Electricity

Topics
Fundamental of Electricity

Electric Charge
 The Atom

An atom is a fundamental unit of matter

made up of

- protons (with positive charge)

- neutrons (neutral - no charge)
- electrons (with negative charge)

Nucleus = proton + neutron

There are two kind of electric charge, namely the positive charge
and the negative charge.

Like charge repel each other.

Unlike charge attract each other.

A neutral body can be attracted by another body which has either

positive or negative charge.
A neutral body can be attracted by another
body which has either positive or negative
charge.
SI unit of electric charge is Coulomb (C).

Example
-19
Charge of 1 electron = -1.6 x 10 C
Charge of 1 proton = +1.6 x 10 C-19
 Charge and Relative Charge

RELATIVE
PARTICLE CHARGE
CHARGE

ELECTRON -1 -1.6 x 10-19C

PROTON +1 +1.6 x 10-19C

ALUMINIUM ION +3 3 x +1.6 x 10-19C

OXYGEN ION -2 2 x -1.6 x -19

10 C
 Electric Charge

Electric Charge is given the symbol

Q
Electrons are the charge carriers that flow in an
electrical circuit - from the negative to positive
terminals.
 Sum of Charge

Sum of charge
= number of charge particles × charge of 1
particle

Q = ne
Example:

Find the charge of 2.5 x 1019 electrons.

(Charge of 1 electron is -1.6 x 10-19C)

Answer:
Number of electrons, n = 2.5 x 1019
Charge of 1 electron, e = -1.6 x 10-19C

Q = ne
Q = (2.5×1019) (−1.6×10−19)
Q = −4C
Fundamental of Electricity

Electric Current
 What is electricity?

Everything is made of atoms which contain POSITIVE particles called

PROTONS and NEGATIVE particles called ELECTRONS.

An atom will usually have the same number of positive and negatives
particles.

This makes the atom neutral.

 What is electricity?

In some materials, particularly metals, the electrons

farthest from the nucleus are not bound to a particular
atom - they can move freely from one atom to another.

Electricity is the flow of these free electrons in a wire.

 Electric Current

Good conductors allow

electrons to move through
them easily.

Insulators do not allow

electrons to move easily.
 Electric Current

Electric Current consists of a flow of electrons.

The more charges that flow through a cross section

within a given time, the larger the current.
Electrons have a negative charge (Q) measured
in Coulombs (C).

Electrons move round a circuit from negative to

positive (remember like charges repel, opposite
attract), giving rise to an electric current.
 So electricity is:

movement of electrons of flow of charge round a circuit.

We call this electric current.

 Charge, Current & Time

Electric Current is given the symbol

I
Electric current is a flow of negative charges
(electrons) in a conductor.
Current Direction

Conventionally, the
direction of the
electric current is
taken to be the flow
of positive charge.

The electron flow is

in opposite direction
to that of the
conventional current.
 Charge, Current & Time

Electric Current is the rate of flow of charges OR the

amount of charge flowing per second and is given
the unit:

Amps (A)
 Electric Current

Unit for Electric Current is Ampere (A)

I=Q/t
I = current
Q = Quantity of charges (Coulombs)
t = time (second)

1 Ampere is 1 Coulomb of electric charge, C in 1 second.

Current is the measure of how fast the charge flow through

a cross section of a conductor.
Example 1:

If 30 C of electric charge flows past a point in a wire in 2 minutes,

what is the current in the wire?

Answer:
Charge flow, Q = 30C
Time taken, t = 2 minutes = 120s

Current,
I = Q/t
I = 30/120
I = 0.25A
Example 2:
Current of 0.5A flowed through a bulb. How many electrons had flowed
through the bulb in 5 minute? (The charge of 1 electron is equal to -
1.6×10-19 C)

Answer:
Current, I = 0.5A
Time taken, t = 5 minutes = 300s
I = Q/t
Q = It
Q = (0.5)(300) = 150C

Charge of 1 electron, e = -1.6×10-19 C

Number of electrons, n = ?

Q = ne
n = Q/e
n = 150/1.6×10−19 = 9.375×1020
Example 4
Given that the potential difference across a bulb is 240V and the
current that flow through the bulb is 0.25A. Find the energy
dissipated in the bulb in 30s.

