LSD

AND OTHER HALLUCINOGENS

THE PEER REVIEW
AND THE HISTORIC NARRATIVE

a Jeff Prager experience • April 2018

“It opened my eyes. It would mean a whole new world if the politicians would take LSD.

There wouldn’t be any more war or poverty or famine”

~ Sir Paul McCartney

 “If every stable, sociable, mentally
and emotionally anchored person in the world
took 200 micrograms of LSD in a controlled setting
and just once or twice, the world would change swiftly as Sir Paul
McCartney stated—war, poverty, famine, propaganda, adulterated
food, polluted ecosystems, frauds, crimes, racism, hatred and
virtually everything controllable by humankind,
that also plagues humankind,
would disappear forever.

Read the Peer Review

Aldous Huxley requested a 100 microgram injection of LSD on his

death bed. So did Steve Jobs. They had experienced the magic and it
was their last wish. That’s why LSD is illegal­—The Magic.
Capitalism, in fact governments themselves,
couldn’t survive under the weight
of The Magic.”

~ Jeff Prager
PEER REVIEWED REPORTS, VIDEO, AUDIO & DOCUMENTS: https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/0B5RAEP06732qTDJhdzVqRVVrNVE?usp=sharing

LSD
AND OTHER HALLUCINOGENS
THE PEER REVIEW
AND THE HISTORIC NARRATIVE
Published to the Internet for Free
October - November 2017
A No © Copyright Production
By Anarchy Books and Runaway Slaves, LLC™
A Jeff Prager Educational Experience

Dedicated to Camy, Syrena, Illiana & Kyle

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Inspired by chasing the dream ... and finding it

While primarily designed around LSD, because of the many similarities, some peer review on Psilocybin, LSD analogues
and other psychedelics as well as new Designer Drugs and their analogues are also included in this eBook
PROLEGOMENON
I decided to put this eBook together while along the path on my quest to locate some
real, old-fashioned LSD. I didn’t need an Ehrlich Test Kit for $20 good for 50 tests in 1969,
1970 or 71. Tuinals, Seconals (Reds), Black Beauties and everything else including LSD
were 3 for a dollar­—and all pharmaceutical grade—manufactured by and provided di-
rectly by the pharmaceutical companies themselves. LSD was also made by Owsley, Pick-
ard, and other highly reliable, university schooled, underground chemists who prayed
over their batches for our safety but whether Sandoz or Owsley, back then it was the
very best, cleanest, purest and strongest LSD ever manufactured.

Blue Cheer, Orange Sunshine, Orange Barrel, Pink Flats, Purple and White Microdot, 1/4
inch crystal clear squares of “window pane” —we had the best. They were, those 200+
“trips” of mine, some of the most meaningful experiences of my life. This free eBook and
the peer review within go a long way towards explaining why.

Into this delightful mix of late 60s, early 70s Sexual Freedom, un-Racism, Love-In’s, Be-
in’s and Protest entered the CIA, the Tavistock Institute, the social planners, the popula-
tion manipulators and the propagandists. The counter-culture? Those social planners
created it, controlled it from the start and maintained it through it’s quiet, pre-planned
demise. It’s all right here, that sordid history, along with the peer review that describes
the unbelievable healthful qualities of this incredibly fantastic compound. The LSD lies
stop here, right now, and the peer review proves it unequivocally, thank goodness. LSD
works better, by far, for anxiety, depression, PTSD, OCD, alcohol and tobacco addic-
tion—better then any pharmaceutical currently available. It also significantly reduces
inflammation, improves self-esteem and one’s outlook on life and we now know that
LSD speeds up the process of learning for human beings and increases creativity and
creative thinking in human beings as well. LSD has miraculous medical uses just around
the corner yet I’m too old now to see them come to fruition. I’m of the opinion, with a
great deal of data to support the opinion, that all drugs will eventually be legal. Unfor-
tunately, not over night. We’re seeing the ever-so-slow process unfold before our eyes
with cannabis, a process made purposely decades long to accrue enough public accep-
tance. Thank you, I hope you enjoy this eBook as much as I enjoyed creating it.
 TABLE
OF What ORWELL FEARED WERE THOSE WHO WOULD BAN BOOKS

CONTENTS

PAGE • 9 Mark McCloud Blotter Art Collection

PAGE • 10 The DEA Assessment Of Dosage 1960-2017
PAGE • 13 Psychiatry to Flower Power and Back Again • The LSD Story
PAGE • 24 The Peer Review • 2017
What huxley FEARED Was that there would be no
PAGE • 64 The Peer Review • 2016 reason to BAN BOOKS because there would be no
PAGE • 106 The Peer Review • 2015 one that would want to read them
PAGE • 147 The Peer Review • 2014
PAGE • 161 The Peer Review • 2014 - 2000
PAGE • 234 The Peer Review • 1999 - 1952
PAGE • The Peer Review • 1951 - 1938
PAGE • 270 The Peer Review • Foreign Language Reports
PAGE • 279 The Historic Narrative • LSD: By The People That Lived It
 EXORDIUM
THE FOLLOWING INFORMATION IS NECESSARY to understanding
the data provided in this eBook. The book is filled with hundreds of peer reviewed reports and
over 1000 of the worlds most important Blotter Art, 90 pieces from the worlds foremost col-
lector. That’s all well and good if you know a little bit about peer review first, so this Exordium,
a fancy word for introduction, will familiarize you with the 5 primary formats submitted by ac-
ademics in the medical research community for peer review. Each style of report has positive
and negative aspects and please keep in mind that all peer review can be massaged to arrive
at preconceived conclusions—peer review is not always the end-all/be-all but another tool,
and the best we have available to understand science. However, interpretation is everything.
The 5 formats used in the peer review process described below and contained in this eBook,
with numbers 1 & 4 generally providing the most robust and reliable data, are as follows:
1. Original Research
  : These are detailed studies reporting original research and are
classified as primary literature. They include hypothesis, background study, methods, results,
interpretation of findings, and a discussion of possible implications. Original research articles
are long, with the word limit ranging from 3000 to 6000 and can even go up to 12000 words
and more for some journals. These require a significant investment of time.
2. Review Article
  : Review Articles give an overview of existing literature in a field, often
identifying specific problems or issues and analysing information from available published work
on the topic with a balanced perspective. These are considered as secondary literature and can
be a particularly efficient way for early career researchers to begin publishing. Review articles can
be of three types, broadly speaking: literature reviews, systematic reviews, and meta-analyses.
Review articles are usually long, with the maximum word limit being 3000-5000 or even more,
depending on the journal. However, some journals also publish short reviews. A Meta-analysis is
an attempt to collect all relevant peer reviewed reports on an issue and aggregate the findings.
3. Clinical Case Study
  : Clinical case studies present the details of real patient cases
from medical or clinical practice. The cases presented are usually those that contribute signifi-
cantly to the existing knowledge on the field. The study is expected to discuss the signs, symp-
toms, diagnosis, and treatment of a disease. These are considered as primary literature and
usually have a word count similar to that of an original article. Clinical case studies require a lot
of practical experience and may not be a suitable publication format for early career research-
ers. Please remember that clinical case studies, for example here in the case of d-lysergic acid
diethyl amide, are included and with LSD the case studies show that side effects and/or after
effects are so extremely rare as to be virtually nonexistent.
4. Clinical Trial
  : Once again, specific to the field of medicine, clinical trials describe the
methodology, implementation, and results of controlled studies, usually undertaken with var-
ious sized patient groups with a tendency to remain on the large side with often 10,000 to
100,000+ participants. Clinical trial articles are also long, usually of about the same length as
an original research article. Clinical trials also require practical work experience, as well as ex-
tremely high standards of ethics and reliability. So this format is more useful for experienced
researchers, as long as you know how to determine funding for the trial. For example, the results
or findings of a clinical trial on herbicides funded by Monsanto could be questionable just as a
clinical trial on LSD funded by Pfizer, Merck, Johnson & Johnson and others might also arrive at
conclusions that were preconceived motivated by profit. And again, perhaps not. It’s our per-
sonal interpretation of the data supplied by the researchers that forms our larger viewpoint.
5. Perspective, Opinion, and Commentary : Perspective pieces are scholarly re-
views of fundamental concepts or prevalent ideas in a field. These are usually essays that pres-
ent a personal point of view critiquing widespread notions pertaining to a field. A perspective
piece can be a review of a single concept or a few related concepts. These are considered as
secondary literature and are usually short articles, around 2000 words but can be longer. Opin-
ion articles present the author’s viewpoint on the interpretation, analysis, or methods used in a
particular study. It allows the author to comment on the strength and weakness of a theory or
hypothesis. Opinion articles are usually based on constructive criticism and should be backed
by evidence. Such articles promote discussion on current issues concerning science. Commen-
taries are short articles usually around 1000-1500 words long, but can be longer, that draw
attention to or present a criticism of a previously published article, book, or report, explaining
why it interested them and how it might be illuminating for the research community, the pub-
lic and other professionals.
 INTERPRETING
THE REPORTS

1. The majority of the peer review

will appear with a number in brackets
after the title, for example [86], which
designates the number of the complete
report, not just the abstract that ap-
pears here. Having and reading the full
report allows for a more accurate inter-
pretation, far more detailed and accu-
rate than the abstract provides. The full
reports normally range from about $30
to $300+ to download the PDF. Most re-
ports can also be rented for around $25
for one day. The link for all of the reports
with a bracketed number after the title,
which is 99% of them, can be found on
the “Title Page” or what would be page 4
and are located in one folder on Google
Drive so that you can either download
the entire collection of reports or just
those numbers that interest you. Again,
reading the full report and even examin-
ing the references used in the report is
often crucial towards gaining a full and
complete understanding not acquired
by reading just the abstract alone.

2. You’ll also find just a few reports

without a bracketed number after the ti-
tle. At the end or bottom of these reports
you’ll find either a DOI number, a PMID
number, a direct link to the abstract, and
on rare occasions, nothing at all. The DOI
and PMID numbers are used to search
for the original document. Of course the
hyperlink, when there is one, takes you
to the same abstract you’re reading and
an offer to purchase the full report. This
would be up to you. Ninety-nine percent
of the reports are provided free.
 Mark McCloud form out of the psychedelic experience.” Whether you come to reminisce about the ‘70s, yearn for the
San Francisco you never experienced or see some very tiny art, pay his home museum a visit if you’re
The World’s Leading Collector Of LSD Blotter Art
in the area. It’ll be a trip you won’t forget.
Most artists haven’t been arrested by the DEA and investigated by the FBI. Then again, most artists
Blotter Art is a term that refers to the artwork that liquid LSD is dropped onto. The artwork is printed
don’t have the over 33,000 tabs of LSD in their possession. How’s that for an intro?
onto “blotter” paper and then perforated into tiny squares or “hits,” which can be torn apart into easy
to manage quantities. In the 1960s, when LSD was legal, it was distributed in large pills, sometimes
Mark McCloud is the world’s leading collector of “Blotter Art,” which, for the more straight-laced set, is
called “barrels” because of their ‘barrel-like’ shape. It was also sold on anything from sugar cubes
another way of saying he collects the small papers used to transport and relay acid, or LSD. McCloud’s
to animal crackers. Dealers began to want their “batch” of LSD to be recognizable from the others,
collected the stuff since the ‘60s, framing and hanging the trippy paper trails in his now legendary
so they began to invent ways to trademark their acid. The chemists would make the pills a certain
Victorian home in San Francisco.
shape or color as to set them apart from others, especially if they were packaging particularly po-
tent dosages. This also served as a form of a validation of authenticity, proving that the dealers were
The tabs are inactive at this point, leading any who attempt to arrest McCloud for intent to manufac-
not selling fake LSD. As a bonus, the dealers would get a kick out of the buzz created by their “brand”
ture and distribute narcotics to be gravely disappointed. Though the hallucinatory properties of the
of acid.
drug are gone, the art that blotter manufacturers created to adorn the tiny objects remains; art that,
McCloud is convinced, affected the flavor of one’s trip, if only subconsciously. McCloud was raised in
Sometime after LSD became illegal, mandatory minimum sentencing was set into place. These
Buenos Aires until he was sent to a boarding school in Claremont, California when he was 12. At 13
laws placed mandatory sentences on drug offenders based on the weight of the substances with
he tried acid in Santa Barbara, an experience that merited the epic summation: “I was blind, but then
which they were caught. Therefore a drug dealer busted with one dose of acid on a sugar cube that
I could see.“ But it wasn’t until acid imagery became popular in 1968 that McCloud started collect-
weighed 1 gram would get the same sentence as a dealer caught with 1 gram of LSD crystal, which
ing acid tabs, cataloguing the variety of minuscule
would represent about 10,000 doses of LSD! It
masterpieces that were designed foremost with a
didn’t take a genius to figure out that a new, light-
tongue in mind.
weight, medium for distributing LSD was needed.
“I was blind, In the 1960s in comes Blotter Art.
“At first I was keeping them in the freezer, which was but then I could see.“
a problem because I kept eating them,” McCloud ex-
Blotter Acid began to make an appearance on
plained, “but then the Albert Hofmann acid came
the streets as far back as 1967 in the UK and
out, and then I thought, Fuck, I’m framing this. That’s
in the USA a little later. Shortly after, iconic im-
when I realized, Hey, if I try to swallow this I’ll choke
ages began to make their way onto the Blotter
on the frame.” And thus, a project was born.
Paper, which allowed dealers to put their own
logo on the acid they were selling. The logo
The illicit blotter collection has grown over time,
could have been professionally printed, hand
surpassing the collections of the FBI and DEA. Mc-
drawn or have been a rubber stamp of some
Cloud has watched acid art trends rise and fall,
freaky image. Not only did this serve to iden-
with paper appearances by “Captain L” (for LSD),
tify a brand of acid, but by using Blotter Paper,
Mickey Mouse, Robert Crumb’s “Mr. Natural” and
which weighed far less than other mediums, it
even the face of Mikhail Gorbachev. When jammed
kept drug dealers who got busted from getting
together, the serial images form their own sort of
as much mandatory time. Randomly dispersed
psychedelic experience — a niche history of art,
throughout this eBook you’ll find Blotter Art
consciousness and the place the two intersect.“You
from the collection of Mark McCloud and 100s
could think of him as the Andy Warhol of blotter,”
more from collections the world over.
Juxtapoz commented, “making a post-modern art
 The
Drug Enforcement Agency (DEA)
The History Of LSD Potency • 1960-2017
LSD potency or strength is measured in micrograms.
In the 1960’s and early 1970’s, LSD potency generally
ranged from 100 to 200 micrograms per dosage unit
or higher, the Hunter S. Thompson blotter at right as
an example. Analysis of exhibits during the late 1970’s
indicated an average potency in the 30- to 50-micro-
gram range. From the mid-1980’s to the present, LSD
potency has remained considerably below levels re-
ported during the 1960’s and early 1970’s and gen-
erally has been in the range of 20 to 80 micrograms
per dosage unit. As a result of this comparatively low
dosage level, many users perceive LSD as “safe,” thus
enhancing the drug’s attractiveness.
The production of lower potency LSD was a conscious
marketing ploy passed down from an older genera-
tion of producers for two primary reasons. First, pro-
ducing lower potency doses meant that the same vol-
ume of LSD liquid or crystal could be diluted into a
larger number of dosage units, thereby boosting prof-
its significantly. Second, lower potency doses yield
fewer adverse reactions on the scale of those seen
during the 1960’s and early 1970’s. Lower potency
doses probably have accounted for the relatively few
LSD-related emergency room incidents noted dur-
ing the past several years. However, there are several
reasons why these incidents still occur. For example,
users who seek a more intense hallucinogenic experi-
ence merely consume multiple dosage units at once.
In addition, novices who are unaware that the effects
of LSD may take up to 1 hour to develop are tempted
to ingest additional dosage units and unwittingly in-
crease the size of the dosage consumed.
Over the past 30 years, the traditional dilution factor
for manufacturing LSD has been 10,000 doses per 1
gram of crystal. Therefore, dosage units yielded from
high-purity (95- to 100-percent pure) LSD crystal
would contain 100 micrograms. However, dosages
currently seen contain closer to 50 micrograms. This
discrepancy stems in part from production impuri-
ties: during the sythesis process, manufacturers gen-
erally fail to perform a final “clean-up” step to remove
by-products, thereby lowering the crystal’s purity.
Further, though average purity of tested LSD crystal
samples is, as noted, 62 percent, the average potency
of doses analyzed is approximately 50 micrograms
rather than 62 micrograms, as would be expected. The
diminished potency can be attributed to distributors
who, when applying the crystal to paper, often “cheat”
by diluting 1 gram of crystal to produce up to 15,000
or more dosage units.
Put simply, LSD does not cause death at recreational
or therapeutic doses (less than 500 ug / 0.5 mg). An
increase in news articles in 2012/2013 suggesting
deaths related to LSD are almost all related to 25I-
NBOMe and 25C-NBOMe, two new chemicals, avail-
able on blotter, but completely different from LSD.
While there are substantial reasons why users should
be cautious about LSD use (see LSD Health), death is
not a major risk. Less than a handful of human deaths
have been tied in the medical literature to the phar-
macological effects of LSD, and none of these deaths
have been unquestionably attributable to LSD’s ac-
tions. The clearest case was documented by Fysh et
al. in 1985; however, they fail to explain the circum-
stances of the death, only discussing the toxicological
assessment, casting some doubt that the only expla-
nation for the death was LSD.
http://www.egodeath.com/lsdus.htm#xtocid25312
Estimates of lethal doses of LSD are higher than 10 mg (10,000
ug) administered orally, more than 100 times a normal mod-
erate dose of LSD (100 ug). The administration of this amount
would require the ingestion of more than 200 units of street
blotter, which typically contain about 50 ug of LSD (as of late
2010). LSD has been used by tens of millions of people over the
last 50 years and has been administered to tens of thousands of
patients in psychotherapeutic settings (mostly prior to 1960).

https://erowid.org/chemicals/lsd/lsd_death.shtml

Blotter or Paper LSD

The most common form of LSD is paper blotter divided into

about 1/4” squares called tabs. A single tab usually contains be-
tween 30 - 100 ug of LSD. Paper blotters are created by taking
a sheet of absorbant paper (usually decorated and perforated)
and soaking it in a dilution of lysergic acid diethylamide. The di-
lution can vary greatly from one batch to another, or one chem-
ist to another. Because of the method used to make blotter tabs,
there is no practical way to know the exact dosage of a particu-
lar tab without either trying it or knowing the chemist. Adjacent
tabs on a sheet will usually contain very similar levels of LSD. Be-
cause a blotter tab is so small, only extremely potent chemicals
such as LSD can fit at active levels. See the Strychnine myth.

As of 2013 caution should be used. The potent NBOMe com-

pounds appear to be supplanting LSD on a significant portion
of acid-style blotter, sometimes misrepresented as LSD by deal-
ers. This is why we use the Ehrlich test kit which immediately
rules out 25i-NBOMe, about a $20 investment for a 50-test kit.

The DEA reports that a typical dose of LSD is not as strong as it

used to be. In the late 1960s, at the height of its use, the dos-
age ranged from 100 micrograms to 200 micrograms. As of
2005, doses were in the 20 microgram to 80 microgram range.
An average dose costs about 5 to 10 dollars on the street.

THE CAST OF CHARACTERS
I believe it’s important to note that no one can become an expert on,
acquainted with, know or understand the experience of LSD with-
out personally using LSD and all of the people connected to the his-
tory of LSD (the history as it pertains to 1938-1972 or so) described
below had used LSD numerous times to become as knowledgeable
about the drug as they obviously are without extensive use.
Aldous Huxley
Renowned British intellectual Aldous Huxley, during his life, was
one of the most important figures throughout the history of LSD.
He was a figure of high repute in the world of letters and had be-
come internationally famous through his novels Crome Yellow, An-
tic Hay and his dystopian novel Brave New World. His experiments
with psychedelic drugs (initially mescaline) and his descriptions of
them in his writings did much to spread awareness of psychedelic
drugs to the general public and arguably helped to glamorize their
recreational use, although Huxley himself treated them very serious-
ly. Huxley was introduced to psychedelic drugs in 1953 by a friend,
psychiatrist Dr. Humphry Osmond. Osmond had become interested
in hallucinogens and their relationship to mental illness in the 1940s Blotter Acid created as a tribute to the original
and during the 1950s he made extensive studies of a number of drugs
including mescaline and LSD. As noted above, Osmond had some re-
markable success in treating alcoholics with LSD. In May 1953 Osmond
gave Huxley his first dose of mescaline, at the Huxley home. In 1954 Hux-
ley recorded his experiences in the landmark book The Doors of Perception;
the title was drawn from a quotation by British artist and poet William Blake.
Huxley tried LSD for the first time in 1955, obtained from “Captain” Al Hubbard.
LSD
d-Lysergic Acid Diethyl Amide
Alfred Hubbard
Alfred Matthew Hubbard is a well-known figure in the history of
the introduction of LSD to the population. Hubbard personally
introduced more than 6,000 people to LSD, including scientists,
politicians, intelligence officials, diplomats, and church figures.
He became known as the original “Captain Trips”, travelling about
with a leather case containing pharmaceutically pure LSD, mesca-
line, and psilocybin. He became a ‘freelance’ apostle for LSD in the
early 1950s after supposedly receiving an angelic vision telling him
that something important to the future of mankind would soon be
coming. When he read about LSD the next year, he immediately
sought and acquired LSD, which he tried for himself in 1951.
Although he had no medical training, Hubbard collaborated on
running psychedelic sessions with LSD with Ross McLean at Van-
couver’s Hollywood Hospital, with psychiatrists Abram Hoffer and
Humphry Osmond, with Myron Stolaroff at the International Fed-
eration for Advanced Study in Menlo Park, and with Willis Harman
at Stanford Research Institute (SRI). At various times over the next
chemist that developed LSD, Dr. Albert
twenty years, Hubbard also reportedly worked for the Canadian Spe-
Hofmann, and his infamous bicycle ride. cial Services, the U.S. Justice Department and the U.S. Bureau of Alco-
hol, Tobacco & Firearms. It is also rumoured that he was involved with
the CIA’s MK-ULTRA project. How his government positions interacted
with his specific work with LSD is unknown on paper but speculation with
substantial historic foundational support abounds.

Harold A. Abramson
In 1955, Time Magazine reported:
“In Manhattan, Psychiatrist Harold A. Abramson of the Cold Spring Harbor Biological Laboratory
has developed a technique of serving dinner to a group of subjects, topping off the meal with a
liqueur glass containing 40 micrograms of LSD.” This
mention in America’s most popular newsweekly is
“ ... topping off the meal with a liqueur glass containing 40 micrograms of LSD.”
noteworthy because Harold A. Abramson was not
a psychiatrist or even a psychologist, but was an
allergist who was a key participant in the CIA MK-
ULTRA mind-control program.
R. Gordon Wasson
In 1957, R. Gordon Wasson, the vice president of J.P.
Morgan, published an article in Life Magazine extol-
ling the virtues of magic mushrooms. This prompted
Albert Hofmann to isolate psilocybin in 1958 for dis-
tribution by Sandoz with its product LSD in the U.S.,
further raising interest in LSD in the mass media. Fol-
lowing Wasson’s report, Timothy Leary visited Mexi-
co to experience the mushrooms.
Dr. Timothy Leary
Dr. Timothy Leary, a lecturer in psychology at Har-
vard University, was the most prominent pro-LSD re-
searcher. Leary claimed that using LSD with the right
dosage, set (what one brings to the experience), and
setting, preferably with the guidance of profession-
als, could alter behavior in dramatic and beneficial
ways. Dr. Leary began conducting experiments with
psilocybin in 1960 on himself and a number of Har-
vard graduate students after trying hallucinogenic
mushrooms used in Native American religious rituals
while visiting Mexico. His group began conducting
experiments on state prisoners, where they claimed
a 90% success rate preventing repeat offenses. Later
reexamination of Leary’s data reveals his results to be skewed, whether intentionally or not; the per-
cent of men in the study who ended up back in prison later in life was approximately 2% lower than
the usual rate. Leary was later introduced to LSD, and he then incorporated that drug into his research
as his mental catalyst of choice. Leary claimed that his experiments produced no murders, suicides,
psychotic breaks, or bad trips. On the contrary, almost all of Leary’s participants reported profound
mystical experiences which they felt had a tremendous positive effect on their lives. While it is true
that Leary’s experiments did not lead to any murders, he willfully chose to ignore the bad trips which
occurred, as well as the attempted suicide of a woman
the day after she was given mescaline by Leary.
By 1962, faculty discontent with Leary’s experiments
reached critical mass. Leary was informed that the
CIA was monitoring his research (see Government
experiments below). Many of the other faculty
members had harboured reservations about Leary’s
research, and powerful parents began complaining
to the university about Leary’s distribution of hallu-
cinogenic drugs to their children. Further, many un-
dergraduate students who were not part of Leary’s
research program heard of the profound experi-
ences other students had undergone, and began
taking LSD for recreational purposes which was not
illegal. Leary described LSD as a potent aphrodisiac
in an interview with Playboy magazine. When Leary
left the University for an extended amount of time
during the spring semester, thus failing to fulfill his
duties as professor, it was the last straw. Leary and
another Harvard psychologist, Richard Alpert, were
dismissed from the university in 1963.
In 1964, they published The Psychedelic Experience:
A Manual Based on the Tibetan Book of the Dead.
The book contained the revelation that the psyche-
delic experience paralleled the death/rebirth experi-
ence described in the Bardo Thodol (Tibetan Book of
the Dead).[26] Leary and Alpert, unfazed by their dis-
missals, relocated first to Mexico, but were expelled
from the country by the Mexican government. They
then set up at a large private mansion owned by Wil-
liam Hitchcock in New York City, known as Millbrook,
where they continued their experiments. Their research lost its controlled scientific character as the
experiments transformed into LSD parties. Leary later wrote, “We saw ourselves as anthropologists
from the twenty-first century inhabiting a time module set somewhere in the Dark Ages of the 1960s. On
this space colony we were attempting to create a new paganism and
a new dedication to life as art.”
A judge who expressed dislike for Dr. Leary’s books sen-
tenced him to 30 years in prison for possession of half
a marijuana cigarette (which was later reversed by the
Supreme Court in Leary v. United States). Publicity sur-
rounding the case further cemented Leary’s growing
reputation as a counter cultural guru. Around this time,
President Richard Nixon described Leary as “the most
dangerous man in America.” Repeated FBI raids instigated
the end of the Millbrook experiment. Leary refocused his
efforts towards countering the tremendous amount of
anti-LSD propaganda then being issued by the United
States government, coining the slogan, “Turn on, tune in,
drop out.” Many experts blame Leary and his activism for
the near-total suppression of psychedelic research over
the next thirty five years but of course it was wholly the
doings of the paranoid US government. Paranoid and
scared for good reason. Had everyone used LSD as Leary
suggested, war, famine and poverty would have ended
abruptly and those in power would have been, well,
handled. The world would have changed for the better
as Leary and the others espoused but capitalism would
have suffered total defeat therefore, LSD, as the peer re-
view proves is one of the safest pharmaceuticals ever
compounded, had to be severely demonized and liter-
ally removed from availability lest a peaceful revolution
of minds and thinking depose the powers that be. The
understanding and love for mankind that LSD brings was
roundly suppressed. Timothy Leary coined the anti-government message,
“Turn on, tune in, drop out.
Owsley Stanley
Historically, LSD was distributed not for profit, but because those who made and distributed it truly
and correctly believed that the psychedelic experience could do good for humanity, that it expanded
the mind and could bring understanding and love. A limited number of chemists, probably fewer
than a dozen, are believed to have manufactured nearly all of the illicit LSD available in the United
States. The best known of these is undoubtedly Augustus Owsley Stanley III, usually known simply as
Owsley or Bear. The former chemistry student set up a private LSD lab in the mid-Sixties in San Fran-
cisco and supplied the LSD consumed at the famous Acid Test
parties held by Ken Kesey and his Merry Pranksters, and other
major events such as the Human Be-In in San Francisco in
January 1967, and the Monterey International Pop Fes-
tival in June of that same year. He also had close social
connections to leading San Francisco bands the Grate-
ful Dead, Jefferson Airplane, Jefferson Starship, and Big
Brother and The Holding Company, regularly supplied
them with his LSD and also worked as their live sound
engineer and made many tapes of these groups in con-
cert. Owsley’s tape collection is the most complete live-
performance record in existence. Owsley’s LSD activities
— immortalized by Steely Dan in their song “Kid Char-
lemagne” — ended with his arrest at the end of 1967, but
some other manufacturers operated continuously for 30
years or more. Announcing Owsley’s first bust in 1966,
The San Francisco Chronicle’s headline “LSD Millionaire
Arrested” inspired the rare Grateful Dead song “Alice D.
Millionaire.” Owsley also closely associated with other
early LSD producers, Tim Scully and Nicholas Sand.
Ken Kesey
Ken Kesey was born in 1935 in La Junta, Colorado to
dairy farmers Frederick A. Kesey and Ginevra Smith. In
1946, the family moved to Springfield, Oregon. A cham-
pion wrestler in both high school and college, he gradu-
ated from Springfield High School in 1953.
Kesey attended the University of Oregon’s School of
Journalism, where he received a degree in speech and
communication in 1957 and where he was also a brother
of Beta Theta Pi. He was awarded a Woodrow Wilson National
Fellowship in 1958 to enroll in the creative writing program at
Stanford University, which he did the following year. While at Stanford, he studied under Wallace
Stegner and began the manuscript that would become One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest. At Stan-
ford in 1959, Kesey volunteered to take part in a CIA-financed study named Project MKULTRA at the
Menlo Park Veterans Hospital. The project studied the effects on the patients of psychoactive drugs, back serious research for many years.”
particularly LSD, psilocybin, mescaline, cocaine, AMT, and DMT. Kesey wrote many detailed accounts
of his experiences with these drugs, both during the Project MKULTRA study and in the years of pri-
vate experimentation that followed. Kesey’s role as a medical guinea pig inspired him to write One Actually, US government paranoia set back any research at all by anyone but government CIA re-
Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest in 1962. The success of this book, as well as the sale of his residence at searchers for decades.
Stanford, allowed him to move to La Honda, California, in the mountains west of Stanford Univer- William Leonard Pickard
sity. He frequently entertained friends and many others with
parties he called “Acid Tests” involving music (such as Kesey’s William Leonard Pickard earned a scholarship to Princeton Uni-
favorite band, The Warlocks, later known as the Grateful Dead), versity, but dropped out after one term, instead preferring to
black lights, fluorescent paint, strobes and other “psychedel- hang out at Greenwich Village jazz clubs. In 1971, he got a job
ic” effects, and, of course, LSD. These parties were noted in as a research manager at University of California, Berkeley, De-
some of Allen Ginsberg’s poems and are also described in Tom partment of Bacteriology and Immunology, a job he held un-
Wolfe’s The Electric Kool-Aid Acid Test, as well as Hell’s Angels: til 1974. From this year, his academic resume begins a 20-year
The Strange and Terrible Saga of the Outlaw Motorcycle Gangs gap.
by Hunter S. Thompson and Freewheelin Frank, Secretary of
the Hell’s Angels by Frank Reynolds. Ken Kesey was also said to In December 1988, a neighbor reported a strange chemical
have experimented with LSD with Ringo Starr in 1965 and in odor coming from an architectural shop at a Mountain View,
fact influenced the set up for his future performances with The California industrial park. Federal agents arrived to find 200,000
Beatles in the UK. In the summer of 1964, Kesey’s Merry Prank- doses of LSD and William Pickard inside. Pickard was charged
sters customised a bus and set out on a tour to propagate LSD with manufacturing LSD and served five years in prison.
use.
By 1994, Pickard had enrolled at the John F. Kennedy School
Sidney Cohen of Government at Harvard University. Here he focused on drug
abuse in the former Soviet Union, where he theorized the boom-
In 1964, Los Angeles Psychiatrist Sidney Cohen published The ing black market and many unemployed chemists could lead to
Beyond Within: the LSD Story. Cohen had conducted research a flood of the drug market. In 2000, Pickard was arrested for
on the drug’s effects at the Veterans Administration Hospital manufacturing LSD. He is currently serving two life sentences
in Los Angeles. One experiment was recorded on videotape, at United States Penitentiary, Tucson.
in which Dr. Cohen interviewed a subject while under the in-
fluence of LSD. The interview shows the safety as well as the Secret US Government Research
beauty that LSD brings with it. See also: Project MKULTRA and
In 1955, on behalf of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) project MKULTRA, Edgewood Arsenal human experiments
In an interview with Cohen, Time magazine reported: former Federal Bureau of Narcotics officer George White rented a three-sto-
ry building on Telegraph Hill in San Francisco. For the next ten years, the CIA The U.S. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) became interested in
“[LSD’s] effects on the mind ... are so fantastic that most exper- paid prostitutes to lure men to this location and surreptitiously dose them LSD when they read reports alleging that American prisoners
imenters insist words are not the right medium for describing with LSD or other psychoactive drugs while watching, filming and audio during the Korean War were being brainwashed with the use
them. And Dr. Cohen and other reputable researchers have taping them from behind a one-way mirror. Known as “Operation Midnight of some sort of drug or “lie serum.” LSD was the original center-
been disturbed by what he calls the “beatnik microculture” Climax”, this project was one of several exploring LSD’s potential use as a piece of the top secret MK-ULTRA project, an ambitious over-
and its abuses of LSD and other hallucinogens. The danger, mind control tool by the U.S. Intelligence & Military Communities.
he says, is that public reaction against oddball antics may set
zealous illegal and morally reprehensible
undertaking conducted from the 1950s
through the ‘70s designed to explore the
possibilities of pharmaceutical mind con-
trol. Hundreds of participants, including
CIA agents, government employees, mili-
tary personnel, prostitutes, members of
the general public, and mental patients
were given LSD, the majority without
their knowledge or consent. Some died.
The experiments often involved severe
psychological torture. To guard against
outward reactions, doctors conducted
experiments in clinics and laboratories
where subjects were monitored by EEG
machines and had their words recorded.
Some studies investigated whether drugs,
stress or specific environmental condi-
tions could be used to break prisoners or
to induce confessions. The CIA also cre-
ated The Society for the Investigation of
Human Ecology which was a CIA fund-
ing front which provided grants to social
scientists and medical researchers inves-
tigating questions of interest related to
the MK-ULTRA program. Between 1960
and 1963, the CIA gave $856,782 worth
of grants to different organizations. The
researchers eventually concluded that
LSD’s effects were too varied and uncon-
trollable to make it of any practical use
as a truth drug, and the project moved
on to other substances. It would be de-
cades before the US government admit-
ted the existence of the project and of-
fered apologies to the families of those
who had died during the experiments.
During this time period, the use of LSD
for psycho-chemical warfare was under
consideration and testing, among other
substances. Looking to replicate the ef-
fects of nerve gas created by the Ger-
mans during WWII without the toxicity,
LSD was sought for use under the pre-
tense that it could induce hysteria and
psychoses, or at least an inability to fight
without wholesale destruction of the en-
emy and their properties. Thousands of
tests on willing research subjects took
place at the Edgewood Arsenal, Mary-
land, with the ultimate conclusion being
that LSD was too unpredictable and un-
controllable for any tactical use.
A number of important cast members
will be added to the final published copy
of this eBook.
After the following page—a 2016 peer
reviewed report from a medical consul-
tant in Vienna, Austria—begins the 2017
chapter and the remaining peer review
is from 2017. This 2016 report from Aus-
tria provides, in my opinion, an excel-
lent beginning overview of the historic
narrative behind the discovery, use and
LSD
AN INTRODUCTION
By Herman A.M. Mucke
 From Psychiatry to Flower Power and Back Again:
The Amazing Story of Lysergic Acid Diethylamide [5]

Assay and Drug Development Technologies • July 2016

Hermann A.M. Mucke

H.M. Pharma Consultancy, Vienna, Austria

Among the psychedelic drugs that enjoyed a period of popularity in psychi-

atric research during the 1950s and 1960s, lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) is
the most prominent one. Psychiatrists of that time had seen LSD not only as a
tool for psychotherapy but also as a potential therapeutic for anxiety, depres-
sion, alcohol abuse, autism, and even schizophrenia.

When it became a quasi-religious epitome of the Hippie counterculture in

the mid 1960s, and cases of what we now call hallucinogen persisting per-
ception disorder and acute psychotic ‘‘flashbacks’’ mounted [propaganda],
authorities moved to make LSD illegal. Although research was never actually
forbidden [qualifications to research were insurmountable], the field almost
completely dried out until the early 2010s.

Using today’s tools of molecular pharmacology, functional imaging, and neu-

ronal network theory, neuropsychiatry is now resurrecting LSD research—
with implications that leave us with many medical and ethical questions. Few
people are aware that this is a repurposed compound, originally developed
in an effort to synthesize a new analeptic [a drug that stimulates the central
nervous system tending to restore a person’s health or strength]. On top of
all potential LSD might have in psychiatry, it also serves as a reminder of the
unexpected potential that discarded early-stage compounds can have.

AN EXCEPTIONALLY POWERFUL HALLUCINOGEN

‘‘On the morning of Thursday, June 18, 1953, I swallowed a drug which, for
twelve unforgettable hours, turned me into a madman. Time lost all meaning.
The dimensions of the room, elastic like, stretched and shrank. Pictures, chairs,
curtains, and lamps flew endlessly about. I saw the faces of familiar friends turn
into fleshless skulls and the heads of menacing witches, pigs and weasels. After
handling a painted card I could feel my body suffocating because my skin had

PSYCHIATRY TO FLOWER POWER • PAGE 1

turned to enamel. As I patted a black dog, my arm grew heavy and
sprouted a thick coat of glossy black fur. At times I beheld visions of
dazzling beauty. I lived in a paradise where the sky was a mass of
jewels set in a background of shimmering aquamarine blue; where
the clouds were apricot-colored; where the air was filled with liquid
golden arrows, glittering fountains of iridescent bubbles, filigree
lace of pearl and silver, sheathes of rainbow light .’’

This is an excerpt from a 1953 article in Maclean’s Magazine, in

which the journal’s feature writer, Sidney S. Katz, described his
experiences after taking a dose of the Sandoz drug, Delysid. It is
regarded as the earliest detailed, first-person account of the hal-
lucinogenic effects of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD)-25, com-
monly known as just LSD. Katz undertook his LSD ‘‘trip’’ under
medical supervision in a psychiatric ward, with the intent to add
his personal experience to the background he had researched
for his story. His account, although obviously heavily scripted for
a general audience, is in remarkably good accord with the much
less controlled experiences that LSD’s inventor, Albert Hofmann,
had during and after his now-famous April 19th, 1943 bicycle
ride from the Basel Sandoz laboratories—where he had ingest-
ed 0.25 mg [250 micrograms] of LSD tartrate—to his home:

‘‘Everything in the room spun around, and the familiar objects and
pieces of furniture assumed grotesque, threatening forms. They
were in continuous motion, animated, as if driven by an inner rest-
lessness. The lady next door (.) was no longer Mrs. R., but rather a
malevolent, insidious witch with a colored mask. (.) Little by little I
could begin to enjoy the unprecedented colors and plays of shapes
that persisted behind my closed eyes. Kaleidoscopic, fantastic im-
ages surged in on me, alternating, variegated, opening and then
closing themselves in circles and spirals, exploding in colored foun-
tains, rearranging and hybridizing themselves in constant flux.’’

