Energy band diagrams

„ In the atoms, the larger the radius, the higher the electron potential energy
„ Hence, electron position can be described either by radius or by its potential
energy
„ In the semiconductor crystal: the atom orbits OVERLAP; radius-based
description becomes impractical. Energy-based description works well:
„ The highest orbit filled with electrons becomes the VALENCE BAND
„ The higher orbit (nearly empty) becomes the CONDUCTION BAND

Single atom Crystal

Excited electrons cannot move Excited electrons can move (free electrons)
 Energy band diagrams
Free electron

free electrons
Conductance energy band Hole

Valence energy band

holes

Bandgap (or “forbidden energy”)

 Optical processes in semiconductors:
radiation and absorption

Related electrical processes:

electron - hole pair generation and recombination
 Absorption
Related electrical process:
electron - hole pair generation
The photon with the energy exceeding the bandgap energy of
semiconductor can be absorbed.
The photon disappears; the photon energy excites the electron
from the valence band into the conduction band.
As a result, one e-h pair is being created

Photon
absorption
E = h ν = Εg
 Radiation
Related electrical process:
electron - hole pair recombination
When the excited electron meets the hole in the valence band, it
may occupy that place. As a result the e-h pair disappear; this
process is called recombination.
During recombination, the electron energy is released as a
photon with the energy closed to the bandgap energy of the
semiconductor.

Photon
Photon
emission
absorption
E = h ν = Εg
E = h ν = Εg
Electron and hole concentrations under illumination
We define n0 and p0 as the electron and hole concentrations
in the absence of illumination (“dark” concentrations).
∆n and ∆p are the additional concentrations generated by light.

Note that in the equilibrium for ANY semiconductor,

n×p = ni2
Under illumination:
n×p ≈ (∆n+n0) × (∆n+ p0) > ni2
 Generation rate
When the semiconductor is under CONSTANT illumination,
the photons are being absorbed at a constant rate;
absorbed photons GENERATE electron- hole pairs

Therefore the concentration of e-h pairs

MUST linearly increase with the time.
The GENERATION RATE,
G, is the number of electron-hole pair generated per unit time:
∆n = ∆p = G × t;
How does the semiconductor sample
come to a steady-state condition under illumination?
 Recombination rate
The probability of electron and hole "annihilation",
or the RECOMBINATION rate,
is proportional to both electron AND hole concentrations:
R ~ n × p = Βr × n × p

Therefore, when n and p increase due to illumination,

the RECOMBINATION rate, R, also increases.
The e-h concentration increases
until the increasing recombination rate would compensate it.

Under the steady state condition we have:

G = R;
 Steady-state e-h pair concentration
G = R;
R = Βr × n × p

The steady-state concentration of photo-electrons (and photo-holes):

G = Βr × n × p > n × p = G /Βr

n×p ≈ (∆n+n0) × (∆n+ p0)

Under strong illumination, ∆n>>n0 and ∆n>> p0
n×p ≈ ∆n2 > G = Βr × ∆n2:

∆n = (G/ Βr)1/2
 Spontaneous and Excessive
Recombination Rate
In case of direct electron - hole recombination

The spontaneous recombination rate in the equilibrium as

 Electron and hole LIFETIME
The recombination rate R is often expressed as R = ∆n
τ
The lifetime, τ, determines the mean time an electron
spends before recombining with hole.

As follows from

at very high excitation level, ∆n >> n0, p0

At low excitation level, ∆n << n0, p0

 Example

Optical beam irradiating an intrinsic semiconductor (GaAs)

produces 0.5×1023 cm-3/s electron-hole pairs.
The steady state concentration of photoelectrons is ∆n = 1014 cm-3.
1) Find the electron /hole recombination lifetime τ.
2) Find the radiative recombination coefficient Br
 Solution

In steady state,
G=R
∆n
The recombination rate, R=
τ
∆n
Therefore, G=
τ
∆n
The lifetime τ=
G

∆n 1014 cm−3
τ= = −3 −1
= 2 ⋅ 10 −9
s = 2ns
G 0.5 ⋅10 cm s
23
 Solution
In GaAs, ni ~ 105 cm-3, therefore, ∆n >> n0.
In this case,

1 1 −6 3 −1
Br = = 14 −3 = 5 ⋅ 10 cm s
∆n τ r 10 cm ⋅ 2 ⋅ 10 s
−9
Radiative and nonradiative recombination
Nonradiative recombination
typically does not produce
photons;
The electron energy is being
transferred to phonons, i.e.
into the heat.
Radiative and nonradiative recombination

When both radiative and nonradiative recombination processes

take place in semiconductor,