INFLUENCE OF SPORTS BETTING ADVERTISING ON BETTING BEHAVIOR OF

YOUTHS IN JOS

BY

SAMBO JOSHUA BATURE

A RESEARCH SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF MASS COMMUNICATION

FACULTY OF SOCIAL AND MANAGEMENT SCIENCES

TARABA STATE UNIVERSITY

P.M.B 1167 JALINGO

NIGERIA

JULY, 2018.

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 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

The advertising sectors deliberately tones down the influence and possible adverse influence of

the product they are advertising. They tend to portray an innocent aspect of daily life in their

commercial and hope that this innocent aspect of life would not only attract the attention of

potential customers but would also influence them (Adler et al., 2004).

Sport betting is one of the fastest growing industries in the world (Binde, 2006). With the

increasing accessibility and availability of sports betting on Internet and wireless technology, in

addition to more traditional forums, international revenue from legalised gambling is estimated

to surpass US$100 billion by 2010 (Price Waterhouse Coopers, 2005). Concomitant with the

growth in revenues, sport betting advertising expenditure also appears to be increasing, verified

by reports from Canada, Europe, and the UK (Advertising Association, 2007; Binde, 2007;

British Columbia Lottery Corporation, 1996).

It is widely acknowledged that the media have a powerful effect on people's behavior and

attitudes, and that the objective of any commercial advertisement is to capture consumer

attention, convey positive attitudes towards the product, and encourage the adoption of the

messages espoused. Youth appear to be particularly vulnerable to the effects of advertising. A

recent study found youths (aged 18 to 30) exposed to high levels of advertising for alcohol from

multiple sources were subsequently 50% more likely to drink and 36% more likely to have

intentions to drink in the upcoming year than those at lower levels of advertising exposure

(Collins, Ellickson, McCaffrey, & Hambarsoomians, 2007), demonstrating the enduring effects

of advertising on youth.

Sports betting advertisements directly increase the availability of sports betting by informing

individuals about opportunities to bet and attempting to influence and modify attitudes through

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their communicative processes (Hastings, Anderson, Cooke, & Gordon, 2005). The high level of

exposure to sports betting advertisements in society has led to its normalisation and perception as

an acceptable, harmless, and credible activity (Moore & Ohtsuka, 1999). Griffiths and Wood

(2001) have argued that advertising introduces youths, children and teens to the principles of

betting which occurs in a social context where sport betting is generally viewed as an exciting,

harmless form of entertainment. Youths perceive the central messages of sports betting

advertisements to be that betting leads to winning (easy money) and that sports betting is fun and

enjoyable and part of a worry-free and entertaining lifestyle, requiring none of the real efforts of

school or an actual job (Derevensky et al., 2007).

Youths are frequently exposed to sports betting advertisements, most often on television

(reportedly viewed by 96% of youth), closely followed by the Internet (93%), with

advertisements on billboards and in newspapers and magazines also commonly viewed

(Derevensky et al., 2007; Felsher, Derevensky, & Gupta, 2004). Similar to what has been found

in studies of alcohol advertising, sport betting commercials appear to have a significant influence

on youth; one study found 42% of youth report that sports betting advertisements make them

want to try betting and 61% imagine or dream about what they could buy with their winnings

(Derevensky et al., 2007). An earlier study found 39% of youths would be more likely to

purchase a lottery ticket after viewing an advertisement (Felsher et al., 2004).

The placement and timing of sports betting advertisements, which may encourage the perception

that sport betting is harmless fun with no negative consequences, and result in increased

participation rates, need to be regulated to reduce the exposure of youth to sports betting

activities. Research on alcohol advertisements confirms the importance of advertisement timing

and placement. For example, youth recalled many more television commercials for alcohol aired

during sporting events and on late-night television programs popular among youth (Wyllie,

Zhang, & Casswell, 1998). In response to concerns about the negative consequences of alcohol

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 and tobacco advertising, regulations have been implemented, with some observed success, that

prevent these products from being prominently advertised in places viewed by youth. Following

a reduction in alcoholic beverage advertising in the US, the incidence of alcohol problems,

including binge drinking and alcohol involvement in fatal crashes, decreased amongst young

people (Hacker & Stuart, 1995). Similar effects have been found internationally with an analysis

of data from 20 countries over a 26-year period (Saffer & Dave, 2002), indicating that

advertising bans resulted in decreased alcohol consumption amongst youth. This study thus

becomes imperative for it seek to unveil the influence of sports betting advertising on the betting

behavior of youths in Jos, Plateau State.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

With the proliferation and acceptance of sports betting in society, sports betting advertisements

have become increasingly prominent. Despite attempts to protect minors from harm by

prohibiting them from engaging in most forms of gambling, there are few restrictions on the

marketing of gambling products. Evidence of high rates of gambling and associated problems

amongst youth indicates that the issue of youth gambling must be addressed to minimize harm.

This study aims to examine the current marketing techniques used to promote sports betting and

how they affect youth. The effect of multiple forms of advertisements will be discussed,

including advertising placement in the media, point-of-sale displays, sports sponsorship,

promotional products, celebrity endorsements, advertisements using Internet and wireless

technology, and content which may appeal to or mislead youths and children.

1.3 Objective of the Study

The main objective of the study is to access the influence of sports betting advertising on betting

behavior of youths in Jos while the specific objective will be to:

i. Describe the socio-economic characteristics of the respondents in the study area

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 ii. identify the various sports betting advertising media exposed by the youths in the

study area

iii. Examine the influence of the advertising campaigns on betting behaviors of the

youths in the Jos city.

iv. Evaluate the perception of the youths on sports betting advertising in Jos metropolis

1.4 Research Questions

The research will seek to answer the following research questions

i. What are the socio-economic characteristics of the youths involved in sports betting

in the study area?

ii. What are the various sports betting advertising media exposed by the youths in the

study area?

iii. What is the influence of the advertising campaigns on betting behaviors of youths in

Jos city?

iv. What are the perceptions of the youths on sports betting adverts in Jos city?

1.5 Significance of the Study

There are dearth literatures on the influence of sports betting advertising on the betting behavior

of youths. So therefore, the findings of this study will add to existing literatures on gambling and

advertising on the media and its influence on consumer or customer buying and consuming

capacity. The study will also be beneficial to marketers, advertising companies, academicians,

educationists, students, sports organizations and students. Also, it will be to the society and the

youths for it will seek to unveil to them the negative effects of gambling imposed by deceive

advert copies. It will be significant in the sense that it will serve as a guideline for students who

wish to further their study on impact of sports betting adverts on betting behavior of gamblers.

Finally, it will be beneficial to students of NTA College Jos, Plateau State, Nigeria.

1.6 Scope and Limitation of the Study

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This research will be carried out in Jos City of Plateau State, Nigeria and restricted to the

influence of sports betting advertising on betting behavior of youths. The research is limited to

insufficient literatures on the topic of study, insufficient funds, insufficient time and bad

transportation and communication network from the researcher and area of study.

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 CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURES

2.0 Introduction

Recent and relevant literatures will be captured on the influence of advertising on gambling

behavior of youths. The literatures will be sub-divided into sub-headings namely: the theoretical

framework backing the research, the conceptual framework ranging from the definition of

concepts such as gambling, sports betting, advertising concepts; sports betting advertising and

strategies and influence of sports betting advertising on youths betting behavior. Furthermore,

empirical studies on the topic of study will be captured and all the literatures will be

summarized.

2.1 Conceptual Clarifications

2.1.1 Gambling

Gambling is a form of behaviour that has been identify to have serious consequences on

gamblers health, study-habit, academic performance, and has been reported to be related to

some criminal related behaviour (Oyebisi, Alao, & Popoola, 2012). Also, Gambling has

been generally defined as betting or wagering money or something of value on an event that

has an uncertain outcome with the possibility of winning money or materials (Korn &

Shaffer, 1999; Potenza, Fiellin, Heninger, Rounsaville, & Mazure, 2002). Gambling

traditionally includes activities such as wagering at casinos, on lotteries, animal racing, card

games, sporting events, video lottery, and Internet card and casino games (Potenza et al.,

2002). Young people including university students are a high risk group for gambling

problems (Moore et al., 2013). A high prevalence of gambling participation and problem

gambling has been found in different university student populations, mainly in studies in

high income countries (Etel, Tabchi, Bou Khalil, Hlais & Richa, 2013; McComb & Hanson,

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2009; Mubaraka & Blanksbya, 2013; Tozzi et al.,2013).University students engage in a

wide range of gambling behaviours, including playing the lottery, poker/cards for money,

casino games (i.e., slots/poker machines), horse racing, betting on sports and internet

gambling (Burger, Dahlgren, & MacDonald, 2006; Engwall et al., 2004; McComb &

Hanson, 2009; Moore et al., 2013). Also, the prevalence of adult gambling in the United

States has been estimated at 86% (Potenza et al., 2002). In the US, the prevalence of adult

“lifetime” problem gamblers has been estimated at 3.8%, and “past year” problem gamblers

estimated at 2.8% (Potenza et al., 2002). However, gambling may include everyday

activities that might not normally be associated with connotations of the word gambling

such as raffles sponsored by communities or organizations, bingo, or childhood board

games. Gambling can also be understood as the established practice of staking money or

other valuables on games or events of an uncertain outcome (Binde, 2005, p.3).