Hofmann published these recollections only decades later, in

his memoirs whose English version was titled ‘‘LSD, my problem
child” included herein. How Sandoz came to create this drug
candidate, only to immediately repurpose it as a tool compound
for psychiatry, and how these concepts are now regaining trac-
tion, is the subject of this article.
PSYCHIATRY TO FLOWER POWER • PAGE 2
 A ‘‘PECULIAR PRESENTIMENT’’
WITH CONSEQUENCES

LSD (LysergSaure Diathylamid, as the German name goes) was

first synthesized at the Basel Sandoz laboratories in 1938, as
the 25th substance in a series of derivatives of lysergic acid,
the common core moiety of the ergot alkaloids, which had at-
tracted increased interest in the 1930s. Hofmann had planned
the synthesis of this compound with the intention of obtain-
ing a circulatory and respiratory stimulant, based on structural
similarity to nicotinic acid diethylamide (Coramine), a known
analeptic. Instead, LSD-25 was found to have a strong effect
on uterus contractibility. It also made the laboratory mice rest-
less and erratic, which caused the company’s pharmacologists
to shelve the compound, while Hofmann went on to develop
more promising semisynthetic ergot alkaloids, some of which
are in medical use even today.

Hofmann later stated that it was ‘‘a peculiar presentiment—the

feeling that this substance could possess properties other than
those established in the first investigations—that induced me, 5
years after the first synthesis, to produce LSD-25 once again’’ in
April 1943. During the final recrystallization, he must have ac-
cidentally ingested or transdermally absorbed a few dozen mi-
crograms of the compound; he experienced restlessness and
dizziness that forced him to interrupt his work and go home,
where he had the first psychedelic experiences. Three days lat-
er, he deliberately ingested LSD in the presence of an assistant,
who accompanied him on his notorious bicycle ride home.

A STRANGE AND LARGELY

UNEXPLORED PHARMACOLOGY

After his crude self-experiment, Hofmann stressed in his re-

port that he had complete recall of all experiences during
his ‘‘trip’’ and no hangover. Quite to the contrary: on the next
morning, after the acute effects had abated, ‘‘everything glis-
tened and sparkled in a fresh light. The world was as if newly cre-
ated. Allmy senses vibrated in a condition of highest sensitivity,
which persisted for the entire day.’’

PSYCHIATRY TO FLOWER POWER • PAGE 3

After three high-ranking Sandoz scientists had repeated Hof-
mann’s experiment with one-third of the dose he had used, con-
firming that even 80 mg of LSD-25 tartrate could produce pow-
erful hallucinations in man, extensive animal experiments were
conducted. Remarkably, the compound’s effects were not limited
to mammals, and not even to vertebrates. Fish assumed unusual
swimming postures; and at very low doses, spiders constructed
webs that were even better proportioned and more exactly built
than normally, but produced irregular and rudimentary webs at
higher doses. The acute toxicity of LSD, mostly manifesting as re-
spiratory arrest, correlated much more strongly with animal size
than is usually seen. The intravenous LD50 [dosage where 50% die
immediately] was 50–60 mg/kg in mice, 16.5 mg/kg in rats, and
0.3mg/kg in rabbits; and 0.06 mg/kg was almost immediately le-
thal in an elephant (!). It is not known if this reflects differences in
metabolism, blood–brain barrier transport, or in the sensitivity of
the respiratory center. However, considering that the oral halluci-
nogenic dose in humans is 0.0003–0.001 mg/kg (with ergot alka-
loids having notoriously low-oral bioavailability), LSD actually has
a broad effect/toxicity window. While cases of self-mutilation and
suicide under LSD influence are well documented [yet few], there
are no reports of the drug having direct lethal effects in man.

Pharmacokinetics of LSD in humans was not properly deter-

mined until 2015, which is not surprising for a compound that
is administered in the low-microgram dose range. After an oral
dose of 200 mg, plasma Cmax (4.5 – 1.4 ng/mL) was reached after
0.5–4 h and declined following first-order kinetics with a half-life
of 3.6 – 0.9 h for up to 12 h (during which period acute subjec-
tive and sympathomimetic responses to LSD were evident) and
slower elimination thereafter with a terminal half-life of 8.9 – 5.9
h. Only 1% of the dose was eliminated unchanged in urine within
24 h, while the primary urinary metabolite (13% of the dose) was
2-oxo- 3-hydroxy-lysergic acid diethylamide. Human organ dis-
tribution dynamics of LSD, including brain penetration, remains
largely uncharacterized.

The molecular pharmacology of LSD is complex. Although it was

noticed early on that LSD and serotonin are agonistic or antago-
nistic to each other depending on the model, conclusive identifi
PSYCHIATRY TO FLOWER POWER • PAGE 4
cation of central 5-HT2 receptors as sites of action took three more decades.
Agonism, antagonism, and partial agonism at 5-HT2A and 5-HT2C receptors
provided incomplete explanations. It was only after the millennium that it
was shown that the later phase of LSD intoxication is mediated by D2 dopa-
mine receptor stimulation. Our current understanding is that LSD enhances
dopamine D2 receptor protomer recognition and signaling of D2/5-HT2A het-
eroreceptor complexes, potentially with modulation using 5-HT1A receptors.

While atypical antipsychotics such as risperidone can block LSD effects com-
pletely, we still lack a comprehensive model describing how such receptor
actions generate the intense and predominantly visual hallucinations during
an LSD ‘‘trip’’ and later flashbacks while the auditory hallucinations that domi-
nate in schizophrenia are rare.

DELYSID: A MID-20TH CENTURY DRUG

FOR EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHIATRY

All this was unknown in 1947, when Sandoz AG—not Novartis’ generics arm
of today, but then one of the most powerful and innovative pharmaceutical
companies of the time—launched the first and only LSD drug, Delysid (su-
garcoated tablets 25 mg and ampoules of 1mL containing 100 mg for oral
administration). Building on the description of LSD experiences, scientists
concluded that this compound could be used to create what amounted to
a reversible human model of schizophrenia (which at this time had a much
looser clinical definition than today, and was not clearly separated from psy-
chosis and bipolar disorder) and might also treat other psychiatric disorders,
including depression and alcoholism.

The ‘‘Indications and Dosage’’ section of the package insert

stated the following intended uses:

(a) Analytical psychotherapy, to elicit release of repressed material and provide

mental relaxation, particularly in anxiety states and obsessional neuroses. The
initial dose is 25 mg (1⁄4 of an ampoule or 1 tablet). This dose is increased at each
treatment by 25 mg until the optimum dose (usually between 50 and 200 mg) is
found. The individual treatments are best given at intervals of 1 week.

(b) Experimental studies on the nature of psychoses: By taking Delysid himself, the
psychiatrist is able to gain an insight in the world of ideas and sensations of mental
patients. Delysid can also be used to induce model psychoses of short duration in
PSYCHIATRY TO FLOWER POWER • PAGE 5
normal subjects, this facilitating studies on the pathogenesis
of mental disease. Psychotherapy was the first psychiatric
application of LSD to be reported in the scientific litera-
ture, followed by the treatment of depression; low doses
(*20 mg) were used in these experiments. Higher doses
(40–120 mg) were used in the first experiments with
schizophrenic patients, increasing to 200–400 mg in in-
vestigations in alcoholics. Some years later, research was
extended to autistic children. These early and crude trials
had very limited therapeutic success, but ‘‘provided thera-
peutically valuable insights into unconscious processes.’’
Only in the mid 1960s, reports appeared in the litera-
ture that could be regarded as controlled clinical tri-
als by the standards of their time. There was another
nonmedical and much more sinister side to the exper-
imental use of Delysid. From 1951 onward, the United
States Central Intelligence Agency and the U.S. Army
investigated LSD as a potential means of ‘‘mind con-
trol” using unwitting American subjects lured by pros-
titutes—see Project MKUltra.
After the Korean War, which had first confronted U.S.
authorities with the phenomenon of ‘‘brainwashing’’
on a larger scale, this project was absorbed into MKUl-
tra, a top-secret behavior modification and prisoner
interrogation program. Initially, MKUltra used volun-
teers, but within a few years, it developed into a sys-
tematic abuse of psychiatry that at least rivaled with
what was committed in the Eastern Bloc during the
same period.
BACKLASH AGAINST FLOWER POWER
FREEZES LSD RESEARCH
How LSD became the cult drug of the 1960s Hippie
counterculture, promoted by ex-Harvard psychologist
Timothy Leary and others, is a well-documented story
that does not require repetition in this study. Uncon-
PSYCHIATRY TO FLOWER POWER • PAGE 6
trolled repeated consumption brought on the ‘‘Flash-
back’’ phenomenon (spontaneous psychotic episodes
that continue to occur from weeks to years without
acute LSD influence) [a myth], with considerable po-
tential for self-inflicted harm and disruption of public
order [it was the “disruption of public order” via pro-
tests against war that was the problem]. Together with
the LSD users’ vocal opposition to the Vietnam War
and their rejection of conventional society with its
concepts of conformity and material productivity, this
quickly created a situation which the United States es-
tablishment would not—and the government could
not—condone [obviously, freedom and liberty can
only be purchased by billionaires].
In April 1966, Sandoz Pharmaceuticals terminated Delysid
distribution to government-sponsored researchers in the
United States and recalled all supplies (while its use in the
MKUltra program continued into the early 1970s). In Oc-
tober 1970, the U.S. Controlled Substances Act made LSD
a Schedule I drug (i.e., a drug without established safety
record or accepted medical use), with European countries
quickly following suit. Funding and academic support
for research dried up almost completely, effectively sus-
pending ‘‘psychedelic psychiatry’’ for decades. By the early
1970s, the ‘‘Flower Power’’ movement and the civil unrest
had essentially dissipated, leaving LSD behind as a demon-
ized symbol of nonconformity. Clandestine consumption
continued, especially among high-school and college stu-
dents. However, with a complicated semisynthesis, no ad-
dictive potential, and an effect spectrum that allowed only
occasional use, LSD never became an interesting business
proposal for street drug dealer networks. Although its use
in academic research was never made actually illegal, ac-
cess barriers to the compound were extremely high; regu-
latory hurdles were almost prohibitive; and in any case, us-
ing hallucinogens in psychiatry was stigmatized. That LSD
would be used in normal persons to solve social problems
by the year 2000, as members of the American College
of Neuropsychopharmacology had advocated in a 1967 meeting, adjustment for multiple testing. Gains made in anxiety reduction
now seemed like a piece of science fiction from a parallel universe. seen 2 months after the final treatment were still present at an
In reality, output of peer review articles on the subject declined ex- average of 16.4 – 4.3 months later. However, only two of eight par-
ponentially, until by 2012 only about two dozen new publications ticipants scored below the cutoff rating on state and trait anxiety
were added to PubMed annually. at the 2-month follow-up. In the qualitative content analysis, par-
ticipants consistently reported insightful, cathartic, and interper-
THE LONG LOOP BACK TO RESEARCH sonal experiences, accompanied by a reduction in anxiety (77.8%)
and a rise in quality of life (66.7%). The team at the Basel University
However, in retrospect, this proved to be the low-water mark. hospital elaborated further on what, technically, was an explor-
Around 2010, resurgent interest in the clinical potential of psy- atory Phase II clinical trial and published data on subjective and
chedelic drugs, including LSD, had gained traction. This was driv- autonomic effects of LSD, including changes in prepulse inhibi-
en not so much by modern molecular pharmacology, but rather tion (a.k.a., the ‘‘startle reflex’’)—a key parameter in neurobehav-
by increased understanding of ioral studies of schizophrenia.
neural networks. In 2014, results The Swiss trial was far too
from the first double-blind, ran- “In the qualitative content analysis, par- small to be conclusive and
domized controlled human trial for those who were aware of
of LSD in more than 40 years ticipants consistently reported insightful, the decades-old literature, it
were published. The sponsor
cathartic, and interpersonal experiences, provided practically nothing
was a foundation, the Multidis- new. However, it confirmed
ciplinary Association for Psy- accompanied by a reduction in anxiety 50-year-old observations us-
chedelic Studies (MAPS, Santa ing current criteria of clinical
Cruz, CA). The trial investigated (77.8%) and a rise in quality of life (66.7%).” psychiatry. Most importantly,
the effects of LSD-assisted psy- it served as a first step to re-
chotherapy on end-of-life anxi- establish the concept of sci-
ety in 12 patients, most of whom had terminal cancer and half of entific LSD research by ‘‘breaking it out of the counterculture mold
whom had been diagnosed with generalized anxiety disorder. It and bringing it back to the lab as part of a psychedelic renaissance,’’
was conducted in Switzerland with approval of the local authori- as MAPS’ director Rick Doblin told the New York Times. Almost at
ties, but also under a U.S. FDA Investigational Drug Application the same time, British scientists—in collaboration with others in
(No. 101,825), marking the almost unrecognized change of the Germany, Canada, Brazil, and New Zealand—had embarked on
tide that had taken place a few years earlier. It also had a regular studies to alleviate a deficit that LSD research had suffered even
ClinicalTrials.gov registry code: NCT00920387. in comparison with other ostracized psychotropic drugs, namely
the complete lack of functional neuroimaging studies. They used
The participants underwent a 3-month treatment phase with six three complementary techniques (arterial spin labeling, blood ox-
to eight psychotherapy sessions, with two LSD exposures embed- ygen leveldependent measures, and magnetoencephalography)
ded at a 4- to 6-week interval. After 2 months of psychotherapy and correlated the data with the subjective experiences.
assisted by the full psychotropic 200 mg dose (n = 8), reduction
in stated anxiety compared to the 20 mg active placebo dose (n = Twenty healthy participants attended 2 scanning days (LSD 75 mg
4) was statistically significant, with an effect size of 1.2. Reduction or placebo) at least 2 weeks apart in a balanced-order within-sub-
in trait anxiety (effect size 1.1) trended toward significance after jects design. LSD greatly expanded the primary visual cortex con-

PSYCHIATRY TO FLOWER POWER • PAGE 7

nectivity profile. This correlated strongly with ratings of visu-
al hallucinations, but, remarkably, not with the drug’s other
characteristic effects on consciousness such as ‘‘ego-disso-
lution’’ and ‘‘altered meaning,’’ which rather correlated with
decreased connectivity between the parahippocampus and
retrosplenial cortex. Consistent with the proposed default-
mode network (DMN) theory of autobiographical memory
recollection and ruminative thought, decreased resting-state
functional connectivity within the DMN correlated with de-
creased ‘‘mental time travel to the past’’, that is, under the in-
fluence of LSD, contemplation of the personal past occupied
significantly fewer mental spaces, while spaces for the pres-
ent or future were unchanged.

COULD WE HAVE A NEW DELYSID?

Prospects for LSD might once again emerge in clinical psy-

chiatry: as a tool for exploring the neurobiology of the hu-
man brain, to ease the suffering from mental disturbances,
and to understand how the emergent phenomena of per-
ception and self are anchored in our neuronal inventory.
However, any path to its routine use in the therapy of mental
illness—either transient or chronic—can be expected to be
long and tortuous.

Terminally ill patients whose single prognosis is impending

death, such as those who were enrolled in the Swiss study,
tend to be trapped in mental patterns of depression and anxi-
ety. Allowing them to experience a new or extended subjec-
tive reality could, with the support of a mental health pro-
fessional, disrupt the focus on their disease and impending
doom and improve their psychological state. By strengthen-
ing or balancing immune responses, this might even indirect-
ly improve their disease. A similar case might be made for the
obsessive component in chronic alcohol abuse. Apart from
the decades-old retrospective (and largely anecdotal) reports
on people who consumed LSD over years under uncontrolled
circumstances, we know very little about the drug’s long-term
effects. Its alleged mutagenic and teratogenic effects (a pop-
ular lever in the 1960s campaign to outlaw LSD) were never
PSYCHIATRY TO FLOWER POWER • PAGE 8
reproduced in stringent cell culture or in animal experiments.

But if we started treating ‘‘state’’ disturbances of the mind with

LSD, what effect could that have on psychological ‘‘trait’’ char-
acteristics (ultimately, the personality)? If we subscribe to the
British imaging researcher’s interpretation that “LSD ‘‘ elicits
psychosis-like symptoms acutely yet improves psychological
well-being in the mid to long term, and that increased cog-
nitive flexibility subsequent to 5-HT2A receptor stimulation
leaves a residue of ‘loosened cognition’ in the mid to long term
that is conducive to improved psychological wellbeing,’’ with
enduring increases in trait openness—what would the effects
on the subjects’ everyday life be? Spontaneous mental events
to which the subject assigns strong mystical or spiritual mean-
ing can change core facets of the personality and its focus. Do
we dare to induce such experiences with drug therapy?

These are questions to be confronted, and they are not merely

technical ones. The problem is compounded by the fact that
subjective LSD experiences are unpredictable, being highly
dependent on the patients’ psychological state and social en-
vironment. In addition, our current rating scales are not tuned
to capture and quantitate psychedelic impressions. We cer-
tainly need more clinical studies, but they would have to be
conducted with an expanded inventory of psychiatric tools.
Dream research might provide interesting leads in this re-
spect. This perspective has highlighted the fantastic history of
a compound that was repurposed by accident, when it was a
shelved compound—not even a lead candidate yet—that had
not at all behaved as expected. Of course drug development
is exceedingly more data driven today than it was when LSD
was first synthesized, but this does not mean that compounds
that are discontinued in early stages are studied extensively.
While the popular ‘‘kill quick and early’’ paradigm makes basic
economic sense in a focused development program, it leaves
a huge number of compounds on the sidelines that are never
properly investigated. At least for molecules that appear on
the public record, this huge reservoir needs to be charted and
tapped for potential repurposing candidates.

PSYCHIATRY TO FLOWER POWER • PAGE 9

 DISCLOSURE STATEMENT
No competing financial interests exist

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Address correspondence to:

Hermann A.M. Mucke, PhD

H.M. Pharma Consultancy
Enenkelstrasse 28/32, Vienna A-1160, Austria
E-mail: h.mucke@hmpharmacon.com

PSYCHIATRY TO FLOWER POWER • PAGE 11

CHAPTER ONE
THE 2017 Peer Review
 69th AACC Annual Scientific Meeting
On Abstracts [88]
American Association For Clinical Chemistry • August 21st & 22nd • 2017

TUESDAY, AUGUST 21st, POSTER SESSIONS

9:30am – 5:00pm

Cancer/Tumor Markers
Cardiac Markers
Clinical Studies/Outcomes
Endocrinology/Hormones.
Factors Affecting Test Results
Hematology/Coagulation
Immunology
Mass Spectrometry Applications
Nutrition/Trace Metals/Vitamins

WEDNESDAY, AUGUST 22nd, POSTER SESSIONS

9:30am – 5:00pm

Animal Clinical Chemistry

Automation/Computer Applications
Electrolytes/Blood Gas/Metabolites
Infectious Disease
Lipids/Lipoprotein
Management
Molecular Pathology/Probes
Pediatric/Fetal Clinical Chemistry
Point-of-Care Testing
Proteins/Enzymes
TDM/Toxicology/DAU
Technology/Design Development

This PDF contains over 300 abstracts with links to all reports
of any type submitted, accepted, reviewed and published by
the American Association Of Clinical Chemistry in 2016
 Role of psilocybin
in the treatment of depression [73]
Therapies In Advanced Psychopharmacology • January 2017

By Ananya Mahapatra and Rishi Gupta

Correspondence to:
Ananya Mahapatra, MBBS, MD
Department of Psychiatry, 4th floor Academic Block
All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Ansari
Nagar, New Delhi 110029, India
nnyaa09@gmail.com
Rishi Gupta, MBBS
Department of Psychiatry and National Drug-Dependence Treatment Centre
All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, India

Psilocybin is a naturally occurring alkaloid, pharmacologi-

cally similar to the classic hallucinogen lysergic acid dieth-
ylamide (LSD). Although primarily used as a recreational
drug or an entheogen in particular cultural settings, re-
cent population based studies have shown that it does
not lead to serious physical or mental health problems
or dependent use. In view of recent work demonstrat-
ing psilocybin’s potential to increase subjective sense of
wellbeing and because of its novel mechanism of 5-HT2A
serotonin receptor agonism, it is being explored for pos-
sible therapeutic utility in mood and anxiety disorders.
 Dreams and psychedelics:
neurophenomenological comparison
and therapeutic implications [104]
Currents In Neuropharmacology • June 2017

By R. Kraehenmann

Neuropsychopharmacology and Brain Imaging, Department of Psychiatry

Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Psychiatric Hospital
Faculty of Medicine, University of Zurich, Switzerland

A resurgence of neurobiological and clinical research is currently under-

way into the therapeutic potential of serotonergic or ‘classical’ psychedel-
ics, such as the prototypical psychedelic drug lysergic acid diethylamide
(LSD), psilocybin (4-phosphoryloxy-N,Ndimethyltryptamine), and aya-
huasca – a betacarboline- and dimethyltryptamine (DMT)-containing
Amazonian beverage. The aim of this review is to introduce readers to
the similarities and dissimilarities between psychedelic states and night
dreams, and to draw conclusions related to therapeutic applications of
psychedelics in psychiatry. Research literature related to psychedelics and
dreaming is reviewed, and these two states of consciousness are system-
atically compared. Relevant conclusions in terms of therapeutic conclu-
sions on psychedelic-assisted therapy in psychiatric patients will be pro-
vided. Common features between psychedelic states and night dreams
include perception, mental imagery, emotion activation, fear memory ex-
tinction, and sense of self and body. Differences between these two states
are related differential perceptual input from the environment, clarity of
consciousness and meta-cognitive abilities. Therefore, psychedelic states
are closest to lucid dreaming states which are characterized by a mixed
state of dreaming and waking consciousness. The broad overlap between
dreaming and psychedelic states supports the notion that psychedelics
acutely induce dreamlike subjective experiences which may have long-
term beneficial effects on psychosocial functioning and well-being. Fu-
ture clinical studies should examine how therapeutic outcome is related
to the acute dreamlike effects of psychedelics.
 Potential Therapeutic Effects
of Psilocybin [289]
The American Society for Experimental NeuroTherapeutics
June 2017

Matthew W. Johnson1 & Roland R. Griffiths1,2

1 Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins

University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
2 Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of
Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA

Psilocybin and other 5-hydroxytryptamine2A agonist clas-

sic psychedelics have been used for centuries as sacraments
within indigenous cultures. In the mid-twentieth century they
were a focus within psychiatry as both probes of brain func-
tion and experimental therapeutics. By the late 1960s and
early 1970s these scientific inquires fell out of favor because
classic psychedelics were being used outside of medical re-
search and in association with the emerging counter culture.
However, in the twenty-first century, scientific interest in clas-
sic psychedelics has returned and grown as a result of several
promising studies, validating earlier research. Here, we review
therapeutic research on psilocybin, the classic psychedelic
that has been the focus of most recent research. For mood and
anxiety disorders, three controlled trials have suggested that
psilocybin may decrease symptoms of depression and anxi-
ety in the context of cancer-related psychiatric distress for at
least 6 months following a single acute administration. A small,
open-label study in patients with treatment-resistant depres-
sion showed reductions in depression and anxiety symptoms
3 months after two acute doses. For addiction, small, open-la-
bel pilot studies have shown promising success rates for both
tobacco and alcohol addiction. Safety data from these various
trials, which involve careful screening, preparation, monitor-
ing, and follow-up, indicate the absence of severe drug-related
adverse reactions. Modest drug-related adverse effects at the
time of medication administration are readily managed. US
federal funding has yet to support therapeutic psilocybin re-
search, although such support will be important to thorough-
ly investigate efficacy, safety, and therapeutic mechanisms.
 The serotonin 5-HT2C receptor
and the non-addictive nature
of classic hallucinogens [66]
Journal Of Psychopharmacology • January 2017

Canal CE1, Murnane KS2.

1Center for Drug Discovery, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences

Northeastern University, Boston, USA
2Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Mercer University College of Pharmacy
Mercer University Health Sciences Center, Atlanta, USA

Classic hallucinogens share pharmacology as serotonin 5-HT2A, 5-HT2B,

and 5-HT2C receptor agonists. Unique among most other Sched-
ule 1 drugs, they are generally non-addictive and can be ef-
fective tools in the treatment of addiction. Mechanisms
underlying these attributes are largely unknown.
However, many preclinical studies show that 5-
HT2C agonists counteract the addictive effects
of drugs from several classes, suggesting this
pharmacological property of classic halluci-
nogens may be significant. Drawing from a
comprehensive analysis of preclinical be-
havior, neuroanatomy, and neurochemistry
studies, this review builds rationale for this
hypothesis, and also proposes a testable,
neurobiological framework. 5-HT2C agonists
work, in part, by modulating dopamine neu-
ron activity in the ventral tegmental area-nu-
cleus accumbens (NAc) reward pathway. We ar-
gue that activation of 5-HT2C receptors on NAc
shell, GABAergic, medium spiny neurons inhibits
potassium Kv1.x channels, thereby enhancing inhibi-
tory activity via intrinsic mechanisms. Together with ex-
periments that show that addictive drugs, such as cocaine,
potentiate Kv1.x channels, thereby suppressing NAc shell GAB-
Aergic activity, this hypothesis provides a mechanism by which classic
hallucinogen-mediated stimulation of 5-HT2C receptors could thwart ad-
diction. It also provides a potential reason for the non-addictive nature
of classic hallucinogens.
 Crystal Structure
of an LSD-Bound Human Serotonin Receptor
[115]
Cell • January 2017

Wacker D1, Wang S2, McCorvy JD2, Betz RM3,

Venkatakrishnan AJ4, Levit A5, Lansu K2, Schools ZL2, Che T2
Nichols DE6, Shoichet BK5, Dror RO7, Roth BL8

1Department of Pharmacology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill School of Medicine, Cha-
pel Hill, NC 27599-7365, USA. Electronic address: dwacker@email.unc.edu
2Department of Pharmacology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, NC
3Department of Computer Science, Stanford University, Stanford, CA; Department of Molecular and Cellular
Physiology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA; Institute for Computational and Mathematical
Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA; Biophysics Program, Stanford University, Stanford, CA
4Department of Computer Science, Stanford University, Stanford, CA; Department of Molecular and
Cellular Physiology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA; Institute for Computa-
tional and Mathematical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA
5Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA
6Division of Chemical Biology and Medicinal Chemistry, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University
of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC
7Department of Computer Science, Stanford University, Stanford, CA; Department of Molecular and Cellular
Physiology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA; Institute for Computational and Mathematical
Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA; Biophysics Program, Stanford University, Stanford, CA
8Department of Pharmacology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill School of Medicine, Chapel Hill,
NC; Division of Chemical Biology and Medicinal Chemistry, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North
Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC; National Institute of Mental Health Psychoactive Drug Screening Pro-
gram, School of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, NC

The prototypical hallucinogen LSD acts via serotonin receptors, and here
we describe the crystal structure of LSD in complex with the human se-
rotonin receptor 5-HT2B. The complex reveals conformational rearrange-
ments to accommodate LSD, providing a structural explanation for the
conformational selectivity of LSD’s key diethylamide moiety. LSD dissoci-
ates exceptionally slow from both 5-HT2BR and 5-HT2AR-a major target
for its psychoactivity. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations suggest that
LSD’s slow binding kinetics may be due to a “lid” formed by extracellular
loop 2 (EL2) at the entrance to the binding pocket. A mutation predicted
to increase the mobility of this lid greatly accelerates LSD’s binding ki-
netics and selectively dampens LSD-mediated β-arrestin2 recruitment.
This study thus reveals an unexpected binding mode of LSD; illuminates
key features of its kinetics, stereochemistry, and signaling; and provides
a molecular explanation for LSD’s actions at human serotonin receptors.
 Modern Clinical Research on LSD [34]
Neuropsychopharmacology • April 2017

By Matthias E Liechti

Psychopharmacology Research, Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology

Department of Biomedicine, Department of Clinical Research
Department of Internal Medicine, University Hospital Basel,
University of Basel, Switzerland
E-mail: matthias.liechti@usb.ch
Phone: +41-61-328-6868; Fax: +41 61 265 45 60

All modern clinical studies using the classic hallucinogen lyser-

gic acid diethylamide (LSD) in healthy subjects or patients in the
last 25 years are reviewed herein. There were five recent studies in
healthy participants and one in patients. In a controlled setting,
LSD acutely induced bliss, audiovisual synesthesia, altered mean-
ing of perceptions, derealization, depersonalization, and mystical
experiences. These subjective effects of LSD were mediated by
the 5-HT2A receptor. LSD increased feelings of closeness to oth-
ers, openness, trust, and suggestibility. LSD impaired the recogni-
tion of sad and fearful faces, reduced left amygdala reactivity to
fearful faces, and enhanced emotional empathy. LSD increased
the emotional response to music and the meaning of music. LSD
acutely produced deficits in sensorimotor gating, similar to obser-
vations in schizophrenia. LSD had weak autonomic stimulant ef-
fects and elevated plasma cortisol, prolactin, and oxytocin levels.
Resting state functional magnetic resonance studies showed that
LSD acutely reduced the integrity of functional brain networks
and increased connectivity between networks that normally are
more dissociated. LSD increased functional thalamocortical con-
nectivity and functional connectivity of the primary visual cortex
with other brain areas. The latter effect was correlated with sub-
jective hallucinations. LSD acutely induced global increases in
brain entropy that were associated with greater trait openness 14
day later. In patients with anxiety associated with life-threatening
disease, anxiety was reduced for 2 months after two doses of LSD.
In medical settings, no complications of LSD administration were
observed. These data should contribute to further investigations
of the therapeutic potential of LSD in psychiatry.
 Psychoactive substances as a last resort—
a qualitative study of self-treatment of
migraine and cluster headaches [252]
Harm Reduction Journal • 2017

Martin Andersson, Mari Persson and Anette Kjellgren

AK designed the study and supervised and directed the process. MP gathered the data,
performed the initial coding of the data and provided a draft for the manuscript. MA re-
fined the analysis, reviewed the literature, and is the main writer of the manuscript. All
authors contributed to and approved the final manuscript, ethics approval and consent
to participate. Data for the present study were collected from publicly available Inter-
net forum with anonymous participants and considered in compliance with the ethical
guidelines and recommendations by SACHRP [26]. User aliases have been excluded to
ensure the anonymity of individuals. Also, quotations were slightly altered to prevent
tracking. The present study is considered an observational study where retrospective
information was analyzed. No direct interaction or attempted contacts were initiated.

Competing interests:
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Treatment resistant cluster headache and migraine patients are explor-

ing alternative treatments online. The aim of this study was to improve
comprehension regarding the use of non-established or alternative
pharmacological treatments used by sufferers of cluster headaches and
migraines. A qualitative thematic analysis of the users’ own accounts pre-
sented in online forum discussions were conducted. The forum boards
https://shroomery.org/, http://bluelight.org, and https://clusterbusters.
org/ met the inclusion criteria and were used for the study. The anal-
ysis resulted in six themes: a desperate need for effective treatments;
the role of the forum—finding alternative treatments and community
support; alternative treatment substances; dosage and regimens; ef-
fects and treatment results; and adverse effects. The results provide an
insight into why, how, and by which substances and methods sufferers
seek relief from cluster headache and migraines. These patients are in a
desperate and vulnerable situation, and illicit psychoactive substances
are often considered a last resort. There appeared to be little or no in-
terest in psychoactive effects per se as these were rather tolerated or
avoided by using sub-psychoactive doses. Primarily, psilocybin, lysergic
acid diethylamide, and related psychedelic tryptamines were reportedly
effective for both prophylactic and acute treatment of cluster headache
and migraines. Treatment results with cannabis were more unpredict-
able. No severe adverse events were reported, but it was observed how
desperation sometimes spurred risky behavior when obtaining and test-
ing various treatment alternatives. The forum discourse mainly revolved
around maximizing treatment results and minimizing potential harms.
 Antidepressive, anxiolytic, and anti-addictive
effects of ayahuasca, psilocybin and lysergic acid
diethylamide (LSD): a systematic review of clinical
trials published in the last 25 years [66]
The Journal Of Psychopharmacology • January 2017

Clinton E Canal1 and Kevin S Murnane12

1Center for Drug Discovery, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences

Northeastern University, Boston, USA
2Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Mercer University College of Pharmacy
Mercer University Health Sciences Center, Atlanta, USA

Classic hallucinogens share pharmacology as serotonin 5-HT2A, 5-

HT2B, and 5-HT2C receptor agonists. Unique among most other
Schedule 1 drugs, they are generally non-addictive and can be effec-
tive tools in the treatment of addiction. Mechanisms underlying these
attributes are largely unknown. However, many preclinical studies
show that 5-HT2C agonists counteract the addictive effects of drugs
from several classes, suggesting this pharmacological property of clas-
sic hallucinogens may be significant. Drawing from a comprehensive
analysis of preclinical behavior, neuroanatomy, and neurochemistry
studies, this review builds rationale for this hypothesis, and also pro-
poses a testable, neurobiological framework. 5-HT2C agonists work, in
part, by modulating dopamine neuron activity in the ventral tegmen-
tal area—nucleus accumbens (NAc) reward pathway. We argue that
activation of 5-HT2C receptors on NAc shell, GABAergic, medium spiny
neurons inhibits potassium Kv1.x channels, thereby enhancing inhibi-
tory activity via intrinsic mechanisms. Together with experiments that
show that addictive drugs, such as cocaine, potentiate Kv1.x channels,
thereby suppressing NAc shell GABAergic activity, this hypothesis pro-
vides a mechanism by which classic hallucinogen-mediated stimula-
tion of 5-HT2C receptors could thwart addiction. It also provides a po-
tential reason for the non-addictive nature of classic hallucinogens.
 Psychedelics as Medicines: An emerging new paradigm [3]
Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics • February 2017

David E. Nichols,1 Matthew W. Johnson,2 and Charles D. Nichols3

1 Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC

2 Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD
3 Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, LA

Scientific interest in serotonergic psychedelics (e.g., psilocybin and LSD; 5-HT2A receptor agonists) has dramatically in- Figure 1 at right:
creased within the last decade. Clinical studies administering psychedelics with psychotherapy have shown preliminary
evidence of robust efficacy in treating anxiety and depression, as well as addiction to tobacco and alcohol. Moreover, re- Psilocybe cubensis,
cent research has suggested that these compounds have potential efficacy against inflammatory diseases through novel one of the species
mechanisms, with potential advantages over existing antiinflammatory agents. We propose that psychedelics exert ther- of mushrooms that
apeutic effects for psychiatric disorders by acutely destabilizing local brain network hubs and global network connectiv- naturally produce
ity via amplification of neuronal avalanches, providing the occasion for brain network “resetting” after acute effects have psilocybin, the psy-
resolved. Anti-inflammatory effects may hold promise for efficacy in treatment of inflammation-related non-psychiatric chedelic medicine
as well as potentially for psychiatric disorders. Serotonergic psychedelics operate through unique mechanisms that show used for most of
promising effects for a variety of intractable, debilitating, and lethal disorders, and should be rigorously researched. the recent clinical
trials. Image from the Mushroom Observer:

http://mushroomobserver.org/observer/intro

Figure 2 at left:

A circular connectogram shows that communication is normally confined to

particular communities or hubs in the brain (at left on placebo) but that there is
markedly increased inter-community cross-talk after psilocybin (at right). Each
node is one region in the brain parcellation used in reference 62, and the col-
ors refer to the communities found on the placebo scaffold. The same colors
are used on the psilocybin scaffold to show how the normal modular structure
changed dramatically between the two conditions. The plots represent aggre-
gated information from 15 subjects. The width of the links is proportional to
their weight and the size of the nodes is proportional to their strength. Note
that the proportion of heavy links between communities is both much higher
and very different in the psilocybin group, suggesting greater global integra-
tion. Image courtesy of Dr. Robin Carhart-Harris, from data in reference 62 [of
this PDF - #3].
 Designer Drugs 2.0 [2]
Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics • February 2017
MA Huestis1,2 and RF Tyndale3

1Chemistry and Drug Metabolism, IRP, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore,
Maryland, USA; 2University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA; 3Canada Research Chair in
Pharmacogenomics, Campbell Family Mental Health Research Institute of the Centre for Addiction and Mental Health
and the Departments of Pharmacology & Toxicology, and Psychiatry, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada

Psilocybin and LSD are 5-HT2A agonists shown to have promise in treating anxiety and de-
pression, and tobacco and alcohol dependence. These psychedelics may also provide novel
approaches to treating inflammatory diseases with advantages over currently available antiin-
flammatory agents. The authors propose that acute destabilization of local brain network hubs
and global network connectivity may reset brain networks and enact long-term brain changes.

5-HT2A Agonists:
A Novel Therapy for Functional Neurological Disorders? [14]
International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology • February 2017
Alexander Bryson, MBBS; Olivia Carter, PhD, Trevor Norman, PhD; Richard Kanaan, PhD

Howard Florey Institute of Neuroscience & Mental Health University of Melbourne, Australia (Dr Bryson)
Department of Neurology, Austin Hospital, Melbourne, Australia (Dr Bryson)
Melbourne School of Psychological Sciences University of Melbourne, Australia (Dr Carter)
Department of Psychiatry, Austin Hospital, Melbourne, Australia (Drs Norman and Kanaan)
Department of Psychiatry, University of Melbourne, Australia (Drs Norman and Kanaan)

Functional neurological disorders are frequently encountered in clinical practice. They have
a poor prognosis and treatment options are limited. Their etiology is unknown, but leading
theories propose a disturbance of somatic self-representation: the mind perceives dysfunc-
tion of a body region despite intact motor and sensory pathways. Central to this model is the
concept of an abnormal top-down cognitive influence upon sensorimotor function. There is
growing interest in the use of 5-HT2A agonists in the management of neuropsychiatric con-
ditions. Recent studies have shown that these agents induce changes in neural activity that
disrupt hierarchical brain dynamics and modulate networks subserving self-related process-
ing. Converging evidence suggests they may hold unique therapeutic potential in function-
al neurological disorders. This is of importance given the considerable personal and societal
burden of this condition and we argue a clinical trial to test this hypothesis is warranted.
 Psychotherapie mit adjuvanter
Gabe von serotonergen psychoaktiven Sub-
stanzen – Möglichkeiten und Hindernisse

Psychotherapy with Adjuvant use

of Serotonergic Psychoactive Substances:
Possibilities and Challenges [531]
Fortschritte Neurology & Psychiatry • 2017
(Text in German and English)

Tomislav Majić1, Henrik Jungaberle2, Timo T. Schmidt3

Andrea Zeuch4, Leo Hermle5, Jürgen Gallinat6

1 Psychiatrische Universitätsklinik der Charité im St. Hedwig

Krankenhaus, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Charité, Campus Mitte, Berlin
2 FINDER Institut für Präventionsforschung, Berlin
3 Bernstein Center for Computational Neuroscience, Berlin
4 DRK Westend, Spandauer Damm 130, Klinik für
Anästhesie, Schmerztherapie, Intensiv- und Notfallmedizin, Berlin
5 Klinik für Psychiatrie und Psychotherapie, Christophsbad

Recently, scientific interest in the therapeutic potential of seroto-

nergic and psilocybin hallucinogens (psychedelics) such as lysergic
acid diethylamide (LSD) and entactogens like 3,4-methylendioxy-
methamphetamine (MDMA) within the framework of psychother-
apy has resumed. The present article provides an overview on the
current evidence on substance-assisted psychotherapy with these
substances. A selective search was carried out in the PubMed and
Cochrane Library including studies investigating the clinical use
of serotonergic psychoactive substances since 2000. Studies were
found investigating the following indications: alcohol (LSD and psi-
locybin) and tobacco addiction (psilocybin), anxiety and depres-
sion in patients suffering from life-threatening somatic illness (LSD
and psilocybin), obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) (psilocybin),
treatment-resistant major depression (psilocybin), and posttrau-
matic stress disorder (PTSD) (MDMA). Substance use disorders, PTSD
and anxiety and depression in patients suffering from life-threaten-
ing somatic illness belong to the indications with the best evidence
for substance-assisted psychotherapy with serotonergic psychoac-
tive agents. To date, studies indicate efficacy and relatively good
tolerability. Further studies are needed to determine whether these
substances may represent suitable and effective trea ment options
for some treatment-resistant psychiatric disorders in the future.
 Moral Enhancement
Should Target Self-Interest
and Cognitive Capacity [314]
Neuroethics • April 2017

By R. Ahlskog

Department of Government, Uppsala Universitet, Uppsala, Sweden

Current suggestions for capacities that should be targeted

for moral enhancement has centered on traits like empathy,
fairness or aggression. The literature, however, lacks a proper
model for understanding the interplay and complexity of
moral capacities, which limits the practicability of proposed
interventions. In this paper, I integrate some existing knowl-
edge on the nature of human moral behavior and present a
formal model of prosocial motivation. The model provides
two important results regarding the most friction-free route
to moral enhancement. First, we should consider decreasing
self-interested motivation rather than increasing prosociality
directly. Second, this should be complemented with cogni-
tive enhancement. These suggestions are tested against ex-
isting and emerging evidence on cognitive capacity, mind-
fulness meditation and the effects of psychedelic drugs and
are found to have sufficient grounding for further theoretical
and empirical exploration. Furthermore, moral effects of the
latter two are hypothesized to result from a diminished sense
of self with subsequent reductions in self-interest.
 Who is ‘Molly’?

