International Journal of Entomology and Nematology

Vol. 5(2), pp. 128-134, June, 2019. © www.premierpublishers.org. ISSN: 2326-7262

Research Article

Prevalence and Risk Factors of Soil-transmitted Helminthiasis

among Students of Government Day Secondary School Gidan
Igwe Area, Sokoto State, Nigeria
1BALA, Aminu Yabo, 2MOHAMMED, Abdullahi Oladimeji, *3MUHAMMAD, Imrana Arzika
1,2,3
Department of Biological Sciences, Usmanu Danfodiyo University Sokoto, Sokoto State, Nigeria

Despite efforts and interventions to control Soil-transmitted Helminths infections, World Health
Organization estimated 70.0% school aged children worldwide at risk of infection with at least one
Soil-transmitted Helminths species, with 22% occurring in Africa; Soil-transmitted Helminths
infections therefore still remain prevalent especially in developing countries. An epidemiological
study was conducted to determine the prevalence and associated risk factors of Soil-transmitted
helminthiasis among Students of Government Day Secondary School Gidan Igwe Area, Sokoto
State, Nigeria. A total of 90 faecal samples were collected and analyzed using wet preparation
method to detect the ova of soil-transmitted helminths. Information on risk factors of STHs was
obtained from the students through a structured questionnaire. Binary Logistic Regression was
used to determine the risk factors of Soil-transmitted Helminthiasis in the study area. Out of the
90 faecal samples examined, 54(60.0%) were found to be infected with at least one species of
STHs or the other. Species of STHs encountered during the study in order of occurrence were;
Ascaris lumbricoides (35.56%), Trichuris trichiura (16.67%), and Hookworm (7.77%). Results of
Binary Logistic Regression indicated being 11-16 years old, farming activity, using well as a
source of drinking water, walking barefooted, and not washing hands before and after meals as
the major risk factors for the spread of soil-transmitted helminthiasis among the students.
Therefore, public health attention is highly needed to control soil-transmitted helminthiasis
among the study subjects in the area.

Key words: Epidemiology, Prevalence, geohelminthiasis, Students, Nigeria.

INTRODUCTION
Soil-transmitted helminths (STHs) are parasites that are
transmitted by soil contamination of food or drinking water.
Infection and transmission of such helminths are
propagated by poor hygienic habit such as indiscriminate
disposal of human and animal faeces. Three species are
the main species responsible for widespread of the
diseases in human and these include Ascaris
lumbricoides, Trichuris trichiura and Hookworm (Necator
americanus and Ancylostoma duodenale) (Ojurongbe,
2013).
Soil-transmitted helminthiasis have been among the major
chronic parasitic infections distributed throughout the
world. Globally, about 4.5 billion individuals are at risk and
more than 2 billion people are infected, of which about 450
million suffer from the infection at school-age (WHO,
2014). The greatest number of soil-transmitted helminths
infections occur in sub-Saharan Africa, the Americas and
East Asia (WHO, 2019).Soil-transmitted helminthiasis is
endemic in all regions of Africa and its public health
importance has been described by many researchers in
Nigeria (Opara et al., 2012; Auta et al., 2014; Muhammad
et al., 2018) and in other parts of the world (Cha et
al.,2017; Campbell et al., 2017; Samuel et al., 2017;
Ziegelbauer et al., 2012).
Estimate has shown that there are 807 million cases
infected with Ascaris lumbricoides (ascariasis), 604 million
cases due to Trichuris trichiura (trichuriasis), and 576
million cases with Hookworm infection (Necator
*Corresponding Author: MUHAMMAD, Imrana Arzika,
Department of Biological Sciences, Usmanu Danfodiyo
University Sokoto, Nigeria. Tel: +234(0) 8065628145
Email: imranamuhammad40@gmail.com

