore leading to a decrease in pH in the stomach
and better digestion.
Some substances have been shown to have strong antibacterial properties. For example
oregano oil has been shown to significantly reduce post-weaning diarrhea and mortality in piglets,
by inhibiting intestinal E.coli.
Of course, these nutritional alternatives should be combined with good husbandry practices.
Biosecurity is the most important factor.
Flavenoids which are found in extracts of garlic, onion and paprika have been found to increase
phagocytic activity.
2.2. ENZYMES
Enzymes may be beneficial in diets of newly weaned pigs which do not have a full complement of
digestive enzymes necessary for digesting starch and vegetable proteins.
2.3. CARCASS MODIFIERS
2.3.1 CHROMIUM
Organic chromium (tripicolinate) increases leanness for about 6 %, but not consistent.
200 ppb chromium improves sow fertility, number of piglets born and weaned. Must be
fed at least six months to get response.
2.3.2. BETAINE
Enhanced leanness and feed efficiency. Works with methionine and cystine defficiency
and lysine excess.
2.3.3. CARNITINE
Initially thought to improve leanness and efficiency. 50 ppm in gestation improves litter
size and birth weight.
2.3.4. RACTOPAMINE
Beta agonist that “repartitions” where nutrients go from fat to lean deposition. It improves
growth rate, fed conversion and lean deposition. Dosage is 5 g/ton for 2 weeks then 9.9
g/ton for the last 2 weeks. Feed should contain at least 16 % crude protein and 0.90 %
lysine.
PHILIPPINES

Basic Course On Pig Husbandry - Pig Nutrition: Maintenance

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BASIC COURSE ON PIG HUSBANDRY - PIG NUTRITION 1

Stages or physiological states that require nutrients:

Many pig farmers tend to underestimate the value of

The water requirement of the pigs both in quantity and

Water can be obtained from three sources:

Quantity of drinking water

Water requirement for different swine categories ( from nipple drinker)

Water Supply Yield of drinker

Piglets 3 - 6 weeks Ad libitum 300 ml

Source: John Gadd, Pigs – Misset Sept./Oct. 1989

Estimated water requirements of pigs housed in thermoneutral environments:

Class of Pigs Liters/head/day

Sows and litter 30

Note: Under stress conditions, these water requirement increase

Protein and the Environment

A maximum of 5 % CF is recommended for piglets and 12 % CF for adult pigs.

Feeding fiber during Gestation

 Level of performance required

Example of nutrient requirements of swine1

Type of Feed DE CP Lysine Met. & EE CF Ca P

Prestarter 3350 19.00 1.15 0.70 5 5 0.95 0.75

Starter 3250 17.50 1.00 0.65 5 8 0.80 0.65

Grower 3200 16.00 0.85 0.55 8 10 0.70 0.60

Finisher 3200 13.50 0.65 0.50 8 10 0.60 0.50

Breeder/Gestating 3000 14.00 0.68 0.45 10 12 0.90 0.70

Lactating2 3100 16.00 0.78 0.50 10 10 0.90 0.70

DE - Digestible Energy CF - Crude fiber

SIGNS OF NUTRIENT DEFICIENCIES

NUTRIENT CLINICAL SIGNS SUBCLINICAL SIGNS

Fat Scaly dermatitis may appear. Small gall bladder.

Vitamin A Incoordination, paralysis of rear limbs, Retarded bone growth.

Vitamin E – Edema, sudden death. Generalized edema, liver necrosis, cardiac

Vitamin B12 Poor appetite, anemia, depressed growth rate,

Biotin Dermatosis and hair loss, Cracked bleeding

Calcium Rickets, osteomalacia, tetany Lack of bone calcification, bones easily

Sodium Low water consumption, poor appetite,

Comfort zone of pigs

The digestive tract of the pig

1. The pancreas secretes pancreatic juice that contains several enzymes

 Amylase - for digestion of starch

 erepsin - for the breakdown of protein

Protein Pepsin, trypsin, chymotrypsin Amino acid

Starches Amylase Glucose

Sugars Dissacharidases Monosaccharides

Minerals HCL (acid) buffers Ionic state minerals

Source: Pork Production Manual; AlbertaAgriculture

The large intestine consist of two parts:

b. Colon - in the colon, microbial digestion of fiber occurs producing volatile

Digestibility of feeds depends on many factors:

 Species of the animals (pigs, cattle, horse, etc.)

 Age of the animal

 Composition of feeds (crude fiber)

 Feed preparation (ground, cooked, pelleted)

 Level of feeding (rate of passage of the feed)

Commercial pig feeds have an average digestibility of 80 %

GENERAL FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN FEEDING PIGS

 breed / strain (growth potential)

Enzymes aid in increasing the digestibility of feeds (source:

Feeding of Replacement Gilts

Weight 130 kg These gilts will put on 2 - 4 mm more backfat during

Backfat 18 – 20 mm This is ideal, and with proper management and nutrition,

Gilts should be flushed two weeks before service to