Answer:
Formula of current,
I=Q/t
hence
Q = It

Energy dissipated,
E = QV
E = (It)V
E = (0.25)(30)(240)
E = 1800J
Fundamental of Electricity

Electric Field
 An electric field is a region in which an electric charged particle
experiences an electric force.

Electric field is represented by a number of lines with arrows, called

electric lines of force or electric field lines.

The direction of the field at a point is defined by the direction of the

electric force exerted on a positive test charge placed at that point.
The direction of the field at a point is defined by the direction
of the electric force exerted on a positive test charge placed
at that point.

+ F
Electric Field Pattern
The strength of the electric field is indicated by how close the field
lines are to each other.

The closer the field lines, the stronger the electric field in that
region.
The lines of force are directed outwards for a positive charge and
inwards for a negative charge.

The electric line of force will never cross each other.

 Activity to observe the pattern of electric fields

When the power supply is turned on, the talcum powder will map the
electrical field lines
• Sesame oil is used because it conducts electricity only at extremely
high potential difference
• The density of the field lines represent the intensity of the electric field
Candle in the electric field

Heat energy from the candle

flame produces ionization of air
molecules to form positive and
negative ions.

Movement of positive ions which

are heavier towards the negative
plate causes a bigger spread of
the flame.

Negative ions which are lighter

move towards the positive plate
and causing a smaller spread of
the flame.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a7_8Gc_Llr8
Effect Of Electric Field On A Ping Pong Ball Coated With
Conducting Material
 A ping ball coated with conducting material is hung by a nylon thread.
When the ping pong ball is placed in between 2 plates connected to a Extra High Tension (E.H.T.) power supply,
opposite charges are induced on the surface of the ball. The ball will still remain stationary. This is because the
force exert on the ball by the positive plate is equal to the force exerted on it by the negative plate.

If the ping pong ball is displaced to the right to touch the positive plate, it will then be charged with positive
charge. Since like charges repel, the ball will be pushed towards the negative plate.
When the ping pong ball touches the negative plate, it will be charged with negative charge. Again, like charge
repel, the ball will be pushed towards the positive plate.

This process repeats again and again, causes the ping pong ball oscillates to and fro continuously between the
two plates.
 Lightning formation

During cloud formation, the friction of movement creates a lot of excess

charge. This induced positive charges on the objects below it.

If the forces of attraction are strong enough, the negative charges in the
clouds will be attracted towards the positive charges of the objects,
resulting in lightning.
Photocopiers
 Fundamental of Electricity

Potential And Potential Difference

The electric potential V at a point in an electric field is the work done
to bring a unit (1 Coulomb) positive charge from infinity to the point.

The potential difference (p.d.) between two points is defined as the

work done in moving 1 Coulomb of positive charge from 1 point in
an electric field to another point.

Potential Difference =Work Done / Amount of Charge Flow

Consider the task of moving a charge within a uniform electric
field from location A to location B.

In moving the charge against the electric field from location A

to location B, work will have to be done on the charge by an
external force.

The work done on the charge changes its potential energy to a

higher value; and the amount of work that is done is equal to
the change in the potential energy.

As a result of this change in potential energy, there is also a

difference in electric potential between locations A and B.

This difference in electric potential is formally referred to as the

electric potential difference.
Charges move from high potential to low potential
 10J

2C B

A The potential difference between A

and B is 5V

Example: if the work done to move a charge of 2C

from point A to point is 10J, the potential difference
between A and B,

VAB = 10J / 2C = 5J / C = 5V
Example:
During an occasion of lightning, 200C of
charge was transferred from the cloud to
the surface of the earth and 1.25×1010J of
energy was produced. Find the potential
difference between the cloud and the
surface of the earth.

Answer:
Work done, W = 1.25×1010J
Charge transferred, Q = 200C
Potential difference, V = ?

V = W/Q
V = 1.25×1010 / 200
V = 6.25×107V
Arrangement of Ammeter &
Voltmeter
 Arrangement of Ammeter

To use the ammeter in the measurement of an electric current, the

ammeter must be connected in series to the circuit.
 Arrangement of Voltmeter

To use the voltmeter in the measurement of potential

difference across an object, the voltmeter must be
connected in parallel to the circuit.
Ohm's Law - Relationship Between
Current And Potential Difference
 Relationship Between Current and Potential Difference
Ohm’s Law

The relationship between the current passing through 2 points in a

conductor and the potential difference between the 2 points is given
by Ohm's law.