Public perceptions of gambling are often misleading. On the one hand, people are usually

aware that gambling poses serious risks to those who are predisposed to gamble excessively.

However, on the other hand, it is also acknowledged that gambling can have positive

consequences for communities (e.g. via providing a source of revenue for sporting clubs or

humanitarian causes) and can be an enjoyable pastime for individuals (Abbott & Cramer,

1993; Vong, 2009).There is ample evidence showing that people’s attitudes toward

gambling are good predictors of how much people gamble and how likely they are to

experience gambling related problems. A common finding is that those who hold more

positive attitudes toward gambling are more likely to gamble and to experience gambling-

related problems (Chiu & Storm, 2010; Delfabbro et al., 2009; Delfabbro & Thrupp, 2003;

Orford et al., 2009; Wardle et al., 2011; Williams, Connolly, Wood, & Nowatzki, 2006;

Wood & Griffiths, 2004).Nigeria youth especially undergraduates are engaging themselves

in gambling as a means of surviving; this is an intricate issue of special concern as this

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 behavior may predispose them to pathological/compulsive gambling (Oyebisi, Alao, &

Popoola, 2012). The impact of the extensive availability, advertising, and sanctioning of

legalized gambling is of concern in the fields of public health and addictions. Among adults,

the prevalence of disordered gambling has increased significantly from 1977 to 1993

(Shaffer, Hall, & VanderBilt, 1997).

2.1.1.1 Attitudes toward gambling among Youth

Public perceptions of gambling are often equivocal. On the one hand, people are usually

aware that gambling poses serious risks to those who are predisposed to gamble excessively.

However, on the other hand, it is also acknowledged that gambling can have positive

consequences for communities (e.g. via providing a source of revenue for sporting clubs or

humanitarian causes) and can be an enjoyable pastime for individuals (Abbott &Cramer,

1993; Vong, 2009). The balance of such negative and positive views very likely affects the

attitudes that individuals hold toward gambling and ultimately influences their decisions to

engage in gambling (Gainsbury, Wood, Russell, Hing, & Blaszczynski, 2012).

There is ample evidence showing that people’s attitudes toward gambling are good

predictors of how much people gamble and how likely they are to experience gambling

related problems. A common finding is that those who hold more positive attitudes toward

gambling are more likely to gamble and to experience gambling-related problems (Chiu

&Storm, 2010; Delfabbro, Lambos, King, & Puglies, 2009; Delfabbro & Thrupp, 2003;

Orford, Griffiths, Wardle, Sproston, & Erens, 2009; Wardle et al., 2011; Williams,

Connolly, Wood, & Nowatzki, 2006; Wood & Griffiths, 2004). These findings provide

support for theories of behaviour and decision-making that assign attitudes an important role

in determining people’s intentions to act and, indirectly, their actual behaviour; an example

is the theory of planned behaviour (Ajzen, 1991; Fishbein, 2000). Authors who have applied

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this theoretical framework to gambling behaviour (Cummings & Corney,1987) as well as

more general, health risk-taking behaviours (Fishbein & Cappella, 2006) suggest that

attitudes are affected by broader demographic, personality and other individual-level factors.

However, in connection with attitudes toward gambling, little is known about the relative

importance of the different background influences.

As the prevalence rates for problem gambling are higher for adolescents than for adults

(Gupta et al., 2013; Nowak & Aloe, 2013), focusing on factors related to attitudes toward

gambling for the former group is particularly important, both in terms of prevention and

treatment.

The prevalence of problem gambling among adolescents in Norway appears to be lower

compared to international studies (Brunborg, Hansen, & Frøyland, 2013; Hanss et al.,

2014). However, when one also considers the proportion that could be classified as at-risk

gamblers, the overall percentage of adolescents reporting some problems with gambling

becomes more considerable. In general, the results of previous studies of adolescent

gambling share many similarities with those involving adults. Attitudes toward gambling

tend to be mixed (Moore & Ohtsuka, 1997; Wood & Griffiths, 1998), but are generally

reliable predictors of whether individuals engage in gambling (Wood & Griffiths, 2004) and

experience gambling-related problems (Hanss et al., 2014). For example, as in adult studies

(Chiu & Storm, 2010; Smith et al., 2011; Taormina, 2009), young males are typically found

to hold more positive attitudes than women about gambling (e.g. that gambling is morally

unproblematic; that it is acceptable to legalize gambling) (Jackson, Dowling, Thomas,

Bond, & Patton, 2008; Moore & Ohtsuka, 1997; Wood & Griffiths, 1998).

People with more positive attitudes also tend to share certain beliefs about gambling. Those,

for example, who are convinced that the development of the gambling industry has positive

consequences for the economy, tend to hold more positive attitudes (Vong, 2009). There is

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also evidence that feeling in control over the outcomes of gambling is positively associated

with gambling attitudes (Taormina, 2009). Evidence in support of the view that gambling-

related knowledge and beliefs are related to gambling attitudes was observed in an

intervention study among prison inmates: Those who took part in a programme that

informed about problem gambling, possible negative consequences and common

misperceptions showed afterwards improved recognition of cognitive errors related to

gambling and held less positive attitudes toward gambling (Nixon, Leigh, & Nowatzki,

2006). A similar intervention was effective in producing less positive attitudes toward the

economic profitability of gambling in a sample of high school students (Donati, Primi, &

Chiesi, 2013).

Another important individual-level factor is personality. Research has shown that

Neuroticism and Gregariousness (a sub-dimension of Extraversion) predicted gambling

attitudes (positive relation) in a multiple regression analysis together with other variables,

such as demographics and values. When bivariate correlations were analyzed, attitudes were

significantly associated with Gregariousness but not with Neuroticism (Taormina, 2009).

Other studies investigated Impulsivity and Sensation Seeking (Zuckerman, Kuhlman,

Joireman, Teta, & Kraft, 1993) and found that those with higher scores on those traits had

more positive attitudes toward gambling compared to those with lower scores on the

corresponding traits (Breen & Zuckerman, 1999; Lee, 2013; McDaniel & Zuckerman,

2003).

Several studies using adult and adolescent samples provide empirical support for the view

that social influences are important for understanding an individual’s gambling behaviour.

For example, believing that one’s family and friends approve of gambling and participate in

gambling activities (i.e. perceived positive social norms regarding gambling) has been found

to be predictive of gambling frequency (Larimer & Neighbors, 2003; Moore & Ohtsuka,

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 1999). Moreover, increased parental monitoring was associated with lower levels of

adolescent gambling (Magoon & Ingersoll, 2006). Gambling attitudes also appear to be

influenced by social factors, including family gambling history and peer relationships. In

relation to family gambling history, it appears that the relationship with gambling attitudes

may depend on whether or not relevant others experience problems in connection with their

gambling. One study reported that adolescents whose parents gambled regularly held less

negative attitudes toward gambling compared to those whose parents gambled less

frequently. However, those with parents or relatives who had experienced gambling-related

problems held more negative attitudes (Orford et al., 2009).0

2.1.1.2 Gambling Addiction

Gambling addiction otherwise regarded as problem gambling can be defined as a

compulsive behaviour in which people involve themselves in gambling despite the fact

that such behaviour is detrimental to their life. The people who experience problem

gambling are addicted to gambling to the extent that gambling has negative effect on their

life but still continue involving themselves in gambling. Gambling addiction is the urge

to engage in gambling behaviour despite the harmful effect of this behaviour in their life.

An individual that experience this addiction may use the whole money left in their pocket

which supposed to be used for other better things in their life to bet. From perspective of

Ministerial council in Gambling (MCG), "Problem gambling is characterized by many

difficulties in limiting money and/or time spent on gambling which leads to adverse

consequences for the gambler, others or for the community." The University of Maryland

Medical Center defines pathological gambling as "being unable to resist impulses to

gamble, which can lead to severe personal or social consequences"

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2.1.1.3 Prevalence of Gambling

Gambling has been in existence over the century especially in the western world, in Europe;

according to Heather et al., (2007) gambling is between 0.5 to 3% of total population. It is

also reported that about 6% of young adult population in Europe experience gambling

addiction which predispose to various health related problems such as suicide. Furthermore,

gambling addiction is highly depend on the type of gambling in which an individual engage,

for instance, Heather et,al (2007) reported that among European youth gambling addiction

were found more among people who engage in spread betting follow by fixed odds betting

and betting exchange experience least gambling addiction. In United State of America,

people who experience gambling addiction are 2.3% as at 2008.

In Nigeria today, as a result of technological development and availability of internet

facilities, the level of youth engagement in gambling behaviour such as 1960 bet is

increasing. This is a big problem among this population. Present indication shows that more

and more people are involve themselves in this activity; some have even perceived it as a

source of income and abandon other activities that can provide themselves with better

future. Recent data shows that Nigerians spend about 1.8 billion naira daily on online sport

betting. While some people benefit from this activity, majority tends to lose their money in

this activity.

2.1.1.4 Consequences of Gambling

For the occasional gambler, these behaviors may provide an innocuous opportunity for

excitement, socialization, or boredom relief. When these behaviors increase, however,

problem and pathological gambling create negative consequences in an individual’s

financial, social, and overall health. Gambling explored through the public health

perspective looks at the effect of gambling on individual wellbeing and health, familial

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health, community health, health care system and public policy. Korn and Shaffer (1999)

identified eight negative health and social consequences of gambling: gambling disorders,

family dysfunction and domestic violence, youth and underage gambling, alcohol and other

drug problems, psychiatric conditions, suicide and suicide ideation, significant financial

problems, and criminal behavior.