MDMA adulterants by product name

and the impact of harm-reduction
services at raves [344]
Journal of Psychopharmacology • 2017

Sarah Saleemi1*, Steven J Pennybaker1*, Missi Wooldridge2

and Matthew W Johnson3

1Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD

2Healthy Nightlife, LLC, Denver, CO
3Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins
University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD

Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), often sold as ‘Ecstasy’

or ‘Molly’, is commonly used at music festivals and reported to be
responsible for an increase in deaths over the last decade. Ecstasy
is often adulterated and contains compounds that increase mor-
bidity and mortality. While users and clinicians commonly assume
that products sold as Molly are less-adulterated MDMA products,
this has not been tested. Additionally, while pill-testing services are
sometimes available at raves, the assumption that these services de-
crease risky drug use has not been studied. This study analyzed data
collected by the pill-testing organization, DanceSafe, from events
across the United States from 2010 to 2015. Colorimetric reagent as-
says identified MDMA in only 60% of the 529 samples collected. No
significant difference in the percentage of samples testing positive
for MDMA was determined between Ecstasy and Molly. Individu-
als were significantly less likely to report intent to use a product if
testing did not identify MDMA (relative risk (RR) = 0.56, p = 0.01).
Results suggest that Molly is not a less-adulterated substance, and
that pill-testing services are a legitimate harm-reduction service
that decreases intent to consume potentially dangerous substances
and may warrant consideration by legislators for legal protection.
Futureresearch should further examine the direct effects of pill-test-
ing services and include more extensive pill-testing methods.
 Psilocybin: Good Trip or Bad Trip? [346]
Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics • 2017

By E.M. Sellers

Departments of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medicine and Psychiatry, University of Toronto, Ontario, Canada Email: sellers.ed@gmail.com

Two randomized blinded controlled clinical trials (the Johns Hopkins

University trial (JHU) and New York University trial (NYU)) have re-
ported impressive long-term reductions in anxious depressed mood,
existential distress, and improved quality of life after single oral doses
of psilocybin in terminal cancer patients.

Much of the history of pharmacology

and therapeutics involves finding new
uses for old drugs. The latest rediscov-
ery is that of psychedelic drugs. Since
they can cause profound distortions
of perception and were once used as
part of religious ceremonies, such re-
search may seem unusual at this time.

Responses to these findings have ranged from cautious to enthusi-

astic, e.g., “alternative to first-line anti-depressants” and a “successful
return of psychedelics to psychiatry.”

This commentary alerts this journal’s readers to the results and high-
lights issues that temper short-term enthusiasm with future hope for
treating mental disorders. Psilocybin is in many species of Psilocybe
mushrooms used for millennia in ceremonial contexts. Most past hal-
lucinogen research has been descriptive and uncontrolled; however,
better exploratory studies in obsessive-compulsive disorder, major
depression, various substance use disorders, and cluster headache
have occurred in the past 20 years. Research has been limited be-
cause psilocybin is in Schedule I of the UN Psychotropic Convention
(1971), which prohibits possession and use.
 Acute effects of LSD on amygdala
activity during processing of fearful
stimuli in healthy subjects [231]
Translational Psychiatry • April 2017

F Mueller1,3, C Lenz1,3, PC Dolder2, S Harder2,

Y Schmid2, UE Lang1, ME Liechti2 and S Borgwardt1

1Department of Psychiatry, Universitäre Psychiatrische Kliniken

University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland and
2Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology
Department ofBiomedicine and Clinical Research
University Hospital Basel, Basel, Switzerland
Correspondence: Professor S Borgwardt, Department of Psychiatry
Universitäre Psychiatrische, Kliniken, University of Basel
Wilhelm Klein-Strasse 27, 4012 Basel, Switzerland

Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) induces profound

changes in various mental domains, including percep-
tion, self-awareness and emotions. We used functional
magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to investigate the
acute effects of LSD on the neural substrate of emo-
tional processing in humans. Using a double-blind,
randomised, cross-over study design, placebo or 100
μg LSD were orally administered to 20 healthy subjects
before the fMRI scan, taking into account the subjec-
tive and pharmacological peak effects of LSD. The plas-
ma levels of LSD were determined immediately before
and after the scan. The study (including the a priori-de-
fined study end point) was registered at ClinicalTrials.
gov before study start (NCT02308969). The administra-
tion of LSD reduced reactivity of the left amygdala and
the right medial prefrontal cortex relative to placebo
during the presentation of fearful faces (Po0.05, fam-
ily-wise error). Notably, there was a significant negative
correlation between LSD-induced amygdala response
to fearful stimuli and the LSD-induced subjective
drug effects (Po0.05). These data suggest that acute
administration of LSD modulates the engagement
of brain regions that mediate emotional processing.
 Genie in a blotter:
A comparative study of LSD
and LSD analogues’ effects and user profile [60]
Human Psychopharmacology • May 2017

Coney LD1, Maier LJ2, Ferris JA3, Winstock AR4,5, Barratt MJ1,6,7.

1Drug Policy Modelling Program, National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre
UNSW Australia, Sydney, NSW, Australia
2University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
3Institute for Social Science Research, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia
4University College London, London, UK
5Global Drug Survey Ltd, London, UK
6National Drug Research Institute, Faculty of Health Sciences
Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia
7Centre of Population Health, Burnet Institute, Melbourne, VIC, Australia

This study aimed to describe self-reported patterns of use and effects of lyser-
gic acid diethylamide (LSD) analogues (AL-LAD, 1P-LSD, and ETH-LAD) and
the characteristics of those who use them. An anonymous self-selected on-
line survey of people who use drugs (Global Drug Survey 2016; N = 96,894),
which measured perceived drug effects of LSD and its analogues. Most LSD
analogue users (91%) had also tried LSD. The proportion of U.K. and U.S.
respondents reporting LSD analogue use in the last 12 months was higher
than for LSD only. LSD analogue users described the effects as psychedelic
(93%), over half (55%) obtained it online, and almost all (99%) reported an
oral route of administration. The modal duration (8 hr) and time to peak
(2 hr) of LSD analogues were not significantly different from LSD. Ratings
for pleasurable high, strength of effect, comedown, urge to use more drugs,
value for money, and risk of harm following use were significantly lower for
LSD analogues compared with LSD. LSD analogues were reported as similar
in time to peak and duration as LSD but weaker in strength, pleasurable
high, and comedown. Future studies should seek to replicate these find-
ings with chemical confirmation and dose measurement.
 LSD detection
and interpretation in hair
Current Pharmaceutical Design • June 2017

Richeval C1, Allorge D1, Vanhoye X1, Gaulier JM2.

1CHU Lille, Unité Fonctionnelle de Toxicologie, F-59000 Lille. France

2Laboratory of Toxicology Bd du Professeur Jules Leclrecq, France

Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) is a powerful hal-

lucinogen, active at very low dosages, with, as a
direct consequence, potential difficulties to be de-
tected and quantified in a clinical or forensic con-
text, in body fluids and even more in hair. The aim of
this work is to review literature data related to hair
analysis of LSD with a particular focus on the main
issues encountered in LSD detection in hair. Results
of LSD investigation in hair remain difficult to inter-
pret regarding the very sparse data available on LSD
concentrations in hair (n=10). The possibility of pu-
bic hair contamination by urine, as well as the lack
of data about LSD incorporation and stability in pu-
bic and head hair, further challenges the interpre-
tation of negative or positive results. The absence
of LSD in head hair should be carefully considered,
as it does not formally exclude LSD consumption.
In all cases of positive results, the interpretation of
LSD concentrations in hair remains uncertain and it
seems utopian to distinguish repeated intake from
single exposure using LSD hair concentration val-
ues. Furthermore, a positive result in pubic hair can-
not be used to formally prove repeated use of LSD,
even in the case of a documented recent use of LSD.

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28641537
Qualitative and Quantitative Features of
Music Reported to Support Peak Mystical
Experiences during Psychedelic
Therapy Sessions [291]
Frontiers In Psychology • July 2017

Barrett FS1, Robbins H2,3, Smooke D4

Brown JL4, Griffiths RR1,5.

1Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences

School of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, MD, USA
2Department of Humanities, Peabody Institute
Johns Hopkins University, MD, USA
3Center for Africana Studies, Krieger School of Arts and Sciences
Johns Hopkins University, MD, USA
4Department of Music Theory, Peabody Institute
Johns Hopkins University, MD, USA
5Department of Neuroscience, School of Medicine
Johns Hopkins University, MD, USA

Psilocybin is a classic (serotonergic) hallucinogen (“psy-

chedelic” drug) that may occasion mystical experiences
(characterized by a profound feeling of oneness or unity)
during acute effects. Such experiences may have thera-
peutic value. Research and clinical applications of psyche-
delics usually include music listening during acute drug
effects, based on the expectation that music will provide
psychological support during the acute effects of psy-
chedelic drugs, and may even facilitate the occurrence of
mystical experiences. However, the features of music cho-
sen to support the different phases of drug effects are not
well-specified. As a result, there is currently neither real
guidance for the selection of music nor standardization
of the music used to support clinical trials with psyche-
delic drugs across various research groups or therapists.
A description of the features of music found to be sup-
portive of mystical experience will allow for the standard-
ization and optimization of the delivery of psychedelic
drugs in both research trials and therapeutic contexts. To
this end, we conducted an anonymous survey of individ-
uals with extensive experience administering psilocybin
or psilocybin-containing mushrooms under research or
therapeutic conditions, in order to
identify the features of commonly
used musical selections that have
been found by therapists and re-
search staff to be supportive of
mystical experiences within a psi-
locybin session. Ten respondents
yielded 24 unique recommenda-
tions of musical stimuli supportive
of peak effects with psilocybin, and
24 unique recommendations of
musical stimuli supportive of the
period leading up to a peak expe-
rience. Qualitative analysis (expert
rating of musical and music-theo-
retic features of the recommended
stimuli) and quantitative analysis
(using signal processing and mu-
sic-information retrieval methods)
of 22 of these stimuli yielded a
description of peak period music
that was characterized by regu-
lar, predictable, formulaic phrase
structure and orchestration, a feel-
ing of continuous movement and
forward motion that slowly builds
over time, and lower perceptual
brightness when compared to pre
peak music. These results provide
a description of music that may be
optimally supportive of peak psy-
chedelic experiences. This descrip-
tion can be used to guide the se-
lection and composition of music
for future psychedelic research and
therapy sessions.
 Lessons to be learned from early psychedelic therapy in Denmark [332]
Nordic Journal of Psychiatry • July 2017

By David Erritzoe1 & William A. Richards2

1. Centre for Psychiatry, Neuropsychopharmacology Unit, Division, of Brain Sciences, Department of Medicine, Imperial College, London, London W12 0NN, UK
2. Department of Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins University School of, Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA

Since the recent re-emergence of research into the effects and safety of psychedelic therapies, a range of psychopathologies such as major depression, cancer-related anxiety and depression, alcohol and tobacco addic-
tion (1–7), have been investigated in pilot trials with the classic psychedelic compounds, N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) (in the form of ayahuasca), lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) and psilocybin. These trials have been
conducted with carefully chosen drug doses in thor-
oughlyscreened(e.g.excludingpatientswithahis-
tory of psychosis), well prepared, and closely
supported/guided patients, typically in out-pa-
tient settings. The psychedelic experiences have
subsequently been integrated in follow-up vis-
its with the study clinicians. Thus, in these tri-
als, vigilant attention has been given to doses
as well as to set and setting in line with recom-
mendations for good practice in clinical research
with psychedelics (8,9). Notably, no significant
adverse events, hereunder occurrence of flash-
backs, flashbacks have been reported, and the
results have overall been positive across these
conditions that have been investigated (10,11).
Of further significance for the potential impact
of this evolving field, treatment effects of single
sessions with psychedelic assisted therapy on
depressive symptoms, anxiety, and/or drinking/
smoking behavior have been shown to be long-
lasting (months-years), and thus way beyond the
pure pharmacological effect of the compounds.
These enduring therapeutic effects induced by
a single drug-induced experience are sugges-
tive of a paradigm very different in nature from
conventional pharmacological treatments. En-
hanced openness and feelings of connectedness
are described with the psychedelic model, and
the role these interesting added therapeutic out-
comes may have in facilitating change are likely
to be investigated more in depth in future trials.
Thus, new and larger-scale trials are currently
being planned to further explore, not only the
efficacy but also both psychological and neuro-
biological mechanisms of psychedelic therapy.
 LSD treatment in Scandinavia:
emphasizing indications
and short-term treatment outcomes
of 151 patients in Denmark [117]
Nordic Journal Of Psychiatry • July 2017

By JK Larsen

Department Q, University Hospital of Aarhus, Risskov, Denmark

New research has suggested the clinical use of lysergic acid di-
ethylamide (LSD) and psilocybin in selected patient populations.
However, concerns about the clinical use of LSD were advanced
in a large Danish follow-up study that assessed 151 LSD-treated
psychiatric patients approximately 25 years after their treatment
in the 1960s. ,The purpose of the present study was to give a ret-
rospective account of the short-term outcome of LSD treatment
in these 151 Danish psychiatric patients. The LSD case material in
the Danish State Archives consists of medical case records of 151
LSD-treated patients, who complained and received economic
compensation with the LSD Damages Law. The author carefully
read and reviewed the LSD case material. LSD was used to treat
a wide spectrum of mental disorders. Independent of diagnoses,
52 patients improved, and 48 patients worsened acutely with
the LSD treatment. In a subgroup of 82 neurotic patients, the
LSD dose-index (number of treatments multiplied by the maxi-
mal LSD dose) indicated the risk of acute worsening. In another
subgroup of 19 patients with obsessive-compulsive neurosis,
five patients later underwent psychosurgery. A small subgroup
of 12 patients was treated with psilocybin. The long-term out-
come was poor in most of the patients. Despite the significant
limitations to a retrospective design, this database warrants cau-
tion in mental health patients. The use of LSD and psilocybin in
mental health patients may be associated with serious short- and
long-term side effects. Until further trials with rigorous designs
have cleared these drugs of their potential harms, their clinical
utility in these groups of patients has not been fully clarified.
 Hallucinogens
and
Serotonin 5-HT2A Receptor-Mediated
Signaling Pathways [270]
Current Topics In Behavioral Neuroscience • July 2017

López-Giménez JF1, González-Maeso J2

1Instituto de Biomedicina y Biotecnología de Cantabria

IBBTEC-CSIC, 39011, Santander, Cantabria, Spain
2Department of Physiology and Biophysics, School of Medicine
Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, 23298, USA
jgmaeso@vcu.edu

The neuropsychological effects of naturally occur-

ring psychoactive chemicals have been recognized
for millennia. Hallucinogens, which include naturally
occurring chemicals such as mescaline and psilocy-
bin, as well as synthetic compounds, such as lysergic
acid diethylamide (LSD), induce profound alterations
of human consciousness, emotion, and cognition.
The discovery of the hallucinogenic effects of LSD
and the observations that LSD and the endogenous
ligand serotonin share chemical and pharmaco-
logical profiles led to the suggestion that biogenic
amines like serotonin were involved in the psychosis
of mental disorders such as schizophrenia. Although
they bind other G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR)
subtypes, studies indicate that several effects of hal-
lucinogens involve agonist activity at the serotonin
5-HT2A receptor. In this chapter, we review recent
advances in understanding hallucinogen drug action
through characterization of structure, neuroanatom-
ical location, and function of the 5-HT2A receptor.
 Neuroticism
is associated with challenging experiences
with psilocybin mushrooms [179]
Personality and Individual Differences • 2017

Barrett FS1, Johnson MW1, Griffiths RR1,2

1Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences

Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine
2Department of Neuroscience
Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine

This article has a delayed release (embargo)

and will be available in PMC on October 15, 2018
Related Manuscript ID: NIHMS883170
Message ID: 347256121 (ipmc21)
Time: 2017/09/25 16:25:36

Psilocybin has been used for centuries for religious purposes; however, little is known sci-
entifically about its long-term effects. We previously reported the effects of a double-blind
study evaluating the psychological effects of a high psilocybin dose. This report presents
the 14-month follow-up and examines the relationship of the follow-up results to data
obtained at screening and on drug session days. Participants were 36 hallucinogen-naïve
adults reporting regular participation in religious/ spiritual activities. Oral psilocybin (30
mg/70 kg) was administered on one of two or three sessions, with methylphenidate (40
mg/70 kg) administered on the other session(s). During sessions, volunteers were encour-
aged to close their eyes and direct their attention inward. At the 14-month follow-up, 58%
and 67%, respectively, of volunteers rated the psilocybin-occasioned experience as being
among the five most personally meaningful and among the five most spiritually signifi-
cant experiences of their lives; 64% indicated that the experience increased well-being or
life satisfaction; 58% met criteria for having had a ‘complete’ mystical experience. Correla-
tion and regression analyses indicated a central role of the mystical experience assessed
on the session day in the high ratings of personal meaning and spiritual significance at
follow-up. Of the measures of personality, affect, quality of life and spirituality assessed
across the study, only a scale measuring mystical experience showed a difference from
screening. When administered under sup-
portive conditions, psilocybin occasioned
experiences similar to spontaneously occur-
ring mystical experiences that, at 14-month
follow-up, were considered by volunteers
to be among the most personally meaning-
ful and spiritually significant of their lives.

Classic hallucinogens (e.g. psilocybin and

LSD) have substantial effects on percep-
tion, cognition, and emotion that can often
be psychologically challenging, however we
know very little regarding the source of sig-
nificant individual variability that has been
observed in the frequency and intensity of
challenging experiences (i.e. “bad trips”)
with psychedelics. Previous clinical and ob-
servational literature suggests that there
may be an association between neuroticism
and challenging psychedelic experiences.
Data from two online surveys of challenging
experiences with psilocybin were analyzed.
Multivariate analysis was used to estimate
the associations between total score and
scores from seven sub-factors (fear, grief,
physical distress, insanity, isolation, death,
and paranoia) of the Challenging Experience
Questionnaire (CEQ), and scale scores from
the Ten Item Personality Inventory (TIPI) in
Study 1 (N=1993) and the Big Five Inven-
tory (BFI) in Study 2 (N = 981). CEQ scores
were negatively associated with emotional
stability scores (the inverse of neuroticism)
in Study 1 and positively associated with
neuroticism scores in Study 2. Neuroticism
may contribute to the strength of challeng-
ing experiences in uncontrolled settings.
 Advantages of analyzing postmortem brain samples
in routine forensic drug screening—case series of three
non-natural deaths tested positive for
lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) [206]
July 2017
Marie Mardal, Sys Stybe Johansen
Ragnar Thomsen, Kristian Linnet
psychoactive compounds were quantified in blood and brain tissue, though all be-
low toxic concentration levels. The cause of death in case 1 was collision-induced
brain injury, while it was drowning in case 2 and 3 and thus not drug intoxication.
However, the toxicological findings could help explain the decedent’s inability to
cope with brain injury or drowning incidents. The presented findings could help es-
tablish reference concentrations in brain samples and assist in interpretation of re-
sults from forensic drug screening in brain tissue. This is to the author’s knowledge
the first report of LSD, iso-LSD, and oxo-HO-LSD measured in brain tissue samples.

Department of Forensic Medicine, Section of Forensic Chemistry

Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences
University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
* Corresponding author: Marie Mardal:
marie.mardal@sund.ku.dk or +45 3533 0656

This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publi-
cation. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the
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• Three case reports of non-natural deaths, where the deceased had consumed LSD

• Quantification of LSD, iso-LSD, and 2-oxo-3-hydroxy-LSD by UHPLC-MS/MS

• Highest concentration levels of LSD in the target organ

Three case reports are presented, including autopsy findings and toxicological
screening results, which were tested positive for the potent hallucinogenic drug
lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD). LSD and its main metabolites were quantified in
brain tissue and femoral blood, and furthermore hematoma and urine when avail-
able. LSD, its main metabolite 2-oxo-3-hydroxy-LSD (oxo-HO-LSD), and iso-LSD were
quantified in biological samples according to a previously published procedure in-
volving liquid-liquid extraction and ultra-high performance liquid chromatography
– tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS). LSD was measured in the brain tis-
sue of all presented cases at a concentration level from 0.34 -10.8 μg/kg. The con-
centration level in the target organ was higher than in peripheral blood. Additional
 An online survey of
tobacco smoking cessation associated
with naturalistic psychedelic use [119]
Journal Of Psychopharmacology • July 2017

Johnson MW1, Garcia-Romeu A1, Johnson PS2, Griffiths RR1,3

1 Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences

Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD
2 Department of Psychology, California State University, Chico, CA
3 Department of Neuroscience
Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD

Data suggest psychedelics such as psilocybin and lysergic

acid diethylamide (LSD) may hold therapeutic potential in
the treatment of addictions, including tobacco dependence.
This retrospective cross-sectional anonymous online survey
characterized 358 individuals (52 females) who reported hav-
ing quit or reduced smoking after ingesting a psychedelic in a
non-laboratory setting ⩾1 year ago. On average, participants
smoked 14 cigarettes/day for 8 years, and had five previous
quit attempts before their psychedelic experience. Of the 358
participants, 38% reported continuous smoking cessation af-
ter psychedelic use (quitters). Among quitters, 74% reported
>2 years’ abstinence. Of the 358 participants, 28% reported a
persisting reduction in smoking (reducers), from a mode of
300 cigarettes/month before, to a mode of 1 cigarette/month
after the experience. Among reducers, 62% reported >2 years
of reduced smoking. Finally, 34% of the 358 participants (re-
lapsers) reported a temporary smoking reduction before re-
turning to baseline smoking levels, with a mode time range
to relapse of 3-6 months. Relapsers rated their psychedelic
experience significantly lower in personal meaning and spiri-
tual significance than both other groups. Participants across
all groups reported less severe affective withdrawal symp-
toms (e.g. depression, craving) after psychedelic use com-
pared with previous quit attempts, suggesting a potential
mechanism of action for psychedelic-associated smoking
cessation/reduction. Changes in life priorities/values were
endorsed as the most important psychological factor associ-
ated with smoking cessation/reduction. Results suggest psy-
chedelics may hold promise in treating tobacco addiction as
potentially mediated by spiritual experience, changed priori-
ties/values, and improved emotional regulation.
 Research on hallucinogenic drugs
used in Shaman religious activities
Zhonghua Yi Shi Za Zhi • July 2017
[Article in Chinese]

Fang XY1, Fei PF1, Zhu JP2, Yuan B2.

1Humanities College, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing

2China Institute for History of Medicine and Medical Literature
China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, China

The development of medicine experienced a long history,

and the origin of medicine is not appeared overnight. Due
to the lack of historical data, the question of the origin of
medicine has not been agreed upon. As an ancient primitive
religion, Shamanism retains the use of hallucinogenic drugs
in its early religious activities rather well, providing a guid-
ance for exploring the cognition on drugs in early human.
Through the review of the hallucinogenic plants used by
shaman religious activities in different countries and areas,
it was found that hallucinogenic drugs can be classified into
two categories: single and mixed, which came mainly from
plants and fungi, and the origin of hallucinogenic drugs has
a high fitting degree with Shaman location. The study result
suggests that, based on the worldwide research literature
on the application of such hallucinogens with local charac-
teristics in the shamanistic religious activities, it is very likely
that important clues can be found to understand the facts
of discovery and application of natural drugs, thus provid-
ing a new approach for the studies on the origin of drugs.

PMID: 28954366
 This article has a delayed release (embargo) and will be available in PMC on August 1, 2018
An abstract of the article is available in PubMed, which may also have a link to the full text at the journal site
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Message ID: 851750617 (ipmc21)
Time: 2017/10/02 17:34:17

Locomotor and discriminative stimulus effects

of four novel hallucinogens in rodents [809]
Behavioural Pharmacology • August 2017

Michael B. Gatch, Sean B. Dolan and Michael J. Forster

Department of Pharmacology and Neuroscience, University of North Texas Health

Science Center, Fort Worth, Texas, USA

There has been increasing use of novel synthetic hallucinogenic compounds, 2-(4-bro-
mo-2,5-dimethoxyphenyl)-N-(2-methoxybenzyl)ethanamine hydrochloride (25B-NBOMe),
2-(4-chloro-2,5-dimethoxyphenyl)-N-(2-methoxybenzyl)ethanamine hydrochloride (25C-
NBOMe), 2-(4-iodo-2,5-dimethoxyphenyl)-N-(2-methoxybenzyl)ethanamine hydrochlo-
ride (25I-NBOMe), and N,N-diallyl-5-methoxy tryptamine (5-MeO-DALT), which have
been associated with severe toxicities. These four compounds were tested for discrimi-
native stimulus effects similar to a prototypical hallucinogen (−)-2,5-dimethoxy-4-meth-
ylamphetamine (DOM) and the entactogen (± )-3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine
(MDMA). Locomotor activity in mice was tested to obtain dose range and time-course
information. 25B-NBOMe, 25C-NBOMe, and 25I-NBOMe decreased locomotor activity. 5-
MeO-DALT dose dependently increased locomotor activity, with a peak at 10 mg/kg. A
higher dose (25 mg/kg) suppressed activity. 25B-NBOMe fully substituted (≥80%) in both
DOM-trained and MDMA-trained rats at 0.5 mg/kg. However, higher doses produced
much lower levels of drug-appropriate responding in both DOM-trained and MDMA-
trained rats. 25C-NBOMe fully substituted in DOM-trained rats, but produced only 67%
drug-appropriate responding in MDMA-trained rats at doses that suppressed respond-
ing. 25I-NBOMe produced 74–78% drug-appropriate responding in DOM-trained and
MDMAtrained rats at doses that suppressed responding. 5-MeODALT fully substituted
for DOM, but produced few or no MDMA-like effects. All of the compounds, except 25IN-
BOMe, fully substituted for DOM, whereas only 25BNBOMe fully substituted for MDMA.
However, the failure of 25I-NBOMe to fully substitute for either MDMA or DOM was more
likely because of its substantial rate-depressant effects than weak discriminative stimulus
effects. All of the compounds are likely to attract recreational users for their hallucino-
genic properties, but probably of much less interest as substitutes for MDMA. Although
no acute adverse effects were observed at the doses tested, the substantial toxicities
reported in humans, coupled with the high likelihood for illicit use, suggests that these
compounds have the same potential for abuse as other, currently scheduled compounds.
 Novel Psychoactive Substances—
Recent Progress on Neuropharmacological
Mechanisms of Action for Selected Drugs [232]
Frontiers In Psychiatry • August 2017

Zurina Hassan1, Oliver G. Bosch2, Darshan Singh1, Suresh Narayanan3,

B. Vicknasingam Kasinather1, Erich Seifritz 2, Johannes Kornhuber4,
Boris B. Quednow5 and Christian P. Müller4*

1 Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Minden, Malaysia

2 Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics
Psychiatric Hospital, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
3 School of Social Sciences, Universiti SainsMalaysia, Minden, Malaysia
4 Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Hospital
Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nuremberg, Erlangen, Germany
5 Experimental and Clinical Pharmacopsychology, Department of
Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Psychiatric Hospital
University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland

A feature of human culture is that we can learn to consume chemical com-

pounds, derived from natural plants or synthetic fabrication, for their psycho-
active effects. These drugs change the mental state and/or the behavioral per-
formance of an individual and can be instrumentalized for various purposes.
After the emergence of a novel psychoactive substance (NPS) and a period of
experimental consumption, personal and medical benefits and harm potential
of the NPS can be estimated on evidence base. This may lead to a legal classifi-
cation of the NPS, which may range from limited medical use, controlled avail-
ability up to a complete ban of the drug form publicly accepted use. With these
measures, however, a drug does not disappear, but frequently continues to be
used, which eventually allows an even better estimate of the drug’s proper-
ties. Thus, only in rare cases, there is a final verdict that is no more questioned.
Instead, the view on a drug can change from tolerable to harmful but may also
involve the new establishment of a desired medical application to a previously
harmful drug. Here, we provide a summary review on a number of NPS for
which the neuropharmacological evaluation has made important progress in
recent years. They include mitragynine (“Kratom”), synthetic cannabinoids (e.g.,
“Spice”), dimethyltryptamine and novel serotonergic hallucinogens, the cathi-
nones mephedrone and methylone, ketamine and novel dissociative drugs, γ-
hydroxybutyrate, γ-butyrolactone, and 1,4-butanediol. This review shows not
only emerging harm potentials but also some potential medical applications.
 Psychedelic Drugs in Biomedicine [312]
Trends In Pharmacology Science • September 2017

Kyzar EJ1, Nichols CD2, Gainetdinov RR3

Nichols DE4, Kalueff AV5.

1College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612, USA

Electronic address: ekyzar2@uic.edu.
2Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center
New Orleans, LA 70112, USA
3Institute of Translational Biomedicine (ITBM)
St. Petersburg State University, St. Petersburg 199034, Russia
Skolkovo Institute of Technology (Skoltech), Skolkovo, Russia
4Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina
Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
5School of Pharmaceutical Sciences
Southwest University Chongqing, 40071, China
Research Institute for Marine Drugs and Nutrition
Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang, 524025, China
ZENEREI Institute, 309 Palmer Court, Slidell, LA 70458, USA
Laboratory of Biological Psychiatry
ITBM, St. Petersburg State University, St. Petersburg 199034, Russia
Ural Federal University, Ekaterinburg, 620002, Russia
Electronic address: avkalueff@gmail.com

Psychedelic drugs, such as lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD),

mescaline, and psilocybin, exert profound effects on brain and
behavior. After decades of difficulties in studying these com-
pounds, psychedelics are again being tested as potential treat-
ments for intractable biomedical disorders. Preclinical research
of psychedelics complements human neuroimaging studies
and pilot clinical trials, suggesting these compounds as prom-
ising treatments for addiction, depression, anxiety, and other
conditions. However, many questions regarding the mecha-
nisms of action, safety, and efficacy of psychedelics remain.
Here, we summarize recent preclinical and clinical data in this
field, discuss their pharmacological mechanisms of action, and
outline critical areas for future studies of psychedelic drugs,
with the goal of maximizing the potential benefits of transla-
tional psychedelic biomedicine to patients.
 Assessing the Psychedelic “After-Glow” in Ayahuasca Users:
Post-Acute Neurometabolic and Functional Connectivity Changes Are Associated with Enhanced Mindfulness Capacities [150]
International Journal Of Neuropsychopharmacology • September 2017

Sampedro F1, de la Fuente Revenga M1, Valle M1, Roberto N1, Domínguez-Clavé E1Elices M1, Luna LE1, Crippa JAS1, Hallak JEC1
de Araujo DB1, Friedlander P, Barker SA1, Álvarez E1, Soler J1, Pascual JC1, Feilding A1, Riba J1.

1School of Medicine, Autonomous University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain; Human Neuropsychopharmacology Research Group, Sant Pau Institute of Biomedical Research, Barcelona, Spain; Pharmacokinetic and Pharmacody-
namic Modelling and Simulation, Sant Pau Institute of Biomedical Research, Barcelona, Spain; Centre d’Investigació de Medicaments, Servei de Farmacologia Clínica, Hospital de la Santa Creu i Sant Pau, Barcelona, Spain; Centro
de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental, CIBERSAM, Spain; Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Autonomous University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain; Department of Psychiatry, Hospital de la Santa
Creu i Sant Pau, Barcelona, Spain; Department of Psychiatry and Forensic Medicine, School of Medicine, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain; Research Center for the Study of Psychointegrator Plants, Visionary
Art and Consciousness, Florianópolis, Santa Catarina, Brazil; Department of Neuroscience and Behavior, Medical School of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil and National Institute for Translational Medicine,
Ribeirão Preto, Brazil; Brain Institute/Hospital Universitario Onofre Lopes, Natal, Brazil; The Beckley Foundation, Beckley Park, Oxford, United Kingdom; Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, School of Veterinary
Medicine, Louisiana State University, Skip Bertman Drive at River Road, Baton Rouge, Louisiana; Department of Clinical and Health Psychology, School of Psychology, Autonomous University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain

Ayahuasca is a plant tea containing the psychedelic 5-HT2A agonist N,N-dimethyltryptamine and harmala
monoamine-oxidase inhibitors. Acute administration leads to neurophysiological modifications in brain
regions of the default mode network, purportedly through a glutamatergic mechanism. Post-acutely,
ayahuasca potentiates mindfulness capacities in volunteers and induces rapid and sustained antidepres-
sant effects in treatment-resistant patients. However, the mechanisms underlying these fast and main-
tained effects are poorly understood. Here, we investigated in an open-label uncontrolled study in 16
healthy volunteers ayahuasca-induced post-acute neurometabolic and connectivity modifications and
their association with mindfulness measures. Using 1H-magnetic resonance spectroscopy and functional
connectivity, we compared baseline and post-acute neurometabolites and seed-to-voxel connectivity in
the posterior and anterior cingulate cortex after a single ayahuasca dose. Magnetic resonance spectros-
copy showed post-acute reductions in glutamate+glutamine, creatine, and N-acetylaspartate+N-acety-
laspartylglutamate in the posterior cingulate cortex. Connectivity was increased between the posterior
cingulate cortex and the anterior cingulate cortex, and between the anterior cingulate cortex and limbic
structures in the right medial temporal lobe. Glutamate+glutamine reductions correlated with increases
in the “nonjudging” subscale of the Five Facets Mindfulness Questionnaire. Increased anterior cingu-
late cortex-medial temporal lobe connectivity correlated with increased scores on the self-compassion
questionnaire. Post-acute neural changes predicted sustained elevations in nonjudging 2 months later.

CONCLUSIONS

These results support the involvement of glutamate neurotransmission in the effects of psychedel-
ics in humans. They further suggest that neurometabolic changes in the posterior cingulate cortex,
a key region within the default mode network, and increased connectivity between the anterior
cingulate cortex and medial temporal lobe structures involved in emotion and memory potentially
underlie the post-acute psychological effects of ayahuasca.
 Possible role
of biochemiluminescent photons
for lysergic acid diethylamide
(LSD)-induced phosphenes
and visual hallucinations [124]
Reviews In Neuroscience • January 2017

Kapócs G, Scholkmann F, Salari V,

Császár N, Szőke H, Bókkon I.

Today, there is an increased interest in research on lyser-

gic acid diethylamide (LSD) because it may offer new op-
portunities in psychotherapy under controlled settings.
The more we know about how a drug works in the brain,
the more opportunities there will be to exploit it in medi-
cine. Here, based on our previously published papers and
investigations, we suggest that LSD-induced visual hal-
lucinations/phosphenes may be due to the transient en-
hancement of bioluminescent photons in the early reti-
notopic visual system in blind as well as healthy people.
 A
Receptor
on Acid [268]
Cell • January 2017
Wacker et al. report the crystal structure of LSD in complex with one of its major targets in the
Qiuyan Chen and John J.G. Tesmer brain, the 5-HT2B receptor, the first such structure for any psychedelic drug. The results shed
light on the molecular mechanisms underlying its ability to induce hallucinations with
The Life Sciences Institute and greater duration and potency than closely related compounds.
Departments of Pharmacology and Biological Chemistry
University of Michigan
Ann Arbor, MI Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), also known as ‘‘acid,’’ is one of the most potent psy-
48109
USA chedelic drugs. At low-microgram dosages, LSD can cause hallucinations (alteration
of perception, emotion, and cognition), or ‘‘trips,’’ that last for up to 15 hr. Al-
bert Hofmann first synthesized LSD in 1938, but its psychedelic effects
were only discovered five years later, when he accidentally exposed
himself to trace amounts, resulting in a ‘‘not-unpleasant’’ condition
characterized by an‘‘extremely stimulated imagination’’along with
an ‘‘uninterrupted stream of fantastic pictures.’’ He later confirmed
that LSD was the culprit by self-administering 250 mg, now con-
sidered a heavy dose, and experienced the world’s first intention-
al acid trip in part while bicycling home from his lab (Hofmann,
1979). LSD gained popularity in early ‘60s for recreational use but
later became regulated as a type I substance. Use of LSD resurged
in the middle ‘90s in the United States when, according to the Moni-
toring the Future study, 8.8% of 12th grade students reported that they
had used LSD at least once. The percentage has declined to 2% since 2002,
presumably due to enhanced control over LSD precursors (Johnston et al., 2016).

LSD has come to attention more recently because it shows promise for treating alcohol abuse
and depression and in alleviating the anxiety of patients suffering terminally ill diseases. Al-
though the drug targets a broad spectrum of receptors in vivo, it is believed to exert its psy-
chedelic effects primarily by binding to the 5-HT2A serotonin receptor (Titeler et al., 1988), a
G-protein-coupled receptor. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying its potent psy-
chedelic effect have remained elusive. In this issue of Cell, Wacker et al. (2017) now report the crys-
tal structure of LSD in complex with the closely related 5-HT2B receptor. The study establishes that
LSD induces unique conformational changes in the receptor that likely underlie its psychedelic activ-
ity and sheds light on the structural basis for the high potency of LSD and the long duration of its effects.
 The Fabric of Meaning and Subjective Effects
in LSD-Induced States Depend on
Serotonin 2A Receptor Activation [127]
Currents In Biology • February 2017

Preller KH1, Herdener M2, Pokorny T3, Planzer A3

Kraehenmann R3, Stämpfli P4, Liechti ME5, Seifritz E6, Vollenweider FX3

1Neuropsychopharmacology and Brain Imaging, Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics,

University Hospital for Psychiatry Zurich, Lenggstr. 31, 8032 Zurich, Switzerland. Electronic address: preller@bli.uzh.ch
2Center for Addictive Disorders, Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics,
University Hospital for Psychiatry Zurich, Lenggstr. 31, 8032 Zurich, Switzerland
3Neuropsychopharmacology and Brain Imaging, Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psycho-
somatics, University Hospital for Psychiatry Zurich, Lenggstr. 31, 8032 Zurich, Switzerland
4Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, University Hospital for Psychiatry Zurich,
Lenggstr. 31, 8032 Zurich, Switzerland; MR Center of the Psychiatric University Hospital and the Depart-
ment of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, University of Zurich, Lenggstr. 31, 8032 Zurich, Switzerland
5Psychopharmacology Research, Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Department of Biomedicine and
Department of Clinical Research, University Hospital Basel, Basel, Hebelstrasse 2, 4031 Basel, Switzerland
6Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, University Hospital for Psychia-
try Zurich, Lenggstr. 31, 8032 Zurich, Switzerland

A core aspect of the human self is the attribution of personal relevance

to everyday stimuli enabling us to experience our environment as
meaningful [1]. However, abnormalities in the attribution of person-
al relevance to sensory experiences are also critical features of many
psychiatric disorders [2, 3]. Despite their clinical relevance, the neuro-
chemical and anatomical substrates enabling meaningful experiences
are largely unknown. Therefore, we investigated the neuropharmacol-
ogy of personal relevance processing in humans by combining fMRI
and the administration of the mixed serotonin (5-HT) and dopamine
receptor (R) agonist lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), well known to
alter the subjective meaning of percepts, with and without pretreat-
ment with the 5-HT2AR antagonist ketanserin. General subjective LSD
effects were fully blocked by ketanserin. In addition, ketanserin inhib-
ited the LSD-induced attribution of personal relevance to previously
meaningless stimuli and modulated the processing of meaningful
stimuli in cortical midline structures. These findings point to the cru-
cial role of the 5-HT2AR subtype and cortical midline regions in the
generation and attribution of personal relevance. Our results thus in-
crease our mechanistic understanding of personal relevance process-
ing and reveal potential targets for the treatment of psychiatric ill-
nesses characterized by alterations in personal relevance attribution.
 Long-lasting subjective effects of LSD
in normal subjects [173]
Psychopharmacology • September 2017

Schmid Y1, Liechti ME2.

1Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology

Department of Biomedicine, Department of Clinical Research
University Hospital Basel, University of Basel
Schanzenstrasse 55, 4056, Basel, Switzerland
2Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology
Department of Biomedicine, Department of Clinical Research
University Hospital Basel, University of Basel
Schanzenstrasse 55, 4056, Basel, Switzerland
matthias.liechti@usb.ch

Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) and other serotonergic hallucinogens can induce pro-
found alterations of consciousness and mystical-type experiences, with reportedly long-
lasting effects on subjective well-being and personality. We investigated the lasting ef-
fects of a single dose of LSD (200 μg) that was administered in a laboratory setting in 16
healthy participants. The following outcome measures were assessed before and 1 and
12 months after LSD administration: Persisting Effects Questionnaire (PEQ), Mysticism
Scale (MS), Death Transcendence Scale (DTS), NEO-Five Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI), and
State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI). On the PEQ, positive attitudes about life and/or self,
positive mood changes, altruistic/positive social effects, positive behavioral changes, and
well-being/life satisfaction significantly increased at 1 and 12 months and were subjective-
ly attributed by the subjects to the LSD experience. Five-Dimensions of Altered States of
Consciousness (5D-ASC) total scores, reflecting acutely induced alterations in conscious-
ness, and Mystical Experience Questionnaire (MEQ30) total scores correlated with changes
in well-being/life satisfaction 12 months after LSD administration. No changes in negative
attitudes, negative mood, antisocial/negative social effects, or negative behavior were
attributed to the LSD experience. After 12 months, 10 of 14 participants rated their LSD
experience as among the top 10 most meaningful experiences in their lives. Five partici-
pants rated the LSD experience among the five most spiritually meaningful experiences
in their lives. On the MS and DTS, ratings of mystical experiences significantly increased
1 and 12 months after LSD administration compared with the pre-LSD screening. No rel-
evant changes in personality measures were found. In healthy research subjects, the ad-
ministration of a single dose of LSD (200 μg) in a safe setting was subjectively considered
a personally meaningful experience that had long-lasting subjective positive effects.

Trial Registration:
Registration identification number: NCT01878942
 Effect of Hallucinogens
on Unconditioned Behavior [128]
Current Topics In Behavioral Neuroscience
February 2017

Halberstadt AL1,2, Geyer MA3,4.

1Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego

La Jolla, CA, 92093-0804, USA: ahalberstadt@ucsd.edu
2Research Service, VA San Diego Healthcare System
San Diego, CA, USA: ahalberstadt@ucsd.edu
3Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego
La Jolla, CA, 92093-0804, USA
4Research Service, VA San Diego Healthcare System
San Diego, CA, USA

Because of the ethical and regulatory hurdles as-

sociated with human studies, much of what is
known about the psychopharmacology of hallu-
cinogens has been derived from animal models.
However, developing reliable animal models has
proven to be a challenging task due to the com-
plexity and variability of hallucinogen effects in
humans. This chapter focuses on three animal
models that are frequently used to test the ef-
fects of hallucinogens on unconditioned behav-
ior: head twitch response (HTR), prepulse inhibi-
tion of startle (PPI), and exploratory behavior. The
HTR has demonstrated considerable utility in the
neurochemical actions of hallucinogens. Howev-
er, the latter two models have clearer conceptual
bridges to human phenomenology. Consistent
with the known mechanism of action of halluci-
nogens in humans, the behavioral effects of hal-
lucinogens in rodents are mediated primarily by
activation of 5-HT2A receptors. There is evidence,
however, that other receptors may play second-
ary roles. The structure-activity relationships (SAR)
of hallucinogens are reviewed in relation to each
model, with a focus on the HTR in rats and mice.
 Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics
of Lysergic Acid Diethylamide in Healthy Subjects [129]
Clinical Pharmacokinetics • February 2017

Dolder PC1,2, Schmid Y1, Steuer AE3, Kraemer T3

Rentsch KM2, Hammann F1, Liechti ME4

1Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology

Department of Biomedicine and Department of Clinical Research
University Hospital Basel, Hebelstrasse 2, 4031, Basel, Switzerland
2Laboratory Medicine, University Hospital Basel, Basel, Switzerland
3Department of Forensic Pharmacology and Toxicology
Zurich Institute of Forensic Medicine, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
4Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology
Department of Biomedicine and Department of Clinical Research
University Hospital Basel, Hebelstrasse 2, 4031, Basel, Switzerland
matthias.liechti@usb.ch

Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) is used recreationally and in clinical research. The aim
of the present study was to characterize the pharmacokinetics and exposure-response
relationship of oral LSD. We analyzed pharmacokinetic data from two published place-
bo-controlled, double-blind, cross-over studies using oral administration of LSD 100 and
200 µg in 24 and 16 subjects, respectively. The pharmacokinetics of the 100-µg dose is
shown for the first time and data for the 200-µg dose were reanalyzed and included. Plas-
ma concentrations of LSD, subjective effects, and vital signs were repeatedly assessed.
Pharmacokinetic parameters were determined using compartmental modeling. Concen-
tration-effect relationships were described using pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic
modeling. Geometric mean (95% confidence interval) maximum plasma concentration
values of 1.3 (1.2-1.9) and 3.1 (2.6-4.0) ng/mL were reached 1.4 and 1.5 h after admin-
istration of 100 and 200 µg LSD, respectively. The plasma half-life was 2.6 h (2.2-3.4 h).
The subjective effects lasted (mean ± standard deviation) 8.2 ± 2.1 and 11.6 ± 1.7 h for
the 100- and 200-µg LSD doses, respectively. Subjective peak effects were reached 2.8
and 2.5 h after administration of LSD 100 and 200 µg, respectively. A close relationship
was observed between the LSD concentration and subjective response within subjects,
with moderate counterclockwise hysteresis. Half-maximal effective concentration values
were in the range of 1 ng/mL. No correlations were found between plasma LSD concen-
trations and the effects of LSD across subjects at or near maximum plasma concentra-
tion and within dose groups. The present pharmacokinetic data are important for the
evaluation of clinical study findings (e.g., functional magnetic resonance imaging stud-
ies) and the interpretation of LSD intoxication. Oral LSD presented dose-proportional
pharmacokinetics and first-order elimination up to 12 h. The effects of LSD were related
to changes in plasma concentrations over time, with no evidence of acute tolerance.

Trial Registration: NCT02308969, NCT01878942

 Return of the lysergamides Part I:
Analytical and behavioural characterization
of 1-propionyl-d-lysergic acid diethylamide (1P-LSD) [278]
Drug Testing & Analysis • September 2016 [Parts 2, 3 and 4 follow]

Brandt SD1, Kavanagh PV2, Westphal F3, Stratford A4

Elliott SP5, Hoang K6, Wallach J7, Halberstadt AL8.

1School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University

Byrom Street, Liverpool, L3 3AF, UK
2Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, School of Medicine
Trinity Centre for Health Sciences, St. James Hospital, Dublin 8, Ireland
3State Bureau of Criminal Investigation Schleswig-Holstein, Section Narcotics/Toxicology
Mühlenweg 166, D-24116, Kiel, Germany
4Synex Ltd, 483 Green Lanes, N13 4BS, London, UK
5ROAR Forensics, Malvern Hills Science Park, Geraldine Road, WR14 3SZ, UK
6Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of the Sciences
600 South 43rd Street, Philadelphia, PA, USA
7Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences
Philadelphia College of Pharmacy, University of the Sciences
600 South 43rd Street, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
8Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego
9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA, 92093-0804, USA

1-Propionyl-d-lysergic acid diethylamide hemitartrate (1P-LSD) has become available as a ‘re-

search chemical’ in the form of blotters and powdered material. This non-controlled deriva-
tive of d-lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) has previously not been described in the published
literature despite being closely related to 1-acetyl-LSD (ALD-52), which was developed in
the 1950s. This study describes the characterization of 1P-LSD in comparison with LSD using
various chromatographic and mass spectrometric methods, infrared and nuclear magnetic
resonance spectroscopy. An important feature common to LSD and other serotonergic hal-
lucinogens is that they produce 5-HT2A -receptor activation and induce the head-twitch
response (HTR) in rats and mice. In order to assess whether 1P-LSD displays LSD-like proper-
ties and activates the 5-HT2A receptor, male C57BL/6 J mice were injected with vehicle (sa-
line) or 1P-LSD (0.025-0.8 mg/kg, IP) and HTR assessed for 30 min using magnetometer coil
recordings. It was found that 1P-LSD produced a dose-dependent increase in HTR counts,
and that it had ~38% (ED50  = 349.6 nmol/kg) of the potency of LSD (ED50  = 132.8 nmol/kg).
Furthermore, HTR was abolished when 1P-LSD administration followed pretreatment with
the selective 5-HT2A receptor antagonist M100907 (0.1 mg/kg, SC), which was consistent
with the concept that the behavioural response was mediated by activation of the 5-HT2A
receptor. These results indicate that 1P-LSD produces LSD-like effects in mice, consistent
with its classification as a serotonergic hallucinogen. Nevertheless, the extent to which 1P-
LSD might show psychoactive effects in humans similar to LSD remains to be investigated.
 Return of the lysergamides Part II:
Analytical and behavioural characterization of
N6-allyl-6-norlysergic acid diethylamide (AL-LAD) and
(2’S,4’S)-lysergic acid 2,4-dimethylazetidide (LSZ) [62]
Drug Testing & Analysis • January 2017

Brandt SD1, Kavanagh PV2, Westphal F3, Elliott SP4, Wallach J5

Colestock T6, Burrow TE7, Chapman SJ8, Stratford A9, Nichols DE10, Halberstadt AL11

1School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences, Liverpool John Moores UniversityByrom Street, Liverpool, L3 3AF, UK
2Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, School of Medicine
Trinity Centre for Health Sciences, St. James Hospital, Ireland
3State Bureau of Criminal Investigation Schleswig-Holstein, Section Narcotics/Toxicology
Mühlenweg 166, D-24116, Kiel, Germany
4ROAR Forensics, Malvern Hills Science Park, Geraldine Road, WR14 3SZ, UK
5Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Philadelphia College of Pharmacy, University of the Sciences, Philadelphia, PA
6Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of the Sciences, 600 South 43rd Street, Philadelphia, PA, USA
7Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, St. George Street, Toronto, ON, M5S 3H6, Canada
8Isomer Design, 4103-210 Victoria Street, Toronto, ON, M5B 2R3, Canada
9Synex Ltd, 67-68 Hatton Garden, N13 4BS, London, UK
10Division of Chemical Biology and Medicinal Chemistry, University of North Carolina, Genetic Medicine Building
120 Mason Farm Road, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599, USA
11Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA, 92093-0804, USA

Lysergic acid N,N-diethylamide (LSD) is perhaps one of the most intriguing psychoactive
substances known and numerous analogs have been explored to varying extents in previ-
ous decades. In 2013, N6 -allyl-6-norlysergic acid diethylamide (AL-LAD) and (2’S,4’S)-lyser-
gic acid 2,4-dimethylazetidide (LSZ) appeared on the ‘research chemicals’/new psychoactive
substances (NPS) market in both powdered and blotter form. This study reports the analyti-
cal characterization of powdered AL-LAD and LSZ tartrate samples and their semi-quantita-
tive determination on blotter paper. Included in this study was the use of nuclear magnetic
resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), low and
high mass accuracy electrospray MS(/MS), high performance liquid chromatography diode
array detection and GC solid-state infrared analysis. One feature shared by serotonergic
psychedelics, such as LSD, is the ability to mediate behavioural responses via activation
of 5-HT2A receptors. Both AL-LAD and LSZ displayed LSD-like responses in male C57BL/6 J
mice when employing the head-twitch response (HTR) assay. AL-LAD and LSZ produced
nearly identical inverted-U-shaped dose-dependent effects, with the maximal responses
occurring at 200 µg/kg. Analysis of the dose responses by nonlinear regression confirmed
that LSZ (ED50  = 114.2 nmol/kg) was equipotent to LSD (ED50  = 132.8 nmol/kg) in mice,
whereas AL-LAD was slightly less potent (ED50  = 174.9 nmol/kg). The extent to which a
comparison in potency can be translated directly to humans requires further investigation.
Chemical and pharmacological data obtained from NPS may assist research communities
that are interested in various aspects related to substance use and forensic identification.
 Return of the lysergamides Part III:
Analytical characterization of
N6-ethyl-6-norlysergic acid diethylamide (ETH-LAD)
and 1-propionyl ETH-LAD (1P-ETH-LAD) [63]
Drug Testing & Analysis • March 2017

Brandt SD1, Kavanagh PV2, Westphal F3, Elliott SP4

Wallach J5, Stratford A6, Nichols DE7, Halberstadt AL8.

1School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences

Liverpool John Moores University, Byrom Street, Liverpool, L3 3AF, UK
2Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, School of Medicine
Trinity Centre for Health Sciences, St James’s Hospital, Dublin 8, D08W9RT, Ireland
3State Bureau of Criminal Investigation Schleswig-Holstein
Section Narcotics/Toxicology, Mühlenweg 166, D-24116, Kiel, Germany
4Alere Forensics (Forensics Ltd), Malvern Hills Science Park, Geraldine Road, WR14 3SZ, UK
5Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Philadelphia College of Pharmacy
University of the Sciences, 600 South 43rd Street, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
6Synex Synthetics BV, Poortweg 4, 2612 PA, Delft, the Netherlands
7Division of Chemical Biology and Medicinal Chemistry, University of North Carolina
Genetic Medicine Building, 120 Mason Farm Road, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599, USA
8Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego
9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA, 92093-0804, USA

The psychoactive properties of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) have fascinated scientists
across disciplines and the exploration of other analogues and derivatives has been moti-
vated by deepening the understanding of ligand-receptor interactions at the molecular
level as well as by the search for new therapeutics. Several LSD congeners have appeared
on the new psychoactive substances (NPS) market in the form of blotters or powders.
Examples include 1-propionyl-LSD (1P-LSD), AL-LAD, and LSZ. The absence of analytical
data for novel compounds is a frequent challenge encountered in clinical and toxicologi-
cal investigations. Two newly emerging lysergamides, namely N6 -ethyl-6-norlysergic acid
diethylamide (ETH-LAD) and 1P-ETH-LAD, were characterized by gas chromatography-
mass spectrometry (GC-MS), low and high mass accuracy electrospray MS(/MS), GC solid-
state infrared analysis, high performance liquid chromatography diode array detection
as well as nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Limited analytical data for ETH-LAD
were previously available, whereas information about 1P-ETH-LAD has not previously
been encountered in the scientific literature. This study extends the characterization of
lysergamides distributed on the NPS market, which will help to make analytical data avail-
able to clinicians, toxicologists, and other stakeholders who are likely to encounter these
substances. The analysis of a test incubation of 1P-ETH-LAD with human serum at 37°C by
LC single quadrupole MS at various time points (0-6 h, once per hour and one measure-
ment after 24 h) revealed the formation of ETH-LAD, suggesting that 1P-ETH-LAD might
serve as a pro-drug. 1P-ETH-LAD was still detectable in serum after 24 hours.
 Return of the lysergamides Part IV:
Analytical and pharmacological
characterization of
lysergic acid morpholide (LSM-775) [64]
Drug Testing & Analysis • March 2017

Brandt SD1, Kavanagh PV2, Twamley B3, Westphal F4, Elliott SP5, Wallach J6,
Stratford A7, Klein LM8, McCorvy JD9, Nichols DE10, Halberstadt AL11

1School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences

Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK
2Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, School of Medicine
Trinity Centre for Health Sciences, Dublin 8, Ireland
3School of Chemistry, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
4Section Narcotics/Toxicology, State Bureau of Criminal Investigation, Kiel, Germany
5Alere Forensics, Malvern Hills Science Park, Malvern, UK.
6Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Philadelphia College of Pharmacy
University of the Sciences, Philadelphia, PA
7Synex Synthetics BV, Delft, The Netherlands
8Department of Neurosciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
9Department of Pharmacology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
10Division of Chemical Biology and Medicinal Chemistry
University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
11Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA

Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) is perhaps one of the best-known psycho-

active substances and many structural modifications of this prototypical
lysergamide have been investigated. Several lysergamides were recently
encountered as ‘research chemicals’ or new psychoactive substances (NPS).
Although lysergic acid morpholide (LSM-775) appeared on the NPS market
in 2013, there is disagreement in the literature regarding the potency and
psychoactive properties of LSM-775 in humans. The present investigation at-
tempts to address the gap of information that exists regarding the analytical
profile and pharmacological effects of LSM-775. A powdered sample of LSM-
775 was characterized by X-ray crystallography, nuclear magnetic resonance
spectroscopy (NMR), gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS), high
mass accuracy electrospray MS/MS, high performance liquid chromatogra-
phy (HPLC) diode array detection, HPLC quadrupole MS, and GC solid-state
infrared analysis. Screening for receptor affinity and functional efficacy re-
vealed that LSM-775 acts as a nonselective agonist at 5-HT1A and 5-HT2A
receptors. Head twitch studies were conducted in C57BL/6J mice to deter-
mine whether LSM-775 activates 5-HT2A receptors and produces hallucino-
gen-like effects in vivo. LSM-775 did not induce the head twitch response
unless 5-HT1A receptors were blocked by pretreatment with the antagonist
WAY-100,635 (1 mg/kg, subcutaneous). These findings suggest that 5-HT1A
activation by LSM-775 masks its ability to induce the head twitch response,
which is potentially consistent with reports in the literature indicating that
LSM-775 is only capable of producing weak LSD-like effects in humans.
 Disrupted integration
of sensory stimuli with information
about the movement of the body
as a mechanism explaining
LSD-induced experience
Med Hypotheses • March 2017

By G.R. Juszczak

1Department of Animal Behavior

Institute of Genetics and Animal Breeding
Polish Academy of Sciences, 05-552 Jastrzebiec
36a Postepu str., Poland
Electronic address: gjuszczak@yahoo.com

LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide) is a model psychedelic drug

used to study mechanism underlying the effects induced by
hallucinogens. However, despite advanced knowledge about
molecular mechanism responsible for the effects induced by
LSD and other related substances acting at serotonergic 5-
HT2a receptors, we still do not understand how these drugs
trigger specific sensory experiences. LSD-induced experience
is characterised by perception of movement in the environ-
ment and by presence of various bodily sensations such as
floating in space, merging into surroundings and movement
out of the physical body (the out-of-body experience). It
means that a large part of the experience induced by the LSD
can be simplified to the illusory movement that can be attrib-
uted to the self or to external objects. The phenomenology
of the LSD-induced experience has been combined with the
fact that serotonergic neurons provide all major parts of the
brain with information about the level of tonic motor activity,
occurrence of external stimuli and the execution of orienting
responses. Therefore, it has been proposed that LSD-induced
stimulation of 5-HT2a receptors disrupts the integration of
the sensory stimuli with information about the movement
of the body leading to perception of illusory movement.

PMID: 28236857 DOI: 10.1016/j.mehy.2017.01.022

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28236857
 Club Drugs: Drugs And Young People
US National Library Of Medicine • 2017

Searchable, Indexed Report

Club drugs are a group of psychoactive drugs. They act on the central nervous system and can
cause changes in mood, awareness, and how you act. These drugs are often abused by young
adults at all-night dance parties, dance clubs, and bars. They include:

• Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), also known as Ecstasy XTC,

X, E, Adam, Molly, Hug Beans, and Love Drug
• • Gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB), also known as G, Liquid Ecstasy, and Soap
Ketamine, also known as Special K, K, Vitamin K, and Jet

• • • Rohypnol, also known as Roofies

Methamphetamine, also known as Speed, Ice, Chalk, Meth, Crystal, Crank, and Glass
Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD), also known as Acid, Blotter, and Dots

Some of these drugs are approved for certain medical uses. Other uses of these drugs are
abuse. Club drugs are also sometimes used as “date rape” drugs, to make someone unable to
say no to or fight back against sexual assault. Abusing these drugs can cause serious health
problems and sometimes death. They are even more dangerous if you use them with alcohol.

US Library Of Medicine Web Site

Last Accessed October 1, 2017
https://medlineplus.gov/drugsandyoungpeople.html
 Acute effects of LSD
on amygdala activity during
processing of fearful stimuli
in healthy subjects [265]
Translational Psychiatry • April 2017

Mueller F1, Lenz C1, Dolder PC2, Harder S2

Schmid Y2, Lang UE1, Liechti ME2, Borgwardt S1.

1Department of Psychiatry
Universitäre Psychiatrische Kliniken
University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
2Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology
Department of Biomedicine and Clinical Research
University Hospital Basel, Basel, Switzerland

Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) induces profound

changes in various mental domains, including per-
ception, self-awareness and emotions. We used
functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to
investigate the acute effects of LSD on the neural
substrate of emotional processing in humans. Us-
ing a double-blind, randomised, cross-over study
design, placebo or 100 μg LSD were orally admin-
istered to 20 healthy subjects before the fMRI scan,
taking into account the subjective and pharma-
cological peak effects of LSD. The plasma levels of
LSD were determined immediately before and after
the scan. The study (including the a priori-defined
study end point) was registered at ClinicalTrials.
gov before study start (NCT02308969). The admin-
istration of LSD reduced reactivity of the left amyg-
dala and the right medial prefrontal cortex relative
to placebo during the presentation of fearful faces
(P<0.05, family-wise error). Notably, there was a
significant negative correlation between LSD-in-
duced amygdala response to fearful stimuli and
the LSD-induced subjective drug effects (P<0.05).
These data suggest that acute administration of
LSD modulates the engagement of brain regions
that mediate emotional processing.
 Ayahuasca, dimethyltryptamine
and psychosis: a systematic review
of human studies [72]
Therapies In Advanced Psychopharmacology • April 2017

Dos Santos RG1, Bouso JC2, Hallak JEC3.

1Department of Neurosciences and Behavior, Ribeirão Preto Medical School

University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
National Institute for Translational Medicine, CNPq, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
International Center for Ethnobotanical Education, Research and Service, Barcelona, Spain
2International Center for Ethnobotanical Education, Research and Service, Barcelona, Spain
3Department of Neurosciences and Behavior, Ribeirão Preto Medical School
University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
National Institute for Translational Medicine, CNPq, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil

Ayahuasca is a hallucinogen brew traditionally used for ritual and

therapeutic purposes in Northwestern Amazon. It is rich in the trypt-
amine hallucinogens dimethyltryptamine (DMT), which acts as a se-
rotonin 5-HT2A agonist. This mechanism of action is similar to other
compounds such as lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) and psilocybin.
The controlled use of LSD and psilocybin in experimental settings is
associated with a low incidence of psychotic episodes, and population
studies corroborate these findings. Both the controlled use of DMT in
experimental settings and the use of ayahuasca in experimental and
ritual settings are not usually associated with psychotic episodes, but
little is known regarding ayahuasca or DMT use outside these con-
trolled contexts. Thus, we performed a systematic review of the pub-
lished case reports describing psychotic episodes associated with
ayahuasca and DMT intake. We found three case series and two case re-
ports describing psychotic episodes associated with ayahuasca intake,
and three case reports describing psychotic episodes associated with
DMT. Several reports describe subjects with a personal and possibly
a family history of psychosis (including schizophrenia, schizophreni-
form disorders, psychotic mania, psychotic depression), nonpsychotic
mania, or concomitant use of other drugs. However, some cases also
described psychotic episodes in subjects without these previous char-
acteristics. Overall, the incidence of such episodes appears to be rare
in both the ritual and the recreational/noncontrolled settings. Perfor-
mance of a psychiatric screening before administration of these drugs,
and other hallucinogens, in controlled settings seems to significantly
reduce the possibility of adverse reactions with psychotic symptom-
atology. Individuals with a personal or family history of any psychot-
ic illness or nonpsychotic mania should avoid hallucinogen intake.
 Detection of “Bath Salts”
and Other Novel Psychoactive Substances
in Hair Samples of Ecstasy/MDMA/“Molly” Users [352]
Drug & Alcohol Dependence • April 2017

Joseph J. Palamar1,2,*, Alberto Salomone3

Marco Vincenti3,4, and Charles M. Cleland2,5

1NY University Langone Med Center, Dpt of Population Health

New York University College of Nursing, New York, NY
2Center for Drug Use and HIV Research, New York University College of Nursing, New York, NY
3Centro Regionale Antidoping e di Tossicologia “A. Bertinaria”, Orbassano, Turin, Italy
4Dipartimento di Chimica, Università di Torino, Turin, Italy
5New York University College of Nursing, New York, NY

Ecstasy (MDMA) in the US is commonly adulterated with other drugs, but research has not
focused on purity of ecstasy since the phenomenon of “Molly” (ecstasy marketed as pure
MDMA) arose in the US. We piloted a rapid electronic survey in 2015 to assess use of novel
psychoactive substances (NPS) and other drugs among 679 nightclub/festival-attending
young adults (age 18–25) in New York City. A quarter (26.1%) of the sample provided a hair
sample to be analyzed for the presence of select synthetic cathinones (“bath salts”) and
some other NPS. Samples were analyzed using fully validated UHPLC-MS/MS methods. To
examine consistency of self-report, analyses focused on the 48 participants with an analyz-
able hair sample who reported lifetime ecstasy/MDMA/Molly use. Half (50.0%) of the hair
samples contained MDMA, 47.9% contained butylone, and 10.4% contained methylone.
Of those who reported no lifetime use of “bath salts”, stimulant NPS, or unknown pills or
powders, about four out of ten (41.2%) tested positive for butylone, methylone, alpha-PVP,
5/6-APB, or 4-FA. Racial minorities were more likely to test positive for butylone or test posi-
tive for NPS after reporting no lifetime use. Frequent nightclub/festival attendance was the
strongest predictor of testing positive for MDMA, butylone, or methylone. Results suggest
that many ecstasy-using nightclub/festival attendees may be unintentionally using “bath
salts” or other NPS. Prevention and harm reduction education is needed for this population
and “drug checking” (e.g., pill testing) may be beneficial for those rejecting abstinence.
 Purity, adulteration and price of drugs bought
on-line versus off-line in the Netherlands [130]
Addiction • April 2017

van der Gouwe D1, Brunt TM1, van Laar M1, van der Pol P1

Trimbos Institute
Netherlands Institute of Mental Health and Addiction
Utrecht, the Netherlands

On-line drug markets flourish and consumers have high expecta-

tions of on-line quality and drug value. The aim of this study was
to (i) describe on-line drug purchases and (ii) compare on-line with
off-line purchased drugs regarding purity, adulteration and price.
Comparison of laboratory analyses of 32 663 drug consumer sam-
ples (stimulants and hallucinogens) purchased between January
2013 and January 2016, 928 of which were bought on-line. Primary
outcome measures were (i) the percentage of samples purchased
on-line and (ii) the chemical purity of powders (or dosage per tab-
let); adulteration; and the price per gram, blotter or tablet of drugs
bought on-line compared with drugs bought off-line. The propor-
tion of drug samples purchased on-line increased from 1.4% in 2013
to 4.1% in 2015. The frequency varied widely, from a maximum of
6% for controlled, traditional substances [ecstasy tablets, 3,4-meth-
ylenedioxy-methamphetamine (MDMA) powder, amphetamine
powder, cocaine powder, 4-bromo-2,5-dimethoxyphenethylamine
(2C-B) and lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD)] to more than a third
for new psychoactive substances (NPS) [4-fluoroamphetamine (4-
FA), 5/6-(2-aminopropyl)benzofuran (5/6-APB) and methoxetamine
(MXE)]. There were no large differences in drug purity, yet small but
statistically significant differences were found for 4-FA (on-line 59%
versus off-line 52% purity for 4-FA on average, P = 0.001), MDMA
powders (45 versus 61% purity for MDMA, P = 0.02), 2C-B tablets
(21 versus 10 mg 2C-B/tablet dosage, P = 0.49) and ecstasy tab-
lets (131 versus 121 mg MDMA/tablet dosage, P = 0.05). The pro-
portion of adulterated samples purchased on-line and off-line did
not differ, except for 4-FA powder, being less adulterated on-line
(χ2  = 8.3; P < 0.02). Drug prices were mainly higher on-line, rang-
ing for various drugs from 10 to 23% higher than that of drugs pur-
chased off-line (six of 10 substances: P < 0.05). Dutch drug users
increasingly purchase drugs on-line: new psychoactive substances
in particular. Purity and adulteration do not vary considerably be-
tween drugs purchased on-line and off-line for most substanc-
es, while on-line prices are mostly higher than off-line prices.
 Looking for the Self:
Phenomenology, Neurophysiology and Philosophical
Significance of Drug-induced Ego Dissolution [222]
Frontiers In Human Neuroscience • May 2017

By Raphaël Millière*

Faculty of Philosophy, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom

Edited by: Isadora Olivé, University of Western Ontario, Canada
Reviewed by: Glenn Carruthers, Charles Sturt University, Australia
Bernhard J. Mitterauer, Volitronics-Institute for Basic Research Psychopathology and Brain Philosophy, Austria
Aaron Leonard Mishara, The Chicago School of Professional Psychology, United States
Matthew M. Nour, King’s College London, United Kingdom
*Correspondence: Raphaël Millière
raphael.milliere@philosophy.ox.ac.uk

There is converging evidence that high doses of hallucinogenic drugs can

produce significant alterations of self-experience, described as the disso-
lution of the sense of self and the loss of boundaries between self and
world. This article discusses the relevance of this phenomenon, known
as “drug-induced ego dissolution (DIED)”, for cognitive neuroscience, psy-
chology and philosophy of mind. Data from self-report questionnaires
suggest that three neuropharmacological classes of drugs can induce ego
dissolution: classical psychedelics, dissociative anesthetics and agonists
of the kappa opioid receptor (KOR). While these substances act on dif-
ferent neurotransmitter receptors, they all produce strong subjective ef-
fects that can be compared to the symptoms of acute psychosis, including
ego dissolution. It has been suggested that neuroimaging of DIED can
indirectly shed light on the neural correlates of the self. While this line of
inquiry is promising, its results must be interpreted with caution. First,
neural correlates of ego dissolution might reveal the necessary neuro-
physiological conditions for the maintenance of the sense of self, but it is
more doubtful that this method can reveal its minimally sufficient condi-
tions. Second, it is necessary to define the relevant notion of self at play in
the phenomenon of DIED. This article suggests that DIED consists in the
disruption of subpersonal processes underlying the “minimal” or “embod-
ied” self, i.e., the basic experience of being a self rooted in multimodal in-
tegration of self-related stimuli. This hypothesis is consistent with Bayes-
ian models of phenomenal selfhood, according to which the subjective
structure of conscious experience ultimately results from the optimiza-
tion of predictions in perception and action. Finally, it is argued that DIED
is also of particular interest for philosophy of mind. On the one hand, it
challenges theories according to which consciousness always involves
self-awareness. On the other hand, it suggests that ordinary conscious
experience might involve a minimal kind of self-awareness rooted in mul-
tisensory processing, which is what appears to fade away during DIED.
Development and validation of an ultra-fast and sensitive microflow liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (MFLC-MS/MS)
method for quantification of LSD and its metabolites in plasma and application to a controlled LSD administration study in humans [131]
Drug Testing & Analysis • May 2017

Steuer AE1, Poetzsch M1, Stock L1, Eisenbeiss L1, Schmid Y2, Liechti ME2, Kraemer T1.

1Department of Forensic Pharmacology and Toxicology. Zurich Institute of Forensic Medicine, University of Zurich, Switzerland
2Psychopharmacology Research, Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Department of Biomedicine and Department of Clinical Research, University Hospital Basel, Basel, Switzerland

Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) is a semi-synthetic hallucinogen that has gained popularity
as a recreational drug and has been investigated as an adjunct to psychotherapy. Analysis of
LSD represents a major challenge in forensic toxicology due to its instability, low drug con-
centrations, and short detection windows in biological samples. A new, fast, and sensitive
microflow liquid chromatography (MFLC) tandem mass spectrometry method for the vali-
dated quantification of LSD, iso-LSD, 2-oxo 3-hydroxy-LSD (oxo-HO-LSD), and N-desmethyl-
LSD (nor-LSD) was developed in plasma and applied to a controlled pharmacokinetic (PK)
study in humans to test whether LSD metabolites would offer for longer detection windows.
Five hundred microlitres of plasma were extracted by solid phase extraction. Analysis was
performed on a Sciex Eksigent MFLC system coupled to a Sciex 5500 QTrap. The method was
validated according to (inter)-national guidelines. MFLC allowed for separation of the men-
tioned analytes within 3 minutes and limits of quantification of 0.01 ng/mL. Validation criteria
were fulfilled for all analytes. PK data could be calculated for LSD, iso-LSD, and oxo-HO-LSD in
all participants. Additionally, hydroxy-LSD (HO-LSD) and HO-LSD glucuronide could be quali-
tatively detected and PK determined in 11 and 8 subjects, respectively. Nor-LSD was only
sporadically detected. Elimination half-lives of iso-LSD (median 12 h) and LSD metabolites
(median 9, 7.4, 12, and 11 h for oxo-HO-LSD, HO-LSD, HO-LSD-gluc, and nor-LSD, respectively)
exceeded those of LSD (median 4.2 h). However, screening for metabolites to increase detec-
tion windows in plasma seems not to be constructive due to their very low concentrations.
 A Single Dose of LSD
Does Not Alter Gene Expression
of the Serotonin 2A Receptor Gene (HTR2A)
or Early Growth Response Genes (EGR1-3)
in Healthy Subjects [213]
Frontiers In Pharmacology • June 2017

Dolder PC1, Grünblatt E2,3,4, Müller F5, Borgwardt SJ5, Liechti ME1.

1Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology

Department of Biomedicine and Department of Clinical Research
University Hospital Basel and University of BaselBasel, Switzerland
2Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychotherapy
Psychiatric Hospital, University of ZurichZurich, Switzerland
3Neuroscience Center Zurich, University of Zurich and ETH ZurichZurich, Switzerland
4Zurich Center for Integrative Human Physiology, University of ZurichZurich, Switzerland
5Department of Psychiatry (Universitäre Psychiatrische Kliniken Basel)
University of BaselBasel, Switzerland

Renewed interest has been seen in the use of lysergic acid diethylamide
(LSD) in psychiatric research and practice. The repeated use of LSD leads
to tolerance that is believed to result from serotonin (5-HT) 5-HT2A re-
ceptor downregulation. In rats, daily LSD administration for 4 days de-
creased frontal cortex 5-HT2A receptor binding. Additionally, a single
dose of LSD acutely increased expression of the early growth response
genes EGR1 and EGR2 in rat and mouse brains through 5-HT2A recep-
tor stimulation. No human data on the effects of LSD on gene expres-
sion has been reported. Therefore, we investigated the effects of single-
dose LSD administration on the expression of the 5-HT2A receptor gene
(HTR2A) and EGR1-3 genes. mRNA expression levels were analyzed in
whole blood as a peripheral biomarker in 15 healthy subjects before
and 1.5 and 24 h after the administration of LSD (100 μg) and placebo
in a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, cross-over study.
LSD did not alter the expression of the HTR2A or EGR1-3 genes 1.5 and
24 h after administration compared with placebo. No changes were ob-
served in the gene expression of LSD’s primary target receptor gene or
genes that are implicated in its downstream effects. Remaining unclear
is whether chronic LSD administration alters gene expression in humans.
LSD PDF #196
 Public Attitudes Towards Moral Enhancement:
Evidence that Means Matter Morally [353]
Neuroethics • July 2017

By Jona Specker1 & Maartje H. N. Schermer1 & Peter B. Reiner2

1. Department of Medical Ethics and Philosophy of Medicine,

Erasmus Medical Center, University of Rotterdam, PO Box 2040, The Netherlands
e-mail: j.specker@erasmusmc.nl
2. National Core for Neuroethics, University of British Columbia,
2211 Wesbrook Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T2B5, Canada
e-mail: peter.reiner@ubc.ca
M. H. N. Schermer
e-mail: m.schermer@erasmusmc.nl

To gain insight into the reasons that the public may have for endorsing
or eschewing pharmacological moral enhancement for themselves or
for others, we used empirical tools to explore public attitudes towards
these issues. Participants (N = 293) from the United States were re-
cruited via Amazon’s Mechanical Turk and were randomly assigned to
read one of several contrastive vignettes in which a 13-year-old child
is described as bullying another student in school and then is offered
an empathyenhancing program. The empathy-enhancing program
is described as either involving taking a pill or playing a video game
on a daily basis for four weeks. In addition, participants were asked to
imagine either their own child bullying another student at school, or
their own child being bullied by another student. This resulted in a 2
× 2 between-subjects design. In an escalating series of morally chal-
lenging questions, we asked participants to rate their overall support
for the program; whether they would support requiring participation;
whether they would support requiring participation of children who
are at higher risk to become bullies in the future; whether they would
support requiring participation of all children or even the entire popu-
lation; and whether they would be willing to participate in the program
themselves. We found that people were significantly more troubled by
pharmacological as opposed to non-pharmacological moral enhance-
ment interventions. The results indicate that members of the public
for the greater part oppose pharmacological moral bio-enhancement,
yet are open to non-biomedical means to attain moral enhancement.
 Dreamlike effects of LSD
on waking imagery in humans depend
on serotonin 2A receptor activation [256]
Psychopharmacology Berlin • July 2017

Kraehenmann R1,2, Pokorny D3, Vollenweider L4

Preller KH4, Pokorny T4, Seifritz E5, Vollenweider FX4.

1Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics

Psychiatric Hospital, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
r.kraehenmann@bli.uzh.ch
2Neuropsychopharmacology and Brain Imaging
Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics
Psychiatric Hospital, University of Zurich
Lenggstrasse 31, 8032, Zurich, Switzerland
r.kraehenmann@bli.uzh.ch
3Department of Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy
University of Ulm, Ulm, Germany
4Neuropsychopharmacology and Brain Imaging, Department of Psychiatry
Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Psychiatric Hospital, University of Zurich
Lenggstrasse 31, 8032, Zurich, Switzerland
5Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics
Psychiatric Hospital, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland

Accumulating evidence indicates that the mixed serotonin and dopamine

receptor agonist lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) induces an altered state
of consciousness that resembles dreaming. This study aimed to test the
hypotheses that LSD produces dreamlike waking imagery and that this
imagery depends on 5-HT2A receptor activation and is related to subjec-
tive drug effects. Twenty-five healthy subjects performed an audiorecord-
ed guided mental imagery task 7 h after drug administration during three
drug conditions: placebo, LSD (100 mcg orally) and LSD together with the
5-HT2A receptor antagonist ketanserin (40 mg orally). Cognitive bizarre-
ness of guided mental imagery reports was quantified as a standardised
formal measure of dream mentation. State of consciousness was evalu-
ated using the Altered State of Consciousness (5D-ASC) questionnaire.
LSD, compared with placebo, significantly increased cognitive bizarreness
(p < 0.001). The LSD-induced increase in cognitive bizarreness was posi-
tively correlated with the LSD-induced loss of self-boundaries and cognitive
control (p < 0.05). Both LSD-induced increases in cognitive bizarreness and
changes in state of consciousness were fully blocked by ketanserin.n LSD
produced mental imagery similar to dreaming, primarily via activation of
the 5-HT2A receptor and in relation to loss of self-boundaries and cognitive
control. Future psychopharmacological studies should assess the differential
contribution of the D2/D1 and 5-HT1A receptors to cognitive bizarreness.
 Potential Therapeutic Effects of Psilocybin [520]
Neurotherapeutics • July 2017

Johnson MW1, Griffiths RR2,3

1Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences

Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD mwj@jhu.edu
2Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences
Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD
3Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD

Psilocybin and other 5-hydroxytryptamine2A agonist classic psychedel-

ics have been used for centuries as sacraments within indigenous cul-
tures. In the mid-twentieth century they were a focus within psychia-
try as both probes of brain function and experimental therapeutics. By
the late 1960s and early 1970s these scientific inquires fell out of favor
because classic psychedelics were being used outside of medical re-
search and in association with the emerging counter culture. However,
in the twenty-first century, scientific interest in classic psychedelics has
returned and grown as a result of several promising studies, validating
earlier research. Here, we review therapeutic research on psilocybin, the
classic psychedelic that has been the focus of most recent research. For
mood and anxiety disorders, three controlled trials have suggested that
psilocybin may decrease symptoms of depression and anxiety in the con-
text of cancer-related psychiatric distress for at least 6 months follow-
ing a single acute administration. A small, open-label study in patients
with treatment-resistant depression showed reductions in depression
and anxiety symptoms 3 months after two acute doses. For addiction,
small, open-label pilot studies have shown promising success rates for
both tobacco and alcohol addiction. Safety data from these various tri-
als, which involve careful screening, preparation, monitoring, and fol-
low-up, indicate the absence of severe drug-related adverse reactions.
Modest drug-related adverse effects at the time of medication adminis-
tration are readily managed. US federal funding has yet to support thera-
peutic psilocybin research, although such support will be important to
thoroughly investigate efficacy, safety, and therapeutic mechanisms.

This article has a delayed release (embargo) and will be available in PMC
on July 1, 2018. An abstract of the article is available in PubMed.
 Psychotherapy with Adjuvant use
of Serotonergic Psychoactive Substances:
Possibilities and Challenges [132]
Fortschritte der Neurologie-Psychiatrie • July 2017

Majić T1, Jungaberle H2, Schmidt TT3, Zeuch A4, Hermle L5, Gallinat J6.

1Psychiatrische Universitätsklinik der Charité im St. Hedwig Krankenhaus

Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Charité Campus Mitte, Berlin
2FINDER Institut für Präventionsforschung, Berlin
3Bernstein Center for Computational Neuroscience, Berlin
4DRK Westend, Spandauer Damm 130, Klinik für Anästhesie
Schmerztherapie, Intensiv- und Notfallmedizin, Berlin
5Klinik für Psychiatrie und Psychotherapie, Christophsbad, Göppingen
6Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf
Klinik und Poliklinik für Psychiatrie und Psychotherapie, Hamburg

Recently, scientific interest in the therapeutic potential of serotonergic and

psilocybin hallucinogens (psychedelics) such as lysergic acid diethylamide
(LSD) and entactogens like 3,4-methylendioxymethamphetamine (MDMA)
within the framework of psychotherapy has resumed. The present article
provides an overview on the current evidence on substance-assisted psy-
chotherapy with these substances. A selective search was carried out in
the PubMed and Cochrane Library including studies investigating the
clinical use of serotonergic psychoactive substances since 2000. Studies
were found investigating the following indications: alcohol (LSD and psi-
locybin) and tobacco addiction (psilocybin), anxiety and depression in pa-
tients suffering from life-threatening somatic illness (LSD and psilocybin),
obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) (psilocybin), treatment-resistant
major depression (psilocybin), and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
(MDMA).  Substance use disorders, PTSD and anxiety and depression in
patients suffering from life-threatening somatic illness belong to the in-
dications with the best evidence for substance-assisted psychotherapy
with serotonergic psychoactive agents. To date, studies indicate efficacy
and relatively good tolerability. Further studies are needed to determine
whether these substances may represent suitable and effective treatment
options for some treatment-resistant psychiatric disorders in the future.
 Novel Psychoactive Substances—
Recent Progress on Neuropharmacological
Mechanisms of Action for Selected Drugs [262]
Frontiers In Psychiatry • August 2017

Zurina Hassan,1 Oliver G. Bosch,2 Darshan Singh,1

Suresh Narayanan,3 B. Vicknasingam Kasinather,1
Erich Seifritz,2 Johannes Kornhuber,4
Boris B. Quednow,5 and Christian P. Müller4,*

1Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Minden, Malaysia

2Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics
Psychiatric Hospital, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
3School of Social Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Minden, Malaysia
4Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Hospital
Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nuremberg, Erlangen, Germany
5Experimental and Clinical Pharmacopsychology
Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics
Psychiatric Hospital, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
Correspondence: Christian P. Müller: ed.negnalre-ku@relleum.naitsirhc

A feature of human culture is that we can learn to consume chemical com-

pounds, derived from natural plants or synthetic fabrication, for their psycho-
active effects. These drugs change the mental state and/or the behavioral per-
formance of an individual and can be instrumentalized for various purposes.
After the emergence of a novel psychoactive substance (NPS) and a period of
experimental consumption, personal and medical benefits and harm potential
of the NPS can be estimated on evidence base. This may lead to a legal clas-
sification of the NPS, which may range from limited medical use, controlled
availability up to a complete ban of the drug form publically accepted use. With
these measures, however, a drug does not disappear, but frequently continues
to be used, which eventually allows an even better estimate of the drug’s prop-
erties. Thus, only in rare cases, there is a final verdict that is no more questioned.
Instead, the view on a drug can change from tolerable to harmful but may also
involve the new establishment of a desired medical application to a previous-
ly harmful drug. Here, we provide a summary review on a number of NPS for
which the neuropharmacological evaluation has made important progress in
recent years. They include mitragynine (“Kratom”), synthetic cannabinoids (e.g.,
“Spice”), dimethyltryptamine and novel serotonergic hallucinogens, the cathi-
nones mephedrone and methylone, ketamine and novel dissociative drugs, γ-
hydroxybutyrate, γ-butyrolactone, and 1,4-butanediol. This review shows not
only emerging harm potentials but also some potential medical applications.
[94]
 Shannon entropy of brain
functional complex networks
under the influence of the
psychedelic Ayahuasca [396]
Science Reports • August 2017

Viol A1,2,3, Palhano-Fontes F4, Onias H4

de Araujo DB4, Viswanathan GM5,6.

1Department of Physics
Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte
59078-970, Natal, RN, Brazil
2Computational Biology Center,
T. J. Watson Research Center, IBM, 10598, Yorktown Heights, NY,
3Department of Physics, Universidade Federal de Viçosa
36570-000, Viçosa, MG, Brazil
4Brain Institute, Universidade Federal do
Rio Grande do Norte, 59078-970, Natal, RN, Brazil
5Department of Physics, Universidade Federal do
Rio Grande do Norte, 59078-970, Natal, RN, Brazil
6National Institute of Science and Technology
of Complex Systems, Universidade Federal do
Rio Grande do Norte, 59078-970, Natal, RN, Brazil

The entropic brain hypothesis holds that the key facts con-
cerning psychedelics are partially explained in terms of in-
creased entropy of the brain’s functional connectivity. Aya-
huasca is a psychedelic beverage of Amazonian indigenous
origin with legal status in Brazil in religious and scientific
settings. In this context, we use tools and concepts from the
theory of complex networks to analyze resting state fMRI
data of the brains of human subjects under two distinct con-
ditions: (i) under ordinary waking state and (ii) in an altered
state of consciousness induced by ingestion of Ayahuasca.
We report an increase in the Shannon entropy of the degree
distribution of the networks subsequent to Ayahuasca in-
gestion. We also find increased local and decreased global
network integration. Our results are broadly consistent with
the entropic brain hypothesis. Finally, we discuss our find-
ings in the context of descriptions of “mind-expansion” fre-
quently seen in self-reports of users of psychedelic drugs.
Psychedelic Drugs as Therapeutics:
No Illusions About the Challenges
[412]
Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics
August 2017

Sellers EM1, Leiderman DB2.

1Departments of Pharmacology and Toxicology

Medicine and Psychiatry
University of Toronto Toronto, ON, Canada
2CNS Drug Consulting LLC, McLean, Virginia, USA

Interest in the potential therapeutic benefits of

psychedelic agents has recently increased. In ad-
dition to psilocybin, a wide variety of agents with
psychedelic properties have been proposed and
partially tested. However, the challenges of ob-
taining approval to market a restricted psychoto-
mimetic agent are formidable.
 Dreams and Psychedelics:
Neurophenomenological
Comparison and Therapeutic
Implications
Currents In Neuropharmacology • 2017

By R. Kraehenmann

Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics

Psychiatric Hospital, University of Zurich, Zurich. Switzerland

A resurgence of neurobiological and clinical research is currently under-

way into the therapeutic potential of serotonergic or ‘classical’ psychedel-
ics, such as the prototypical psychedelic drug lysergic acid diethylamide
(LSD), psilocybin (4-phosphoryloxy-N,Ndimethyltryptamine), and aya-
huasca - a betacarboline- and dimethyltryptamine (DMT)-containing Am-
azonian beverage. The aim of this review is to introduce readers to the sim-
ilarities and dissimilarities between psychedelic states and night dreams,
and to draw conclusions related to therapeutic applications of psychedel-
ics in psychiatry. Research literature related to psychedelics and dream-
ing is reviewed, and these two states of consciousness are systematically
compared. Relevant conclusions with regard to psychedelicassisted ther-
apy will be provided. Common features between psychedelic states and
night dreams include perception, mental imagery, emotion activation,
fear memory extinction, and sense of self and body. Differences between
these two states are related to differential perceptual input from the envi-
ronment, clarity of consciousness and meta-cognitive abilities. Therefore,
psychedelic states are closest to lucid dreaming which is characterized
by a mixed state of dreaming and waking consciousness. The broad over-
lap between dreaming and psychedelic states supports the notion that
psychedelics acutely induce dreamlike subjective experiences which may
have long-term beneficial effects on psychosocial functioning and well-
being. Future clinical studies should examine how therapeutic outcome is
related to the acute dreamlike effects of psychedelics.

PMID: 28625125

DOI: 10.2174/1573413713666170619092629

$58 Purchase Price - 11 pages

 “Let’s Go Out For A Day Trip?”

Perspectives of Psychedelics (Ab) Users

On the Safety of Acid (LSD) Tripping in Public Places
[166]
Global Journal Of Health Science · September 2017

Ahmed Al-Imam1,2

1 Department of Postgraduate Medicine

School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, UK
2 Department of Anatomy and Cellular Biology
College of Medicine, University of Baghdad, Iraq

Novel psychoactive substances (NPS) represent a unique phenomenon of the

21st century. These substances are of critical consequences on public health
and national economies. Hallucinogens, also known as psychedelics and en-
theogens, represent one category of NPS. Numerous private groups do exist
on the online drug fora and the online social platforms including Facebook.
Psychedelic tripping or acid trip (using LSD) depicts one of the controversial
life experiences; tripping can be indoor or in public. This study is observational
and cross-sectional; it was based on an Internet Snapshot taken for a private
group on Facebook; the group is dedicated for (ab)users of psychedelic sub-
stances. The snapshot was captured for a thread in relation to a critical ques-
tion which was posted on the safety of day tripping using acid (LSD) in public
places. Individual accounts of commenters (n=172) were analyzed in relation
to demographics, length and themes of comments, and the attitude towards
public tripping. This study is the first of its kind; it aims to conclude with an in-
ference whether outdoor tripping is favourable by psychedelics users or not.
A total of 137 psychedelic users’ comments were analyzed out of 172 (79.7%);
males contributed more (n=111, 81%); the mean age was 32.14 years; most
were Caucasian males from the US. (Ab)users were mainly geo-mapped into
the US (85.4%), Canada (5.1%), and UK (3.7%). Those who had a positive at-
titude in relation to day tripping public places accounted for three-quarters
(75.2%). Ethnicities and nationalities had no differential effect on a psyche-
delic user’s age nor his (her) enthusiasm for day tripping. However, (ab)users
from the US were found to be more enthused. Further, there was a significant
difference in relation to the attitude in between individuals with; positive atti-
tude and negative attitude (p-value<0.001). Psychedelics (ab)users appeared
to be in favour of having an acid trip in public; those were mainly geographi-
cally mapped into the developed countries, while the contribution of the de-
veloping countries was minimal. This study can be copied to populations of
interest of different backgrounds, cultures, and ethnicities in an aim to infer
changes in trends and preferences of individual users across time and place.
 Serotonin and brain function:
a tale of two receptors [402]
The Journal Of Psychopharmacology • September 2017

Carhart-Harris RL1, Nutt DJ1.

1Psychedelic Research Group, Neuropsychopharmacology Unit

Centre for Psychiatry, Division of Brain Sciences
Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, UK

Previous attempts to identify a unified theory of brain

serotonin function have largely failed to achieve con-
sensus. In this present synthesis, we integrate previous
perspectives with new and older data to create a novel
bipartite model centred on the view that serotonin neu-
rotransmission enhances two distinct adaptive respons-
es to adversity, mediated in large part by its two most
prevalent and researched brain receptors: the 5-HT1A
and 5-HT2A receptors. We propose that passive coping
(i.e. tolerating a source of stress) is mediated by post-
synaptic 5-HT1AR signalling and characterised by stress
moderation. Conversely, we argue that active coping
(i.e. actively addressing a source of stress) is mediated
by 5-HT2AR signalling and characterised by enhanced
plasticity (defined as capacity for change). We propose
that 5-HT1AR-mediated stress moderation may be the
brain’s default response to adversity but that an im-
proved ability to change one’s situation and/or relation-
ship to it via 5-HT2AR-mediated plasticity may also be
important - and increasingly so as the level of adversity
reaches a critical point. We propose that the 5-HT1AR
pathway is enhanced by conventional 5-HT reuptake
blocking antidepressants such as the selective serotonin
reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), whereas the 5-HT2AR path-
way is enhanced by 5-HT2AR-agonist psychedelics. This
bipartite model purports to explain how different drugs
(SSRIs and psychedelics) that modulate the serotoner-
gic system in different ways, can achieve complemen-
tary adaptive and potentially therapeutic outcomes.
 Something New About Something Old: Declaration of interest
No conflicts of interest are reported
A 10-Year Follow-Up On Classical And New Funding
The authors were supported in part by grants from Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII, FIS-FEDER, PI14/00715, RTA
Psychoactive Tryptamines And Results... [168] RD12/0028/0009), ISCIII-Red de Trastornos Adictivos (RTA RD16/0017/0003 and RD16/0017/0010), and The European Com-
mission (Drugs Policy Initiatives, Justice Programme 2014-2020, contract no. HOME/2014/JDRU/AG/DRUG/ 7082, PREDICT
Project). L. Galindo is the recipient of a Rio Hortega fellowship (ISC-III; CM14/00111).
Journal Of Psychoactive Drugs · June 2017

Álvaro José Palma-Conesa, M.D. a,b,c,d, Mireia Ventura, Ph.D.e,f, Liliana Galindo, M.D., Ph.D.e,g,h
Francina Fonseca, M.D., Ph.D.e,i,j, Marc Grifell, M.D.a,b,c, Pol Quintana, M.D.k,
Iván Fornís, B.S.l, Cristina Gil, B.S.m, Magí Farré, M.D., Ph., D.a,n,o, and Marta Torrens, M.D., Ph.D.n,p,q

aPredoctoral Researcher, Addiction Research Group, Neurosciences Research Program

IMIM-Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute,Barcelona, Spain;
Resident Psychiatry, Neuropsychiatry and Addiction Institute, Parc de Salut Mar, Barcelona, Spain;
cPredoctoral Student, Department de Psiquiatria i Medicina Legal and Farmacologia, Terapèutica i Toxicologia
Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Cerdanyola del Valles, Barcelona, Spain;
dCollaborator, Energy Control, Associació Benestar i Desenvolupament, Barcelona, Spain; eResearcher, Addiction
Research Group, Neurosciences Research Program, IMIM-Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute, Barcelona, Spain
fManager, Drug Checking Service, Energy Control, Associació Benestar i Desenvolupament, Barcelona, Spain
gConsultant Psychiatry, Neuropsychiatry and Addiction Institute Parc de Salut Mar, Barcelona, Spain
hPostdoctoral Student, Department de Psiquiatria i Medicina Legal and Farmacologia, Terapèutica i Toxicologia
Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Cerdanyola del Valles, Barcelona, Spain
iSenior Consultant, Neuropsychiatry and Addiction Institute, Parc de Salut Mar, Barcelona, Spain
jAssistant Professor, Department de Psiquiatria i Medicina Legal and Farmacologia, Terapèutica i Toxicologia
Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Cerdanyola del Valles, Barcelona, Spain
kCollaborator, Resident Family Medicine, Energy Control, Associació Benestar i Desenvolupament, Barcelona, Spain
lConsultant, Drug Checking Service, Energy Control, Associació Benestar i Desenvolupament, Barcelona, Spain
mTechnician, Drug Checking Service, Energy Control, Associació Benestar i Desenvolupament, Barcelona, Spain
nProfessor, Department de Psiquiatria i Medicina Legal and Farmacologia, Terapèutica i Toxicologia
Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Cerdanyola del Valles, Barcelona, Spain
oHead Senior Consultant, Clinical Pharmacology Unit, Hospital Universitari Germans Trías i Pujol
Servei de Farmacología Clínica, Badalona, Spain
pHead Researcher, Addiction Research Group, Neurosciences Research Program
IMIM-Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute, Barcelona, Spain
qHead Senior Consultant,Addiction Program, Neuropsychiatry and Addiction Institute
Parc de Salut Mar, Barcelona, Spain

New psychoactive tryptamines may be a public health risk since they intend to mimic
the hallucinogenic effects of regulated psychoactive drugs. Few studies describe uses
and clinical effects of unregulated new psychoactive tryptamines. This study aims (1) to
explore the presence of tryptamines classified as NPS among the substances delivered
for analysis to a harm-reduction organization; (2) to describe the substances found in the
samples after analysis; and (3) to compare analytical results of regulated vs. non-regulated
tryptamines. Samples delivered and analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrome-
try from 2006 to 2015 were included. A descriptive study of results was conducted. From
25,296 samples that were delivered, 436 were tryptamines; from these 232 (53.21%) were
non-regulated. The most delivered non-regulated tryptamine was 4-AcO-DMT. A search
of the PubMed database in July 2016 revealed that no studies in humans have ever been
carried out with 4-AcO-DMT. Unregulated tryptamines likely contained one unadulterated
substance (p ≤ 0.001). The number of samples submitted which contained tryptamines
increased during the course of the study, with significant differences in client expecta-
tions vs. analysis results between the controlled and uncontrolled groups. There is a need
for further research in order to prevent the potential health risks associated with their use.
 Research on hallucinogenic drugs
used in Shaman religious activities
Zhonghua Yi Shi Za Zhi • July 2017
[Article in Chinese]

Fang XY1, Fei PF1, Zhu JP2, Yuan B2.

1Humanities College, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing

2China Institute for History of Medicine and Medical Literature
China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, China

The development of medicine experienced a long history, and

the origin of medicine is not appeared overnight. Due to the lack
of historical data, the question of the origin of medicine has not
been agreed upon. As an ancient primitive religion, Shamanism
retains the use of hallucinogenic drugs in its early religious ac-
tivities rather well, providing a guidance for exploring the cogni-
tion on drugs in early human. Through the review of the hallu-
cinogenic plants used by shaman religious activities in different
countries and areas, it was found that hallucinogenic drugs can
be classified into two categories: single and mixed, which came
mainly from plants and fungi, and the origin of hallucinogenic
drugs has a high fitting degree with Shaman location. The study
result suggests that, based on the worldwide research literature
on the application of such hallucinogens with local characteris-
tics in the shamanistic religious activities, it is very likely that im-
portant clues can be found to understand the facts of discovery
and application of natural drugs, thus providing a new approach
for the studies on the origin of drugs.

PMID: 28954366
 MDA, MDMA and other Mescaline-like substances
in the US Military’s search for a Truth Drug:
1940s to 1960s [410]
Drug Testing & Analysis • August 2017

Passie T1, Benzenhöfer U2.

1 Professor and Visiting Scientist

Senckenberg Institute of History and Ethics in Medicine
Goethe University Frankfurt/Main, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
2 Professor and Director of the Senckenberg Institute of History and Ethics in Medicine
Goethe University Frankfurt/Main, Frankfurt am Main, Germany

This article describes the broader context in which 3,4-methylenedioxyam-

phetamine (MDA), 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) and other
mescaline-like compounds were explored as hallucinogens for military and in-
telligence purposes during the 1940s to the 1960s. Germans first tested mes-
caline as a “truth drug” in a military context. Since the 1940s, the United States
military tested hallucinogenic drugs as “truth drugs” for the purpose of inter-
rogation and behavior manipulation. After tests carried out using mescaline
and other drugs in 1950, some derivatives of mescaline were synthesized by
the Army for the exploration of possible “speech-inducing” effects. After insuf-
ficient animal testing, the substances were given to patients at the New York
State Psychiatric Institute (NYSPI). 3,4-Methylenedioxy-N-ethylamphetamine
(MDE), a compound almost identical to MDMA, was among the mescaline de-
rivatives delivered for testing at the NYSPI. During tests with other derivatives
(3,4-dimethoxyphenethylamine (DMA), 3,4-methylenedioxyphenethylamine
(MDPEA), MDA) in 1952-53, an unwitting patient died in these tests, which was
kept secret from the public. Research was interrupted and toxicological animal
testing procedures were initiated. The secret animal studies run in 1953/54 re-
vealed that some of the “mescaline derivatives” tested (e.g. MDA, MDE, DMA,
3,4,5-trimethoxyamphetamine (TMA), MDMA) were considered for further
testing in humans. Since 1955, the military changed focus to LSD, but some in-
terest in mescaline-like compounds remained for their ability to change mood
and habit without interefing with cognition and sensory perception. Based on
the known documents, it remains unclear (but probable) wether any of the
mescaline derivatives tested were being used operationally.
 Could Hallucinogens Induce
Permanent Pupillary Changes
in (Ab)users?
A Case Report from New Zealand [395]
Case Reports In Neurological Medicine • August 2017

Al-Imam A1,2.

1Novel Psychoactive Substances Unit, Doctoral College

Hertfordshire University, Hertfordshire, UK
2College of Medicine, University of Baghdad, Baghdad, Iraq

An eighteen-year-old female patient of the Caucasian eth-

nicity from Australasia presented with a persistently di-
lated pupil causing her discomfort and occasional burning
sensation when she is outdoors due to oversensitivity to
sunlight. However, her pupillary reaction to light (pupillary
light reflex) was intact. The patient is a known user of psy-
chedelic substances (entheogens) including LSD, NBOMe,
psilocybin, and DMT. The condition affects both eyes to the
same extent. Thorough medical, neurological, and radio-
logical examinations, including an EEG and an MRI of the
head and neck region, were completely normal. All these
tests failed to detect any pathophysiological or anatomical
abnormalities. The patient is a known case of chronic en-
dogenous depression in association with attention deficit
hyperactivity disorder, for which she is taking citalopram
and Ritalin, respectively. There was neither a family history
nor a similar congenital condition in her family.
 Psychedelic Drugs as Therapeutics:
No Illusions About the Challenges [412]
Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics • August 2017

Sellers EM1, Leiderman DB2.

1Departments of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medicine and Psychiatry

University of Toronto Toronto, ON, Canada
2CNS Drug Consulting LLC, McLean, Virginia, USA

Interest in the potential therapeutic benefits of psyche-

delic agents has recently increased. In addition to psilocy-
bin, a wide variety of agents with psychedelic properties
have been proposed and partially tested. However, the
challenges of obtaining approval to market a restricted
psychotomimetic agent are formidable.
 What’s in a Name? Correlates of Ecstasy Users
Knowing or Agreeing that Molly is Ecstasy/MDMA
[330]
Journal of Psychoactive Drugs • September 2017

By Joseph J. Palamar

Associate Professor, Department of Population Health

New York University Langone Medical Center, New York, NY and
Research Affiliate, Center for Drug Use and HIV Research
NYU Rory Meyers College of Nursing, New York, NY

Ecstasy (MDMA) has regained popularity in powder and crystalline form,

known as Molly. However, it is unknown whether all Molly users are aware
that Molly is ecstasy. A total of 1045 nightclub/festival-attending adults in
New York City were surveyed about ecstasy/MDMA/Molly use in 2016. Users
were asked if they agreed that “Molly is (or is supposed to be) ecstasy/MDMA.”
Of the 43.5% reporting lifetime use, 84.6% agreed that Molly is ecstasy, 9.5%
disagreed, and 5.9% reported not knowing that Molly is ecstasy. Prevalence
of use of other drugs (e.g., ketamine, opioids, methamphetamine, NBOMe,
2C series) was lowest among those not knowing that Molly is ecstasy, and
highest among those not agreeing that Molly is ecstasy. Those not knowing
that Molly is ecstasy were less likely to have used powder or crystal MDMA
and less likely to have used in the past 12 months or to report intention to use
again. Those disagreeing or not knowing that Molly is ecstasy were at over
six times the odds of obtaining ecstasy from an unknown dealer, and those
disagreeing were at four times higher odds of having suspected or found out
that their ecstasy was adulterated. Results suggest that knowing or agreeing
that Molly is ecstasy/MDMA can help indicate ecstasy-related risk. Ecstasy
has been a popular drug in the nightlife scene for decades. Ecstasy is the
traditional street name for MDMA (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine),
which for decades most commonly came in pill form. However, in response
to low potency and adulterated ecstasy pills, powder and crystalline MDMA
eventually gained popularity and became marketed as Molly, which was sup-
posed to represent pure MDMA (Palamar 2017). Molly, short for “molecule” or
“molecular,” has been a street name for powder MDMA since the early 2000s
(Duterte et al. 2009), and this name has been popular in the mainstream for
about a decade (Aleksander 2013). Many drug surveys, however, do not list
Molly as a street name for ecstasy, and the national surveys Monitoring the
Future (MTF) and the National Survey on Drug Use and Health did not add
Molly to their definition of ecstasy until 2014 and 2015, respectively (Cen-
ter for Behavioral Health Statistics and Quality 2016; Johnston et al. 2017).
A recent analysis of MTF, a na-
tionally representative sample
of high school seniors, found
differences regarding self-re-
ported lifetime prevalence
of ecstasy use, depending on
whether Molly was included
in the definition. Specifical-
ly, 8% reported ecstasy use
when Molly was included in
the definition and only 5.5%
reported use when Molly was
not included in the definition
(Palamar, Keyes, and Cleland
2016b). Thus, underreporting
may occur when Molly is not
included in the definition of
ecstasy and proper estimates
of use are important to inform
prevention.
 Increased
thalamic resting-state connectivity
as a core driver of
LSD-induced hallucinations [403]
Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavia • September 2017

Müller F1, Lenz C1, Dolder P2, Lang U1

Schmidt A1, Liechti M2, Borgwardt S1

1Department of Psychiatry (UPK), University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland

2Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology,
Department of Biomedicine and Department of Clinical Research
University Hospital Basel, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland

It has been proposed that the thalamocortical system is

an important site of action of hallucinogenic drugs and an
essential component of the neural correlates of conscious-
ness. Hallucinogenic drugs such as LSD can be used to in-
duce profoundly altered states of consciousness, and it is
thus of interest to test the effects of these drugs on this
system. 100 μg LSD was administrated orally to 20 healthy
participants prior to fMRI assessment. Whole brain thalam-
ic functional connectivity was measured using ROI-to-ROI
and ROI-to-voxel approaches. Correlation analyses were
used to explore relationships between thalamic connec-
tivity to regions involved in auditory and visual hallucina-
tions and subjective ratings on auditory and visual drug
effects. LSD caused significant alterations in all dimensions
of the 5D-ASC scale and significantly increased thalamic
functional connectivity to various cortical regions. Fur-
thermore, LSD-induced functional connectivity measures
between the thalamus and the right fusiform gyrus and
insula correlated significantly with subjective auditory and
visual drug effects. Hallucinogenic drug effects might be
provoked by facilitations of cortical excitability via thala-
mocortical interactions. Our findings have implications for
the understanding of the mechanism of action of halluci-
nogenic drugs and provide further insight into the role of
the 5-HT2A -receptor in altered states of consciousness. Full size close up of this Blotter Art is on the following page
 Retrospective Analyses of High-risk NPS:
Integrative Analyses of
PubMed, Drug Fora, and the Surface Web [192]
Global Journal of Health Science • September 2017

By Ahmed Al-Imam1, 2

1 Department of Postgraduate Medicine, School of Life and Medical Sciences

University of Hertfordshire, United Kingdom
2 Department of Anatomy and Cellular Biology, College of Medicine
University of Baghdad, Iraq
Dr Ahmed Al-Imam, House 18/5, Al-Akhtal Street
District 318, Al-Adhamyia, 10053, Baghdad, Iraq
E-mail: tesla1452@gmail.com
a.m.al-imam@herts.ac.uk

Background: Novel psychoactive substances (NPS) can be classified based on their safety for use into low-risk and
high-risk. High-risk NPS can be either lethal or poisonous. Fatalities can be either pharmacological or behavioural-
induced, including suicide and homicide. Observational analysis, including retrospective, were implemented
across; Google Trends, PubMed/MedLine database; Drug Fora, and the surface web. The aim was to collect data in
relation to incidents of intoxication and fatalities caused by forty-seven (47) of the most popular NPS and to infer
the high-risk (hazardous) substances. Geo-mapping was also applicable. Inferential analyses were also carried out
to deduct data on the different age grouping of (ab)users. Among the most popular NPS substances, nearly half of
them were labelled as high-risk due to their relatively high incidence of intoxications and deaths. The substances
included; DMA/DOX, MXE, Mescaline, Methylone, Crack, GHB, Benzodiazepines, NBOMe, 2C-B, DMT, Stimulants RCs,
Shrooms, Ketamine, Opioids, Heroin, Meth, Speed, LSD, MDMA, and Cocaine. Many of these substances were either
psychedelic or dissociative substance. Geo-mapping of use indicated that the top ten contributing countries were;
Australia, Canada, United States, United Kingdom, New Zealand, Ireland, Norway, Netherlands, Switzerland, and
Estonia. The contribution of the Middle East was insignificant, although data have regularly been noticed originat-
ing from Israel, Iran, and Turkey. In this study, an unconventional inferential method is
suggested for analysis of high-risk NPS; it is based on cross-sectional and
longitudinal analysis of data. It relies primarily on data from; the
surface web, Google Trends, PubMed/Medline database,
and drug fora. This method is not only descriptive
but also inferential for age and gender among
(ab)users of a diverse array of high-risk NPS
substances.

Figure 1, pie chart at right, Most

Popular Categories of NPS
on AlphaBay e-market
on the Deep Web
 Psychedelic pleasures:
An affective understanding
of the joys of tripping [404]
International Journal Of Drug Policy • September 2017

By F. Bøhling F

Copenhagen Business School (CBS)

Department of Organization, Denmark
Electronic address: frederikbohling@gmail.com

This paper considers the pleasures of psychedelic drugs

and proposes a Deleuzian understanding of drugged
pleasures as affects. In spite of a large body of work on
psychedelics, not least on their therapeutic potentials,
the literature is almost completely devoid of discussions
of the recreational practices and pleasures of entheo-
genic drugs. Yet, most people do not use psychedelics
because of their curative powers, but because they are
fun and enjoyable ways to alter the experience of real-
ity. In the analytical part of the paper, I examine 100 trip
reports from an internet forum in order to explore the
pleasures of tripping. The analyses map out how drugs
such as LSD and mushrooms - in combination with con-
textual factors such as other people, music and nature
- give rise to a set of affective modifications of the drug
user’s capacities to feel, sense and act. In conclusion it
is argued that taking seriously the large group of rec-
reational users of hallucinogens is important not only
because it broadens our understanding of how entheo-
genic drugs work in different bodies and settings, but
also because it may enable a more productive and harm
reductive transmission of knowledge between the sci-
entific and recreational psychedelic communities.
 Risky pleasures and drugged assemblages:
Young people’s consumption practices of
Alcohol And Other Drugs (AOD) in Madrid [405]
International Journal Of Drug Policy • September 2017

Cañedo M1, Moral E2.

Drawing on a research project that we carried out on the functionality

of “excessive” consumption practices in the lifestyles of young people
in Madrid, this article aims to understand how (dis)pleasurable states
emerge during young people’s consumption of alcohol and other drugs.
This article claims that these states derive from “drugged assemblages,”
that is, a set of (human and non-human) actants that intra-act to pro-
duce different effects. Although pleasure can be one of these effects,
it is not always guaranteed: consumption practices are assemblages
that fluctuate between pleasure and displeasure, and the former can
be reached or not depending on the characteristics acquired by the as-
semblage. It is this fluctuation that makes pleasures “risky.” Drugged as-
semblages also configure and are configured by specific spatial-tempo-
ral and material apparatuses or dispositifs. We will analyse botellones,
night-clubs and raves as examples of this kind of dispositif, focusing on
how they work as a holistic frame where drugged assemblages emerge.
Finally, we will focus on the different strategies and practices that young
people, in constant intra-action with other agencies, develop in order
to achieve and keep a “controlled loss of control” within the limits and
potentials offered by these contexts, in a constant effort to avoid the
risks that may result from the blurred line that divides pleasure and dis-
pleasure. In this sense, we will argue that, despite the criticisms it has
received, it is possible to make Measham’s concept of “controlled loss of
control” compatible with a post-humanist theoretical framework.
 ‘Enjoying the kick’:
Locating pleasure within
the drug consumption room [406]
International Journal Of Drug Policy • September 2017

Duncan T1, Duff C2, Sebar B3, Lee J3.

1,3School of Medicine, Griffith University

58 Parklands Dr, Southport, QLD 4215, Australia
Electronic address: tristan.duncan@griffithuni.edu.au
2Centre for People, Organisation and Work
Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology
445 Swanston St, Melbourne, VIC 3000, Australia

Harm reduction policy and praxis has long struggled to accommodate the
pleasures of alcohol and other drug use. Whilst scholars have consistently
highlighted this struggle, how pleasure might come to practically inform the
design and delivery of harm reduction policies and programs remains less
clear. The present paper seeks to move beyond conceptual critiques of harm
reduction’s ‘pleasure oversight’ to more focused empirical analysis of how
flows of pleasure emerge, circulate and, importantly, may be reoriented in
the course of harm reduction practice. We ground our analysis in the context
of detailed ethnographic research in a drug consumption room in Frankfurt,
Germany. Drawing on recent strands of post-humanist thought, the paper
deploys the concept of the ‘consumption event’ to uncover the manner in
which these facilities mediate the practice and embodied experience of drug
use and incite or limit bodily potentials for intoxication and pleasure. Through
the analysis, we mapped a diversity of pleasures as they emerged and circu-
lated through events of consumption at the consumption room. Beyond the
pleasurable intensities of intoxication’s kick, these pleasures were expressed
in a range of novel capacities, practices and drug using bodies. In each in-
stance, pleasure could not be reduced to a simple, linear product of drug use.
Rather, it arose for our participants through distinctive social and affective
transformations enabled through events of consumption at the consump-
tion room and the generative force of actors and associations of which these
events were composed. Our research suggests that the drug consumption
room serves as a conduit through which its clients can potentially enact more
pleasurable, productive and positive relations to both themselves and their
drug use. Acknowledging the centrality of pleasure to client engagement
with these facilities, the paper concludes by drawing out the implications of
these findings for the design and delivery of consumption room services.
 TCB-2 • [(7R)-3-bromo-2, 5-dimethoxy-bicyclo[4.2.0]octa-1,3,5-trien-7-yl]methanamine]:

A hallucinogenic drug, a selective 5-HT2A receptor pharmacological tool, or none of the above? [401]

Neuropharmacology • October 2017

Di Giovanni G1, De Deurwaerdère P2.

1Department of Physiology & Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine and Surgery, University of Malta
Malta; Neuroscience Division, School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK
Electronic address: giuseppe.digiovanni@um.edu.mt
2Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (Unité Mixte de Recherche 5287)
146 rue Léo Saignat, B.P.281, F-33000 Bordeaux Cedex, France

The development of 5-HT2A receptor agonists has been considerably marginalized since the
demonstration that the tryptaminergic drugs, LSD and psilocybin, or the phenylakylamine
drugs, mescaline and DOI, exert their hallucinogenic properties via the stimulation of 5-HT2A
receptors. Nonetheless, the ability of drugs to stimulate 5-HT2A receptors is not necessarily
associated with psychedelic experience and the hallucinogenic properties are still not under-
stood. Several studies have increased interest in stimulating 5-HT2A receptors in various CNS
diseases. (7R)-3-bromo-2, 5-dimethoxy-bicyclo[4.2.0]octa-1,3,5-trien-7-yl]methanamine (TCB-
2) which was synthetized in 2006 presents a high affinity with human and rat 5-HT2A recep-
tors. Its main feature of interest is that it preferentially stimulates the phospholipase C and not
phospholipase A2 pathway, which is at variance with several hallucinogenic drugs. Preference
for TCB-2 has increased in preclinical studies and it exhibits subtle differences compared to DOI
or LSD in some molecular, cellular and behavioral studies. The purpose of this review is to take
a position on the use of TCB-2 as a pharmacological tool. A careful reading of the literature has
revealed that the suspected hallucinogenic properties of TCB-2 cannot firmly be ascertained
while its pharmacological profile is unknown and likely not selective at 5-HT2A receptors.
 From mundane medicines to euphorigenic drugs:
How pharmaceutical pleasures are initiated,
foregrounded, and made durable [409]
International Journal Of Drug Policy • October 2017

By H. Bundy1 and G. Quintero2

1University of Kentucky, Department of Anthropology

211 Lafferty Hall, Lexington, KY 40506, USA
2University of Montana, Department of Anthropology
203 Social Science, Missoula, MT 59812, USA
Electronic address: Gilbert.Quintero@mso.umt.edu

Examining how pharmaceuticals are used to induce pleasure presents a

unique opportunity for analyzing not only how pleasure is assembled and
experienced through distinct consumption practices but also how mun-
dane medicines can become euphorigenic substances. Drawing on quali-
tative research on the non-medical use of prescription drugs by young
adults in the United States, this paper utilizes Actor-Network Theory (ANT)
to examine how prescription medicines come to produce pleasure. Our
research found an indeterminacy of experience as individuals were initi-
ated into prescription drug pleasures. We also found that euphorigenic
effects coalesce and are foregrounded through subsequent use, and that
pleasure and other forms of gratification are made durable through re-
peated and deliberate pharmaceutical consumption. Understanding how
individuals are socialized into pharmaceutical pleasure, and how assem-
blages act to constitute the euphorigenic potential of pharmaceutical
misuse, may allow for more context-appropriate intervention efforts. We
suggest that the euphorigenic properties ascribed to prescription drugs
are not inherent in their pharmaceutical formulations, but instead emerge
through interactions within networks of heterogeneous actants.
 The factor structure
of the Mystical Experience Questionnaire (MEQ):
Reply to Bouso et al., 2016 [329]
Human Psychopharmacology & Clinical Experience • 2017

Frederick S. Barrett1 Roland R. Griffiths1,2 1Behavioral Pharmacology Re-

search Unit, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hop-
kins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 2Department of Neuro-
scienceJohns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD

Recent medical research on classic psychedelic substances (e.g., psilocy-

bin, LSD, and ayahuasca) has utilized a number of questionnaires to assess
the subjective effects of psychedelics, but only a few of these question-
naires have undergone analysis with modern psychometric methods (Bar-
rett, Johnson, & Griffiths, 2015; MacLean, Leoutsakos, Johnson, & Griffiths,
2012; Nour, Evans, Nutt, & Carhart-Harris, 2016; Studerus, Gamma, & Vol-
lenweider, 2010). The psychometric properties of three psychedelic effects
questionnaires (the Hallucinogen Rating Scale or HRS, the Mystical Expe-
rience Questionnaire or MEQ, and the Addiction Research Center Inven-
tory or ARCI) were recently investigated in a sample of individuals who
had participated in an ayahuasca ceremony (Bouso, Pedrero-Perez, Gandy,
& Alcazar-Corcoles, 2016). The factor structures of the HRS and ARCI were
found to differ from the factor structures originally proposed for those
scales. The factor structure of the MEQ was found to roughly match the
four-factor structure identified in large-sample (n1=1602, n2=440) online
surveys (MacLean et al., 2012) and a smaller sample (n=184) of experimen-
tal laboratory data (Barrett et al., 2015) with psilocybin; however, Bouso
and colleagues suggested that an alternate two-factor structure for the
MEQ was most appropriate.