Ohm’s Law states that the current flowing in the metallic

conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference
applied across it’s ends, provided that the physical conditions
( such as temperature ) are constant.

IαV
or

V = kI
where k is a constant
Ohm’s Law
Example:
What is the current flow through an 800Ω
toaster when it is operating on 240V?

Answer:
Resistance, R = 800Ω
Potential difference, V = 240V
Current, I = ?

R=V/I
I=V/R
I = 240 / 800
I = 0.3A
Resistance
Resistance

The resistance R of a material is

defined as the ratio V : I, where V is
the potential difference across the
material and I is the current flowing in
it.

V / I = Resistance (R)
The SI unit of resistance is the ohm
(Ω). One ohm is the resistance of a
material through which a current of
one ampere flows when a potential
difference of one volt is maintained.
Finding Resistance from the Potential Difference - Current
Graph

In the graph potential difference against current, the gradient of the

graph is equal to the resistance of the resistor.

Resistance, R = Gradient of the Graph

 Potential Difference (V)

15

Current (I)
0 3

Example: Figure above shows the graph of potential difference across

a wire against its current. Find the resistance of the wire.

Answer:
Resistance
R=V/I
R = Gradient of the graph
R = 15 / 3
R = 5Ω
 Ohmic Conductor

Conductors that obey Ohm’s law are said to be ohmic conductor.

Resistance is constant for wide range of voltages and currents.

Examples of Ohmic conductor: Metal, Copper sulphate solution with

copper electrodes
 Non-Ohmic Conductor

Conductors which do not obey Ohm’s law are called non-ohmic conductor.

When a plot of Potential Difference against Current is drawn, it is not a straight

line.

Example: Semiconductor Diode, Vacuum tube diode

Factors Affecting Resistance
 Factors Affecting the Resistance

The resistance R of a given conductor depends on:

1. its length, l,
2. its cross-sectional area, A
3. its temperature
4. the type of material (resistivity)
 Resistivity Table

Different material will have different resistivity.

Rubber has higher resistivity than Copper.
Silver has lowest resistivity.
Factors that affect resistance - in Graph
Factors that affect resistance - in Graph
Summary: Factors that affect Resistance
Since resistance is directly proportional to the length and inversely
proportional to the cross sectional area of the conductor.

If two resistors of same material have same temperature, we can

relate the resistance of the two resistors by the following equation.

R1 A1 / l1 = R2 A2 / l2
Superconductors
 Resistance vs Temperature

The resistance of a metal increases with temperature

The resistance of a semiconductor decreases with temperature.

 Advantages

A superconductor is a material whose resistance becomes zero when

its temperature drops to a certain value called the critical
temperature.

This enables superconductors to maintain a current with no applied

voltage at that temperature.
• Able to sustain large currents
• Smaller power loss during transmission
• Less heat energy is wasted
• Small-sized motors and generators can be used.
 Superconductors

Superconductors are conductors with zero resistance

• Superconductors conduct electricity with no loss of energy

• The conductors are cooled down to critical temperatures

• Special properties:
• Allows the flow of electric current with minimal loss of energy
• Negates any applied external magnetic fields
Superconductor is one of the most fascinating features in physics. This
concept allows a bullet train to float a few milimetre on its rail, causes
less friction to make it moves at 'super' speed.

To understand superconductor, you must understand the word

conductor itself. Conductor is like a wire which can conduct electricity.
Usually a wire has resistance. Resistance comes from the word,
'resist'..i.e it resists the flow of electrons or current. Different wires has
different resistance. But bear in mind, not all conductors are wires.

So..how about superconductors??

Under low temperature, the resistance of a conductor decreases. But

under extremely low temperature, some conductors has almost NO
resistance...i.e it has ZERO resistance. If this condition is achieved, the
conductor now has transformed itself into SUPERCONDUCTOR.
• Superconductors are used in transportation, electronic components,
energy storage, power cables, etc.
 MRI scanner

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is to determine what is

going on inside the human body. By exposing the body to a
strong superconductor-derived magnetic field, hydrogen
atoms that exist in the body’s water and fat molecules are
forced to accept energy from the magnetic field. They then
release this energy at a frequency that can be detected and
displayed graphically by a computer.
 Electrical power line