Negative financial outcomes are among the most tangible consequences of gambling and

problem gambling. College students are at a higher risk for financial problems than older

adults due to other financial obligations from college expenses and tuition, as well as

potential debt from the increased credit card availability to young adults (Norvilitis &

Maria, 2002; Robb, 2011). A study conducted at two Mississippi universities found that

older college students are more likely to have problematic financial behaviors (Worthy,

Jonkman & Blinn-Pike, 2010). According to Worthy and colleagues (2010) these

problematic financial behaviors were associated with sensation-seeking and risk-taking

activities like gambling. College students often use resources such as credit cards, debit

cards, or borrowed money to gamble; this is common for adult gamblers as well, but these

habits may have greater negative financial consequences in a younger population. Atkinson

and colleagues (2012) found that the mean amount of money spent on gambling a month

was just under $200 by college students. Further, the authors found that 48% of college aged

gamblers said they had spent more money on gambling than they wanted to and 32% said

they lost more than they could afford.

Another negative consequence of heavy gambling is poorer academic standing. Potenza and

colleagues (2011) found an association between poor academic performance and

pathological gambling in young adults (ages 14-18). Heavy Internet gambling was

associated with grade averages of D or lower (Potenza et al., 2011).

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2.1.2 Sports Betting

“Sports betting” is, at its simplest, placing a financial wager on the outcome of a sporting

match, as well as on events that occur within the larger match or fixture. The growth of

sports betting and gambling promotion during sporting events is a relatively recent

phenomenon. Whereas, historically, sports betting were confined to an individual physically

placing a wager on the outcome of a horse (or greyhound) race, two important changes

occurred in the mid-1990s. First, some bookmakers moved beyond horse and greyhound

racing and started taking bets on the outcome of team sports. Second, in Victoria, some

bookmakers began taking bets over the telephone and then the Internet, and in 2008,

telephone and Internet sports betting became possible in all Australian states and

territories following a High Court ruling that found prohibitions imposed by some states

were anticompetitive (State of Victoria, Department of Justice 2013).

Following on from this, two additional changes occurred that have further, and more

fundamentally, shifted the nature and parameters of sports betting:

• the rise and expansion of the Internet and associated media platforms and

technologies (i.e. phone and tablet “apps”) led to sports betting shifting more and more on-

line;

• the nature of betting itself has shifted from betting simply on the end result of a race

or an event to “micro-betting”, “in play betting” and betting “in-the–run”, where consumers

can place a bet on a range of possible outcomes both after the game has commenced and, as

they occur during a game.

In addition to betting on sporting results and outcomes, “sports betting” can also refer to

betting on other events such as the outcome of a political election or a reality television

program. For the purpose of this report, the review focuses on placing a wager on sporting

events via the Internet. While sports betting is legal in Australia, “in-play” betting via the

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 Internet is illegal under Commonwealth Law (it is legal if the bet is placed in person or

over the telephone), yet there remains a range of illegal gambling activities that are

accessible via the Internet (Interactive Gambling Act, 2001, p.61). The clandestine nature of

these activities means that there is little research evidence into these forms of sports betting

and are outside the scope of this report.

The rise of on-line betting on sport, and its promotion, has been greeted with considerable

levels of public concern, in which the relationship between gambling exposure and

participation is seen to pose several implications for sport, health and wellbeing and social

policy. In 2013, concern over the accessibility of the technology, and the increasing

presence of the televised promotion of live-odds betting during broadcasts of football and

cricket matches (particularly during weekend day time television slots) led to a Joint

Parliamentary Select Committee review into the advertising and promotion of gambling in

sport. The report suggested that a precautionary approach should be adopted, during which

time more research could be undertaken into the effects of gambling advertising on children

(Joint Committee 2013, p.17). Alongside this, financial and other counsellors have warned

of an increase in problems associated with on-line sports betting, particularly among young

men. In 2013, the Australia Crime Commission released their Organised Crime and Drugs

in Sport report. Along with doping and match fixing, sports betting was identified as a “soft

target” through which organised crime groups could undermine the integrity of sport, in

both Australia and abroad.

2.1.2.1 Sport Betting: Review

The focus of the literature review is on sports betting, rather than betting on the outcomes of

other popular events, or on gambling more broadly, however, some prefacing comments

about the costs and benefits of gambling more widely are necessary. Many of the debates

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about sports betting engage with similar themes about the economic contributions and social

benefits of gambling. Research consistently identifies the ways in which economies and

regions benefit from gambling (Allen Consulting Group, 2011; Productivity Commission,

2010). In Tasmania, the economic benefits of gambling are estimated to be in the order of

$383 million spent on gambling over a 12 month period, along with contributions to the

Tasmanian economy through gambling-related employment, tourism, and investment and

community projects. At the same time, however, financial and other counselors, social

workers and human service agencies report the costs and consequences of problem

gambling from the, approximately, 0.7 per cent of problem gamblers who account for 22.9

per cent of spend on electronic gaming machines (EGMS or “pokies”) (Allen Consulting

Group, 2011, p. 1).

While research on the costs and benefits of sports betting is in its infancy, similar themes to

those above are emerging. The purported economic benefits of sports betting and gambling-

related sports promotions have been identified both internationally (Braun and Kvasnicka,

2013, Gainsbury, 2012), and in an Australian context (Hing, Vitartas, and Lamont, 2013;

Gainsbury, 2011). Similar themes relating to at-risk groups, and the costs and consequences

for those affected by their own or another’s problematic relationship to sports betting are also

found in the limited literature on sports betting in relation to this (both are addressed later in

the review).

Although the literature is limited, the consistent message across the nascent research is that

on-line sports betting is rapidly surpassing all other forms of gambling in terms of

participation. A UK report (Charlton, 2013), for example, states that betting on football

(soccer) has seen the largest growth in the sports betting sector, growing 69% between 2009

and 2012, although this has largely been driven by the popularity of in-play betting (not

permitted on regulated Australian wagering sites). Research by Gainsbury (2013) also

17
 suggests that sports betting appears to be the fastest growing form of gambling in Australia,

with preliminary findings indicating that gambling via electronic gaming machines

fell from 39 to 19 per cent between 1999 and 2011, while participation in sports betting

increased from six to 13 per cent over the same period (Hing et al. in Gainsbury 2013a).

While we write of “Australian” research, it is important to remember that the global nature of

the Internet, and sport itself, means that a considerable amount of money is spent in Australia

on betting on sports events that occur internationally. Gainsbury and Russell (2013), for

example, note that an estimated AUD$4.9 billion was wagered globally on the FIFA World

Cup in South Africa in 2010, including AUD$110 million in Australia, a dramatic increase

on the estimated AUD$1.1 billion spend on the 2006 tournament in Germany (Gainsbury

and Russell, 2013; Church-Sanders, 2012).

Wicker and Soebbing (2013), note in their study of participation of sports betting that the

“typical” on-line bettor is a male with high income, low education, and of “non-German

nationality” who plays cards and poker during his leisure time, but does not regularly

participate in sport, a finding which somewhat contradicts other research, in which

comparatively high levels of educational attainment is a characteristic of the “typical” sports

bettor.

2.1.3 Advertising

According to Arens (2004:7), advertising is the structured and composed non- personal

communication of information, usually paid for and usually persuasive in nature, about

products (goods, services or ideas) by identified sponsors through various media.

“Advertising presents the most persuasive selling message to the right prospects for a

product or service at the least possible cost.”

- The UK Institute of Practitioners in Advertising (adapted from Dogudje 2009)

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“Advertise or die” were the words of Kankarofi, the APCON Registrar in a paper he

recently presented on Options for Corporate Survival: a seminar organized in Lagos by the

Nigeria- South Africa Chamber of Commerce. He emphasized on the need for

corporate/business organizations to sufficiently appreciate the place of advertisement in the

survival of their business.

In the words of Kaufman (1980:3), “advertising is not chemistry, with rules and laws that, if

followed with reasonable precision, will lead to predictable results every time. Advertising

is not a panacea that can restore a poor product or rejuvenate a declining market; it is not a

substitute for sound business judgment nor is advertising merely the words and pictures that

appear in newspapers and magazines, on billboards and on television screens. These are the

means or the media that advertising uses to communicate its information about products,

services, and ideas to people: information designed to persuade them make buying or action

decisions. Advertising is the art and business of persuasive communication”.

Nwaizugbo (2004:181) defines advertising as a process of presenting a product or idea to a

person or group of persons, some openly sponsored message (oral or visual) about a product

or seller. This message which is being presented is known as advertising.

Jefkins (1985:3) submitted that advertising is the means by which we make known what we

have to sell or what we want to buy.

In other words, the British Code of Advertising Practice (as adapted from Dogudge, Aug.

2009 APCON Seminar), defines advertising as a paid-for communication addressed to the

public or a section of it, the purpose of which is to influence the opinions or behavior of

those to whom it is addressed.

Whereas, Kotler & Armstrong (2007:426) see advertising as any paid form of non-personal

presentation and promotion of ideas, goods, or services by an identified sponsor.

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 To Anyacho (2007:6), advertising is a form of communication through the media about

products, services, ideas paid for by an identified sponsor.