We are grateful that Bouso and colleagues have drawn attention to the im-
portance of psychometrics in psychedelic research, and we applaud their
efforts. It is clear that the HRS and ARCI have serious flaws that need to be
addressed. However, we ask readers to consider the proposed two-factor
MEQ30 structure with caution, especially in cases where conditions for mys-
tical experience (dose, set, and setting) are optimized. It is known that MEQ
scores in controlled experimental psilocybin studies are dose-dependent
(Griffiths et al., 2011) and the MEQ was psychometrically validated using
data collected after laboratory administration of a high dose of psilocybin
(Barrett et al., 2015) or in reference to a profound or mystical experience
with psilocybin (MacLean et al., 2012). While the median drug intensity of
ayahuasca experiences reported by Bouso and colleagues was a “moder-
ate” experience (from three response options, including “low”, “moderate”,
and “high”), this designation is ambiguous and quite likely represents a
very wide range of experiences, many of which may not be expected to
occasion a mystical experience, or even come close. Low representation of
high-dose experiences in this sample may limit the generalizability of the
two-factor structure that Bouso reports.

It is clear that the MEQ factor structure may vary in different settings. It
may be the case that the MEQ30 has a different psychometric structure in
uncontrolled versus controlled environments, or in samples with widely
heterogenous doses and subjective experiences represented, but these
scenarios are only suggested by Bouso and colleagues, and have yet to
be formally tested with appropriate methods (such as factorial invariance
analysis). Also, validation and replication of potential alternate factor struc-
tures of the MEQ, including the proposed two-factor structure reported by
Bouso, should occur in independent samples. Until then, we urge readers
to utilize the previously validated four-factor scoring of the MEQ for inves-
tigations of mystical experiences with classic hallucinogens.
 Supporting Looked After Children and Care Leavers In Decreasing Drugs, and alcohol (SOLID):
protocol for a pilot feasibility randomised controlled trial of interventions to decrease risky substance use
(drugs and alcohol) and improve mental health of looked after children and care leavers aged 12–20 years [365]

Pilot and Feasibility Studies • 2017

By Hayley Alderson et al.

Institute of Health and Society, Newcastle University,

Baddiley Clarke Building, Richardson Road, Newcastle NE2 4AX, UK
Full list of 14 additional authors is available at the end of this article

Looked after children (LAC) and care leavers are young people who
have been placed under the legal care of local authorities, in many in-
stances due to a history of abuse and/or neglect. These young people
have a significantly increased risk of substance use and mental disor-
der compared to their peers. The aim of the SOLID study is to assess
the feasibility and acceptability of a definitive three-arm multi-centre
randomized controlled trial (RCT) that compares the effectiveness of
two interventions that aim to reduce risky drug and alcohol use and
improve mental health among LAC aged 12 to 20 years with usual care.
All LAC aged 12 to 20 years residing in four local authorities in North
East England will be screened by their social worker for risky drug and
alcohol use using the CRAFFT (Car, Relax, Alone, Forget, Friends and
Trouble) screening tool. Those who score ≥2 will be invited to take part
in the trial after further eligibility checks. Informed consent will be taken
and baseline data collected. Participants will then be randomised into
either (i) Motivational Enhancement Therapy, (ii) Social Behaviour and
Network Therapy, or (iii) control–usual care. Follow-up data will be col-
lected 12 months post-baseline. The baseline and follow-up question-
naires will measure self-reported drug and alcohol use, mental health
and well-being and health-related quality of life. The follow-up will also
collect data on placement stability and self-reported sexual, antisocial
and criminal behaviour. Participants will also be asked about the use
of health and social services. A detailed process evaluation, using both
qualitative and quantitative methods, will be conducted and involve
LAC, their carers, social workers and drug and alcohol practitioners.
CHAPTER TWO
THE 2016 Peer Review
 Is moral bioenhancement dangerous? [315]
Journal Of Medical Ethics • January 2016

By N. Drake

In a recent response to Persson and Savulescu’s Unfit for the Fu-

ture, Nicholas Agar argues that moral bioenhancement is danger-
ous. His grounds for this are that normal moral judgement should
be privileged because it involves a balance of moral subcapacities;
moral bioenhancement, Agar argues, involves the enhancement of
only particular moral subcapacities, and thus upsets the balance
inherent in normal moral judgement. Mistaken moral judgements,
he says, are likely to result. I argue that Agar’s argument fails for
two reasons. First, having strength in a particular moral subcapacity
does not necessarily entail a worsening of moral judgement; it can
involve strength in a particular aspect of morality. Second, normal
moral judgement is not sufficiently likely to be correct to be the
standard by which moral judgements are measured.
 Impact of Pharmaceutical Impurities in Ecstasy Tablets:
Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry Study [334]
Iranian Journal of Pharmaceutical Research • January 2016

Amir Jalali a*, Amir Hatamie b, Tahere Saferpour c,, Alireza Khajeamiri d, Tahere Safa c and Foad Buazar e

a Dept of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy and Toxicology Research Center, Ahvaz Jundishapur University of Medical Sciences, Ahvaz, Iran. b Dept of Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, Shahid Chamran Universitry of Ahvaz, Ahvaz, Iran. c Dept of Chemistry, Azad
University of Medical Sciences, Rasht, Iran. d Dept of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran. eDept of Chemistry, Khoramshahr University of Marine Science and Technology, Khoramshahr, Iran.

In this study, a simple and reliable method by gas chromatograph–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) was developed for the fast and regular identification of 3, 4-MDMA impurities in ecstasy
tablets. In so doing, 8 samples of impurities
were extracted by diethyl ether under alka-
line condition and then analyzed by GC–MS.
The results revealed high MDMA levels rang-
ing from 37.6% to 57.7%. The GC-MS meth-
od showed that unambiguous identification
can be achieved for MDMA from 3, 4-methy-
lenedioxyamphetamine (MDA), Amphetamine
(AM), methamphetamine (MA) and ketamine
(Keta) compounds, respectively. The experi-
mental results indicated the acceptable time
window without interfering peaks. It is found
that GC-MS was provided a suitable and rapid
identification approach for MDMA (Ecstacy)
tablets, particularly in the Forensic labs. Con-
sequently, the intense MDMA levels would
support the police to develop a simple quan-
tification of impurity in Ecstasy tablets.
 There’s Something About Molly:

The Under-Researched yet Popular

Powder Form of Ecstasy in the United States [350]
Letter To The Editor • Accepted Manuscript Published • 2016

By Joseph J. Palamar, PhD, MPH 1,2

1 Department of Population Health, New York University Langone Medical Center

2 Center for Drug Use and HIV Research, New York University College of Nursing, New York, NY
Correspondence should be addressed to Joseph J. Palamar
Department of Population Health, 227 E. 30th Street, 7th Floor, New York, NY 10016
Email: joseph.palamar@nyumc.org

Molly has been the street name for powder or crystalline ecstasy (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine [MDMA])
in the United States since at least 2008; however, few studies have examined Molly use or included Molly in the
definition of ecstasy/MDMA. Prevalence of self-reported ecstasy use is being underreported on surveys due to
the lack of inclusion of “Molly”, although Molly is often so adulterated with novel psychoactive substances such as
synthetic cathinones (“bath salts”) that the name “Molly” may no longer adequately represent ecstasy/MDMA. The
author recommends that Molly use and Molly purity be further studied to more adequately inform prevention and
harm reduction.

Ecstasy, the street name for 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), has been one of the most popular
party drugs for over thirty years. Recreational use became prevalent among nightlife enthusiasts in the 1980s, but
in 1985, the US Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) placed ecstasy into Schedule I of the Controlled Substanc-
es Act, deeming the drug to be abusable and unsafe, with no legitimate medical value. The popularity of ecstasy,
however, continued, and rates of use are believed to be highest in the late 1990s and early 2000s1. e.g., with 12%
of high school seniors and 15% of college students reporting lifetime use in 2001.

For decades, ecstasy typically came in pill form. Drugs similar to MDMA—such as 3,4-methylenedioxyamphet-
amine (MDA) and 3,4-methylenedioxy-N-ethyl-amphetamine (MDEA)—were commonly sold as ecstasy, or com-
bined with MDMA in pills, although many of these MDx drugs provide a high comparable to that from MDMA. Dur-
ing the 1980s and most of the 1990s, ecstasy pills tended to contain a high percentage of MDMA. Most studies of
purity of ecstasy have focused on pills, and over the last two decades many pills have been found to contain adul-
terants such as ephedrine, ketamine, amphetamine, methamphetamine, cocaine, 2C-B, dextromethorphan (DXM),
and/or para-Methoxyamphetamine (PMA). Some of these adulterants (e.g., PMA) can be particularly deleterious
when in ecstasy. Ecstasy purity was low in the US in the mid-1990s and purity plummeted in Europe around 2009,
but increased in 2010, while purity of powder and crystal ecstasy reportedly remained high in Europe (at 75-97%) in
2008-2013. However, the presence of synthetic cathinones (“bath salts”) and other novel psychoactive substances
(NPS) increased within both pills and powders from 2008-2013 ...
 Humphry Osmond:
The Psychedelic Psychiatrist [521]
International Journal of
Humanities Social Sciences and Education (IJHSSE)
February 2016

By Robert M Kaplan

Clinical Associate Professor

Graduate School of Medicine
University of Wollongong, Australia 2520
rob@rmkaplan.com.au

“To deepen our understanding, not simply of great mad-

nesses but of the nature of mind itself, we must use our
instruments as coolly and boldly as those who force their
aircraft through other invisible barriers. Disaster may over-
take the most skilled. Today and in the past, for much lesser
prizes, men have taken much greater risks.”

~ Humphry Osmond

In 1948 a young doctor surveying the state of psychiatry

decided that the existing treatments had nothing to offer.
A new approach was needed. If schizophrenia was primar-
ily a disorder of perception, then drugs that altered per-
ception (known as hallucinogens) were the solution1. The
psychiatrist was Humphry Osmond who, over the next de-
cade, was to do the largest LSD trials in the world and give
them the name that become a cultural signifier: psyche-
delic. No ordinary psychiatrist, Osmond would not only
consider radical means to achieve change, but had a re-
markable capacity to produce results, traversing the most
controversial terrain in psychiatry after World War 11. While
his work was considered by many in the profession as dan-
gerous, he remained within the mainstream of psychiatry
and continued to produce important work on the doctor-
patient relationship over a long and productive career.
Humphry Fortescue Osmond, born 1 July 1917, came from
an English middle-class background, and always dressed
conservatively. He did not intend to go into psychiatry
but neither theatre writing, banking or architecture last-
ed. Influenced by Hector
Cameron, physician and
historian of medicine, he
qualified at Guy’s Hospital
Medical School, where he
edited the hospital maga-
zine and was friendly with
Gilbert Ryle (but unaware
that Ludwig Wittgenstein
worked there as a hospital
porter). After joining the
Royal Navy in 1942, he was
encouraged by Desmond
Curran to study psychiatry
and became a registrar at
St George’s Hospital. 1940s
psychiatry was in a state of
stasis. Psychoanalysis was
impractical for disturbed
patients.2 Electroconvul-
sive therapy, insulin coma
therapy and sleep treat-
ment were widely used,
but did not offer effective
help for the most severe
psychiatric illness, schizo-
phrenia. Psychoanalysis,
the dominant paradigm,
had nothing to offer treat-
ment of psychosis. If the
solution lay in chemicals,
which ones? The existing
drugs, ranging from the
barbiturates to sedatives,
were only symptomatic,
and often risky at that.
But, away from psychiatry,
there was study of another
group of chemicals known
to produce vivid changes
in human perception: the
hallucinogens.
 The NBOMe’s & Their Analogues
[BEWARE: Hallucinogenic Mimics Can Be Deadly]

In 1969, 1970 and 1971 when I experienced using LSD there weren’t analogues, substitutes or other similar drugs on blotter or in pill or gel form. There was only LSD and if you bought LSD it was
LSD and it ranged between 100 and 300 micrograms. Today we have 100s of different but similar indoles—chemicals that generally produce LSD or LSD-lke hallucinations—and the NBOME’s are
powerful enough that a dose can fit on a small piece of paper, like blotter. Because the NBOME’s weren’t (and in some places still aren’t) illegal unscrupulous manufacturers have begun produc-
ing blotter with the NBOME analogues. For this reason I highly recommend and regard as a critical necessity owning an Ehrlich LSD Test Kit. My internet source was $20, free shipping and the
kit I received contains enough solution for 50 tests. The Ehrlich test kit rules out all NBOME analogues and tells you whether the pill, powder or blotter you have has a blue indole ring making it
an hallucinogen, a relatively safe one. There are additional kits available at the web source I used, all $20 and all enough for 50 tests, that can specifically indicate DMT, MDA, Methamphetamine,
Ketamine and many other drugs. It’s the 21st century. Don’t put in your mouth without testing it to, at the very least, rule out the NBOME’s because this new drug has killed 15 people to date.

Analysis of 25 C NBOMe
in Seized Blotters by HPTLC and GC–MS [75]
May 2016

Boris Duffau1,*, Cristian Camargo2, Marcelo Kogan2

Edwar Fuentes2 and Bruce Kennedy Cassels3

1Drug Analysis Section, Public Health Institute of Chile, Santiago, Chile

2Faculty of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Chile, Santiago, Chile
3Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Chile, Santiago, Chile

Use of unauthorized synthetic drugs is a serious, forensic, regulatory

and public health issue. In this scenario, consumption of drug-im-
pregnated blotters is very frequent. For decades, blotters have been
generally impregnated with the potent hallucinogen known as lyser-
gic acid diethylamide (LSD); however, since 2013 blotter stamps with
N-2 methoxybenzyl-substituted phenylethylamine hallucinogen des-
ignated as “NBOMes” have been seized in Chile. To address this issue
with readily accessible laboratory equipment, we have developed and
validated a new HPTLC method for the identification and quantitation
of 25-C-NBOMe in seized blotters and its confirmation by GC–MS. The
proposed method was validated according to SWGTOX recommenda-
tions and is suitable for routine analysis of seized blotters containing
25-C-NBOMe.With the validated method, we analyzed 15 real samples,
in all cases finding 25-C-NBOMe in a wide dosage range (701.0–1943.5
μg per blotter). In this situation,we can assume that NBOMes are replac-
ing LSD as the main hallucinogenic drug consumed in blotters in Chile.
 Antidepressive, anxiolytic, and anti-addictive
effects of ayahuasca, psilocybin and lysergic acid
diethylamide: a systematic review of clinical trials
published in the last 25 years [65]
Therapeutic Advances In Psychopharmacology • June 2016

Dos Santos RG1, Osório FL2, Crippa JA2, Riba J3, Zuardi AW2, Hallak JE2.

1Departamento de Neurociências e Ciências do Comportamento

Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Hospital das Clínicas
Terceiro Andar, Av. Bandeirantes, 3900, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
2Department of Neuroscience and Behavior, Ribeirão Preto Medical School
University of São Paulo, SP, Brazil National Institute for Translational Medicine (INCT-TM),
3Centre d’Investigació de Medicaments, Servei de Farmacologia Clínica
Hospital de la Santa Creu i Sant Pau, Barcelona, Spain

To date, pharmacological treatments for mood and anxiety disorders and

for drug dependence show limited efficacy, leaving a large number of
patients suffering severe and persistent symptoms. Preliminary studies
in animals and humans suggest that ayahuasca, psilocybin and lysergic
acid diethylamide (LSD) may have antidepressive, anxiolytic, and antiad-
dictive properties. Thus, we conducted a systematic review of clinical trials
published from 1990 until 2015, assessing these therapeutic properties.
Electronic searches were performed using the PubMed, LILACS, and SciE-
LO databases. Only clinical trials published in peer-reviewed journals were
included. Of these, 151 studies were identified, of which six met the estab-
lished criteria. Reviewed studies suggest beneficial effects for treatment-
resistant depression, anxiety and depression associated with life-threaten-
ing diseases, and tobacco and alcohol dependence. All drugs were well
tolerated. In conclusion, ayahuasca, psilocybin and LSD may be useful
pharmacological tools for the treatment of drug dependence, and anxi-
ety and mood disorders, especially in treatment-resistant patients. These
drugs may also be useful pharmacological tools to understand psychiatric
disorders and to develop new therapeutic agents. However, all studies re-
viewed had small sample sizes, and half of them were open-label, proof-
of-concept studies. Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled stud-
ies with more patients are needed to replicate these preliminary findings.
 Ego-Dissolution and Psychedelics: Validation of the Ego-Dissolution Inventory (EDI) [223]
Frontiers In Human Neuroscience • June 2016

Matthew M. Nour1,2*, Lisa Evans3, David Nutt3 and Robin L. Carhart-Harris3

1 Psychiatric Imaging Group, Clinical Sciences Centre, Imperial College London, London, UK
2 Institute of Psychiatry Psychology and Neuroscience, King’s College London, London, UK
3 Faculty of Medicine, Division of Brain Sciences, Imperial College London

The experience of a compromised sense of “self”, termed ego-dissolution, is a key feature of the psychedelic experience. This study aimed to validate the Ego-Dissolution Inventory (EDI), a new 8-item self-report

FIGURE 1 FIGURE 2

Relationship between drug dose and scores for ego-dissolution (blue circles, solid line) and ego-infla-
tion (red squares, dashed line) for experiences occasioned by different drug classes. (A) Psychedelic ex-
periences (n = 1043). (B) Cocaine experiences (n = 377). (C) Alcohol experiences (n = 408). Lines repre-
sent linear regression lines of best fit, with corresponding R2 and p-value. Error bars represent ±1 SEM.
Relationship between experience intensity and ego-consciousness. (A) Linear regression lines of best
fit for relationship between reported subjective intensity and ego-dissolution for experiences occa-
sioned by psychedelic drugs (blue solid line, R2 = 0.328, p < 0.001), cocaine (red coarsely-broken
line, R2 = 0.078, p < 0.001) or alcohol (black finely-broken line, R2 = 0.084, p < 0.001). (B) Linear re-
gression lines of best fit for relationship between reported subjective intensity and ego-inflation for
experiences occasioned by psychedelic drugs (blue solid line, R2 = 0.012, p < 0.001), cocaine (red
coarsely-broken line, R2 = 0.318, p < 0.001) or alcohol (black finely-broken line, R2 = 0.213, p < 0.001).
scale designed to measure ego-dissolution. Additionally, we aimed to investi-
gate the specificity of the relationship between psychedelics and ego-disso-
lution. Sixteen items relating to altered ego-consciousness were included in
an internet questionnaire; eight relating to the experience of ego-dissolution
(comprising the EDI), and eight relating to the antithetical experience of in-
creased self-assuredness, termed ego-inflation. Items were rated using a visu-
al analog scale. Participants answered the questionnaire for experiences with
classical psychedelic drugs, cocaine and/or alcohol. They also answered the
seven questions from the Mystical Experiences Questionnaire (MEQ) relating
to the experience of unity with one’s surroundings. Six hundred and ninety-
one participants completed the questionnaire, providing data for 1828 drug
experiences (1043 psychedelics, 377 cocaine, 408 alcohol). Exploratory fac-
tor analysis demonstrated that the eight EDI items loaded exclusively onto a
single common factor, which was orthogonal to a second factor comprised of
the items relating to ego-inflation (rho = -0.110), demonstrating discriminant
validity. The EDI correlated strongly with the MEQ-derived measure of uni-
tive experience (rho D 0.735), demonstrating convergent validity. EDI internal
consistency was excellent (Cronbach’s alpha 0.93). Three analyses confirmed
the specificity of ego-dissolution for experiences occasioned by psychedelic
drugs. Firstly, EDI score correlated with drug-dose for psychedelic drugs (rho
D 0.371), but not for cocaine (rho D 0.115) or alcohol (rho = -0.055). Secondly,
the linear regression line relating the subjective intensity of the experience
to ego-dissolution was significantly steeper for psychedelics (unstandard-
ized regression coefficient D 0.701) compared with cocaine (0.135) or alco-
hol (0.144). Ego-inflation, by contrast, was specifically associated with cocaine
experiences. Finally, a binary Support Vector Machine classifier identified ex-
periences occasioned by psychedelic drugs vs. cocaine or alcohol with over
85% accuracy using ratings of ego-dissolution and ego-inflation alone. Our
results demonstrate the psychometric structure, internal consistency and
construct validity of the EDI. Moreover, we demonstrate the close relationship
between ego-dissolution and the psychedelic experience.The EDI will facili-
tate the study of the neuronal correlates of ego-dissolution, which is relevant
for psychedelic-assisted psychotherapy and our understanding of psychosis.

FIGURE 3 (at right)

The relationship between ego-dissolution and ego-inflation for experiences

occasioned by classical psychedelics (blue crosses), cocaine (red circles) and
alcohol (green triangles).
 D-Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD)
as a Model of Psychosis:
Mechanism of Action and Pharmacology [67]
International Journal Of Molecular Sciences • November 2016

Danilo De Gregorio 1, Stefano Comai 2

Luca Posa 1 and Gabriella Gobbi 1,*

1 Neurobiological Psychiatry Unit, McGill University

Montreal, QC H3A 1A1, Canada
danilo.degregorio@mail.mcgill.ca (D.D.G.)
luca.posa@mail.mcgill.ca (L.P.)
2 Division of Neuroscience, San Raffaele
Scientific Institute and Vita-Salute University 20132 Milan, Italy
comai.stefano@hsr.it
Correspondence: gabriella.gobbi@mcgill.ca
Tel.: +1-514-398-1290; Fax: +1-514-398-4866
Academic Editor: Domenico De Berardis

D-Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD) is known for its hallucinogenic proper-

ties and psychotic-like symptoms, especially at high doses. It is indeed used
as a pharmacological model of psychosis in preclinical research. The goal of
this review was to understand the mechanism of action of psychotic-like ef-
fects of LSD. We searched Pubmed, Web of Science, Scopus, Google Scholar
and articles’ reference lists for preclinical studies regarding the mechanism
of action involved in the psychotic-like effects induced by LSD. LSD’s mech-
anism of action is pleiotropic, primarily mediated by the serotonergic sys-
tem in the Dorsal Raphe, binding the 5-HT2A receptor as a partial agonist
and 5-HT1A as an agonist. LSD also modulates the Ventral Tegmental Area,
at higher doses, by stimulating dopamine D2, Trace Amine Associate recep-
tor 1 (TAAR1) and 5-HT2A. More studies clarifying the mechanism of action
of the psychotic-like symptoms or psychosis induced by LSD in humans are
needed. LSD’s effects are mediated by a pleiotropic mechanism involving
serotonergic, dopaminergic, and glutamatergic neurotransmission. Thus,
the LSD-induced psychosis is a useful model to test the therapeutic efficacy
of potential novel antipsychotic drugs, particularly drugs with dual seroto-
nergic and dopaminergic (DA) mechanism or acting on TAAR1 receptors.
 Self-reported use
of novel psychoactive substances
among attendees of
electronic dance music venues [133]
American Journal Of Drug & Alcohol Abuse • November 2016

Palamar JJ1,2,3, Acosta P1, Sherman S1,2,4

Ompad DC2,3,4, Cleland CM2,5

1a Department of Population Health

New York University Langone Medical Center , New York , NY
2b Center for Drug Use and HIV Research
New York University College of Nursing , New York , NY
3c Center for Health, Identity, Behavior & Prevention Studies
New York University , New York University , New York , NY
4d College of Global Public Health , New York University , New York , NY
5e College of Nursing , New York University , New York , NY

Novel psychoactive substances (NPSs) continue to emerge in the United

States and worldwide. Few epidemiological studies have examined the
prevalence and correlates of use. We examined the extent of NPS use in a
high-risk population-attendees of electronic dance music (EDM) parties
at nightclubs and festivals. We surveyed 682 adults (age 18-25) entering
EDM events at nightclubs and festivals in New York City (NYC) in 2015. A
variation of time-space sampling was used. We examined the prevalence
of self-reported use of 196 NPS and correlates of any NPS use. Over a third
(35.1%) of participants reported lifetime use of any NPS. Self-reported use
of synthetic cannabinoids was most prevalent (16.3%), followed by psy-
chedelic phenethylamines (14.7%; 2C series: 10.3%, 2-(4-iodo-2,5-dime-
thoxyphenyl)-N-[(2-methoxyphenyl)methyl]ethanamine [NBOMe] series:
9.0%, Dox series: 3.5%), synthetic cathinones (“bath salts”, 6.9%), other
psychedelics (6.6%), tryptamines (5.1%), and dissociatives (4.3%). 2C-I was
the most prevalent 2C series drug (5.1%); methylone was the most preva-
lent synthetic cathinone (3.3%), 2-MeO-ketamine was the most prevalent
dissociative (3.7%), and 1P-lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) (2.9%) was
the most prevalent non-phenethylamine psychedelic. Risk factors for
NPS use included Ecstasy/MDMA/Molly, LSD, and ketamine use; identify-
ing as bisexual (compared to heterosexual), reporting higher frequency
of nightclub/festival attendance, and being surveyed outside of a festival
(compared to those surveyed outside of nightclubs). NPS use is prevalent
in the nightclub and festival scenes in NYC. Since individuals in these
scenes-especially frequent attendees-are at high risk for use, prevention
and harm reduction services need to be geared toward this population.
Phenomenology, Structure, and Dynamic
of Psychedelic States [415]
Current Topics In Behavioral Neuroscience • December 2016

Preller KH1, Vollenweider FX2.

1,2Neuropsychopharmacology and Brain Imaging Unit

Heffter Research Center Zurich Department of Psychiatry
Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Psychiatric University Hospital
University of Zurich, Lenggstrasse 31, 8032, Zurich, Switzerland
preller@bli.uzh.ch
vollen@bli.uzh.ch

Classic serotonergic hallucinogens or psychedelics produce

an altered states of consciousness (ASC) that is character-
ized by profound alterations in sensory perception, mood,
thought including the perception of reality, and the sense of
self. Over the past years, there has been considerable prog-
ress in the search for invariant and common features of psy-
chedelic states. In the first part of this review, we outline con-
temporary approaches to characterize the structure of ASCs
by means of three primary etiology-independent dimensions
including oceanic boundlessness, anxious ego-dissolution,
and visionary restructuralization as well as by 11 lower-order
factors, all of which can be reliably measured by the altered
state of consciousness questionnaire (APZ-OAV). The second
part sheds light on the dynamic nature of psychedelic expe-
riences. Frequently, psychedelic subjects progress through
different stages over time and levels of changes along a per-
ception-hallucination continuum of increasing arousal and
ego-dissolution. We then review in detail the acute effects
of psychedelics on sensory perception, emotion, cognition,
creativity, and time perception along with possible neural
mechanisms underlying them. The next part of this review
outlines the influence of non-pharmacological factors (pre-
dictors) on the acute psychedelic experience, such as demo-
graphics, genetics, personality, mood, and setting, and also
discusses some long-term effects succeeding the acute expe-
rience. The last part presents some recent concepts and mod-
els attempting to understand different facets of psychedelic
states of consciousness from a neuroscientific perspective.
 Clinical Applications
of Hallucinogens: A Review [8]
Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology
December 2016

Albert Garcia-Romeu and Brennan Kersgaard

Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine
Peter H. Addy
Department of Veterans Affairs and
Yale University School of Medicine

Hallucinogens fall into several different classes,

as broadly defined by pharmacological mecha-
nism of action, and chemical structure. These in-
clude psychedelics, entactogens, dissociatives,
and other atypical hallucinogens. Although these
classes do not share a common primary mecha-
nism of action, they do exhibit important simi-
larities in their ability to occasion temporary but
profound alterations of consciousness, involving
acute changes in somatic, perceptual, cognitive,
and affective processes. Such effects likely con-
tribute to their recreational use. However, a grow-
ing body of evidence indicates that these drugs
may have therapeutic applications beyond their
potential for abuse. This review will present data
on several classes of hallucinogens with a particu-
lar focus on psychedelics, entactogens, and dis-
sociatives, for which clinical utility has been most
extensively documented. Information on each
class is presented in turn, tracing relevant histori-
cal insights, highlighting similarities and differ-
ences between the classes from the molecular
to the behavioral level, and presenting the most
up-to-date information on clinically oriented re-
search with these substances, with important
ramifications for their potential therapeutic value.
 Return of the psychedelics:
psilocybin for treatment resistant depression
[211]
Asian Journal of Psychiatry • August 2016

By Dr. Suravi Patra

Assistant Professor
Department of Psychiatry
AIIMS Bhubaneswar
E-mail – patrasuravi@gmail.com

Psilocybin, the clinically most researched classic psychedelic has

recently been tested for its safety and efficacy in a clinical popula-
tion of treatment resistant depression. The efficacy of psilocybin
in clinical depression previously demonstrated in the elecrophysi-
ologic and neuroimaging findings as also in neuropsychological
assessments is further validated by the,findings of this rigorously
conducted randomized trial. Mechanism of action of psilocybin
andefficacy in treatment resistant depression are discussed in
this paper. Ethical issues of conducting clinical trials with psy-
chedelics are also discussed with particular emphasis on their
relative safety and absence of addiction potential. Implications of
these issues for conduct of larger trials or establishing risk ben-
efit ratio in treatment resistant depression are further suggested.
 The Challenging Experience Questionnaire:
Characterization of challenging experiences
with psilocybin mushrooms [134]
Journal Of Psychopharmacology • December 2016

Barrett FS1, Bradstreet MP2, Leoutsakos JS2

Johnson MW2, Griffiths RR2,3

1Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences

Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
fbarret2@jhmi.edu
2Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences
Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
3Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine
Baltimore, MD, USA

Acute adverse psychological reactions to classic hallucinogens (“bad trips” or

“challenging experiences”), while usually benign with proper screening, prep-
aration, and support in controlled settings, remain a safety concern in uncon-
trolled settings (such as illicit use contexts). Anecdotal and case reports sug-
gest potential adverse acute symptoms including affective (panic, depressed
mood), cognitive (confusion, feelings of losing sanity), and somatic (nausea,
heart palpitation) symptoms. Responses to items from several hallucinogen-
sensitive questionnaires (Hallucinogen Rating Scale, the States of Conscious-
ness Questionnaire, and the Five-Dimensional Altered States of Conscious-
ness questionnaire) in an Internet survey of challenging experiences with the
classic hallucinogen psilocybin were used to construct and validate a Chal-
lenging Experience Questionnaire. The stand-alone Challenging Experience
Questionnaire was then validated in a separate sample. Seven Challenging
Experience Questionnaire factors (grief, fear, death, insanity, isolation, physi-
cal distress, and paranoia) provide a phenomenological profile of challenging
aspects of experiences with psilocybin. Factor scores were associated with
difficulty, meaningfulness, spiritual significance, and change in well-being at-
tributed to the challenging experiences. The factor structure did not differ
based on gender or prior struggle with anxiety or depression. The Challeng-
ing Experience Questionnaire provides a basis for future investigation of pre-
dictors and outcomes of challenging experiences with classic hallucinogens.
 Therapeutic Applications of Classic Hallucinogens [10]
Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg • 2016

By Michael P. Bogenschutz and Stephen Ross

Department of Psychiatry
New York University Langone Medical Center, New York City, NY
e-mail: michael.bogenschutz@nyumc.org
e-mail: Stephen.Ross@nyumc.org

Abstract This chapter reviews what is known about the therapeutic uses of the sero-
tonergic or classic hallucinogens, i.e., psychoactive drugs such as LSD and psilocybin
that exert their effects primarily through agonist activity at serotonin 2A (5HT2A) re-
ceptors. Following a review of the history of human use and scientific study of these
drugs, the data from clinical research are summarized, including extensive work on
the use of classic hallucinogens in the treatment of alcoholism and other addictions,
studies of the use of LSD and psilocybin to relieve distress concerning death, particu-
larly in patients with advanced or terminal cancer, and more limited data concerning
the use of classic hallucinogens to treat mood and anxiety disorders. A survey of pos-
sible mechanisms of clinically relevant effects is provided. The well-established safety
of classic hallucinogens is reviewed. To provide a clinical perspective, case summaries
are provided of two individuals who received treatment in recent controlled trials of
psilocybin: one being treated for alcoholism, the other suffering from anxiety and de-
pression related to fear of death due to a cancer diagnosis. Although promising early
phase research conducted from the 1950s through the early 1970s was discontinued
before firm conclusions could be reached concerning the efficacy of any of the clas-
sic hallucinogens for any clinical condition, the research that was conducted in that
era strongly suggests that classic hallucinogens have clinically relevant effects, par-
ticularly in the case of LSD treatment of alcoholism. In the past decade, clinical trials
have resumed investigating the effects of classic hallucinogens in the treatment of
existential distress in the face of cancer, and in the treatment of addictions including
alcoholism and nicotine addiction. The studies that have been completed to date are
not sufficient to establish efficacy, but the outcomes have been very encouraging,
and larger trials, up to and including phase 3, are now underway or being planned.
Although research has elucidated many of the acute neurobiological and psycho-
logical effects of classic hallucinogens on humans, animals, and in vitro systems,
the mechanisms of clinically relevant persisting effects remain poorly understood.
 Effects of LSD
on grooming behavior
in serotonin transporter
heterozygous (Sert +/-) mice [135]
Behavior & Brain Research • January 2016

Kyzar EJ1, Stewart AM2, Kalueff AV3

1Department of Psychiatry, Psychiatric Institute

University of Illinois at Chicago, 1601 W Taylor St, Chicago, IL 60612
Electronic address: ekyzar@gmail.com
2ZENEREI Institute, 309 Palmer Court, Slidell, LA 70458
3ZENEREI Institute, 309 Palmer Court, Slidell, LA 70458
Research Institute for Marine Drugs and Nutrition
College for Food Science and Technology, Guangdong Ocean University
Zhanjiang, Guangdong 524025, China; Institute for Translational Biomedicine
St. Petersburg State University, St. Petersburg, Russia

Serotonin (5-HT) plays a crucial role in the brain, modulating mood, cog-
nition and reward. The serotonin transporter (SERT) is responsible for the
reuptake of 5-HT from the synaptic cleft and regulates serotonin signal-
ing in the brain. In humans, SERT genetic variance is linked to the patho-
genesis of various psychiatric disorders, including anxiety, autism spec-
trum disorders (ASD) and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). Rodent
self-grooming is a complex, evolutionarily conserved patterned behavior
relevant to stress, ASD and OCD. Genetic ablation of mouse Sert causes
various behavioral deficits, including increased anxiety and grooming
behavior. The hallucinogenic drug lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) is a
potent serotonergic agonist known to modulate human and animal be-
havior. Here, we examined heterozygous Sert(+/-) mouse behavior fol-
lowing acute administration of LSD (0.32 mg/kg). Overall, Sert(+/-) mice
displayed a longer duration of self-grooming behavior regardless of
LSD treatment. In contrast, LSD increased serotonin-sensitive behaviors,
such as head twitching, tremors and backwards gait behaviors in both
Sert(+/+) and Sert(+/-) mice. There were no significant interactions be-
tween LSD treatment and Sert gene dosage in any of the behavioral do-
mains measured. These results suggest that Sert(+/-) mice may respond
to the behavioral effects of LSD in a similar manner to wild-type mice.
 Neurotoxicity and LSD treatment:
a follow-up study of
151 patients in Denmark [116]
History Of Psychiatry • June 2016

By Jens Knud Larsen

University Hospital of Aarhus, Risskov, Denmark

LSD was introduced in psychiatry in the 1950s. Be-

tween 1960 and 1973, nearly 400 patients were treat-
ed with LSD in Denmark. By 1964, one homicide, two
suicides and four suicide attempts had been reported.
In 1986 the Danish LSD Damages Law was passed af-
ter complaints by only one patient. According to the
Law, all 154 applicants received financial compen-
sation for LSD-inflicted harm. The Danish State Ar-
chives has preserved the case material of 151 of the
154 applicants. Most of the patients suffered from se-
vere side effects of the LSD treatment many years af-
terwards. In particular, two-thirds of the patients had
flashbacks. With the recent interest in LSD therapy,
we should consider the neurotoxic potential of LSD.
 Psychedelics [24]
Pharmacology Reviews • April 2016
Dr. David E. Nichols
The American Society for Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics
Eschelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
Psychedelics (serotonergic hallucinogens) are powerful psychoactive substances that alter
perception and mood and affect numerous cognitive processes. They are generally considered
physiologically safe and do not lead to dependence or addiction. Their origin predates written
history, and they were employed by early cultures in many sociocultural and ritual contexts.
After the virtually contemporaneous discovery of (5R,8R)-(+)-lysergic acid-N,N-diethylamide
(LSD)-25 and the identification of serotonin in the brain, early research focused intensively
on the possibility that LSD and other psychedelics had a serotonergic basis for their action.
Today there is a consensus that psychedelics are agonists or partial agonists at brain sero-
tonin 5-hydroxytryptamine 2A receptors, with particular importance on those expressed on
apical dendrites of neocortical pyramidal cells in layer V. Several useful rodent models have
been developed over the years to help unravel the neurochemical correlates of serotonin 5-hy-
droxytryptamine 2A receptor activation in the brain, and a variety of imaging techniques have
been employed to identify key brain areas that are directly affected by psychedelics. Recent
and exciting developments in the field have occurred in clinical research, where several dou-
ble-blind placebo-controlled phase 2 studies of psilocybin-assisted psychotherapy in patients
with cancer-related psychosocial distress have demonstrated unprecedented positive relief of
anxiety and depression. Two small pilot studies of psilocybinassisted psychotherapy also have
shown positive benefit in treating both alcohol and nicotine addiction. Recently, blood oxygen
level dependent functional magnetic resonance imaging and magnetoencephalography have
been employed for in vivo brain imaging in humans after administration of a psychedelic, and
results indicate that intravenously administered psilocybin and LSD produce decreases in os-
cillatory power in areas of the brain’s default mode network.
Psychedelics and Immunomodulation:
novel approaches and therapeutic opportunities [27]
Frontiers In Immunology • July 2016
Dr. Attila Szabo
Department of Immunology, Faculty of Medicine
University of Debrecen, Debrecen, Hungary
Classical psychedelics are psychoactive substances, which, besides their psychopharma-
cological activity, have also been shown to exert significant modulatory effects on im-
mune responses by altering signaling pathways involved in inflammation, cellular pro-
liferation, and cell survival via activating NF-κB and mitogen-activated protein kinases.
Recently, several neurotransmitter receptors involved in the pharmacology of psychedel-
ics, such as serotonin and sigma-1 receptors, have also been shown to play crucial roles
in numerous immunological processes. This emerging field also offers promising treat-
ment modalities in the therapy of various diseases including autoimmune and chronic
inflammatory conditions, infections, and cancer. However, the scarcity of available re-
view literature renders the topic unclear and obscure, mostly posing psychedelics as il-
licit drugs of abuse and not as physiologically relevant molecules or as possible agents
of future pharmacotherapies. In this paper, the immunomodulatory potential of classical
serotonergic psychedelics, including N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT), 5-methoxy-N,N-di-
methyltryptamine (5-MeO-DMT), lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), 2,5- dimethoxy-4-io-
doamphetamine, and 3,4-methylenedioxy-methamphetamine will be discussed from a
perspective of molecular immunology and pharmacology. Special attention will be given
to the functional interaction of serotonin and sigma-1 receptors and their cross-talk with
toll-like and RIG-I-like pattern-recognition receptor-mediated signaling. Furthermore,
novel approaches will be suggested feasible for the treatment of diseases with chronic
inflammatory etiology and pathology, such as atherosclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, mul-
tiple sclerosis, schizophrenia, depression, and Alzheimer’s disease.
 Prohibited or regulated? Humphry Fortescue Osmond (1917-2004)
LSD psychotherapy and the a radical and conventional psychiatrist:
United States Food and Drug Administration [136] The transcendent years [137]
History Of Psychiatry • September 2016 Journal Of Medical Biographies • February 2016

By M. Oram By R.M. Kaplan

1University of Calgary, Canada matthew.oram1@ucalgary.ca
1Graduate School of Medicine, University of Wollongong, Australia

Over the 1950s and early 1960s, the use of the

This article describes the life and work of the
hallucinogenic drug lysergic acid diethylamide
psychiatrist Humphry Osmond who pursued a
(LSD) to facilitate psychotherapy was a prom-
radical path as a psychiatrist while he remained
ising field of psychiatric research in the USA.
within the establishment. To the public mind
However, during the 1960s, research began to
however, he is best known as the man who
decline, before coming to a complete halt in the
introduced Aldous Huxley to mescaline and
mid-1970s. This has commonly been explained
coined the iconic word psychedelic. From an
through the increase in prohibitive federal regu-
early stage of his career, Henry Osmond em-
lations during the 1960s that aimed to curb the
braced new ideas to break the nexus in psy-
growing recreational use of the drug. However,
chiatry at a time when neither biological nor
closely examining the Food and Drug Adminis-
psychoanalytic treatments were shown to have
tration’s regulation of LSD research in the 1960s
much benefit. To do this, he joined the radical
will reveal that not only was LSD research never
social experiment in health in the Canadian
prohibited, but that the administration support-
province of Saskatchewan where he initiated a
ed research to a greater degree than has been
range of innovations that attracted internation-
recognized. Instead, the decline in research re-
al attention, as well as controversy over his es-
flected more complex changes in the regulation
pousal of the use of hallucinogens better to un-
of pharmaceutical research and development.
derstand the experiences of psychotic patients.
 Acid Brothers:
Henry Beecher, Timothy Leary,
and the psychedelic of the century
Perspectives In Biological Medicine • 2016

By J.D. Moreno

Henry Knowles Beecher, an icon of human research ethics, and Timothy Francis Leary,
a guru of the counterculture, are bound together in history by the synthetic halluci-
nogen lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD). Both were associated with Harvard University
during a critical period in their careers and of drastic social change. To all appearances
the first was a paragon of the establishment and a constructive if complex hero, the
second a rebel and a criminal, a rogue and a scoundrel. Although there is no evidence
they ever met, Beecher’s indirect struggle with Leary over control of the 20th century’s
most celebrated psychedelic was at the very heart of his views about the legitimate,
responsible investigator. That struggle also proves to be a revealing bellwether of the
increasingly formalized scrutiny of human experiments that was then taking shape.