Electric cable made of superconductors will increase the

efficiency of electrical power transmission as the loss of
energy in the form of heat is greatly reduced.
 Circuit

Series and Parallel Circuit

 The resistors connected in one non-branched wire is said to be
connected in series, whereas resistors connected in a branched wire
is said to be connected in parallel.
 Series Circuit

A circuit that contains only one path for current to flow

If the path is open anywhere in the circuit, current stop flowing to

all components.
Example of Series Circuit
 Parallel Circuit

A circuit that contains more than one path for current to flow

If a component is removed, then it is possible for the current to

take another path to reach other components.
 Parallel Circuit

A Parallel circuit is one with several different paths for the electricity to
travel. It's like a river that has been divided up into smaller streams,
however, all the streams come back to the same point to form the river
once again.

The parallel circuit has very different characteristics than a series

circuit. For one, the total resistance of a Parallel Circuit is NOT equal to
the sum of the resistors (like in a series circuit).

The total resistance in a parallel circuit is always less than any of the
branch resistances. Adding more parallel resistances to the paths
causes the total resistance in the circuit to decrease.

As you add more and more branches to the circuit the total current will
increase because Ohm's Law states that the lower the resistance, the
higher the current.
 Parallel Circuit

Wheatstone bridge

The six resistive networks above may look different to each other,
but they are all arranged as Resistors in Parallel and as such the
same conditions and equations apply.
Parallel Circuit
Effective Resistance
 Effective Resistance Of Resistors in Series

If individual resistors are connected from end to end, the resistors are
said to be connected in series.

In general, if there are n resistors in series, the effective resistance R is

given by:

R = R1 + R2 +….+ Rn
Note: In a series connection, the effective resistance, R, is always larger
than the largest of the individual resistances.
 Effective Resistance Of Resistors in Parallel

If each end of individual resistors are connected together to one another

as one, the resistors are said to be connected in parallel.

In general, if there are n resistors in parallel, the effective resistance R is

given by:

Note: In a parallel connection, the effective resistance, R, is always

smaller than the smallest of the individual resistances.
 Effective Resistance Of Resistors

In a series circuit, the more resistors with equal resistance in the

circuit, the higher the effective resistance of the circuit.

In a parallel circuit, the more resistors with equal resistance in the

circuit, the lower the effective resistance of the circuit.
Find the equivalent resistance of the connection shown in the
diagram above.
Summary: Series vs Parallel Circuits
 Example how to
determine effective
resistance of a parallel
circuit:

When resistors are connected in parallel, the total resistance becomes

smaller compare to series circuit.

Thus, a higher current will flow to the smaller effective resistance and
produce a brighter bulb in parallel circuit.
Calculate the effective resistance
 Advantages of using parallel circuit:

If one of the electrical appliance does not function, the other

electrical appliances still can be used.

Additional electrical appliances can be connected in parallel with

the existing appliance without the need for more voltage.

In a series circuit, lights will become dimmer if too many lights are
added.
 Why lighting circuit should be connected in parallel?

Reasons being:

When one bulb is spoilt or switched off, the rest of the bulbs
can still function normally at normal brightness. This is because
the potential difference across each bulb in the branches
remains the same.

If the lighting circuit is connected in series, when one bulb is

spoilt or switched off, it will be an open circuit and no current
can flow through the circuit. Hence all the bulbs cannot
function.
Combination circuits contain both series and parallel arrangements.

What would happen if you removed light 1? light 2? light 3?

Problem Solving of Series and Parallel Circuit

Ohm's law states that the current

flowing, I through a metal conductor is
directly proportional the potential
difference, V across the conductor if
the temperature remain constant.

By using Ohm's law equation V = I

R, we can solve calculation
questions in series and parallel
circuit.
The reciprocal of the combined resistance of resistors in parallel is the sum of the
reciprocals of all the individual resistances.

Note that:
1.for two identical resistors in parallel, the combined resistance is equal to half of the
value of each one,
2.for n identical resistors in parallel, the combined resistance is equal to the value of
each one divided by n
3.for resistors in parallel, the combined resistance is always less than the value of the
smallest individual resistance.
4.for two resistors in parallel, there is an easier formula:
Calculate the effective resistance
Application of both the Series and Parallel Circuit

Hair Dryer

Fan and resistor are connected in series.