Wright, Winter & Zeigler (1983:8) see advertising as a powerful communication force and a

vital marketing tool, helping to sell goods, services, images and ideas (or ideals) through

channels of information and persuasion. By this definition, it’s noteworthy that advertising

never sells products but helps to sell products.

Above all, the American Marketing Association (AMA) recommends this definition:-

Advertising is any paid form of non-personal presentation and promotion of ideas, goods,

and services by an identified sponsor. In this definition, the following phrases were further

explained.

2.1.4 Sports Betting Advertising

The growing presence of betting-related promotions during live broadcasts of sporting

matches, most notably, Australian Rules football and cricket matches, is perhaps the most

visible aspect of sports betting. It is also among the most contentious. Casting a casual eye

over the visual merchandise at sporting events, particularly large scale contests that attract

international media attention, shows sports betting advertising to be fully embedded

within the match and its promotional materials. Advertising on players’ jumpers, “pop up”

logos underneath match statistics on scoreboards, signage in pre- match locker room shots

and the blurring of “expert” commentary on the game with updates on odds and dividends

means that it is now very difficult for a sports fan to avoid betting related promotions and

advertising both at the game and through television coverage. Arbarbanel, for example,

notes that ‘sports and sports betting are intimately intertwined … and in many cultures it

can be difficult to determine where one begins and the other ends’ (2012, p. 82).

Although most gambling advertisements are prohibited in children’s viewing times (as they

are for alcohol), sporting programs are exempt from this code. In research published in 2007,

20
however, AFL matches were found to be one of the three most popular television programs

for children (ACMA, 2007), prompting calls for changes in legislation (Xenephon, 2011).

Dodd’s (2013) research further cites a move by South Australia to ban the advertising of live

odds betting on television screens during sports, noting the South Australian Premier’s

comments that ...’It is of great concern to me that we will end up with a generation of

children who believe gambling is a normal part of watching or even playing sport’.

Promotions for gambling appear in stadiums and during broadcasts of matches on fixed and

revolving electronic banners; in commercials before and after matches, and during breaks in

play; and as team sponsorship on uniforms, in locker rooms and on team banners (Thomas,

Lewis et al. 2012, p.147). Gambling advertisements are also often integrated into mobile

applications that many fans use to follow the games on tablets and phones. This means that in

certain games it may be almost impossible for young viewers to avoid seeing gambling

promotions (see Thomas, Lewis et al. 2012). In view of this, some researchers have

expressed concerns that ‘fan support and team loyalty are used to market sports betting

products’, sporting role models are used to endorse these products, and gambling

advertisements are being viewed ‘in environments which are promoted as being “safe,

secure, and family friendly”’ (Thomas, Lewis, et al. 2012, p.146).

Using Australian Football League (AFL) matches as a case study, Thomas, Lewis, et al.

(2012) investigated the frequency, length and content of marketing strategies for sports

betting at two specific settings: i) stadiums during four live matches; and i) during eight

televised broadcasts of matches. AFL matches were selected because i) the AFL has the

highest average sporting match attendance in Australia;1, ii) the AFL promotes a family-

friendly environment at matches; and iii) the AFL and many AFL clubs have sponsorship

alignments with betting providers. The research found that nine wagering brands were

marketed across the two stadiums - Centrebet; TABSportsbet; TAB.com.au; TAB; DeesBet;

21
Sportsbet.com.au; Sportingbet.com.au; Bet24/7; and Betfair, and seven wagering brands

were marketed during broadcasts Centrebet; Tabsportsbet; Bet24/7; Sportingbet;

Sportsbet.com. au; Deesbet; and Crowsbet

This case study provides a detailed example of the extent of saturation marketing of sports

betting. For example, the results of the number of episodes and duration (Thomas, Lewis et

al. 2012 p. 148) showed that per match, there was an average of 58.5 episodes and 341.1

minutes of sports betting marketing at stadiums, and 50.5 episodes and 4.8 minutes during

televised broadcasts. By contrast, there were very few visible or audible messages in relation

to responsible gambling (or Gambler’s Help or similar messages) to counter the information

that individuals received about sports betting during the match.

The three themes that emerged from this content analysis of sports betting marketing showed

the ways in which a diverse range of marketing strategies were used to a) embed sports

betting within the game; b) align sports betting with fans’ overall experiences of the game;

and c) encourage individuals to bet live during the game (Thomas, Lewis et al. 2012 p. 148).

These three themes were found to be present within a range of advertising platforms

including: wagering venues, billboards and signage, scoreboard advertising, television and

big screen commercials, shirt and team sponsorship, and integrated advertising; findings

supported by the work of Hing, Vitartas, and Lamont (2013) in their exploratory study of

gambling sponsorship of sport.

While the study raises important questions about the impacts of saturation, integrated and

impulse gambling marketing strategies at sporting matches, it provides only a “snapshot” of

sports betting marketing during a specific time period. It does not capture how marketing

strategies may vary at different time points during the season; it is based on data collected

only from stadiums in Victoria and leaves unanswered questions as to how different types of

wagering marketing strategies may affect individuals in different ways.

22
 More extensively, in 2013, the Australian Communications and Media Authority (ACMA)

commissioned Newspoll to undertake research on community attitudes to the promotion of

betting odds and advertising for betting agencies during live sport broadcasts and sport-

related television programs. The research was conducted with a nationally representative

sample of 1,225 Australians aged 18 years and over. Interviews were conducted by telephone

as part of a regular Newspoll omnibus survey between 15 and 21 May. To provide context

for the survey, audience data for live sport broadcasts on free-to- air and subscription

television in 2012 was sourced from OzTAM Pty Ltd. Among the key findings, Australians’

interest in sport, the frequency of placing bets on sports events, and perceptions of change in

the levels of advertising of betting odds on viewer/listener experience had all changed over a

12 month period, as had their attitudes toward advertising for betting agencies and support

for restrictions. Similarly, the Herald Sun 7 News Footy Fans Survey Results 2011 reported

responses to the questions (Q.46) ‘Do you think gambling promotion is too intrusive into

AFL broadcasts’: as Yes 63.7%; No 36.3%) and to Q57 ‘How often do you gamble on AFL

games): as Often (monthly) 13.7%; Regularly (weekly) 13.5%; Rarely (yearly) 24.8%; Never

48.0%.

2.1.5 Strategies and Influence of Sports Betting Advertising on Youths Betting Behaviour

Gambling is an important activity that is very common among the youth and serves as

leisure activities which are common throughout the world. The gambling process involves

putting some of small value in an exchange from the greater one in future time. The

outcome of gambling is usually by chance and is not certain (Dikerson et al., 1996).

Gambling is a risky business which is very common among the world of young adult and

the rate at which people are engaging in the activities every day is increasing. Gambling

activities include and not limited to 1960 bets, online gaming, lotteries, and speculation.

Generally, gambling behaviour is not illegal activities, this has increased the prevalence of

23
the activities in the societies and almost all part of the world allows one form of gambling or

the other. Lack of sanction the part of gamblers has pave the way for the introduction of new

forms of gambling activities such as the emergency of 1960 bet in Nigeria.

Today among Nigerian youth 1960 bet is a very popular gambling activity where people

have to predict the out of matches. The higher the number of matches individual predict the

higher the expected outcome if the prediction is right at the end of the match. Due to

technological development, the emergency of new forms of gambling such as online

gambling like 1960 bet, this increase the prevalent of this behaviour in the society as people

just need to sit in their room and apply online for match prediction, this in turn has increases

various implication of gambling among this population (Oyebisi, Alao, &Popoola, 2012).

Gambling behaviour is a big problems among Nigerian youth today, high level of

involvement in gambling may result into problem gambling which is other refers to

gambling addiction, this problems has been reported to predispose youth to various health

related problem such as depression and even to the abuse of psychoactive substances.

Research by Hume (2013) on match-fixing and illegal sports betting discusses the

relationship between professional sports and the gambling industries, noting that in recent

years the relationship between the two sectors has become closer and more complex; that

betting agencies are now major sponsors of a number of sporting teams and individual

athletes and the gambling industry is a major financial contributor to grassroots sporting

clubs throughout Australia. Hume’s (2013) research also highlights the role that technology

has played in eroding national boundaries and creating an international marketplace for

gambling products.

Research, both in Australia and internationally (Hume 2013; Kelly; 2011, Rodenberg and

Kaburakis, 2013), make several key points about the vulnerability of professional sports to

the infiltration of organised criminal groups in relation to sports betting. Their work

24
 discusses the susceptibility of sports to match-fixing and/or organised crime infiltration. For

example, the global nature of sport means that Australian sports and athletes are no longer

protected by geographic isolation, thus exposing sports, athletes, officials and the public to

potential ethical breaches that take place in an international arena. In terms of sports betting

specifically, a principal threat to the integrity of professional sports is the use of inside

information, where an individual might have knowledge of whether a team’s star player is

injured, and placing a large wager on the team losing the match before the injury is made

public (Forest, 2012, Lord, 2013).

2.2 Theoretical Framework

2.2.1 The Social Learning Theory of Gambling

The social learning model of gambling proposes that gambling as a form of behaviour that is

highly subjected to reinforcement and reward. the theory propose that as individual engage in

gambling and such gambling brings high return in term of money, such individual is motivated

and reinforce to participate more in the is behaviour. This reinforcement tends to strengthen the

relationship between gambling and outcome of such gambling (reward). The theory posits that

this reinforcement create a sense of physiological arousal which serves as motivation or

enforcement for an individual to engage in gambling in other to gain more profit. In other

words, as level for return from gambling is encouraging, such individual are engage more in

gambling and may eventually experience gambling addiction at the end. The theory suggests a

strong association between reward and gambling predisposes individual in more gambling

related activities.