Prevalence and Risk Factors of Soil-transmitted Helminthiasis among Students of Government Day Secondary School Gidan Igwe Area, Sokoto State, Nigeria
Bala et al. 129
anericanus and Ancylostoma duodenale) (Hotez et
al.,2008). These parasitic infections caused about 4.98
million years lives with disability (Pullan et al., 2010). As a
result, about 300 million people suffer from severe
morbidity attributed to STHs infections, resulting in 10,000-
135,000 death annually (WHO, 2014).
Soil-transmitted helminth infections are a major health
problem of children from rural areas of developing
countries and it is an important cause of morbidity in
school-age children, especially primary school pupils (4-15
years) who were reported to be the highest prevalent and
parasitized (Aboyaet al., 2011). Over 270 million
preschool-aged and over 600 million school-aged children
live in areas where these parasites are actively
transmitted. The total lost years of schooling due to worm
associated absenteeism amount to over 200 million years
and average Intelligent Quotient (IQ) loss per worm
infection is 3.75 points amount to Intelligent Quotient loss
of 633 million points in low and middle income countries
where toilet facilities and portable drinking water are
lacking (WHO, 2014).More so, inadequate water supply,
overcrowding, lack of sanitation, unavailability and high
cost of anthelminthic drugs are important determinants for
the transmission of soil-transmitted helminths infections
(Bethony et al., 2006). Mere observation of the school
premises will reveal that the source of drinking water for
everyday need in the school is an open water reservoir
where students had to use buckets from toilet for fetching
water directly from the reservoir. Most of the students can
be seen playing football in the school premises barefooted
and use their soiled hands to eat without washing.
Because of the aforementioned, there is need to determine
the risk factors of STHs in the study area.
Therefore, this study was designed to investigate the
prevalence and risk factors of soil-transmitted
helminthiasis among Students of Government Day
Secondary School Gidan Igwe Area in Sokoto State,
Nigeria, and to proffer possible solutions and
recommendations on their prevention and control. The
research also will serve as baseline data for future
research as there was on research conducted on soil-
transmitted helminthiasis in the study area.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study Area
The study was carried out from April to September, 2018
at Government Day Secondary School Gidan Igwe,
located in Sokoto North Local Government, Girabshi road,
Sokoto State, Nigeria. Sokoto State has an elevation of
450m (1,476 ft) and is located in dry Sahel with an annual
average rainfall of 629 mm and annual average
temperature of 28.30C. Over Eighty percent of the
inhabitants of the state are farmers practicing one form of
farming or the other.The school is located at latitude
Prevalence and Risk Factors of Soil-transmitted Helminthiasis among Students of Government Day Secondary School Gidan Igwe Area, Sokoto State, Nigeria
13.6152400 North and longitude 5.20730860 East. The
school was established in 2006 and currently having a total
of 1,046 students (Junior Secondary School (JSS) and
Senior Secondary School (SSS) included). The
predominant tribe attending the school are Hausa-Fulani
with other tribes like Yoruba, Igbo, and other minority tribes
that live within the area. The main occupation of the people
where the school is located includes farming, fishing,
trading, as well as few civil servants.
Study Population and Sample Size Determination
The study was conducted to determine the prevalence and
risk factors of soil-transmitted helminth infection among
Students of Government Day Secondary School Gidan
Igwe Area, Sokoto State, Nigeria. A total of 90 students
were selected, fifteen from each arm (JSS1 to SS 3). The
sample size was calculated using the single proportion
formula N= Z2pq/d2 at 95% confidence interval, P=
prevalence from a previous study conducted by Campbell
et al. (2013), where they recorded a prevalence of 6.3%.
Ethical Consideration
The research was approved by Ministry of Health Sokoto
State and the School Management of Government Day
Secondary School Gidan Igwe, Sokoto State, Nigeria.
Principal of the school obtained informed consent from
parents/guardians of the students. Also, consent was
obtained from the students selected for the study after
explaining the purpose, procedure, possible risk and
inconveniences of the study. The participating students
were guided on how to fill the questionnaire with the help
from their teachers. Students were not forced to participate
in the study, rather they can drop at any stage of the study.
Sample Collection
A total of 90 faecal samples were collected from the
Students of GDSS Gidan Igwe, Sokoto State. Fifteen (15)
samples were collected from each arm (JSS 1 to SS 3).
The students were selected randomly and each was given
a clean, dry, sterile universal container to provide their
stool sample. The stool samples were labelled to
correspond with the student’s number on the
questionnaire. The samples were preserved using 10%
formalin and were immediately transported to Parasitology
Laboratory Usmanu Danfodiyo University Sokoto for
analysis.
Questionnaire Administration
Questionnaire was administered to each participating
student from whom sample was collected. The
questionnaire was aimed at obtaining information such as
student’s age, parental occupation, type facility used,
walking barefooted, hand washing before and after meal,
and source of drinking water. All these were done with the
permission of the Principal of the school.
 Int. J. Entomol. Nematol. 130