Fan and heating element are connected in parallel.
 Hair Dryer

When the main switch is closed, the fan is switched on and air blown
out from the hairdryer is cold. Switch A is used to control the heating
element. When it is closed, the heating element is turned on and air
blown out is hot.

The speed of the fan can be controlled by connecting a resistor, R in

series with the fan. The speed of the fan is in slow mode when the
main switch is closed.

When switch B is closed, the current bypasses resistor R and flows

straight to the fan. This will increase the voltage across the fan and
the speed of the fan can be increased.
Electromotive Force
 Electromotive Force

where
E = e.m.f.,
W = energy converted from non-electrical forms to electrical form
Q = positive charge.

The unit of e.m.f. is JC-1 or V (Volt)

Electromotive force of 1 Volt means that 1 Joule of electrical energy is supplied to the
circuit to move 1 Coulomb of charge across the whole circuit.
Difference Between Electromotive Force And Potential
Difference
Electromotive force and Potential Difference
 The emf = 10V means:
10J of chemical energy converted into electrical energy,
and the energy supplied to the circuit to bring 1C of
charge across the whole circuit.

Chemical Energy -> Electrical Energy

Electrical Energy -> Heat Energy Electrical Energy -> Heat Energy

The PD = 2.5V means: The PD = 7.5V means:

Work is done to convert 2.5J of electrical
energy into heat to move 1C of charge
across the resistor. 25% of the energy
supplied by the cell is used to move the
charge across this resistor.
Work is done to convert 7.5J of electrical
energy into heat to move 1C of charge
across the resistor. 75% of the energy
supplied by the cell is used to move the
charge across this resistor.
 Cell has electromotive force (e.m.f) E
and internal resistance r. It is
connected with a variable resistor R.

(a) Define electromotive force (e.m.f)

(b) Variable resistor R has resistance X. Show that:

Power dissipated in resistor R / power produced in cell = X / X+R
 What does the label 1.5 V on the battery mean?

The voltage label on a battery or cell indicates its e.m.f

The label 1.5 V on a dry cell indicates the e.m.f. of the cell is 1.5 V.

A cell has an e.m.f. of 1.5 V if a flow of 1 C of charge produces 1.5 J of

electrical energy to the whole circuit.
Compare e.m.f. and potential difference
Compare e.m.f. and potential difference
To distinguish between e.m.f. and potential
difference
Why there is drop in potential difference?
Internal Resistance
 Internal Resistance

Before the switch is turned on

• The battery does not supply current to the light bulb
• Voltmeter reading = E.m.f. of battery

After the switch is turned on

• The battery supplies current which flows around the circuit
• Voltmeter measures the potential difference across the terminals of
the battery
• The voltmeter reading drops due to internal resistance of the battery
 without internal resistance, with internal resistance,
emf = V emf > V

If the internal resistance is ignored, the terminal potential difference is

equal to the e.m.f.

If the internal resistance is present, the terminal potential difference will

be lower than the e.m.f.
 Explain Internal Resistance, r

The internal resistance, r of a source or battery is the resistance

against the moving charge due to the electrolyte in the source or
cell.

Work is needed to drive a charge against the internal resistance.

This causes a drop in potential difference across the cell as the

charge flows through it and loss of heat energy in the cell.
Example 1:
A cell has internal resistance 0.5Ω and the potential difference across
the cell is 4V when a 2A current flows through it. Find the e.m.f. of the
cell.

Answer:
r = 0.5Ω
V = 4V
I = 2A
E=?

E = V + Ir
E = (4) + (2)(0.5)
E = 5V
Example 2:
A cell with e.m.f. 3V and internal resistance, 1Ω is connected to a 5Ω
resistor, and a voltmeter is connected across the resistor. Find the
reading of the voltmeter.

Answer:
E = 3V
r = 1Ω
R = 5Ω
V=?
E = I(R+r)
(3) = I(5+1)
I = 3/6 = 0.5A

V = I/R
V = (0.5)(5) = 2.5V
Internal Resistance
The internal resistance of a source (cell or generator) is the resistance
against the moving charge in the source.

Load Resistance
The load resistance in a circuit is the effective resistance against the
moving charge outside the source of electric.