Meanwhile Skinner (1953) justifies the claim above when he claimed that the level of individual

participation in gambling related activities is a function of reinforcement history. The

reinforcement history can be explained base on the fact that whether such individual has been

25
making profit from gambling or not. In other word the level of success in the previous gambling

go along way on predicting whether such individual will engage more in gambling at future

time. Further, Custer (1982) also explained that early big reward or win from gambling

predisposes individual to gambling in future tome. Win serves as motivation which improve

individual attitude toward gambling. However, in the case of problem gambling where people

still engage in gambling without despite the fact that they are losing, the explanation for this is

based on the fact that the first reward from gambling create a great and very strong

reinforcement which last long till the person get addicted to gambling.

From the social learning theory explanation, Brown (1987) suggest that there are six major

mechanism which predisposes people to gambling addiction; they are

i. Felling of anxiety or depression

ii. cognitive distortion concerning gambling behaviour

iii. reinforcement schedule

iv. Opportunity and availability of gambling spot

v. Attitude of socio-cultural context toward gambling

vi. Internal relationship

Furthermore, Brown (1987) reiterated that an individual is predisposes to gambling if he/she is

residing in a culture which permit gambling and the attitude of the people toward gambling is

positive. In other word, an individual living in an environment where people are engaging in

gambling, such individual is also expected to join the group and participate in such act. Brown

(1987) also suggests that physiological arousal also motivate an individual to engage in

gambling, Brown claim that internal reinforcement improve the vulnerability of individual to

gambling. The internal urge to gamble according to Brown predisposes individual to engage in

gambling. Gambling availability in Nigeria according to this theory is one of the reasons while

some people may experience gambling and eventually develop a gambling addiction.

26
2.2.2 The Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA)

Fishbein, (1967) suggests that behavior is influenced by one’s intention to perform that behavior

and that one’s intention is influenced by attitudes and perceived subjective norms regarding that

behavior. More recently, an adaptation of the TRA, the theory of planned behavior (TPB; Ajzen

& Fishbein, 1980) added the construct of perceived behavioral control to account for an

individual’s perception of control over behaviors that they might be able to control completely

(Ajzen, 1991).The central factor in the TPB is the individual’s intention to perform a given

behavior, which indicates how hard people are willing to try and how much effort they will

exert to perform a behavior that is under their volitional control (Ajzen, 1991). The theory

postulates three independent determinants of intention: attitude toward the behavior, subjective

norm, and perceived behavioral control. According to the theory, as the attitude, subjective

norm, and perceived behavioral control regarding a behavior become more favorable, so does

the individual’s intention to perform that behavior. Further, according to the TPB, behavioral

intentions positively correlate with participation in the behavior of interest (Ajzen, 1991).

Researchers have examined some components of this process among college student gamblers

(e.g., Larimer & Neighbors, 2003; Moore & Ohtsuka, 1997, 1999; Neighbors et al., 2007). For

example, Moore and Ohtsuka (1997) found that intention to gamble correlated strongly and

positively with both gambling frequency and problem gambling. Furthermore, this study also

showed that intention to gamble was significantly associated with both attitudes and subjective

norms. In addition, Neighbors et al., (2007) found that favorable attitudes toward gambling

correlated with problematic gambling (i.e., gambling frequency, expenditure, and negative

consequences).

2.3 Empirical Review

Few researchers such as Oyebisi, Alao and Popoola (2012), Gupta and Derevensky (2000) and

Wiber and Potenza, (2006) have all carried out empirical research on the concept of gambling.

27
 However findings of some of this work lack generalisation to the population other than which

sampling was selected. For instance, the study of Wiber and Potenza, (2006) was able to

established significant effect of gender and peer group on gambling behaviour, they further

claim that the findings of their study should be interpreted with caution as they suggest more

research should be carried out to established the reliability of their findings.

2.3.1 Gender and Gambling behaviour

Looking at the reviews of empirical studies, it has been reported that gender is an important

determinant of gambling behaviour as gender difference really exist on gambling related

behaviour as well as gambling addiction. Women generally have been reported to participate

less in gabling relate activities when compare to their male counterparts. The findings of

Dickerson et al., (1996) claim that traditionally female tends to be less players when it comes to

predictive behaviour such as gambling Their findings suggest that on average, male tends to

experience higher level of gambling behaviour than their female relative. Furthermore, when it

also comes to problem associated with gambling behaviour, Dickerson et al., (1996) also

suggest that male exhibit significant higher level of gambling addition than their counterparts

that are female.

Their findings suggest that male is more vulnerable to gambling addiction than their female

counterparts. The findings of Heater and Patton(2006) justifies the claim of Dickerson et al.,

(1996) when they reported that male and female are differed when it comes to engagement in

gambling behaviour and vulnerable to gambling addiction. Their study was carried out among

Canadian youth in which the total participants are 97(59 male and 38 female). The findings

suggest that male respondent display significant higher level of gambling behaviour than their

female counterpart. The study indicates that almost 71% of total respondent are experiencing

gambling addiction which has destroy their work and family life. The result of their findings

28
 shows that significant higher numbers of male are engaging in gambling in bars, hotels and

restaurant than their female respondent. Their findings are able to prove the validity and

reliability of past studies such as the work of Dickerson et al., (1996).

Meanwhile, when it comes to problem gambling treatment, female has been reported to show

fewer interests in solving the problem related to gambling addiction. However, this gap in

treatment of addiction has been reported to be diminishing as more female are now requesting

for rehabilitation programme to cure their addiction to gambling. Furthermore, more empirical

explanation for problem gambling has indicated that there is only weak correlation on the

relationship between gender and gambling behaviour. The findings of Loughan et al., (1996)

reported that women engage in problem gambling to fight off stress and while men engage in

gambling to make extra money, in other words, men are more vulnerable to problem gambling

than female but the difference is very weak. Gambling for many people are perceived as a

source of fun which people engage in to boost their morale and to catch fun, in other word, both

men and women tend to engage in this form of recreational activity.

2.3.2 Socio economic Status and gambling behaviour

Based on the review of empirical literature, socioeconomic status has been reported to be related

to gambling behaviour. People from low socioeconomic status have been reported to be

vulnerable to gambling than their counterparts from high socioeconomic status. The reason for

this being that, gambling is perceived as a source of income to people that belong to low

socioeconomic background than those from high socioeconomic background. Therefore,

gamblers from poor family background are also more vulnerable to gambling addiction than

their counterpart from High socioeconomic status. Furthermore, Those people from low

socioeconomic backgrounds who can afford to gamble risk the problem of getting addicted to

gambling which may have detrimental effect to their work and family life,

29
2.3.3 Peer Group and gambling behaviour

Peer group has been also suggested to be a significant determinant of gambling behaviour

among youth. An individual that is associated with friend that participate in gambling are also

vulnerable to gambling related activities. This can be justifying based on the fact that an

individual who fail to conform to group norms may face social rejected and finally evicted from

the group. Peer pressure exert big influence on an individual, because of fair of social rejection,

individual is expected to follow the group rules including behaviour which may be detrimental

to their work-life and family relations such as gambling.

2.4 Influence of gambling advertising and marketing on youth gambling

Most concerns about wagering marketing relate to its recent proliferation during televised

sporting events. Sports broadcasts are exempt from a prohibition on gambling advertisements

during general television viewing times. Consequently, many young people are exposed to

gambling promotions, with an estimated 39,000 minors typically watching each live sports

broadcast in Australia, and around 50,000 minors watching a Friday night NRL game (JSCGR,

2013). Further, AFL is one of the three most watched television programs by children under 14

years, with some televised sports attracting a larger audience of children than do dedicated

children’s programs (JSCGR, 2013). A non-representative survey of 131 Queensland

adolescents aged 12-17 years (Hing, Vitartas et al., 2014a) found that 31% watched televised

NRL games and 18% watched televised AFL games at least weekly. Further, watching

televised sport containing embedded gambling promotions with children aged 0-5 years was

reported by 11% of adults, 22% of sports bettors and 14% of adolescent survey respondents in

Queensland (Hing, Vitartas et al., 2014a). Higher proportions of adults (14%), sports bettors

(25%) and adolescents (34%) watched these televised sports with children aged 6-11 years.

Watching with adolescents aged 12-17 years was more frequent, reported by 21% of adults,

30% of sports bettors and 73% of adolescents.

30
 However, one study has questioned this level of youth exposure to gambling marketing during

sport. Its analysis of television viewership of sports compared to the market for advertising

found that Australian football telecasts did not overexpose children and adolescents to risky

products, including gambling (Fujak & Frawley, 2014). People under the age of 18 were

underrepresented in football viewership (NRL and AFL), accounting for 10% of the audience

despite representing approximately 22% of the Australian population. Exposure to risky

products (gambling, alcohol, and fast food) ranged near 2.5 and 3.5 minutes of advertising

exposure per hour of content in the AFL and NRL games analysed. However, this analysis did

note that gambling advertising was significantly distinct from other products through the

presence of paid-for, in-broadcast content and extensive use of animated television graphics

during play. This included pregame and half-time odds updates, and sponsorship of in-game

events including ‘Keno Man of the Match’ and ‘Keno Replay’. These types of advertising

arguably have a greater ability to engage the audience (Fujak & Frawley, 2014).