Parasitological Analysis of Stool Samples prevalence (26.66%). Occurrence of soil-transmitted

The stool samples were analyzed using direct
saline/iodine wet preparation method (WPM) as described
by (Alli et al., 2011). The preparation was observed under
microscope using ×10 and ×40 objectives respectively.
The adult worm or ova of soil-transmitted helminths
parasites was identified based on standard chart provided
by (WHO, 2004).
Statistical Data Analysis
Prevalence was calculated using the formula: (Number
infected/ Number Examined) ×100. Chi square (χ2)
statistical analysis was used corrected with Fisher exact
test to determine the association of occurrence of soil-
transmitted helminth infection with class, age, parental
occupation, source of drinking water, type of toilet used,
wearing of shoe, and hand washing before and after meal.
P-values less 0.05 were considered significant. Data
collected were summarized into tables. Data were
analyzed using Epi Info Software version 7.2.2.6
RESULTS
The results of the global prevalence of soil-transmitted
helminths parasites among students of Government Day
Secondary School Gidan Igwe Area of Sokoto State shows
that out of 90 stool samples examined, 54(60.00%) were
found to be infected . The parasites encountered during
the study in order of occurrence were Ascaris lumbricoides
(32/90: 33.56%), Trichuris trichiura (15/90: 16.67%) and
Ancylostomids (Ancylostoma duedenale/Necator
americanus (7/90: 7.7%)
helminthiasis significantly associate with parental
occupation (χ2cal=15.58, df=3; χ2 tab= 7.82; P<0.05) Table
4.
The results of this study indicated significant association of
soil-transmitted helminthiasis with source of drinking water
(χ2cal=8.70, df= 3; χ2 tab= 7.82; P<0.05). (Table 5).
It could be seen from table 6 that students who use open
space to defecate had the highest prevalence (65.45%),
followed by those who used pit latrine (53.3%), while those
that used water closet had the least prevalence (40.0%).
Chi square analysis indicated lack of significant associate
between occurrence of soil-transmitted helminthiasis and
type of toilet used (χ2cal=2.06, df= 2; χ2 tab=5.99; P>0.05).
The occurrence of soil-transmitted helminths parasites
significantly associates with wearing of shoe. Students that
wear shoe sometime had the highest prevalence
(79.24%), followed by those who always wear shoe
(32.4%), but no prevalence was reported for students who
do not wear shoe at all (χ2cal= 9.88, df= 2; χ2 tab= 5.99;
P<0.05) Table 7. Chi square statistical analysis revealed
no significant association in the occurrence of soil-
transmitted helminth infection with hand washing before
eating, although students who wash their hands before
eating had higher prevalence (76.19%) than those who do
not wash their hands before eating (55.07%) (χ2cal= 3.15,
df=1; χ2 tab=3.84; P>0.05) Table 7. It could be seen from
table 7 that students who do not wash their hands after
meal had higher prevalence (88.23%) than those who
wash their hands after meal (53.4%), statistical analysis
indicated significant association between occurrence of
soil-transmitted helminthiasis with respect to hand
washing after meal (χ2cal=7.21,df=1; χ2 tab=3.84; P<0.05).