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27499488
 Antidepressive, anxiolytic, and antiaddictive effects
of ayahuasca, psilocybin and lysergic acid diethylamide
(LSD): a systematic review of clinical trials published in the
last 25 years: antidepressive effects of ayahuasca,
psilocybin and LSD [56]
Therapeutic Advances in Psychopharmacology • November 2016

Rafael G. dos Santos, Flávia L. Osório, José Alexandre S. Crippa,

Jordi Riba, Antônio W. Zuardi and Jaime E. C. Hallak

Flávia L. Osório, PhD, José Alexandre S. Crippa,, MD, PhD,

Antônio W. Zuardi, MD, PhD, Jaime E. C. Hallak, MD, PhD
Department of Neuroscience and Behavior, Ribeirão Preto Medical School University of São Paulo, SP, Brazil
National Institute for Translational Medicine (INCT-TM), CNPq, Brazil
Jordi Riba, PhD, Centre d’Investigació de Medicaments
Servei de Farmacologia Clínica, Hospital de la Santa Creu i Sant Pau, Barcelona, Spain
Human Experimental Neuropsychopharmacology,
Institut de Recerca, Hospital de la Santa Creu i Sant Pau, Barcelona, Spain
Departament de Farmacologia i Terapèutica, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Spain
Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental, CIBERSAM, Barcelona, Spain

To date, pharmacological treatments for mood and anxiety disorders and for drug de-
pendence show limited efficacy, leaving a large number of patients suffering severe
and persistent symptoms. Preliminary studies in animals and humans suggest that
ayahuasca, psilocybin and lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) may have antidepressive,
anxiolytic, and antiaddictive properties. Thus, we conducted a systematic review of
clinical trials published from 1990 until 2015, assessing these therapeutic properties.
Electronic searches were performed using the PubMed, LILACS, and SciELO databases.
Only clinical trials published in peer-reviewed journals were included. Of these, 151
studies were identified, of which six met the established criteria. Reviewed studies
suggest beneficial effects for treatment-resistant depression, anxiety and depression
associated with life-threatening diseases, and tobacco and alcohol dependence. All
drugs were well tolerated. In conclusion, ayahuasca, psilocybin and LSD may be useful
pharmacological tools for the treatment of drug dependence, and anxiety and mood
disorders, especially in treatment-resistant patients. These drugs may also be useful
pharmacological tools to understand psychiatric disorders and to develop new thera-
peutic agents. However, all studies reviewed had small sample sizes, and half of them
were open-label, proof-of-concept studies. Randomized, double-blind, placebo-con-
trolled studies with more patients are needed to replicate these preliminary findings.
 A Model for the Application
of Target-Controlled Intravenous Infusion
for a Prolonged Immersive DMT
Psychedelic Experience [243]
Frontiers in Pharmacology • July 2016

Andrew R. Gallimore 1* and Rick J. Strassman2

1 Computational Neuroscience Unit

Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, Okinawa, Japan
2 Department of Psychiatry, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, Albuquerque, NM
Edited by Juan J.Canales, UniversityofLeicester,UK
Reviewed by: Philip R. Corlett, Yale University, USA
and Christopher Surratt, Duquesne University, USA
Correspondence: Andrew R. Gallimore
gallimore@cantab.net

The state of consciousness induced by N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) is one

of the most extraordinary of any naturally-occurring psychedelic substance.
Users consistently report the complete replacement of normal subjective ex-
perience with a novel “alternateuniverse,” often densely populated with a va-
riety of strange objects and other highly complex visual content, including
what appear to be sentient “beings.” The phenomenology of the DMT state is
of great interest to psychology and calls for rigorous academic enquiry. The
extremely short duration of DMT effects—less than 20min—militates against
single dose administration as the ideal model for such enquiry. Using phar-
macokinetic modeling and DMT blood sampling data, we demonstrate that
the unique pharmacological characteristics of DMT, which also include a rapid
onset and lack of acute tolerance to its subjective effects, make it amenable
to administration by target-controlled intravenous infusion. This is a technol-
ogy developed to maintain a stable brain concentration of anesthetic drugs
during surgery. Simulations of our model demonstrate that this approach will
allow research subjects to be induced into a stable and prolonged DMT expe-
rience, making it possible to carefully observe its psychological contents, and
provide more extensive accounts for subsequent analyses. This model would
also be valuable in performing functional neuroimaging, where subjects are
required to remain under the influence of the drug for extended periods.
Finally, target-controlled intravenous infusion of DMT may aid the develop-
ment of unique psychotherapeutic applications of this psychedelic agent.
 Clinical Applications of Hallucinogens:
A Review [244]
Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology • August 2016

Albert Garcia-Romeu, PhD1, Brennan Kersgaard, BA1,*

and Peter H. Addy, PhD2,3

1Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences

Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD
2Department of Medical Informatics
Department of Veterans Affairs, West Haven, CT
3Department of Medical Informatics
Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT
Brennan Kersgaard: brennankersgaard@gmail.com
Peter H. Addy: peter.addy@yale.edu

Hallucinogens fall into several different classes, as broadly defined

by pharmacological mechanism of action, and chemical struc-
ture. These include psychedelics, entactogens, dissociatives, and
other atypical hallucinogens. Although these classes do not share
a common primary mechanism of action, they do exhibit impor-
tant similarities in their ability to occasion temporary but profound
alterations of consciousness, involving acute changes in somatic,
perceptual, cognitive, and affective processes. Such effects likely
contribute to their recreational use. However, a growing body of
evidence indicates that these drugs may have therapeutic applica-
tions beyond their potential for abuse. This review will present data
on several classes of hallucinogens with a particular focus on psy-
chedelics, entactogens, and dissociatives, for which clinical utility
has been most extensively documented. Information on each class
is presented in turn, tracing relevant historical insights, highlight-
ing similarities and differences between the classes from the mo-
lecular to the behavioral level, and presenting the most up-to-date
information on clinically oriented research with these substances,
with important ramifications for their potential therapeutic value.
 “Ethics and Clinical Research”
in Biographical Perspective
Perspectives In Biological Medicine • 2016

By S.E. Lederer

Henry K. Beecher (1904-1976) played an important role

in the development of bioethics. His 1966 article “Eth-
ics and Clinical Research” in the New England Journal
of Medicine intensified concern about the welfare of
patients participating in clinical research, and his lead-
ership in the 1968 Harvard Ad Hoc Committee on Brain
Death redefined the determination of death. Beecher
deserves, and even demands, explanation and explica-
tion. This essay offers a biographical perspective on the
Harvard professor. In addition to his early life and edu-
cation in both Kansas and Boston, the essay explores
how Beecher’s experiences in World War II and in the
new geopolitical realities of the Cold War shaped his
views about the ethical dilemmas of clinical research.

PMID: 27499482
DOI: 10.1353/pbm.2016.0020
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27499482
 Increased Global Functional Connectivity
FIGURE 1
Correlates with LSD-Induced Ego Dissolution [71]
Currents In Biology • April 2016

Enzo Tagliazucchi,1,2,14,* Leor Roseman,3,4,14 Mendel Kaelen,3 Csaba Orban,3

Suresh D. Muthukumaraswamy,5,6, Kevin Murphy,5 Helmut Laufs,7 Robert Leech,4
John McGonigle,3 Nicolas Crossley,8 Edward Bullmore,9,10,11, Tim Williams,12
Mark Bolstridge,3 Amanda Feilding,13 David J. Nutt,3 and Robin Carhart-Harris3,*

1Department of Sleep and Cognition, Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience (NIN)

an institute of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences
Amsterdam 1105 BA, the Netherlands
2Institute for Medical Psychology, University of Kiel, Kiel 24113, Germany
3Centre for Neuropsychopharmacology, Department of Medicine
Imperial College London, London W12 0NN, UK
4Computational, Cognitive and Clinical Neuroscience Laboratory (C3NL)
Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, W12 0NN, UK
5Cardiff University Brain Research Imaging Centre (CUBRIC)
Department of Psychology, Cardiff CF10 3AT, UK
6Schools of Pharmacy and Psychology, University of Auckland, Auckland 1010, New Zealand
7Neurology Department, Schleswig-Holstein University Hospital
University of Kiel, Kiel 24113, Germany
8Department of Psychosis Studies, Institute of Psychiatry
Psychology & Neurosciences, King’s College London, London WC2R 2LS, UK
9Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 2QQ, UK
10Cambridgeshire & Peterborough NHS Foundation Trust, Cambridge CB21 5EF, UK
11Alternative Discovery & Development, GlaxoSmithKline, Brentford TW8 9GS, UK
12AWP Mental Health NHS Trust, Blackberry Centre, Manor Road, Bristol BS16 2EW, UK
13The Beckley Foundation, Oxford OX3 9SY, UK
14Co-first author *Correspondence:
tagliazucchi.enzo@googlemail.com (E.T.), r.carhart-harris@imperial.ac.uk (R.C.-H.)

Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) is a non-selective serotonin-receptor agonist that was first synthesized
in 1938 and identified as (potently) psychoactive in 1943. Psychedelics have been used by indigenous
cultures for millennia [1]; however, because of LSD’s unique potency and the timing of its discovery
(coinciding with a period of major discovery in psychopharmacology), it is generally regarded as the
quintessential contemporary psychedelic [2]. LSD has profound modulatory effects on consciousness
and was used extensively in psychological research and psychiatric practice in the 1950s and 1960s [3].
In spite of this, however, there have been no modern human imaging studies of its acute effects on the
brain. Here we studied the effects of LSD on intrinsic functional connectivity within the human brain
using fMRI. High-level association cortices (partially overlapping with the default-mode, salience, and
frontoparietal attention networks) and the thalamus showed increased global connectivity under the
drug. The cortical areas showing increased global connectivity overlapped significantly with a map
of serotonin 2A (5-HT2A) receptor densities (the key site of action of psychedelic drugs [4]). LSD also
increased global integration by inflating the level of communication between normally distinct brain
networks. The increase in global connectivity observed under LSD correlated with subjective reports
Figure 1 (Previous Page): LSD Selectively Increases Global Functional
Connectivity of Higher-Level Integrative Cortical and Sub-cortical Regions FIGURE 2
(A) Average FCD under the placebo and LSD conditions. (B) Normalized
histogram (P) of all FCD values for both conditions (mean ± SEM). The in-
set shows the whole-brain FCD averages (*p < 0.05, twotailed t test). (C)
Rendering of significant FCD increases under LSD versus placebo (thresh-
olded at p < 0.05, twotailed t test, false discovery rate [FDR]-controlled for
multiple comparisons). Outlines of the bilateral frontoparietal, salience,
and default-mode RSN are overlaid on top of the map of FCD significant
increases. (D) Quantitative analysis of the overlap between significant FCD
increases and eight RSNs (FP, frontoparietal; Sal, salience; DMN, default-
mode network; DAN, dorsal attention network; Vis L, lateral visual; Aud,
auditory; Vis M, medial visual; SM, sensorimotor) obtained from 35 sub-
jects scanned in the Human Connectome Project, as well as 5-HT2A recep-
tor concentration and FCD increases under psilocybin. Only FP, Sal, DMN,
and the maps of 5-HT2A receptor concentration and FCD increases under
psilocybin had an overlap significantly greater than that observed when
spatially randomizing the networks (mean ± SD, *p < 0.05, Bonferroni
corrected for multiple comparisons). For a description of the randomiza-
tion procedure, see [15] and the Supplemental Experimental Procedures.

Figure 2 (At Right): FCD Increases Correlate with Subjective Reports of

Ego Dissolution (A) Brain regions where a significant (p < 0.05, twotailed,
FDR-controlled for multiple comparisons) correlation between FCD and sub-
jective reports of ego dissolution (LSD minus placebo) was found are col-
ored in red. Brain regions where none of the other VAS scores correlated with
FCD at p < 0.05, two-tailed, uncorrected (i.e., regions presenting the most
selective correlations between FCD increases and ego dissolution scores) are
colored in green. (B) Association between FCD increases and reports of ego
dissolution in four example ROIs (bilateral angular gyrus and insular cortex)).

Figure 3 (Next Page): LSD Increases Between-System Functional Con-

nectivity Results of seed correlation analyses based on four ROIs (leftmost
column) defined from the map of significant FCD increases (Figure 1C). In the
three columns at right, regions in red indicate significantly higher connec-
tivity (p < 0.05, two-tailed t test, FDR-controlled for multiple comparisons)
with the seed (leftmost column, in blue) under LSD relative to the placebo.
A permutation test revealed that only four RSNs present a significant (p <
0.05, Bonferroni-corrected for multiple comparisons) overlap with the func-
 FIGURE 3

tional connectivity increases under LSD: the

sensorimotor (SM), auditory (Aud), visual me-
dial (Vis M), and visual lateral (Vis L) RSNs. The
contour of these RSNs is jointly rendered with
the maps of functional connectivity changes.

Figure 4 (Next Page): LSD Increases Global

Integration (A) Modularity versus link density
for the LSD and placebo conditions (mean ±
SEM, *p < 0.05, two-tailed t test, FDR-controlled
for multiple comparisons). The inset shows the
same for networks after degree-preserving
randomization (no significant differences were
found). (B) Rendering of the modules identi- FIGURE 3
fied at a reference link density of 0.3, for the
placebo (top) and LSD (bottom) conditions.
(C) Regions presenting increased participation
coefficient in LSD versus placebo (link density
= 0.3, p < 0.05 two-tailed t test, FDR-controlled
for multiple comparisons). (D) Normalized
rich-club coefficient f(k) for LSD and placebo.
The inset shows the difference between both
conditions (mean ± SEM, link density = 0.3, *p
< 0.05, two-tailed t test, FDR-controlled for
multiple comparisons). (E) k-cores (k = 100) for
placebo (top) and LSD (bottom) conditions.
FIGURE 4
 LSD
Acutely Impairs Fear Recognition
and Enhances
Emotional Empathy and Sociality [35]

Neuropsychopharmacology • June 2016

Patrick C Dolder, Yasmin Schmid, Felix Mueller,

Stefan Borgwardt, Matthias E Liechti

1Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Department of Biomedicine and

Department of Clinical Research, University Hospital Basel, 4031 Basel, Switzerland
2Department of Psychiatry (UPK), University of Basel, 4012 Basel, Switzerland

Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) is used recreationally and has been

evaluated as an adjunct to psychotherapy to treat anxiety in pa-
tients with life-threatening illness. LSD is well-known to induce per-
ceptual alterations, but unknown is whether LSD alters emotional
processing in ways that can support psychotherapy. We investigat-
ed the acute effects of LSD on emotional processing using the Face
Emotion Recognition Task (FERT) and Multifaceted Empathy Test
(MET). The effects of LSD on social behavior were tested using the
Social Value Orientation (SVO) test. Two similar placebo-controlled,
double-blind, random-order, cross-over studies were conducted
using 100 μg LSD in 24 subjects and 200 μg LSD in 16 subjects. All
of the subjects were healthy and mostly hallucinogen-naive 25- to
65-year-old volunteers (20 men, 20 women). LSD produced feelings
of happiness, trust, closeness to others, enhanced explicit and im-
plicit emotional empathy on the MET, and impaired the recognition
of sad and fearful faces on the FERT. LSD enhanced the participants’
desire to be with other people and increased their prosocial be-
havior on the SVO test. These effects of LSD on emotion process-
ing and sociality may be useful for LSD-assisted psychotherapy.
 Long-term follow-up
of psilocybin-facilitated
smoking cessation [273]
The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse • July 2016

Matthew W. Johnson PhD,

Albert Garcia-Romeu PhD & Roland R. Griffiths PhD

aDepartment of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences

Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD
bDepartment of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine
Baltimore, MD, USA

A recent open-label pilot study (N = 15) found that two to three

moderate to high doses (20 and 30 mg/70 kg) of the serotonin
2A receptor agonist, psilocybin, in combination with cognitive
behavioral therapy (CBT) for smoking cessation, resulted in sub-
stantially higher 6-month smoking abstinence rates than are typ-
ically observed with other medications or CBT alone. To assess
long-term effects of a psilocybin-facilitated smoking cessation
program at ≥12 months after psilocybin administration. Meth-
ods: The present report describes biologically verified smoking
abstinence outcomes of the previous pilot study at ≥12 months,
and related data on subjective effects of psilocybin. Results: All
15 participants completed a 12-month follow-up, and 12 (80%)
returned for a long-term (≥16 months) follow-up, with a mean in-
terval of 30 months (range =16–57 months) between target-quit
date (i.e., first psilocybin session) and long-term follow-up. At 12-
month follow-up, 10 participants (67%) were confirmed as smok-
ing abstinent. At long-term follow-up, nine participants (60%)
were confirmed as smoking abstinent. At 12-month follow-up 13
participants (86.7%) rated their psilocybin experiences among
the five most personally meaningful and spiritually significant
experiences of their lives. These results suggest that in the con-
text of a structured treatment program, psilocybin holds consid-
erable promise in promoting long-term smoking abstinence. The
present study adds to recent and historical evidence suggesting
high success rates when using classic psychedelics in the treat-
ment of addiction. Further research investigating psilocybin-
facilitated treatment of substance use disorders is warranted.
 Receptor interaction profiles
of novel psychoactive tryptamines
compared with classic hallucinogens [138]
European Neuropsychopharmacology • August 2016

Rickli A1, Moning OD1, Hoener MC2, Liechti ME3

1Psychopharmacology Research
Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology
Department of Biomedicine, University Hospital Basel and University of Basel, Switzerland
2Neuroscience Research, pRED, Roche Innovation Center Basel
F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd., Basel, Switzerland
3Psychopharmacology Research
Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology
Department of Biomedicine, University Hospital Basel and University of Basel
Switzerland Electronic address: matthias.liechti@usb.ch

The present study investigated interactions between the novel psy-

choactive tryptamines DiPT, 4-OH-DiPT, 4-OH-MET, 5-MeO-AMT, and 5-
MeO-MiPT at monoamine receptors and transporters compared with
the classic hallucinogens lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), psilocin, N,N-
dimethyltryptamine (DMT), and mescaline. We investigated binding
affinities at human monoamine receptors and determined functional
serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine [5-HT]) 5-HT2A and 5-HT2B receptor
activation. Binding at and the inhibition of human monoamine uptake
transporters and transporter-mediated monoamine release were also
determined. All of the novel tryptamines interacted with 5-HT2A recep-
tors and were partial or full 5-HT2A agonists. Binding affinity to the 5-
HT2A receptor was lower for all of the tryptamines, including psilocin
and DMT, compared with LSD and correlated with the reported psycho-
active doses in humans. Several tryptamines, including psilocin, DMT,
DiPT, 4-OH-DiPT, and 4-OH-MET, interacted with the serotonin trans-
porter and partially the norepinephrine transporter, similar to 3,4-meth-
ylenedioxymethamphetamine but in contrast to LSD and mescaline.
LSD but not the tryptamines interacted with adrenergic and dopami-
nergic receptors. In conclusion, the receptor interaction profiles of the
tryptamines predict hallucinogenic effects that are similar to classic se-
rotonergic hallucinogens but also MDMA-like psychoactive properties.
 Psychosis associated with acute recreational drug toxicity:
a European case series [187]
BMC Psychiatry • 2016

Odd Martin Vallersnes1,2*, Alison M. Dines3, David M. Wood3,4

Christopher Yates5, Fridtjof Heyerdahl6
Knut Erik Hovda6, Isabelle Giraudon7, Euro-DEN Research Group

1Department of General Practice, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway

2Oslo Accident and Emergency Outpatient Clinic, City of Oslo Health Agency, Oslo, Norway
3Clinical Toxicology, Guy’s and St Thomas’ NHS Foundation Trust and King’s Health Partners, London, UK
4Clinical Toxicology, Faculty of Life Sciences and Medicine, King’s College London, London, UK
5Emergency Department and Clinical Toxicology Unit , Hospital Universitari Son Espases. Mallorca, Spain
6The Norwegian CBRNe Centre of Medicine, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
7European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA), Lisbon, Portugal

Psychosis can be associated with acute recreational drug and novel psychoactive substance (NPS) toxicity. However,
there is limited data available on how common this is and which drugs are most frequently implicated. We describe
a European case series of psychosis associated with acute recreational drug toxicity, and estimate the frequency of
psychosis for different recreational drugs. The European Drug Emergencies Network (Euro-DEN) collects data on
presentations to Emergency Departments (EDs) with acute recreational drug and NPS toxicity at 16 centres in ten
countries. Euro-DEN data from October 2013 through September 2014 was retrospectively searched, and cases
with psychosis were included. The proportion of cases with psychosis per drug was calculated in the searched Euro-
DEN dataset. Psychosis was present in 348 (6.3 %) of 5529 cases. The median (interquartile range) age was 29 (24-
38) years, 276 (79.3 %) were male and 114 (32.8 %) were admitted to psychiatric ward. The drugs most commonly
reported were cannabis in 90 (25.9 %) cases, amphetamine in 87 (25.0 %) and cocaine in 56 (16.1 %). More than
one drug was taken in 189 (54.3 %) cases. Psychosis was frequent in those ED presentations involving tryptamines
(4/7; 57.1 %), methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV) (6/22; 27.3 %), methylphenidate (6/26; 23.1 %), lysergic acid
diethylamide (LSD) (18/86; 20.9 %), psilocybe mushrooms (3/16; 18.8 %), synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists
(4/26; 15.4 %) and amphetamine (87/593; 14.7 %), but less common in those involving mephedrone (14/245; 5.7
%), methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) (20/461; 4.3 %) and methedrone (3/92; 3.3 %). Amphetamine was
the most frequent drug associated with psychosis when only one agent was reported, with psychosis occurring in
32.4 % of these presentations. The frequency of psychosis in acute recreational drug toxicity varies considerably
between drugs, but is a major problem in amphetamine poisoning. In rapidly changing drug markets and patterns
of use, the Euro-DEN sentinel network contributes to measuring the scale of drug-related harms in Europe beyond
other more established indicators.

Competing Interests
PD and DW work with the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs
and Drug Addiction and the UK Advisory Council for the Misuse of Drugs

Ethics Approval & Consent To Participate

Patient consent was not required as the data collated for Euro-DEN was collected
as part of routine clinical care; individual Euro-DEN centres obtained
appropriate local ethical approval for data collation [51].
 Alterations of consciousness
and mystical-type experiences
after acute LSD in humans [230]
Psychopharmacology • October 2016

Matthias E. Liechti1 & Patrick C. Dolder1 & Yasmin Schmid1

Matthias E. Liechti
matthias.liechti@usb.ch
1 Psychopharmacology Research, Division of Clinical Pharmacology
and Toxicology, Department of Biomedicine and Department of
Clinical Research, University Hospital Basel, University of Basel
Hebelstrasse 2, CH-4031 Basel, Switzerland

Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) is used recreationally and in clinical research.

Acute mystical-type experiences that are acutely induced by hallucinogens
are thought to contribute to their potential therapeutic effects. However, no
data have been reported on LSD-induced mystical experiences and their re-
lationship to alterations of consciousness. Additionally, LSD dose- and con-
centration-response functions with regard to alterations of consciousness are
lacking. We conducted two placebo-controlled, doubleblind, cross-over stud-
ies using oral administration of 100 and 200 μg LSD in 24 and 16 subjects,
respectively. Acute effects of LSD were assessed using the 5 Dimensions of
Altered States of Consciousness (5D-ASC) scale after both doses and the Mys-
tical Experience Questionnaire (MEQ) after 200 μg. On the MEQ, 200 μg LSD
induced mystical experiences that were comparable to those in patients who
underwent LSD-assisted psychotherapy but were fewer than those reported
for psilocybin in healthy subjects or patients. On the 5D-ASC scale, LSD pro-
duced higher ratings of blissful state, insightfulness, and changed meaning of
percepts after 200 μg compared with 100 μg. Plasma levels of LSD were not
positively correlated with its effects, with the exception of ego dissolution at
100 μg. Mystical-type experiences were infrequent after LSD, possibly because
of the set and setting used in the present study. LSD may produce greater or
different alterations of consciousness at 200 μg (i.e., a dose that is currently
used in psychotherapy in Switzerland) compared with 100 μg (i.e., a dose used
in imaging studies). Ego dissolution may reflect plasma levels of LSD, where-
as more robustly induced effects of LSD may not result in such associations.
 Use of psychostimulants in a sexual context:
Analysis of cases reported to the
French network of Addictovigilance Centers [139]
Therapie • October 2016
[Article in French]

Batisse A1, Peyrière H2, Eiden C3, Courné MA4, Djezzar S5

1Réseau français des centres d’addictovigilance

Centre d’addictovigilance d’Île-de-France
Centre GHU Lariboisière-Fernand-Widal
200 rue du Faubourg-Saint-Denis, 75010 Paris, France
Electronic address: anne.batisse@aphp.fr
2Centre d’addictovigilance, hôpital Lapeyronie, 34295 Montpellier, France
UMI 233/Inserm U1175, 34294 Montpellier, France
3Centre d’addictovigilance, hôpital Lapeyronie, 34295 Montpellier, France
4Agence nationale de sécurité du médicament et des produits de santé
93285 Saint-Denis, France
5Centre d’addictovigilance d’Île-de-France
Centre GHU Lariboisière-Fernand-Widal
200 rue du Faubourg-Saint-Denis, 75010 Paris, France

The “SLAM” phenomenon is an increasingly popular practice, in Paris and

London gay scene, defined by 3 characteristics: injection, sexual party and
psychostimulant drugs. The French Medical Agency requested a risk assess-
ment of “SLAM” and more broadly of the use of psychostimulants in a sexual
context, by the analysis of complications related to this practice notified to
the French Network of Addictovigilance Centers. All cases of complications
related to “SLAM” practice, including cases of abuse or dependence, and so-
matic and psychiatric complications, were analysed. Between January 2008
to December 2013, 51 cases were collected. Users were exclusively men,
with a mean age of 40 years, having psychostimulants exposure in a sex-
ual context, mainly in men who have sex with men (MSM) context (100%,
n=35). The prevalence of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection
was 82% (n=32) with a high level of HIV/hepatitis C virus (HCV) co-infection
(50%, n=16). The main psychostimulants reported are synthetic cathinones
(89.5%). Cathinones users tended to be polydrug users: 62% also reported
use other than psychoactive substances (gamma-butyrolactone [GBL], ket-
amine, methylenedioxyméthamphetamine [MDMA], lysergic acid diethyl-
amide [LSD]…). The main complications were psychiatric disorders in 50%
(psychotic symptoms, agitation, anxiety, suicidal ideas or attempt and foren-
sic problems), acute intoxication in 25% (including 3 deaths), dependence
and abuse in 17% and infectious complications in 8% (viral seroconversion).
Health professionals as well as users should be aware of the physical (cardio-
vascular) and behavioural (psychic, fast dependence syndrome) toxicity of
cathinones. Risk reduction policy must be targeted to the population of MSM
with specific interventions both on risky sexual behavior and substance use.
 Ayahuasca:
pharmacology, neuroscience
and therapeutic potential [178]
Brain Research Bulletin • September 2016

Elisabet Domınguez-Clave, Joaquim Soler

Matilde Elices, Juan C. Pascual, Enrique Alvarez
Mario de la Fuente Revenga, Pablo Friedlander
Amanda Feilding and Jordi Riba

a Department of Psychiatry, Hospital de la Santa Creu i Sant Pau

Sant Antoni Maria Claret,167, 08025, Barcelona, Spain
b Department of Psychiatry and Forensic Medicine, School of Medicine,
Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193, Bellaterra (Cerdanyola del Vallès), Spain
c Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental (CIBERSAM)
Hospital de la Santa Creu i Sant Pau. Sant Antoni Maria Claret, 167, 08025, Barcelona, Spain
d Institut de Investigació Biomèdica - Sant Pau (IIB-Sant Pau). Hospital de la Santa Creu i
Sant Pau. Sant Antoni Maria Claret, 167, 08025, Barcelona, Spain
e Department of Clinical and Health Psychology, School of Psychology
Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193, Bellaterra (Cerdanyola del Vallès), Spain
f Human Neuropsychopharmacology Group, Hospital de la Santa Creu i Sant Pau
Sant Antoni Maria Claret, 167, 08025, Barcelona, Spain
g The Beckley Foundation, Beckley Park, Oxford OX3 9SY, United Kingdom

Ayahuasca is a psychotropic tea obtained from Amazonian plants.

Ayahuasca induces visions, intense emotion and recollection of personal memories.
Ayahuasca enhances self-acceptance and beneficial mindfulness capacities.
Available evidence suggests its potential to treat various psychiatric disorders.

Ayahuasca is the Quechua name for a tea obtained from the vine Banisteriopsis caapi, and
used for ritual purposes by the indigenous populations of the Amazon. The use of a variation
of the tea that combines B. caapi with the leaves of the shrub Psychotria viridis has experi-
enced unprecedented expansion worldwide for its psychotropic properties. This prepara-
tion contains the psychedelic 5-HT2A receptor agonist N,Ndimethyltryptamine (DMT) from
P. viridis, plus β-carboline alkaloids with monoamine-oxidaseinhibiting properties from B.
caapi. Acute administration induces a transient modified state of consciousness character-
ized by introspection, visions, enhanced emotions and recollection of personal memories.
A growing body of evidence suggests that ayahuasca may be useful to treat substance use
disorders, anxiety and depression. Here we review the pharmacology and neuroscience of
ayahuasca, and the potential psychological mechanisms underlying its therapeutic poten-
tial. We discuss recent findings indicating that ayahuasca intake increases certain mindful-
ness facets related to acceptance and to the ability to take a detached view of ones own
thoughts and emotions. Based on the available evidence, we conclude that ayahuasca shows
promise as a therapeutic tool by enhancing self-acceptance and allowing safe exposure to
emotional events. We postulate that ayahuasca could be of use in the treatment of impulse-
related, personality and substance use disorders and also in the handling of trauma. More re-
search is needed to assess the full potential of ayahuasca in the treatment of these disorders.
Classical hallucinogens and neuroimaging:
A systematic review of human studies:
Hallucinogens and neuroimaging [58]
Neuroscience Biobehavioral Reviews • December 2016

Dos Santos RG1, Osório FL2, Crippa JA2, Hallak JE2.

1Department of Neuroscience and Behavior, Ribeirão Preto Medical School

University of São Paulo, SP, Brazil. Electronic address: banisteria@gmail.com
2Department of Neuroscience and Behavior, Ribeirão Preto Medical School
University of São Paulo, SP, Brazil; National Institute for Translational Medicine

Serotonergic hallucinogens produce alterations of percep-

tions, mood, and cognition, and have anxiolytic, antide-
pressant, and antiaddictive properties. These drugs act as
agonists of frontocortical 5-HT2A receptors, but the neural
basis of their effects are not well understood. Thus, we con-
ducted a systematic review of neuroimaging studies analyz-
ing the effects of serotonergic hallucinogens in man. Stud-
ies published in the PubMed, Lilacs, and SciELO databases
until 12 April 2016 were included using the following key-
words: “ayahuasca”, “DMT”, “psilocybin”, “LSD”, “mescaline”
crossed one by one with the terms “mri”, “fmri”, “pet”, “spect”,
“imaging” and “neuroimaging”. Of 279 studies identified, 25
were included. Acute effects included excitation of fronto-
lateral/frontomedial cortex, medial temporal lobe, and oc-
cipital cortex, and inhibition of the default mode network.
Long-term use was associated with thinning of the poste-
rior cingulate cortex, thickening of the anterior cingulate
cortex, and decreased neocortical 5-HT2A receptor binding.
Despite the high methodological heterogeneity and the
small sample sizes, the results suggest that hallucinogens
increase introspection and positive mood by modulating
brain activity in the fronto-temporo-parieto-occipital cortex.
 Phenomenology, Structure, and Dynamic
of Psychedelic States [105]
Current Topics In Behavioral Neuroscience • December 2016

Preller KH1, Vollenweider FX2

1Neuropsychopharmacology and Brain Imaging Unit

Heffter Research Center Zurich Department of Psychiatry
Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics
Psychiatric University Hospital, University of Zurich
Lenggstrasse 31, 8032, Zurich, Switzerland. preller@bli.uzh.ch
2Neuropsychopharmacology and Brain Imaging Unit
Heffter Research Center Zurich Department of Psychiatry
Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Psychiatric University Hospital
University of Zurich Lenggstrasse 31, 8032, Zurich, Switzerland. vollen@bli.uzh.ch

Classic serotonergic hallucinogens or psychedelics produce an

altered states of consciousness (ASC) that is characterized by pro-
found alterations in sensory perception, mood, thought including
the perception of reality, and the sense of self. Over the past years,
there has been considerable progress in the search for invariant
and common features of psychedelic states. In the first part of
this review, we outline contemporary approaches to characterize
the structure of ASCs by means of three primary etiology-inde-
pendent dimensions including oceanic boundlessness, anxious
ego-dissolution, and visionary restructuralization as well as by
11 lower-order factors, all of which can be reliably measured by
the altered state of consciousness questionnaire (APZ-OAV). The
second part sheds light on the dynamic nature of psychedelic
experiences. Frequently, psychedelic subjects progress through
different stages over time and levels of changes along a percep-
tion-hallucination continuum of increasing arousal and ego-dis-
solution. We then review in detail the acute effects of psychedel-
ics on sensory perception, emotion, cognition, creativity, and time
perception along with possible neural mechanisms underlying
them. The next part of this review outlines the influence of non-
pharmacological factors (predictors) on the acute psychedelic ex-
perience, such as demographics, genetics, personality, mood, and
setting, and also discusses some long-term effects succeeding the
acute experience. The last part presents some recent concepts
and models attempting to understand different facets of psyche-
delic states of consciousness from a neuroscientific perspective.
 Clinical Applications of Hallucinogens:
A Review [234]
Experiences In Clinical Psychopharmacology • August 2016

Albert Garcia-Romeu, PhD1, Brennan Kersgaard, BA1,*

and Peter H. Addy, PhD2,3
Brennan Kersgaard: brennankersgaard@gmail.com
Peter H. Addy: peter.addy@yale.edu
1Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences
Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD
2Department of Medical Informatics
Department of Veterans Affairs, West Haven, CT
3Department of Medical Informatics
Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT

Hallucinogens fall into several different classes, as broadly de-

fined by pharmacological mechanism of action, and chemical
structure. These include psychedelics, entactogens, dissocia-
tives, and other atypical hallucinogens. Although these classes
do not share a common primary mechanism of action, they do
exhibit important similarities in their ability to occasion tempo-
rary but profound alterations of consciousness, involving acute
changes in somatic, perceptual, cognitive, and affective pro-
cesses. Such effects likely contribute to their recreational use.
However, a growing body of evidence indicates that these drugs
may have therapeutic applications beyond their potential for
abuse. This review will present data on several classes of hallu-
cinogens with a particular focus on psychedelics, entactogens,
and dissociatives, for which clinical utility has been most exten-
sively documented. Information on each class is presented in
turn, tracing relevant historical insights, highlighting similarities
and differences between the classes from the molecular to the
behavioral level, and presenting the most up-to-date informa-
tion on clinically oriented research with these substances, with
important ramifications for their potential therapeutic value.
 LSD modulates music-induced imagery
via changes in parahippocampal connectivity [59]
European Neuropsychopharmacology • July 2016

Kaelen M1, Roseman L2, Kahan J3, Santos-Ribeiro A4, Orban C4, Lorenz R5, Barrett FS6,
Bolstridge M4,Williams T7, Williams L4, Wall MB8, Feilding A9,
Muthukumaraswamy S10, Nutt DJ4, Carhart-Harris R4.