2.4.1 Concerns about youth exposure to gambling marketing

Researchers have raised concerns about the impact of gambling advertising on youth,

particularly sports betting marketing, because of its potential to normalise gambling. Monaghan

and Derevensky (2008) argued that gambling is portrayed inaccurately in the media to the

extent that it normalises gambling and fails to highlight the potential effects of problem

gambling. They contended that sports betting might be perceived as less harmful than other

gambling forms because sport is ‘healthy’. Others have noted that the ‘gamblification of sport’

(McMullan, 2011, p. 4) may transfer images associated with sport to gambling, promoting

youth attitudes that gambling is healthy, fun and harmless (Hing et al., 2013; Hing, Vitartas et

al., 2014a; Lamont et al., 2011). Further, linking gambling sponsorship with beloved sports and

teams casts gambling in a positive light (Lamont et al., 2011). Monaghan et al. (2008) drew

31
parallels from research on tobacco and alcohol marketing to highlight the potential negative

impacts of gambling advertisements on young people and provided recommendations to

minimise harms.

Broader community concerns are also apparent. Numerous submissions to the JSCGR Inquiry

into the Advertising and Promotion of Gambling Services in Sport (2013) raised concerns about

the normalising influence of gambling promotions during sporting events, with children

exposed to the promotion of an adult product in an environment promoted as family friendly.

Australian sports viewers in focus groups have also expressed strong reservations about the

potential effects of these promotions on minors because they may normalise sports betting and

gambling, with some questioning the morality of positioning gambling as harmless fun (Hing,

Vitartas et al., 2014a).

A further concern is that children are likely to be absorbing the promoted messages and may be

unable to distinguish between the advertising and the game, shaping the attitudes of children

and young people to accept gambling as an integral component of sport (Australian

Psychological Society, 2013). Media literature notes the general impressionability of youth,

their sensitivity to peer and media influences, and that adolescence is a time of socialisation,

identity formation, gender role learning and establishment of attitudes, values and beliefs

(Arnett, 1995; Larson & Richards, 1994). Thus, gambling attitudes and intentions can be

shaped during adolescent socialisation through a process of social learning (Bandura, 1986).

Moreover, studies on the impact of advertising on young people suggest that they are more

susceptible to influence. Derevensky, Sklar, Gupta and Messerlian (2010) reported that

gambling advertisements highlight fun, excitement, high success, and wealth and also that they

have a greater impact on older adolescents. Similarly, Fried, Teichman and Rahav (2010) found

that exposure to advertising has a significant impact on gambling behaviour among those aged

16-19 years.

32
 Concerns have also been raised that these promotions may also be increasing the risk of youth

initiation of gambling and subsequent problem gambling development (Derevensky et al., 2010;

Hing et al., 2013; Hing, Vitartas et al., 2014b; Lamont et al., 2011). Hunt argues that ‘by

normalising wagering associated with sports, there is a high risk that the prevalence of problem

gambling will increase as generations who have grown up with ubiquitous discussions of

gambling around sport reach the legal gambling age’ (Hunt, 2013, p. 3). Further, youth receive

few counter-messages. Although gambling advertisements in commercial breaks contain

mandated responsible gambling messages, these are generally relatively hidden and are likely to

have a minimal effect on consumers (McMullen, 2011). Further, these messages do not appear

when promotions are embedded into sports broadcasts.

Studies suggest that 85% of adolescents will have gambled by the time they are 18 years old,

although these results are generally based on non-representative samples. Levels of estimated

problem gambling among adolescents are generally higher than for adult populations, ranging

from 4%-8%, two to four times the adult population rates, with a further 10%-15% of

adolescents who could be at-risk for gambling problems (Derevensky & Gupta, 2004). Similar

rates of adolescent gambling and related problems have been found in Australian studies

(Delfabbro & Thrupp, 2003). Thus, youth are a vulnerable population for gambling problems.

2.4.2 Youth responses to gambling marketing

The recent Queensland study (Hing, Vitartas et al., 2014a, 2014b) that surveyed 131

adolescents in 2012, prior to the ban on promotion of live betting odds during play, found that

over two-fifths (42%) could recall at least one gambling brand from watching televised sport

and most held negative attitudes towards these promotions. Over one-half disapproved of live

studio crosses to gambling operators to discuss betting odds, celebrity endorsement of

gambling, on-screen displays of live betting odds, in- match commentary about betting odds,

33
on-screen displays of gambling logos and websites, pre-match commentary on betting odds,

gambling advertisements in commercial breaks, promotion of novelty bets, and gambling logos

on players uniforms. On average, the adolescents marginally agreed that the promotions made

gambling and sports betting seem like something most people do, and substantial minorities

agreed that these promotions encouraged them to bet on sport. Intention to bet on sports once

18 years of age was predicted by male gender and having a positive attitude to gambling

sponsors and to the promotion of gambling during sport. Attitudes of friends and families and

exposure to promotions during televised sport did not predict intention to bet on sports.

However, more positive subjective norms about sports betting from friends and family did

partially predict participant’s intention to bet on other gambling forms. These results provide

some support for reducing promotion of sports betting during sports broadcasts, but also

indicate that personal and environmental variables moderate the impact of these promotions on

betting intention.

Another Australian study of 228 children (aged 4-15 years) found that three-quarters could

correctly assign at least one sponsor to at least one sport or sporting team (Pettigrew, Ferguson

& Rosenberg, 2012). The children had strong recall for previous sponsors, indicating the

enduring impacts of brand association. For most sports, gambling brands had achieved a

comparable level of association with alcohol brands and many children endorsed gambling

brands not specifically associated with a team, demonstrating transference from other

advertising. A related survey was completed by 209 adults at sporting events, almost half of

whom had a child under 15 years of age (Pettigrew, Ferguson & Rosenberg, 2013). Almost

two-thirds reported concern about gambling companies sponsoring community events (62%)

and elite sports (63%), while over three-quarters (77%) were concerned about gambling

companies sponsoring children’s sport. Respondents were more concerned about sponsorship

by gambling companies than by alcohol or unhealthy food companies. Younger respondents

34
were less concerned than older respondents. More than half of respondents believed that

children were influenced by sponsorship, 67% supported restrictions on sponsorship of elite

sports, and 77% supported restrictions on sponsorship of children’s sport by companies that

promote gambling. This was significantly higher than support for restrictions on alcohol and

unhealthy food and drink companies and again younger respondents were less supportive of

restrictions. These results demonstrate high levels of community concern about the sponsorship

of community and sporting events by gambling companies.

35
 CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

This chapter shall contain the research methodology and will be divided into sub-sections ranging

from research design, population of the study, sampling size and sampling technique, method of data

collection and method of data analysis.

3.2 Research Design

The survey research design will be adopted.

3.3 Population of the Study

The category of people considered as eligible participants in the study were youths in Jos City. The

study participants Youths were chosen due to the proximity to the researcher in order to examine the

betting behavior exhibited by the youths.

3.4 Sampling Size & Sampling Techniques

The sample of the study is expected to consist of one-hundred and thirty youths in Jos City. One

hundred and thirty (130) respondents will be selected in order to have a quantifiable representation

of the youths i.e. 5% of the total population. In this study, non- random convenient sampling will be

used to select respondents in this study. The sample will consist both male and female. Therefore,

the degree of representativeness of it is not known and caution should be used before generalizing

the results to all youths’ populations.

36
3.5 Method of Data Collection

The data collection technique to be used in gathering information on the determinant and perception

of sports betting behaviour among youths is the Questionnaire. Questionnaire is a primary source of

data. It’s important to note that questionnaires translate the research objectives into specific

questions, and in most cases, it gives a level of accuracy in the collection of information.

3.6 Method of Data Analysis

The method of analysis adopted for this study is the frequency and percentages under the univariate

level of analysis, and chi- square analysis under the bivariate level of analysis to analyzing the

quantitative data that were obtain from the field. The Statistical Package for Social Scientist (SPSS)

Version 22 will be used in the running and analyzing of data.

37
 CHAPTER FOUR

DATA ANALYSIS, PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Results

Table 4.1: Socio-economic Characteristics of the Respondents in the Study Area

Variables Frequency Percentage %
Sex
Male 107 82.3
Female 23 17.7
Age
15-20 17 13.1
21-26 51 39.1
31-36 43 33.1
37 and above 19 14.6
Marital Status
Single 94 72.3
Married 21 16.2
Divorced 8 6.2
Widowed 19 14.6
Educational Qualification
Non-Formal 9 6.9
Primary 28 21.5
Secondary 14 10.8
Tertiary 79 60.8
Occupation
Student 41 31.5
Applicant 61 46.9
Business 20 15.4
Civil Servant 8 6.2
Parent’s Income Status
Average 25 19.2
Low 78 60
Moderate 22 16.9
High 5 3.8
Total 130 100%
Source: Field Survey, 2019.