It can be seen from table 2, that the prevalence of Soil- Table 1: Prevalence of Soil-transmitted helminth
transmitted helminthiasis was highest among JSS1 parasites among Students of GDSS Gidan Igwe
Students (80.0%), followed by JSS 3 students (66.67%),
SS 1 and SS 2 students had same prevalence (53.3%), Parasite Frequency Prevalence (%)
while SS 3 students recorded the least prevalence Ascaris lumbricoides 32 35.56
(33.33%). Chi square analysis indicated no significant Trichuris trichiura 15 16.67
association between occurrence of soil-transmitted Hookworm 7 7.77
helminthiasis and student’s class (χ2 cal= 9.3, df= 5; χ2 tab Total 54 54(60.00)
= 11.07; P>0.05). Table 2.
Table 2: Prevalence of Soil-transmitted Helminthiasis
There was an increase in prevalence of soil-transmitted among Students of GDSS Gidan Igwe in relation to
helminths infection with increasing age. Students aged 11- their Classes
13 years had the highest prevalence (74.29%), followed by
those aged 14.16 years (70.0%) while those aged 17-19 Classes No. Examined No. Infected Prevalence (%)
years had the least prevalence (28.0%). There is JSS 1 15 12 80
significant association in the occurrence of soil-transmitted JSS 2 15 10 66.67
helminthiasis with age of the students (χ2cal = 14.94, df=2; JSS 3 15 11 73.33
χ2 tab= 5.99; P<0.05) Table 3. SS 1 15 8 53.33
It could be seen from table 4 that students whose parent SS 2 15 8 53.33
engage in farming activities recorded the highest SS 3 15 5 33.33
prevalence (87.50%), followed by those whose parents Total 90 54 60
were businessmen (43.33%), children of fishermen χ2 cal= 9.3, df = 5; χ2tab = 11.07; P>0.05
(40.0%), while children of civil servants recorded the least

Prevalence and Risk Factors of Soil-transmitted Helminthiasis among Students of Government Day Secondary School Gidan Igwe Area, Sokoto State, Nigeria
Bala et al. 131

Table 3: Prevalence of Soil-transmitted Helminths Table 6: Prevalence of Soil-transmitted Helminthiasis