Terminal Potential Difference

Terminal potential difference or terminal voltage is the potential
difference across the two terminal (the positive terminal and the negative
terminal) of an electric source (cell or generator).
Measuring e.m.f. and Internal Resistance

The diagram above shows a
simple circuit that connect
some batteries to a resistor.
The voltmeter shows a
reading of 5.0V when the
switch is off and 4.5V when
the switch is on. What are
the e.m.f. and the internal
resistance of the cell?
Answer:
When the switch is off, the reading of the
voltmeter shows the e.m.f. of the batteries.
Therefore.
e.m.f. = 5.0V
When the switch in turned on, the reading of
the voltmeter shows the potential difference
of the resistor. Therefore,
V = 4.5V
The current that pass through the resistor,
I = V/R = 4.5/9 = 0.5A
E = V + Ir
5.0 = (4.5) +(0.5)r
0.5r = 5.0−4.5 = 0.5
r = 0.5 / 0.5 = 1Ω
 Potential Difference (V)

3.0

2.5

Diagram (a) 0 t Current (I)

Diagram (b)

A cell is connected to a circuit as shown in diagram (a). The graph in

diagram (b) shows the change of the reading of the voltmeter, V against
time, t. If t is the time where the switch is close, find

(a) the e.m.f. of the cell

(b) the internal resistance of the cell.
Answer:
(a) Before the switch turned on, the reading of the ammeter shows
the e.m.f. of the cells.

From the graph, the e.m.f. = 3.0V

(b)
e.m.f., E = 3.0V
Potential difference across the resistor, V = 2.5V

Current that pass through the resistor,

I = V/R = 2.5/2 = 1.25A

E = V + Ir
(3.0) = (2.5) + (1.25)r
1.25r = 3.0 − 2.5 = 0.5
r = 0.5/1.25 = 0.4Ω
Example 1
When a 1Ω resistor is connected to the terminal of a cell, the current that
flow through it is 8A. When the resistor is replaced by another resistor with
resistance 4Ω, the current becomes 2⅔A. Find the
a. internal resistance of the cell
b. e.m.f. of the cell

Answer:
Experiment 1
R1 = 1Ω
I1 = 8A
E = IR + Ir, E = (8)(1) + (8)r, E − 8r = 8

Experiment 2
R2 = 4Ω
I2 = 2⅔A
E = IR + Ir, E = (2 2/3)(4) + (2 2/3)r, 3E − 8r = 32

Solve the simultaneous equation

E = 12V, r = 0.5Ω
Example 2
The terminal potential difference of a batteries is 1.2V when a 4 Ω resistor
is connected to it. The terminal potential become 1.45V when the resistor
is replaced by another resistor of resistance 29Ω

Find the
a. internal resistance, r
b. e.m.f. of the batteries.
Answer:
Experiment 1
V1 = 1.2V
R1 = 4Ω
I = V/R
I = 1.2/4 = 0.3A

E = V+Ir, E = 1.2+0.3r, E−0.3r = 1.2

Experiment 2
V2 = 1.45V
R2 = 29Ω
I = V/R
I = 1.45/29 = 0.05A

E = V+Ir, E = 1.45 + 0.05r, E − 0.05r = 1.45

Solve the simultaneous equation

E = 1.5V, r = 1Ω
Potential Difference (V)

Current (I)
0
 Potential Difference (V)

Current (I)
0 6
The graph shows the variation of potential difference with current of a
battery. What is the internal resistance and e.m.f. of the battery?

Answer:
e.m.f. = y-intercept = 3V

internal resistance,
r = -gradient of the graph
r = −(−3)/6 = 0.5Ω
Battery in Parallel
 When there are two cells connected in parallel, the value of emf in the
two cells remain the same as the emf of a single cell.
This is because the two cells are sharing terminals.

Therefore the potential difference remain the same as the potential

difference of a single cell.

The brightness of the bulb increases when there are two cells
connected in parallel because the current flow through the bulb is larger
due to the small effective internal resistance of the cells connected in
parallel.

Cells connected in parallel can last longer as more energy can be stored
in the cells.
Electric Energy and Power
 Electric Power

where P = power [Watt]

E = electric energy used / dissipated [Joule]
t = time [seconds]
The electric power, P is defined as the rates of
energy that supply to the circuit ( or the rates of
work been done ) by sources of electric.

The unit of electric power is the watt (W).