In respect of gender distribution, 107 respondents equaling (82.3%) are male while 23 respondents

representing (17.7%) are female as seen in table 4.1. Looking at the figures in the table, majority of

the respondents are males this is because majority of the people exposed to sports betting activities

38
are the males. In terms of age distribution, Table 1 shows that most of the respondents are within the

age bracket of 21-26. This is connected to the fact that 51 respondents representing (39.2%) fall

within the age bracket of 21-26. Looking at the table very closely, we can see that about 43

respondents representing (33.1%) fall within the age bracket of 31-36 years. Also, 17 respondents

representing 13.1% fall within the age bracket of 15-20 while 19 respondents representing (14.6%)

fall between the age bracket of 37 and above years of age. Going by this, it can be projected that

most of the respondents at Jos City belong to active class because two ages (21-26 and 31-36 years)

had the highest frequencies represent (72.3%) of the total respondents.

In terms of marital status, 94 respondents with (72.3%) are single, 21 respondents with (16.2%) are

married, 8(6.2%) are divorced while 7 respondents with (5.4%) are widowed. This result revealed

that most of the respondents are single. Table 4.1 also shows that 9 respondents representing (6.9%)

had non-formal education, 28 respondents with (21.5%) have been into primary school, 14

respondents with (10.8%) had secondary school level certificate while 79 respondents representing

(60.8%) had attained tertiary educational level. These results revealed that most of the respondents

are educated. Table 4.1 further depicts that 41 respondents representing (31.5%) are students, 61

respondents representing (46.9%) are applicants who just completed their tertiary education, 20

respondents representing 15.4 percent are into business while only 8 (6.2%) are civil servants. This

indicates that majority of the respondents are either students or applicants and are unemployed.

Finally, table 1 depicts that most of the respondent’s parents are low income earners. This is

connected to the fact that 78 respondents representing (60%) are low income earners. Looking at the

table very closely, we can see also that 25 respondents representing 19.2% are average income

earners, 22(16.9%) are moderate while only few (5) respondents representing 3.8 percent are high

income earners. This indicates that majority of the respondents are from poor family background

which had to gamble or bet to upgrade their standard of living or make money.

Figure 1: Sex

39
 Sex
Male Female

18%

82%

Table 4.2: Have you ever gambled or bet?

Options Frequency Percentage %

Yes 118 90.8
No 12 9.2
Total 130 100%
Source: Field Survey, 2019.
Table 4.2 above clearly states that majority of the respondents representing 90.8% have ever

gambled, stake or place a bet on sporting activities while only few 12(9.2%) have never participated

in any gambling activity. This is an indication that Youths in Jos City are into sport betting activity.

Figure 2: Have you ever gambled or bet?

40
 Have you ever bet?

9%

Yes
No

91%

Table 4.3: Reasons for Gambling or Sports Betting

Reasons Frequency Percentage %

I thought it would be exciting 24 18.5
To make money 90 69.2
I thought it would be fun/entertaining 9 6.9
I wanted to see what it was like 7 5.4
Total 130 100%
Source: Field Survey, 2019.

Table 4.3 above depicts that 90 respondents representing 69.2% engaged in sports betting or

gambling to make money, 24 respondents representing 18.5% bet because they thought it would be

exciting, 9(6.%) thought it would be fun/entertaining while only (7) respondents representing 5.4

percent bet to see what it was like. This is an indication that majority of the respondents engaged in

sports betting activities to make money.

Figure 3: Reasons for engaging in sports betting

41
 70

60

50

40

30 Reasons

20

10

0
I thought it To make money I thought it I wanted to see
would be would be what it was like
exciting fun/entertaining

Table 4.4: Various Sports Betting Advertising Media exposed by Youths in the Study Area

Media Frequency Percentage %

Posters/Billboards 12 9.2
Social Media 36 27.7
Betting website(Bet9ja, SportyBets, BetKing, Bet365 etc) 27 20.8
Television 43 33.1
Newspaper/Magazine 12 9.2
Total 130 100%
Source: Field Survey, 2019.

Table 4.4 above was designed to elicit respondents on the various betting advertising media exposed

by youths in the study area and the result reveals that 12 respondents representing 9.2% are exposed

to billboards and posters, 36 respondents representing 27.7% are exposed to sports betting

advertising on social media. Also, 27(20.8%) are exposed to sports betting advertising on the various

sports betting websites such as Bet9ja, BetKing, Bet365 etc. Others see sports betting advertisements

on Television (36(33.1%) and 9.2% of the respondents have been seeing sports betting advertisings

on newspapers and magazines. This is an indication that majority of the respondents are always to

sports betting advertisements on TV; this is connected to the fact that all betting shops have TV and

42
majority of the betters are sports fans and lovers who like to follow their clubs and watch their

matches regularly on TV.

Figure 4: Various Sports Betting Advertising Media exposed by Youths in the Study Area

Media
Television Social Media Betting Website Posters/Billboards Newspaper/Magazine

9%
9% 33%

21%

28%

43
Table 4.5: Responses on Methods of Sports Betting Participation by respondents in the Study
Area

Options Frequency Percentage %

Personally placing a bet at a betting shop 72 55.4
Personally visiting a betting shop to play 18 13.8
gaming machines
Betting website/applications where you can 40 30.8
win real money
Total 130 100%
Source: Field Survey, 2019.

Table 4.5 above was designed to seek respondents view on methods use to place a bet in the study

area and the result shows that 72 respondents representing 55.4% personally placed a bet at a betting

shop, 18 respondents representing 13.8% personally visits a betting shop to play gaming machines

(virtual) while 40 respondents representing 30.8% engaged in sports betting activities on their laptop

computers or smartphones using the betting websites or applications where they can win real money.

This is an indication that majority of the youths who engaged in sports betting activities does it by

visiting the bet shops or by visiting the betting websites to win real money. This is connected to the

fact that when you visit a betting shop you will meet with well experienced betters who will help you

win more money.

44
Figure 5: Methods of Sports Betting

Methods

Betting website/applications

Visiting a betting shop to play gaming

Methods
machines

Placing a bet at a betting shop

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

Table 4.6: Frequency of Youth exposure to Sports Betting Advertising in the Study Area

Options Frequency Percentage %

Daily 18 13.8
Thrice a week 68 52.3
Twice a week 25 19.2
Once in a week 7 5.4
Once in two weeks 12 9.2
Total 130 100%
Source: Field Survey, 2019.

Table 4.6 was designed to elicit information from the respondents on the frequency of their exposure

to sports betting in the study area and the result highlights that 18 respondents representing 13.8%

are exposed to the daily, 68 respondents representing 52.3% see adverts on sports betting thrice a

week, 25(19.2%) are exposed to it twice a week, 7(5.4%) are exposed to it once in a week while 12

respondents representing 9.2% are exposed to it once in two weeks. This is an indication that

majority of the youths in Jos City are exposed to sports betting adverts thrice in a week. This is in

connection to the fact that major football leagues ranging from the Premier League, Laliga, UEFA

45
Champions League etc are played more than three times in a week which enable the youths to be

exposed to adverts.

Figure 6: Frequency of Youth exposure to Sports Betting Advertising in the Study Area

Frequency

70
60
50
Axis Title

40
30
20
10
0
Daily Thrice a week Twice a week Once in a Once in two
week weeks
Axis Title

Table 4.7: Responses on the Influence of the Advertising Campaigns on Betting Behaviours of
the Youths in Jos City

Influence Frequency Percentage %

Prompted me to start betting 73 56.2
Increase the amount I stake 24 18.5
Didn’t change the amount that I stake 22 16.9
Don’t know/can’t remember 11 8.5
Total 130 100%
Source: Field Survey, 2019.

Table 4.7 seeks to obtain data on the influence of advertising campaigns on betting behaviors of

youths in Jos City and the result, reveals that 73 respondents representing 56.2% said that the adverts

has prompted them to start betting, 24 respondents representing 18.5% said that the adverts increased

the amount they staked, 22(16.9) percent said the advert didn’t change the amount they staked while

46
11(8.5%) said they don’t know or can’t remember. This is an indication that an advert campaign on

sports betting has influenced betting behaviors of youths in Jos City. This is not unconnected to the

fact that advert campaigns on sports betting always display the winning side of betting which is

attracting youths to try so as to win real money.

Figure 7: Influence of Sports Betting Advertising on Youths Betting Behaviour

Influence

80
70
60
50
Axis Title

40
30
20
10
0
Prompted me Increase the Didn't change Don't
to start betting amount I stake the amount I know/can't
stake remember
Influence 73 24 22 11

47
Table 4.8: Responses on the Perception of the Youths on Sports Betting Advertising in Jos
Metropolis

Scale SA(4) A(3) SD(2) D(1) TOTAL

Very effective 84 40 5 1 130

Effective 102 22 4 2 130

Less effective 14 2 105 9 130

Not effective - - 125 5 130

Source: Field Survey, 2019.

It is very clear from the above table (Table 4.8) that a vast majority of the respondents agreed that

the sports betting advertising have been effective in their role in increasing betting behavior among

youths in Jos City.

4.2 Discussion of Findings

Data in Table 1 described the socio-economic characteristics of the respondents and the results

depicts that majority (82.3%) are male, fall with the age bracket of 15-36 (92.8%), single (72.3%),

had attained at least tertiary educational level (60.8%), unemployed (46.8%) and still students

(31.5%). Results also revealed in Table 1 that majority of the respondents’ parent’s income is very

low. The socio-economic characteristics thus have a very significant role to play in the betting

behavior of youths in Jos City. This finding agreed with the findings of Thomas, Lewis, Duong and

McLeod (2012), who suggested that there were very clear demographics and motivations associated

with sports betting; that it was regarded as a considerable and growing threat to the probity of sport

more broadly and that the saturation marketing of advertising, marketing and the promotion of

betting at sports fixtures (both televised and live) had fundamentally altered the experience of

watching sport for spectators.