Parasites among Students of GDSS Gidan Igwe with among Students of GDSS Gidan Igwe with respect to
respect to Age Type of Toilet Used
Age No. A. Lumbri- T. Hook- Total (%) Type No. A. Lumbri- T. Hook Total
Examined coides trichiura worm of Examined coides trichiura worm (%)
(%) (%) (%) Toilet (%) (%) (%)
11-13 55 (61.11) 15(42.86) 7(20.00) 4(11.43) 26(74.29) Pit 30 10 5 1 16
14-16 30 (33.33) 12(40.00) 6(20.00) 3(10.00) 21(70.00) Latrine (33.33) (33.33) (16.67) (3.33) (53.30)
17-19 25 (27.78) 5(20.00) 2(8.00) 0(0.00) 7(28.00) Water 5 2 0 0 2
Total 90 32 (35.56) 15 7 (7.77) 54 (60.00) Closet (5.55) (40.00) (0.00) (0.00) (40.00)
(16.67) Open 55 20 10 6 36
χ2cal = 14.94, df=2; χ2tab= 5.99; P<0.05 Space (61.11) (36.36) (18.18) (10.91) (65.45)
Total 90 32 15 7 54
Table 4: Prevalence of Soil-transmitted Helminths (35.56) (16.67) (7.77) (60.00)
Parasites among Students of GDSS Gidan Igwe with χ2cal=2.06, df= 2; χ2tab=5.99; P>0.05
respect to Parental Occupation
Parental No. A. T. Hook Total Table 7: Prevalence of Soil-transmitted Helminthiasis
Occupation Examined lumbri- trichiura worm (%)
among Students of GDSS Gidan Igwe with respect to
coides (%) (%)
Wearing of shoe, Hand washing before meal and Hand
(%)
Farmers 40 (44.44) 24 7(17.50) 4 35 washing after meal
(60.00) (10.00) (87.50) Parameter No. No. Prevalence
Fishermen 5 (5.56) 0(0.00) 1(20.00) 1 2 Examined Infected (%)
(20.00) (40.00) Wearing of Shoe
Civil 15 (16.67) 2 2(13.33) 0 4 Always 37(41.11) 12 32.43
Servants (13.33) (0.00) (26.66) Sometimes 53(58.89) 42 79.24
Businessmen 30 (33.33) 6 5 (16.66) 2 13 Not at all 0(0.00) 0 0
(20.00) (6.66) (43.33) Total 90 54 60.00
Total 90 32 15 7 54 Χ2cal= 19.88,
(35.56) (16.67) (7.77) (60.00) df=2; X2
χ2cal=15.58, df =3; χ2tab= 7.82; P<0.05 tab=5.99; P<0.05
Washing hands
Table 5: Prevalence of Soil-transmitted Helminths before meal
Parasites among Students of GDSS Gidan Igwe with Yes 21(23.33) 16 76.19
respect to Source of Drinking Water No 69(76.67) 38 55.07
Source No. A. T. Hookworm Total Total 90 54 60.00
of Examined lumbri- trichiura (%) (%) Χ2cal= 3.15, df=1;
Drinking coides (%) X2 tab=3.84;
Water (%) P>0.05
Well 45 18 11 4 33 Washing hands
Water (50.00) (40.00) (24.44) (8.89) (73.33) after meal
Tap 25 9 3 2 14 Yes 73(81.11) 39 53.42
Water (27.78) (36.00) (12.00) (8.00) (56.00) No 17(18.89) 15 88.23
River 0 0 0 0 0 Total 90 54 60.00
Water (0.00) (00.00) (0.00) (0.00) (0.00)
Χ2cal= 7.21, df=1;
Sachet 20 5 1 1 7
X2 tab= 3.84;
Water (22.22) (25.00) (5.00) (5.00) (35.00)
Total 90 32 15 7 54
P<0.05
(35.56) (16.67) (7.77) (60.00)
χ2cal=8.70, df = 3; χ2tab= 7.82; P<0.05

DISCUSSION et al., (2018) all in Sokoto State, Nigeria and 6.30% by

The results of this study demonstrated the presence of
soil-transmitted helminthiasis among Students of
Government Secondary School Gidan Igwe with a
prevalence of 60.00%.The prevalence of 60.0% obtained
in this study seems to be higher than 1.40% reported by
Isyaku et al., (2015) and 33.50% reported by Muhammad
Campbell et al., (2017) in Cameroon. However, the
prevalence is lower than 74.0% reported by Singh and Idris
(2014) among boarding school children in Sokoto State,
Nigeria. The prevalence could be attributed to engaging in
farming activities, using well as a source of drinking water,
and walking barefooted during which they may get infected
with the infective stages of soil-transmitted helminths

Prevalence and Risk Factors of Soil-transmitted Helminthiasis among Students of Government Day Secondary School Gidan Igwe Area, Sokoto State, Nigeria