One watt of power equals the work done in one

second by one volt of potential difference in moving
one coulomb of charge.
The electrical power of an electric circuit component can
be find from the following equations:
 Example 1:
A current of 0.50A flows through a 100Ω resistor.
What is the power lost in the resistor?

Answer:
P = I2R
P = (0.5)2(100)
P = 25W
 Example 2
An electric iron has a heating element of resistance 50Ω. If the
operating current flowing through it is 4A, calculate the heat energy
produced in 2 minutes.

Answer:
Power of the iron,
P = I2R
P = (4)2(50)
P = 800W

Heat energy produced,

E = Pt
E = (800)(120)
E = 96000J
Example 3
• What is the power dissipated in a 4Ω light bulb connected to a 12V
battery?
• What is the power dissipated in a 2Ω light bulb connected to the
same battery?
• Which bulb is brighter?
An ideal battery with e.m.f. 12 V is connected in series to two bulbs
with resistances R1 = 4Ω and R2 = 2Ω What is the current in the
circuit and the power dissipation in each bulb?
Answer:
Potential difference across the 2 resistors, V = 12V
Equivalence resistance of the 2 resistors, R = 4 + 2 = 6Ω

Current in the circuit,

I = V/R
I = 12/6 = 2A

Power dissipated in R1
P = I2R
P = (2)2(4) = 16W

Power dissipated in R2
P = I2R
P = (2)2(2) = 8W

[Conclusion: In a series connection, the greater the resistance of a

resistor, the greater the power dissipated]
The figure above shows that an ideal battery is connected in parallel
to two resistors with resistances 2Ω and 4Ω. Find the power
dissipated in
a. the 4Ω resistor
b. the 2Ω resistor
Answer:
a. The potential difference across the 2 resistor = 12V

The power of the 2Ω resistor,

P = V2 / R
P = (12)2 / (4) = 36W

b.
The power of the 4Ω resistor,
P = V2 / R
P = (12)2 / (2) = 72W

[Conclusion: In a parallel connection, the lower the resistance, the

greater the power of the resistor.]
When the switch is on, heat is dissipated from each of the four
resistors.
Which of the resistors A, B, C or D, dissipates the most heat per
second?
 In a circuit of any connection (series or parallel), the power
dissipated in the whole circuit is equal to the sum of the power
dissipated in each of the individual resistor.

Example 1:

2 identical bulb of resistance 3Ω is connected to an e.m.f. of 12V. Find

the power dissipated in the circuit if

a. the bulb is connected in series

b. if the bulb is connected in parallel
a. Current pass through the 2 resistors,
I = VR = (12)6 =2A

Power of each of the resistor,

P = I2R
P = (2)2(3) = 12W

Sum of the power,

P = P1 + P2
P = (12W) + (12W) = 24W

b. Potential difference across the 2 resistor = 12V

Power of each of the resistor,
P =V2/R
P = (12)2(3) = 48W
Sum of the power,
P = P1+ P2
P = (48W) + (48W) = 96W
Example 2:

A 800W heater is used to heat 250 cm³ of water from 30 to 100°C.

What is the minimum time in which this can be done?
[Density of water = 1000kg/m³; Specific Heat Capacity of water =
4200J°C-1 kg-1]

Answer:
Energy supply by the heater, E = Pt

Heat energy absorbed by the water, E = mcθ

Let's assume that all the energy supplied by the heater is converted to
heat energy and absorbed by the water, hence
Pt = mcθ
(800)t = (0.25)(4200)(70)
t = (0.25)(4200)(70)(800) = 92s
Power Rating
• Electrical appliances are usually labeled by its voltage and power
rating

• Voltage – required potential difference to operate the appliance

Power rating – energy dissipated by the appliance when the correct

voltage is supplied
Power Rating
Power Rating
 Power Rating of Appliances

A light bulb labeled 12 V, 36 W:

1. When connected to a 12 V voltage source, the light bulb will shine with
normal intensity. Power dissipated is 36 W

2. When connected to a voltage less than 12 V, the light bulb will shine
with less intensity and power is less than 36 W

3. When connected to a voltage more than 12 V, the light bulb will shine
with brighter intensity and power is more than 36 W. Life span of the light
bulb will be shortened and the light bulb is burned out
Example

A bulb rated 240V/80W is operated from

a 120V power source. Find the
resistance and the current flows through
it.