This finding also concurred with the findings of Alegwu and Osariemen (2018) highlighted that of

the 53 African countries, Nigeria is undoubtedly the largest market by virtue of its population

making it the preferred investment destination for most gaming companies. Because of this, a

48
number of Nigerians (both in rural and urban areas) have been attracted to gambling because they

believe that they will gain economically (getting money) and socially (entertainment) [The Nigeria

Gaming Industry, 2018, Agbala, 2016, Maikori, 2016 and Kamara, 2015]. According to a high

school gambling fact sheet in the USA, “Approximately 4-5% of youth have a gambling problem

and 10 14% are at risk of developing an addiction. Many of the youth gamble occasionally for fun.

The study further reports that 60-80% of high school students have ever gambled”(Masaba, Johnson,

Blaszczynski and Kuka (2015). Nigerians are often observed loitering around sports betting shops

and outlets attempting to place bets on respective teams. They do so by reviewing odds provided by

online bookmarkers and studying the past team performances. Local sports radio and television

commentaries are including information on the best odds available and how betters should place

bets. The most common form of gambling among Nigerians is betting on foreign football games.

Slot machines are also becoming popular only that they do not offer diversity and gamblers assert

they have less chances of winning as compared to sports betting.

Sports Betting Research (2015) also highlighted that there was a very clear, identified demographic

or market for sports betting (i.e. male, younger, higher socio-economic status, employed full time,

better educated, with access to the Internet). Research also shows that there were two inter-related

groups deemed to be potentially “at risk” of harms associated with sports betting – young men and,

longer term, children and adolescents; and there were strong associations with changing

technologies, accessibility, and the (global) expansion of sports betting into new and current

markets.

Also Gainsbury, Russell, Hing, Wood, Lubman and Blasczynski (2013) argued that the rise of on-

line betting on sport, and its promotion, has been greeted with considerable levels of public concern,

in which the relationship between gambling exposure and participation is seen to pose several

implications for sport, health and well-being and social policy. Research showed that the

accessibility of the technology and the increasing presence of the televised promotion of live-odds

49
betting during broadcasts of football and cricket matches (particularly during weekend day time

television slots) led to a Joint Parliamentary Select Committee review into the advertising and

promotion of gambling in sport in some countries. The report suggested that a precautionary

approach should be adopted, during which time more research could be undertaken into the effects

of gambling advertising on children. Alongside this, financial counsellors have warned of an

increase in problems associated with on-line sports betting, particularly among young men.

Furthermore, it is found in this study that sports betting advertising has been extensively exposed to

youths in Jos City, Plateau State, Nigeria. The various sports betting media exposed by the youths

include Television, Social Media, Betting Websites, Posters/Billboards and Newspapers and

Magazines. These findings are based on data contained in Table 4. Table 4 revealed that all 130

(100%) respondents were conversant with sports betting advertisings as adopted by the various

media channels in the study area. The data showed that all respondents are exposed to one form of

sports betting advertising or the other either on TV, Social Media, and internet etc. The finding

collaborate Horn’s (2011), assertion that the rise and expansion of the Internet and associated media

platforms and technologies (i.e. TV, phones and tablet “apps”) led to sports betting shifting more and

more on-line.

It is also found from data on Table 7 that sports betting advertising media influenced the betting

behaviours of youths in a variety of ways in Jos City, Plateau State, Nigeria. The various ways of

sports betting advertisements influence were prompted the youths to start betting which have

respondents of 73(56.2%) attesting to, while 24(18.5%) respondents noted that the sports betting

advertisings on media influenced them to increase the amount they stake. However, collected data

also showed that youths perceived influence of the sports betting advertisings to be effective. This

finding is in agreement with the findings of Mwiti (2017) who asserted that gambling advertising

creates a subtle belief in people that they can win. This belief consequently engenders the intent to

gamble. Subjects exposed to gambling advertising are more likely to have a higher intent to gamble

50
than those not exposed to gambling advertising. Gambling advertising presents a one-sided narrative

that focuses on winning, thereby casting blinkers on the adverse effects of gambling (Mwiti, 2017).

Thomas, Lewis, and Westburg (2012) also perceived that the saturation of the sporting experience

through betting related advertising had (negatively) altered the experience of watching sport, by

aligning sports betting with fans’ overall experiences of a game and encouraging individuals to bet

live during the game; there was some evidence that marketing messages about “risky” products at

major sporting events (i.e. unhealthy foods and alcohol) need to include messages about gambling

and sports betting more particularly.

51
 CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Summary

This project entitled the influence of sports betting advertising on the betting behavior of youths in

Jos city, was carried out to describe the socio-economic characteristics of respondents, ascertain the

various media advert campaigns exposed to youths in the study area, access the influence of the

advert campaign on the betting behavior of the youths and examine the perception of youths towards

sports betting advertisements.

The project was divided into chapters and sub-sections with headings for easy understanding and

absorption. Chapter one contained the background to the study, statement of the problem, research

questions, objectives of the study, significance of the study and scope and limitation of the study etc.

The chapter two of the project captures the relevant and recent literatures on sports betting

advertisements and it was sub-divided into empirical review, theoretical framework and conceptual

framework and summary of relevant literatures.

The methodology ranging from research design, study area, sampling size and technique, population

of the study, method of data collection and method of data analysis were captured in Chapter three of

the project.

Notwithstanding, the data analysis, presentation and discussion were in chapter four while the

summary, conclusion and recommendations were highlighted in chapter five of the project. The

preliminaries, references and appendices were also captured.

52
5.2 Conclusion

Advertising is a communication tool for marketing, public relations and promotional management,

social and political mobilization. It is the primary source of revenue for the mass media in a free

market economy. It has not only become an integral part of the man’s social, political and economic

life but has also grown both business activity and as a profession. This project has described a

number of influences of advertising on sports betting in Jos City. Among other things, evidence has

been presented for the influences such as prompted individuals to start betting activities and make

them to increase the money they stake. Intensive longitudinal field studies of economic, social and

demographic changing patterns of sports betting in a variety of cultural milieus are necessary,

however, if we are to understand fully the implications of changing sports betting conditions. The

need for comparative research-albeit time consuming and inconvenient required particular emphasis.

We need to know what strategies communities, government, households and individuals play and

pursue following changes in sports betting in their area in comparison to other areas. Such research

is vital to a deeper knowledge of the changes in sports betting, factors responsible and implications

for developmental processes. Only then can we begin to appreciate the real contribution of

advertisings in our socio-economic development.

5.3 Recommendations

Based on the findings, it is recommended that sports betting are incessant quest for wealth due to

high rate of unemployment, poverty and pathological gambling. This is because to be poor is to be

powerless. It also means being despised and looked down upon. It means being treated unfairly.

Most significantly, it means lacking things that translate into good physical and mental health. This

has led to increased crime rate and other social vices yearly in Nigeria and may continue because

gamblers are advised to gamble responsibly by the gambling firms rather than to abstain. Nigeria

presently ranks tops among African countries with the highest number of gamblers related to online

gambling and this may continue due to lack of policy to check the vices associated with gambling

53
and Nigerians gullibility to gambling and lottery schemes. Most gambling and lottery schemes are

not regulated and the firms are increasingly campaigning for moderate gambling among gamblers,

while at the same time promote their product on and offline to the public who easily fall prey due to

incessant quest for wealth and gullibility.

The implications of pathological gambling cannot be denied in the present world. It has social,

health, economic, psychological and many other implications. In Nigeria, high prevalence and

overindulgence in gambling activities has been linked to an increase in crime and social vices

(having been in a physical fight, tobacco use, not always driving within the speed limit, sexual risk

behavior, etc.) in our communities and this is almost a daily occurrence in most Nigerian higher

institutions. In many schools, in Nigeria, cult clashes have been on the increase and youths cruelly

maim their rivals with dangerous weapons. This has been linked to the fact that alcohol is

hazardously used and overindulgence in gambling activities among Nigerian youths, including

undergraduates as drinking joints and sports betting shops are strategically located in and around

schools. There is also increasing violence and suicides cases in many communities linked to

intemperate and addictive gambling and many incidences of wife battery and familial violence.

Though moderate gambling may not significantly increase crime or bankruptcy but instead

significantly increases per-capita spending, income, and employment. The impacts of gambling can

be group into two forms i.e., economic (increased government revenue, increased public services,

moderate regulating costs and positive or negative impacts on gambling businesses) and social

(increased gambling, crime, social inequality and increased negative attitude towards gambling).

Given Nigeria’s economy and the high rates of unemployment and poverty, it would be informative

to investigate the similarities and differences in gambling impacts compared to developed western

countries. For example, our respondents suggested that gambling improves the overall socio-

economic health of the community and provides benefits at the individual and socio-economic

levels. There is no doubt that gambling beyond personally affordable levels results in a multitude of

54
harms at individual, familial and societal strata. These include mental health (affective disorders,

substance abuse, stress-related symptoms), marital/family dysfunction (conflict, separation/divorce,

domestic violence), finances (debts), employment and productivity (absenteeism, loss of

employment), and legal (criminal offences). There may be cultural differences in terms of being

more vulnerable to begin gambling and to develop problem or pathological gambling, and that

familial/genetic, sociological, and individual factors play a role in the development and maintenance

of problem gambling.

55
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