parasites. .The high prevalence of Ascaris lumbricoides
(35.56%) in this study might be due to walking barefooted
by the students and the ability of the parasites to produce
numerous eggs which can remain viable for a long period
of time. This is in accordance with findings in Sokoto State
(Singh and Idris 2014; Adeyaba 2011) and in other part of
Nigeria (Banji et al., 2012) in which this helminthic worm
was reported to have high prevalence followed by
Strongyloides stercoralis, Trichuris trichiura and
Hookworm.
Ascaris lumbricoides,Trichuris trichiura and Hookworm
(Ancylostoma duodenale/Necator americanus) were the
most prevalent parasites encountered during the study
with Ascaris lumbricoides having the highest
prevalence.The variability in prevalence could be as a
result of the students engaging in farming activities, using
well as a source of drinking water, and walking
barefooted..The results of this study is in agreement with
the one documented previously by Chigozie et al., (2007)
in Eastern part of Nigeria where they attributed the high
prevalence of Ascaris lumbricoides among school pupils to
their exposure to contaminated soil which often contain the
infective eggs of the parasites, thereby enhancing
transmission from hand to mouth.
The significant association of soil-transmitted
helminthiasis with age in the present study is in conformity
with the report of (Simon-Oke et al., (2014) in Ondo State,
and Chinenye et al., (2007) in River State, where they
observed increase in prevalence with increasing age.
However, (Muhammad et al., (2018) in Sokoto State,
reported lack of significant association of soil-transmitted
helminthiasis with age.
In the present study, occurrence of soil-transmitted
helminth infection was significantly associated with
farming. This may be due to the fact that the students
accompany and assist their parents in farming activities
where night soil may be used as fertilizer and in turn, they
get exposed to faecally contaminated soil, thus, getting
infected with infective stages of soil-transmitted helminths
parasites.
Occurrence of soil-transmitted helminthiasis significantly
associate with well water. This may be due to the fact that
well water are not usually covered, and contaminants
being introduced into the wells as the same containers
used in the toilet are being used in drawing the water and
or direct dumping of dirt into the wells, hence, are
susceptible to contamination with human and animal
faeces containing infective stages which might expose the
students to helminthic infection. Contamination of well
water with diseases-causing agents had been
documented in some parts of Nigeria (Adebote et al.,
(2004). This is in accordance with the report of (Isyaku et
al., (2015) and Adebote et al., (2004), where they reported
significant association of soil-transmitted helminthiasis
with well water.
Prevalence and Risk Factors of Soil-transmitted Helminthiasis among Students of Government Day Secondary School Gidan Igwe Area, Sokoto State, Nigeria
Int. J. Entomol. Nematol. 132
The lack of significant association of soil-transmitted
helminthiasis with type of toilet used indicated that
regardless of the place of defecation all students are
equally expose to helminthic infection. This agrees with the
report of Isyaku et al., (2015) and Muhammad et al.,
(2018), who also noted similar lack of significant
association of helminthic infection with type of toilet used.
However, Olusegun et al., (2011) in Osun State report
significant association of helminthic infection with type of
toilet used.
Ogbaini et al., (2014) reported that poor environmental and
personal hygiene with respect to hand washing before and
after eating are the driving forces of soil-transmitted
helminths infections. However, in the present study, there
was lack of significant association in the occurrence of
helminthic infection with respect to this factor. This agrees
with the findings of Isyaku et al., (2015) where they
reported lack of significant association of intestinal
helminths infection with hand washing habit.
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
The 60.0% prevalence of intestinal helminthiasis among
students of Government Day Secondary School Gidan
Igwe Sokoto is high. This may be attributed to being 11-16
years, engaging in farming activity, walking barefooted,
and using well as source of drinking water. While the
farmers in the study area should avoid using night soil as
fertilizer, government on the other hand, should intensify
effort intensify efforts to provide portable drinking water,
health education to the students on the dangers of soil-
transmitted helminthiasis, and make drugs available to the
school authority for mass chemotherapy.
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 Int. J. Entomol. Nematol. 134

Accepted 11 June 2019

Citation: Bala AY, Mohammed, AO, Muhammad IA

(2019). Prevalence and Risk Factors of Soil-transmitted
Helminthiasis among Students of Government Day
Secondary School Gidan Igwe Area, Sokoto State,
Nigeria. International Journal of Entomology and
Nematology, 5(2): 128-134.

Copyright: © 2019 Bala et al. This is an open-access

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Prevalence and Risk Factors of Soil-transmitted Helminthiasis among Students of Government Day Secondary School Gidan Igwe Area, Sokoto State, Nigeria