Answer:
P = V2/R
80 = (240)2/R
R = (240)2/80
R = 720Ω

The current flows through the bulb

I = V/R
I = 120/720
I = 0.167A
Calculating the cost of electricity consumption

The amount of electrical energy consumed in a given time:

The larger the power rating in the electrical appliance, the higher energy
is used for every second.

The longer the usage time, the higher electrical energy is consumed.
The cost of electricity consumption is based on the number of kilowatt-
hours (kWh) of electrical energy used.

The kilowatt-hours are sometimes known as the domestic units of

electricity.
The kilowatt-hour (kWh) is the energy used by a device at a rate of 1000
watts in one hour.
1 kWh = (1000 W) × (60 × 60 s) = 3.6 MJ
Example:
If TNB charges 22 cents for each kWh of electrical energy used,
calculate the total cost of using a 2kW electric kettle for 15 minutes and
a 20 W filament bulb for 8 hours.

Answer:
Electrical energy consumed by the kettle,
E1 = P1t1
E1 = (2kW)(15/60h) = 0.5kWh

Electrical energy consumed by the bulb,

E2 = P2t2
E2 = (0.02kW)(8h) = 0.16kWh

Total energy consumed,

E = E1+E2
E = 0.5+0.16 = 0.66kWh

Cost = 0.66×22cent = 14.52cent

Cost of using Electricity
 Efficiency

The efficiency of an electrical appliance is given by the following

equation:

Normally, the efficiency of an electrical appliance is less than

100% due to the energy lost as heat and the work done against
friction in a machine.
Example 1
A lamp is marked “240V, 50W”. If it produces a light
output of 40W, what is the efficiency of the lamp?

Answer:
Efficiency = POutput / Pinput × 100%

Efficiency = 40/50 × 100% = 80%

Example 2
An electric motor raises a mass of 2kg to a height of 5m in 10s. If the
input current from a source of 12V is 2A, find the efficiency of the electric
motor.

Answer:
Input power,
P = IV
P = (2)(12)
P = 24W

Output power
P = Wt
P = mgh / t
P = (2)(10)(5) / 10 = 10W

Efficiency = POutput / Pinput × 100%

Efficiency = 10/24 × 100% = 41.7%
 A fluorescent lamp with power rating of 40 W produces r W of
light energy. Given the efficiency of the lamp is 20%, calculate
the value of r.
 Steps to Save Electricity

1. Use efficient lighting - Replace regular incandescent (filament)

light bulbs with compact fluorescent light bulbs.
2. Buy efficient electric appliances.
3. Use appliances with automatic power off function.
4. Choose electrical appliances of sizes and features which best
suit your needs.
5. Proper utilisation of all electrical appliances
• Defrost refrigerators regularly, check the seal on refrigerator
doors and vacuum the grille behind refrigerators.
• Run your washing machine only when it is fully loaded & Iron
your clothes only when you have at least a few pieces to iron.
• Limit excessive usage of air-conditioning and lighting by
switching them off upon leaving the room.
• Regular cleaning of air filters in air-condition units and clothes
dryers.
• Improve ventilation and air flow.
 CFLs uses less energy than
incandescent lamp. Can save
up to 75 energy.
Micro Fuel Cells - a power source for electronic devices that converts
chemical energy to electrical energy. It’s better, smaller, less costly
and much more efficient. It use methanol, a form of alcohol as fuel.
 What are Fuse?

A fuse is a short piece of thin wire which

overheats and melts if current of more than a
certain value flows through it.

• If a short circuit develops in the appliance, a

current which is too high will flow. The fuse
will melt and prevents overheating of the wire
that can cause a fire.

• If an electrical appliance is rated 960 W and

240 V then current in normal use is 4.0 A. The
fuse suitable for use must slightly higher than
the normal current flowing through the
appliance .ie 5 A fuse.
 Three-pin plug

• Live wire, L (brown). A current flows through the circuit

• Neutral wire, N (blue). It is a zero potential difference.

• Earth wire, E (green). Safety wire which connects the metal body of
the appliance to earth. If a live wire touches the metal body of
appliance, a large current would immediately flow to the earth and
breaks the fuse. This will prevent a person from electrocution.
Formula Summary
Practice Questions
What is the physical quantity represented by the magnitude of the
gradient of the graph?

A Electromotive force of the battery

B Internal resistance of the battery
C External resistance of the battery