1Centre for Neuropsychopharmacology, Division of Brain Sciences, Faculty of Medicine

Imperial College London, London W12, UK. Electronic address: m.kaelen@imperial.ac.uk
2Centre for Neuropsychopharmacology, Division of Brain Sciences, Faculty of Medicine
Imperial College London, London W12, UK; The Computational, Cognitive and Clinical
Neuroimaging Laboratory, The Centre for Neuroscience, Division of Brain Sciences, Imperial College London, London W12, UK
3Sobell Department of Motor Neuroscience & Movement Disorders
Institute of Neurology, University College London, Queen Square, London, UK
4Centre for Neuropsychopharmacology, Division of Brain Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, London W12, UK
5The Computational, Cognitive and Clinical Neuroimaging Laboratory
The Centre for Neuroscience, Division of Brain Sciences, Imperial College London, W12, UK
6Behavioral Pharmacology Research Unit, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD
7Academic Unit of Psychiatry, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 2BN, UK.
8Centre for Neuropsychopharmacology, Division of Brain Sciences, Faculty of Medicine
Imperial College London, London W12, UK; Imanova Centre for Imaging Sciences
Hammersmith Hospital, London W12, UK; Clinical Psychopharmacology Unit, University College London, London UK
9The Beckley Foundation, Beckley Park, Oxford OX3 9SY, UK.
10Schools of Pharmacy and Psychology, University of Auckland
Auckland 1142, New Zealand

Psychedelic drugs such as lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) were used extensively in psychiatry in the
past and their therapeutic potential is beginning to be re-examined today. Psychedelic psychother-
apy typically involves a patient lying with their eyes-closed during peak drug effects, while listening
to music and being supervised by trained psychotherapists. In this context, music is considered to
be a key element in the therapeutic model; working in synergy with the drug to evoke therapeuti-
cally meaningful thoughts, emotions and imagery. The underlying mechanisms involved in this pro-
cess have, however, never been formally investigated. Here we studied the interaction between LSD
and music-listening on eyes-closed imagery by means of a placebo-controlled, functional magnetic
resonance imaging (fMRI) study. Twelve healthy volunteers received intravenously administered LSD
(75µg) and, on a separate occasion, placebo, before being scanned under eyes-closed resting condi-
tions with and without music-listening. The parahippocampal cortex (PHC) has previously been linked
with (1) music-evoked emotion, (2) the action of psychedelics, and (3) mental imagery. Imaging analy-
ses therefore focused on changes in the connectivity profile of this particular structure. Results re-
vealed increased PHC-visual cortex (VC) functional connectivity and PHC to VC information flow in the
interaction between music and LSD. This latter result correlated positively with ratings of enhanced
eyes-closed visual imagery, including imagery of an autobiographical nature. These findings suggest
a plausible mechanism by which LSD works in combination with music listening to enhance certain
subjective experiences that may be useful in a therapeutic context.
 A placebo-controlled investigation
of synaesthesia-like experiences under LSD [525]
Neuropsychologia • July 2016

Terhune DB1, Luke DP2, Kaelen M3, Bolstridge M3

Feilding A4, Nutt D3, Carhart-Harris R5, Ward J6

1Department of Experimental Psychologym University of Oxford, Oxford, UK

Department of Psychology Goldsmiths, University of London, London, UK
Electronic address: d.terhune@gold.ac.uk
2Department of Psychology & Counselling, University of Greenwich, London, UK
3Centre for Neuropsychopharmacology, Division of Brain Sciences
Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, UK
4The Beckley Foundation, Beckley Park, Oxford, UK
5Centre for Neuropsychopharmacology, Division of Brain Sciences
Faculty of Medicine, London, UK
Electronic address: r.carhart-harris@imperial.ac.uk
6Department of Psychology, University of Sussex, Sussex, UK
Electronic address: jamiew@sussex.ac.uk

The induction of synaesthesia in non-synaesthetes has the potential to il-

luminate the mechanisms that contribute to the development of this condi-
tion and the shaping of its phenomenology. Previous research suggests that
lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) reliably induces synaesthesia-like experi-
ences in non-synaesthetes. However, these studies suffer from a number of
methodological limitations including lack of a placebo control and the ab-
sence of rigorous measures used to test established criteria for genuine syn-
aesthesia. Here we report a pilot study that aimed to circumvent these limi-
tations. We conducted a within-groups placebo-controlled investigation of
the impact of LSD on colour experiences in response to standardized graph-
emes and sounds and the consistency and specificity of grapheme- and
sound-colour associations. Participants reported more spontaneous syn-
aesthesia-like experiences under LSD, relative to placebo, but did not differ
across conditions in colour experiences in response to inducers, consistency
of stimulus-colour associations, or in inducer specificity. Further analyses
suggest that individual differences in a number of these effects were associ-
ated with the propensity to experience states of absorption in one’s daily life.
Although preliminary, the present study suggests that LSD-induced synaes-
thesia-like experiences do not exhibit consistency or inducer-specificity and
thus do not meet two widely established criteria for genuine synaesthesia.
 Acute Effects of Lysergic Acid Diethylamide
on Circulating Steroid Levels in Healthy Subjects [528]
Journal Of Neuroendocrinology • March 2016

Strajhar P1, Schmid Y2, Liakoni E2, Dolder PC2,3, Rentsch KM3
Kratschmar DV1, Odermatt A1, Liechti ME2.

1Division of Molecular and Systems Toxicology

Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
2Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology
Department of Biomedicine and Department of Clinical Research
University Hospital Basel, Basel, Switzerland
3Laboratory Medicine, University Hospital Basel, Basel, Switzerland

Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) is a serotonin 5-hydroxytryptamine-2A (5-HT2A ) receptor agonist

that is used recreationally worldwide. Interest in LSD research in humans waned after the 1970s, al-
though the use of LSD in psychiatric research and practice has recently gained increasing attention.
LSD produces pronounced acute psychedelic effects, although its influence on plasma steroid levels
over time has not yet been characterised in humans. The effects of LSD (200 μg) or placebo on plasma
steroid levels were investigated in 16 healthy subjects using a randomised, double-blind, placebo-con-
trolled, cross-over study design. Plasma concentration-time profiles were determined for 15 steroids
using liquid-chromatography tandem mass-spectrometry. LSD increased plasma concentrations of the
glucocorticoids cortisol, cortisone, corticosterone and 11-dehydrocorticosterone compared to placebo.
The mean maximum concentration of LSD was reached at 1.7 h. Mean peak psychedelic effects were
reached at 2.4 h, with significant alterations in mental state from 0.5 h to > 10 h. Mean maximal concen-
trations of cortisol and corticosterone were reached at 2.5 h and 1.9 h, and significant elevations were
observed 1.5-6 h and 1-3 h after drug administration, respectively. LSD also significantly increased plas-
ma concentrations of the androgen dehydroepiandrosterone but not other androgens, progestogens
or mineralocorticoids compared to placebo. A close relationship was found between plasma LSD con-
centrations and changes in plasma cortisol and corticosterone and the psychotropic response to LSD,
and no clockwise hysteresis was observed. In conclusion, LSD produces significant acute effects on cir-
culating steroids, especially glucocorticoids. LSD-induced changes in circulating glucocorticoids were
associated with plasma LSD concentrations over time and showed no acute pharmacological tolerance.
 The Therapeutic Potentials
of Ayahuasca: Possible Effects against
Various Diseases of Civilization [261]
Frontiers In Pharmacology • March 2016

Frecska E1, Bokor P2, Winkelman M3.

1Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine

University of Debrecen Debrecen, Hungary
2Doctoral School of Psychology, University of Pécs Pécs, Hungary
3School of Human Evolution and Social Change
Arizona State University, Tempe AZ, USA

Ayahuasca is an Amazonian psychoactive brew of two main

components. Its active agents are β-carboline and tryptamine
derivatives. As a sacrament, ayahuasca is still a central element
of many healing ceremonies in the Amazon Basin and its ritual
consumption has become common among the mestizo popula-
tions of South America. Ayahuasca use amongst the indigenous
people of the Amazon is a form of traditional medicine and cul-
tural psychiatry. During the last two decades, the substance has
become increasingly known among both scientists and laymen,
and currently its use is spreading all over in the Western world.
In the present paper we describe the chief characteristics of aya-
huasca, discuss important questions raised about its use, and
provide an overview of the scientific research supporting its po-
tential therapeutic benefits. A growing number of studies indi-
cate that the psychotherapeutic potential of ayahuasca is based
mostly on the strong serotonergic effects, whereas the sigma-1
receptor (Sig-1R) agonist effect of its active ingredient dimethyl-
tryptamine raises the possibility that the ethnomedical observa-
tions on the diversity of treated conditions can be scientifically
verified. Moreover, in the right therapeutic or ritual setting with
proper preparation and mindset of the user, followed by subse-
quent integration of the experience, ayahuasca has proven effec-
tive in the treatment of substance dependence. This article has
two important take-home messages: (1) the therapeutic effects of
ayahuasca are best understood from a bio-psycho-socio-spiritual
model, and (2) on the biological level ayahuasca may act against
chronic low grade inflammation and oxidative stress via the Sig-
1R which can explain its widespread therapeutic indications.

Decreased mental time travel to the past
correlates with default-mode network disintegration
under lysergic acid diethylamide [527]
Journal Of Psychopharmacology • April 2016
Speth J1, Speth C2, Kaelen M3, Schloerscheidt AM2
Feilding A4, Nutt DJ3, Carhart-Harris RL3.
1Department of Psychology, School of Social Sciences
University of Dundee, Dundee, UK j.speth@dundee.ac.uk
2Department of Psychology, School of Social Sciences
University of Dundee, Dundee, UK
3Centre for Neuropsychopharmacology
Imperial College London, London, UK
4Beckley Foundation, Oxford, UK
This paper reports on the effects of LSD on mental time
travel during spontaneous mentation. Twenty healthy
volunteers participated in a placebo-controlled cross-
over study, incorporating intravenous administration
of LSD (75 μg) and placebo (saline) prior to functional
magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Six independent,
blind judges analysed mentation reports acquired
during structured interviews performed shortly after
the functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
scans (approximately 2.5 hours post-administration).
Within each report, specific linguistic references to
mental spaces for the past, present and future were
identified. Results revealed significantly fewer mental
spaces for the past under LSD and this effect correlat-
ed with the general intensity of the drug’s subjective effects. No differences
in the number of mental spaces for the present or future were observed.
Consistent with the previously proposed role of the default-mode network
(DMN) in autobiographical memory recollection and ruminative thought,
decreased resting-state functional connectivity (RSFC) within the DMN cor-
related with decreased mental time travel to the past. These results are dis-
cussed in relation to potential therapeutic applications of LSD and related
psychedelics, e.g. in the treatment of depression, for which excessive reflec-
tion on one’s past, likely mediated by DMN functioning, is symptomatic.
Decreased mental time travel to the past
correlates with default-mode network disintegration
under lysergic acid diethylamide [527]
Journal Of Psychopharmacology • April 2016
Speth J1, Speth C2, Kaelen M3, Schloerscheidt AM2
Feilding A4, Nutt DJ3, Carhart-Harris RL3.
1Department of Psychology, School of Social Sciences
University of Dundee, Dundee, UK j.speth@dundee.ac.uk
2Department of Psychology, School of Social Sciences
University of Dundee, Dundee, UK
3Centre for Neuropsychopharmacology
Imperial College London, London, UK
4Beckley Foundation, Oxford, UK
This paper reports on the effects of LSD on mental time travel during spontaneous mentation.
Twenty healthy volunteers participated in a placebo-controlled crossover study, incorporating
intravenous administration of LSD (75 μg) and placebo (saline) prior to functional magnetic
resonance imaging (fMRI). Six independent, blind judges analysed mentation reports acquired
during structured interviews performed shortly after the functional magnetic resonance im-
aging (fMRI) scans (approximately 2.5 h post-administration). Within each report, specific lin-
guistic references to mental spaces for the past, present and future were identified. Results re-
vealed significantly fewer mental spaces for the past under LSD and this effect correlated with
the general intensity of the drug’s subjective effects. No differences in the number of mental
spaces for the present or future were observed. Consistent with the previously proposed role
of the default-mode network (DMN) in autobiographical memory recollection and ruminative
thought, decreased resting-state functional connectivity (RSFC) within the DMN correlated with
decreased mental time travel to the past. These results are discussed in relation to potential
therapeutic applications of LSD and related psychedelics, e.g. in the treatment of depression, for
which excessive reflection on one’s past, likely mediated by DMN functioning, is symptomatic.
DOI: 10.1177/0269881116628430
https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881116628430
 Neural Correlates of Psychosis
And
Gender Dysphoria In An Adult Male [249]
Archives Of Sexual Behavior • April 2016

Schwarz K1,2, Fontanari AM3, Mueller A4,3, Soll B4,3, da Silva DC3
Salvador J3, Zucker KJ5, Schneider MA4,3, Lobato MI4,3.

1Graduate Program in Medical Sciences: Psychiatry

Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Ramiro Barcelos 2400
Porto Alegre, RS, 90035-003, Brazil - kschwarz@hcpa.edu.br
2Gender Identity Disorder Program, Hospital de Clinicas de Porto Alegre (HCPA)
Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
3Gender Identity Disorder Program, Hospital de Clinicas de Porto Alegre (HCPA)
Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
4Graduate Program in Medical Sciences: Psychiatry
Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Ramiro Barcelos
2400, Porto Alegre, RS, 90035-003, Brazil
5Gender Identity Clinic, Child, Youth, and Family Services
Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, Toronto, ON, Canada
Email: kschwarz@hcpa.edu.br

Gender dysphoria (GD) (DSM-5) or transsexualism (ICD-10) re-

fers to the marked incongruity between the experience of one’s
gender and the sex at birth. In this case report, we describe
the use of LSD as a triggering factor of confusion in the gen-
der identity of a 39-year-old male patient, with symptoms of
psychosis and 25 years of substance abuse, who sought psy-
chiatric care with the desire to undergo sex reassignment sur-
gery. The symptoms of GD/psychosis were resolved by two
therapeutic measures: withdrawal of psychoactive substances
and use of a low-dose antipsychotic. We discuss the hypoth-
esis that the superior parietal cortical area may be an impor-
tant locus for body image and that symptoms of GD may be
related to variations underlying this brain region. Finally, this
case report shows that some presentations of GD can be cre-
ated by life experience in individuals who have underlying
mental or, synonymously, neurophysiological abnormalities.
 Time course of
pharmacokinetic and hormonal effects
of inhaled high-dose salvinorin A
in humans [390]
The Journal Of Psychopharmacology • April 2016

Matthew W. Johnson1, Katherine A. MacLean1

Michael J. Caspers2, Thomas E. Prisinzano2,
and Roland R. Griffiths1,3

1 Behavioral Pharmacology Research Unit

Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences
Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine
5510 Nathan Shock Drive, Baltimore, MD
2 Department of Medicinal Chemistry, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS
3 Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine
5510 Nathan Shock Drive, Baltimore, MD

Salvinorin A is a kappa opioid agonist and the principal psy-

choactive constituent of the Salvia divinorum plant, which
has been used for hallucinogenic effects. Previous research
on salvinorin A pharmacokinetics likely underestimated plas-
ma levels typically resulting from the doses administered due
to inefficient vaporization and not collecting samples during
peak drug effects. Six healthy adults inhaled a single high dose
of vaporized salvinorin A (n=4, 21 mcg/kg; n=2, 18 mcg/kg).
Participant- and monitor-rated effects were assessed every 2
min for 60 min post-inhalation. Blood samples were collected
at 13 time points up to 90 min post-inhalation. Drug levels
peaked at 2 min and then rapidly decreased. Drug levels were
significantly, positively correlated with participant and moni-
tor drug effect ratings. Significant elevations in prolactin were
observed beginning 5 min post-inhalation and peaking at 15
min post-inhalation. Cortisol showed inconsistent increases
across participants. Hormonal responses were not well cor-
related with drug levels. This is the first study to demonstrate
a direct relationship between changes in plasma levels of sal-
vinorin A and drug effects in humans. The results confirm the
efficacy of an inhalation technique for salvinorin A.
 The paradoxical psychological effects
of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) [107]
Psychology & Medicine • May 2016

Carhart-Harris RL1, Kaelen M1, Bolstridge M1, Williams TM2

Williams LT1, Underwood R3, Feilding A4, Nutt DJ1

1Imperial College London, Centre for Neuropsychopharmacology

Division of Brain Sciences ,Faculty of Medicine, London, UK
2Department of Psychiatry, The University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
3Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience
Department of Psychology, King’s College London, UK
4The Beckley Foundation, Beckley Park, Oxford, UK

Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) is a potent serotonergic hallucinogen or

psychedelic that modulates consciousness in a marked and novel way. This
study sought to examine the acute and mid-term psychological effects of
LSD in a controlled study. A total of 20 healthy volunteers participated in
this within-subjects study. Participants received LSD (75 µg, intravenously)
on one occasion and placebo (saline, intravenously) on another, in a bal-
anced order, with at least 2 weeks separating sessions. Acute subjective
effects were measured using the Altered States of Consciousness ques-
tionnaire and the Psychotomimetic States Inventory (PSI). A measure of
optimism (the Revised Life Orientation Test), the Revised NEO Personality
Inventory, and the Peter’s Delusions Inventory were issued at baseline and
2 weeks after each session. LSD produced robust psychological effects;
including heightened mood but also high scores on the PSI, an index of
psychosis-like symptoms. Increased optimism and trait openness were ob-
served 2 weeks after LSD (and not placebo) and there were no changes
in delusional thinking. The present findings reinforce the view that psy-
chedelics elicit psychosis-like symptoms acutely yet improve psychologi-
cal wellbeing in the mid to long term. It is proposed that acute alterations
in mood are secondary to a more fundamental modulation in the qual-
ity of cognition, and that increased cognitive flexibility subsequent to
serotonin 2A receptor (5-HT2AR) stimulation promotes emotional labil-
ity during intoxication and leaves a residue of ‘loosened cognition’ in the
mid to long term that is conducive to improved psychological wellbeing.
 Rapid and sustained symptom reduction
following psilocybin treatment for anxiety and
depression in patients with life-threatening cancer:
a randomized controlled trial [82]
Journal of Psychopharmacology • March 2016
Stephen Ross1,2,3,4,5,6, Anthony Bossis1,2,4, Jeffrey Guss1,2,4
Gabrielle Agin-Liebes10, Tara Malone1, Barry Cohen7
Sarah E Mennenga1, Alexander Belser8, Krystallia Kalliontzi2
James Babb9, Zhe Su3, Patricia Corby2 and Brian L Schmidt2

1 Department of Psychiatry
New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY
2 New York University College of Dentistry
Bluestone Center forClinical Research, New York, NY
3 Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry
New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY
4 Department of Psychiatry, Bellevue Hospital Center, New York,
5 NYU Langone Medical Center, New York, NY,
6 New York University-Health and Hospitals Corporation (NYU-HHC)
Clinical and Translational Science Institute, New York, NY
7 Department of Psychology, New York University, New York, NY, USA
8 Department of Applied Psychology, New York University Steinhardt
School of Culture, Education, and Human Development, New York, NY
9 Department of Radiology, New York University School of Medicine
New York, NY, 10 Palo Alto University, Palo Alto, CA, USA

Clinically significant anxiety and depression are common in patients with can-
cer, and are associated with poor psychiatric and medical outcomes. Histori-
cal and recent research suggests a role for psilocybin to treat cancer-related
anxiety and depression. In this double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover
trial, 29 patients with cancer-related anxiety and depression were randomly
assigned and received treatment with single-dose psilocybin (0.3 mg/kg) or
niacin, both in conjunction with psychotherapy. The primary outcomes were
anxiety and depression assessed between groups prior to the crossover at
7 weeks. Prior to the crossover, psilocybin produced immediate, substantial,
and sustained improvements in anxiety and depression and led to decreases
in cancer-related demoralization and hopelessness, improved spiritual well-
being, and increased quality of life. At the 6.5-month followup, psilocybin
was associated with enduring anxiolytic and anti-depressant effects (approx-
imately 60–80% of participants continued with clinically significant reduc-
tions in depression or anxiety), sustained benefits in existential distress and
quality of life, as well as improved attitudes towards death. The psilocybin-
induced mystical experience mediated the therapeutic effect of psilocybin
on anxiety and depression. In conjunction with psychotherapy, single mod-
erate-dose psilocybin produced rapid, robust and enduring anxiolytic and
anti-depressant effects in patients with cancer-related psychological distress.
 ‘Legal LSD’: Dangerous Party Drug Sold Online
European Psychiatric Association (EPA) 2016 Congress
Liam Davenport • March 2016
A novel psychoactive substance, or “legal high,”
that has hallucinogenic effects and potentially
severe adverse effects is being sold to partygo-
ers as lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), Span-
ish researchers have found. Although the use
of 25I-NBOMe, also known as “legal LSD,” is cur-
rently relatively rare, it is sold under various
names and in a range of forms, making it diffi-
cult for users to know what they are taking and
for clinicians to develop effective treatments.
Iciar Ezquiaga, MD, a psychiatry resident at the
Institut de Neuropsiquiatria i Addiccions–Parc
de Salut Mar, Barcelona, Spain, who presented
the data here at the European Psychiatric As-
sociation (EPA) 2016 Congress, told Medscape
Medical News that she is worried by the ap-
pearance of drugs such as 25I-NBOMe, a con-
cern exacerbated by the fact that novel com-
pounds are appearing every year.
“When they are known and reported to the
European and international conferences or
groups, then another substance comes, and
it gets onto the market.”
Moreover, she does not believe it is possible
to stop the emergence of these novel drugs,
because as soon as you eliminate one, anoth-
er one will turns up in its place. For Dr Ezquia-
ga, the most worrying aspect is that there is
currently no way to treat the adverse effects
of 25I-NBOMe.
Rising Tide of Novel Psychoactives
Dr Ezquiaga began her presentation by saying that the use of novel psychoactive substances,
which are defined as substances of abuse that are not yet illegal but may pose a public health
threat, is increasing year to year. The European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addic-
tion monitors more than 450 compounds. In 2014, it added 101 novel substances to its watch
list, an increase of 25% over 2013. The most
commonly seen novel psychoactive substanc-
es are synthetic cannabinoids and synthetic
cathinones, but Dr Ezquiaga focused on the
novel phenethylamine 25I-NBOMe, or 4-iodo-
2,5- dimethoxyphenyl-N-(2-methoxybenzyl)
phenylamine. This was first synthesized for re-
search on the serotonin-2a receptor. It became
popular as a recreational drug in 2011. It is
sold online as legal LSD or LSD, and is ingested
orally or sublingually, typically on blotting pa-
per. Typical doses are 0.5 to 1 mg. Peak effects,
which include hallucinations and euphoria, oc-
cur after 20 minutes and last for 3 to 13 hours.
Several cases of toxicity with 25I-NBOMe have
been reported, along with adverse effects such
as delirium, aggressive behavior, self-harm,
and paranoia. Dr Ezquiaga and colleagues in-
vestigated the prevalence and characteristics
of 25I-NBOMe in Spain by using data from En-
ergy Control, a Spanish harm-reduction non-
governmental organization whose workers go
to clubs and raves (a type of large dance party),
where they offer advice to drug users and also
offer to analyze whatever drugs the partygo-
ers are taking. Between 2009 and 2015, 21,198
samples were received by Energy Control and
analyzed by gas chromatography–mass spec-
trometry, 56 of which were 25I-NBOMe.
 Hard to Keep Up
The samples of 25I-NBOMe were first detected in 2012. The number of such samples peaked
at 19 in 2013. Usage then dipped but remained stable to the end of the study period, when 15
samples were detected. In 42.8% of cases, 25I-NBOMe was bought as LSD; in 21.4% of cases,
it was bought as 25I-NBOMe; in 7.1% of cases, as 25I-NBOH; in another 7.1%, as 25C-NBOMe;
and in the remaining 21.4% of cases, as other substances. The most common form of delivery
was blotting paper, found in 37.5% of cases, followed by powder form in 33.9% of samples and
liquid form in 10.7%. Curiously, in 5.3% of cases, the drug was sold in gummy bears (a form of
candy). Dr Ezquiaga told Medscape Medical News after her presentation that although it is
“really hard to know” how representative the sample is, because it is was drawn from a small
proportion of the people who take such drugs, it nevertheless offers a valuable insight. She
concluded her presentation by telling the audience that the use of novel psychoactive sub-
stances is increasing every year, but “our knowledge is not growing at the same speed as their
development, which means that we still don’t have any urine tests to detect novel psychoac-
tive substances, we still don’t have treatments to solve the toxicity, we don’t have specific treat-
ments, and we still have a lack of information about the pharmacology.”

Dr Ezquiaga pointed out that it is “very relevant” that the Internet has become the most impor-
tant marketplace for these substances, a development that represents a major shift from the
manner in which illicit drugs have been bought and sold in the past. “It’s also very important
to know that a lot of times, novel psychoactive substances are adulterant traditional drugs, so
users should know what they are going to consume.”

Potential Brain Damage

Session chair Ángela Ibáñez Cuadrado, associate professor of psychiatry at Universidad de Al-
calá, Madrid, Spain, told Medscape Medical News after the session that the findings were “very
interesting.” “We realize that there are a lot of drugs that we don’t know about in clinical prac-
tice, so have to be aware of this,” she said.

Highlighting the fact that a substantial proportion of individuals who bought 25I-NBOMe
thought they were buying LSD, Dr Cuadrado continued: “This is a potential problem, because
this is sold as legal LSD, and the potential implications in the future to cause damage to the
brain is very important to keep in mind.”

The research was supported by grants from the Instituto de Salud Carlos III and the European
Commission. One coauthor is recipient of a Rio Hortega Fellowship. The other authors and Dr
Cuadrado have disclosed no relevant financial relationships.
 A systematic review
of the effects of novel
psychoactive substances ‘legal highs’
on people with severe mental illness
[264]
Journal Of Psychiatric Mental Health Nurses • June 2016

Gray R1, Bressington D2, Hughes E3, Ivanecka A4

1Health Services and Population Research Centre

Hamad Medical Corporation, Doha, Qatar
2School of Nursing, Hong Kong Polytechnic, Hong Kong, Hong Kong
3School of Health and Human Sciences, University of Huddersfield, UK
4ADIGO, Slovakia

WHAT IS KNOWN ON THE SUBJECT?: Novel psychoac-

tive substances (NPS) include synthetic drugs mim-
icking the effects of illicit drugs, e.g. synthetic canna-
binoids, and herbs such as Salvia divinorum. NPS are
substances that can trigger hallucinations and other ef-
fects altering the mind, and are currently uncontrolled
by the United Nations’ 1961 Narcotic Drugs/1971 Psy-
chotropic Substances Conventions. NPS affect brain
chemistry that induces the psychoactive effects, such
as hallucinations and feeling ‘high’. It is unknown what
effects such drugs have on people with severe mental
illness (i.e. psychotic illnesses). WHAT THIS PAPER ADDS
TO EXISTING KNOWLEDGE?: Our review demonstrates
that little is known about the effects of various NPS
on people with severe mental illness. Almost nothing
is known about the long-term consequences of NPS
use on the mental and physical health of SMI patients.
Patients may lack understanding that NPS are psy-
choactive drugs that can impact on their mental and
physical wellbeing. WHAT ARE THE IMPLICATIONS FOR
PRACTICE?: Some patients might be reluctant or do
not think it is relevant to disclose NPS use. Common-
ly used illicit drug screening is unlikely to detect the
presence of NPS, therefore health and mental health
professionals should directly enquire about NPS and
actively encourage patients with severe mental illness
to disclose any substance use. There was no significant
patient and public involvement in the development
and conduct of this study . Introduction Novel psycho-
active substances (NPS) are synthetic substances that
have been developed to produce altered states of con-
sciousness and perceptions. People with severe men-
tal illness (SMI) are more likely to use NPS than people
without mental illness, but the short- and long-term
effects of NPS are largely unknown. Method We sys-
tematically reviewed the literature about the effects
of NPS on people with SMI. Results We included 12
case reports, 1 cross-sectional survey and 1 qualitative
study. Participants included mostly males aged be-
tween 20 and 35 years. A variety of NPS were used, in-
cluding synthetic cathinones and herbs such as Salvia.
The most commonly reported effects of NPS were psy-
chotic symptoms (in some cases novel in form and con-
tent to the patients’ usual symptoms) and significant
changes in behaviour, including agitation, aggression
and violence. Patients’ vital signs, such as blood pres-
sure, pulse rate and temperature, were also commonly
affected. Conclusion NPS potentially have serious ef-
fects on people with SMI, but our findings have lim-
ited generalizability due to a reliance on case studies.
There is a paucity of evidence about the long-term ef-
fects of these substances. Further research is required
to provide a better understanding about how differ-
ent NPS affect patients’ mental and physical health.
 “Ethics and Clinical Research” — The 50th Anniversary of Beecher’s Bombshell [11]
The New England Journal Of Medicine • June 2016

David S. Jones, M.D., Ph.D., Christine Grady, M.S.N., Ph.D., and Susan E. Lederer, Ph.D.

From the Department of Global Health and Social Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston (D.S.J); the Department of the History of Science, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA (D.S.J.)
the Department of Bioethics, National Institutes of Health Clinical Center, Bethesda, MD (C.G.)
and the Department of Medical History and Bioethics, University of Wisconsin Madison School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison (S.E.L.).

Human-subjects research receives intense scrutiny today. ficials. This work got Beecher interested in “certain problems
Researchers, institutions, funders, and journals pay seri- of human experimentation” (for the specific Beecher papers
ous attention to ethical conduct. Yet controversies con- cited here, see the Supplementary Appendix, available with
tinue, whether about experimenting with oxygen levels the full text of this article). In 1952, he asked Pentagon of-
in neonatal intensive care or with the duty hours of surgi- ficials for their new policy on human research. In 1955, he
cal residents.Some commentators have even argued that wrote to an English colleague to learn about the Medical Re-
anxiety over the ethics of Ebola research created delays search Council instructions for investigators and editors.
that resulted in lost opportunities.
In 1959 and 1963, Beecher published articles in JAMA about
Many researchers and bioethicists believe that serious dis- the role conflict faced by physician-investigators. Neither gen-
cussions of research ethics began after World War II. The ac- erated much response. He then collected examples of trou-
tual history is longer and more complex. Nonetheless, Henry bling behavior by U.S., Canadian, and European researchers.
Beecher’s “Ethics and Clinical Research,” published 50 years For instance, he examined 100 consecutive articles in the
ago, played an important role. Beecher warned researchers Journal of Clinical Investigation (JCI) and concluded that 12
and the public about serious problems with research in the were “unethical or questionably ethical.” He compiled a set
United States and exhorted researchers to reform. Research of 50 articles on studies funded by government agencies,
regulations proliferated in the ensuing decades. However, conducted at leading institutions, and published in leading
as Beecher surely anticipated, new policies and procedures journals. He took care to ensure that his critiques were fair.
have not resolved every dilemma. Now, as in 1966, reason- For instance, he queried New England Journal of Medicine
able people disagree about research ethics. editor Joseph Garland about the Journal’s decision to pub-
lish a study of thymectomy in children; Garland admitted
By 1950, Henry Beecher (at right), an anesthesiologist at Mas- that the ethical review had been inadequate. Beecher also
sachusetts General Hospital, had emerged as a respected re- recognized his own mistakes. He regretted a 1948 study in
searcher, having examined battlefield trauma, the safety of which researchers in his laboratory, without adequate con-
anesthesia, subjective experiences (e.g., pain, thirst, and nau- sent, prolonged anesthesia “beyond that necessary” to study
sea), and placebo responses. He advocated careful research the effects on kidney function.
methods, including the use of placebo controls. He had also
consulted for the military about the use of mescaline and LSD Beecher then accepted an invitation to speak at a confer-
as “truth serums,” research that involved discussions with Cen- ence in March 1965. He delivered a “bombshell.” After re-
tral Intelligence Agency interrogators and former Gestapo of- viewing the Jewish Chronic Disease Hospital controversy,
he proceeded, without naming names, to describe 17 additional cases in which
researchers had failed to obtain consent or had harmed their research subjects:
“what seem to be breaches of ethical conduct in experimentation are by no means
rare, but are almost, one fears, universal.” Reaction from his colleagues was imme-
diate. Thomas Chalm- ers and David Rutstein called a press conference to accuse
Beecher of “gross and irresponsible exaggeration.” Beecher condemned their kan-
garoo court and accused them of defamation of character. The exchange received
extensive media coverage.

After an inquiry to Science, Beecher submitted his manuscript to JAMA in August.

The editor rejected it, citing its excessive length (it described 50 research studies)
and poor organization. Beecher submitted a revised manuscript to the Journal in
November. Garland sent it “to some picked reviewers,” expecting no serious prob-
lems. Six of the seven recommended against publication: there were too many
cases; Beecher did not allow the investigators to tell their side of the story; many
readers would recognize the “anonymous” cases; and his critiques had already re-
ceived extensive media coverage. One reviewer supported publication, but only
if the Journal obtained a legal opinion “regarding any possible problems.”

The editorial board voted to reject the submission, but Garland overruled them.
Blurring the line between editor and coauthor, he helped Beecher revise the man-
uscript. Beecher reduced the examples to 25 and provided Garland with their ci-
tations. Garland convened a “brain cabinet” (two colleagues) to assess Beecher’s
accusations; they settled on a final list of 22 cases. Garland also moderated Beech-
er’s language: “I have tried to omit anything accusatory or especially critical, since
what we want is not an indictment but a sober and undramatic presentation of what
has been done and is being done in violation of basic ethics.” The Journal published
the article in June with an editorial by Garland.

The cases made for shocking reading. Beecher focused on human experiments in
which patients were used not for their benefit, “but for that, at least in theory, of pa-
tients in general.” Researchers sometimes withheld known treatments. In the case
Beecher considered most egregious, penicillin was withheld from 109 soldiers
with streptococcal infections; acute rheumatic fever developed in 2 and acute
nephritis in one. In some cases, patients experienced harm or risk of harm without
benefit. In others, researchers had not obtained consent. The examples were not
from a lunatic fringe. Four came from Harvard Medical School, three from the NIH
Clinical Center, and the rest from other prominent institutions.
Survey study of challenging experiences
after ingesting psilocybin mushrooms:
Acute and enduring positive
and negative consequences [81]
The Journal Of Psychopharmacology • December 2016

Theresa M Carbonaro1, Matthew P Bradstreet1

Frederick S Barrett1, Katherine A MacLean1
Robert Jesse1,2, Matthew W Johnson1
and Roland R Griffiths1,3

1Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences

Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
2Council on Spiritual Practices, Baltimore, MD, USA
3Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University
School of Medicine Baltimore, MD, USA

Acute and enduring adverse effects of psilocybin have

been reported anecdotally, but have not been well char-
acterized. For this study, 1993 individuals (mean age 30
yrs; 78% male) completed an online survey about their
single most psychologically difficult or challenging ex-
perience (worst “bad trip”) after consuming psilocybin
mushrooms. Thirty-nine percent rated it among the top
five most challenging experiences of his/her lifetime.
Eleven percent put self or others at risk of physical harm;
factors increasing the likelihood of risk included estimat-
ed dose, duration and difficulty of the experience, and
absence of physical comfort and social support. Of the
respondents, 2.6% behaved in a physically aggressive or
violent manner and 2.7% received medical help. Of those
whose experience occurred >1 year before, 7.6% sought
treatment for enduring psychological symptoms. Three
cases appeared associated with onset of enduring psychotic
symptoms and three cases with attempted suicide. Multiple regression analysis showed Despite these difficulties, it is notable that 84% of respondents reported having
degree of difficulty was positively associated, and duration was negatively associated, benefited from the experience, with 76% reporting increased well-being or life
with enduring increases in well-being. Difficulty of experience was positively associated satisfaction attributed to the experience. Some 60% of respondents considered
with dose. Despite difficulties, 84% endorsed benefiting from the experience. The inci- their experience to be among the top 10 most psychologically personally mean-
dence of risky behavior or enduring psychological distress is extremely low when psilo- ingful experiences of their lives, while 34% and 31% reported the experience in
cybin is given in laboratory studies to screened, prepared, and supported participants. the top five most personally meaningful and spiritually significant, respectively.
 An intravenous self-administration procedure
for assessing the reinforcing effects of
hallucinogens in nonhuman primates [524]
Journal Of Pharmacological & Toxicological Methods • December 2016

By A.K. Goodwin

Division of Neurotoxicology
National Center for Toxicological Research
US Food & Drug Administration, United States
Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences
Division of Behavioral Biology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, USA
Electronic address: Amy.Goodwin@FDA.HHS.GOV

Self-administration procedures are the gold standard for investigating the

reinforcing effects of drugs. The notable exception to good correspon-
dence between laboratory self-administration studies and human drug
taking behavior has historically been the classic hallucinogens. The present
study used a well-established daily access procedure, followed by a nov-
el intermittent access procedure, to investigate the reinforcing effects of
LSD in baboons. Rates of self-injection in the daily access procedure were
minimal. One baboon self-administered 0.001mg/kg and a second baboon
self-administered 0.0032mg/kg above vehicle levels, though rates of self-
injection were clearly low and neither of the two remaining baboons self-
administered any LSD dose tested in the daily access procedure. Rates of
self-injection using an intermittent access procedure with discriminative
stimuli resulted in two doses of LSD being self-administered above vehicle
levels in two of three baboons tested (0.01 and 0.032mg/kg in one baboon;
0.0032 and 0.01mg/kg in a second). In addition, the number of self-injec-
tions at these doses was higher (range=3-6 injections) in the intermittent
access procedure than in the daily access procedure (range=1-2 injections).
The present study is the first to demonstrate LSD self-administration in a
laboratory animal, and though the results are limited, they indicate inter-
mittent access procedures with discriminative stimuli may provide a reli-
able and valid method for investigating the reinforcing effects of IV self-
administered hallucinogens in laboratory animals. The usefulness of such
procedures should be further evaluated in a larger number of subjects.
 Acute Effects of Lysergic Acid Diethylamide
on Circulating Steroid Levels
in Healthy Subjects [139]
Journal Of Neuroendocrinology • March 2016

Strajhar P1, Schmid Y2, Liakoni E2, Dolder PC2,3

Rentsch KM3, Kratschmar DV1, Odermatt A1, Liechti ME2

1Division of Molecular and Systems Toxicology

Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences
University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
2Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology
Department of Biomedicine and Department of Clinical Research
University Hospital Basel, Basel, Switzerland
3Laboratory Medicine, University Hospital Basel, Basel, Switzerland

Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) is a serotonin 5-hydroxytrypta-

mine-2A (5-HT2A ) receptor agonist that is used recreationally world-
wide. Interest in LSD research in humans waned after the 1970s,
although the use of LSD in psychiatric research and practice has re-
cently gained increasing attention. LSD produces pronounced acute
psychedelic effects, although its influence on plasma steroid levels
over time has not yet been characterised in humans. The effects of
LSD (200 μg) or placebo on plasma steroid levels were investigated
in 16 healthy subjects using a randomised, double-blind, placebo-
controlled, cross-over study design. Plasma concentration-time pro-
files were determined for 15 steroids using liquid-chromatography
tandem mass-spectrometry. LSD increased plasma concentrations
of the glucocorticoids cortisol, cortisone, corticosterone and 11-
dehydrocorticosterone compared to placebo. The mean maximum
concentration of LSD was reached at 1.7 h. Mean peak psychedelic
effects were reached at 2.4 h, with significant alterations in mental
state from 0.5 h to > 10 h. Mean maximal concentrations of cortisol
and corticosterone were reached at 2.5 h and 1.9 h, and significant
elevations were observed 1.5-6 h and 1-3 h after drug administra-
tion, respectively. LSD also significantly increased plasma concentra-
tions of the androgen dehydroepiandrosterone but not other andro-
gens, progestogens or mineralocorticoids compared to placebo. A
close relationship was found between plasma LSD concentrations
and changes in plasma cortisol and corticosterone and the psycho-
tropic response to LSD, and no clockwise hysteresis was observed.
In conclusion, LSD produces significant acute effects on circulating
steroids, especially glucocorticoids. LSD-induced changes in circu-
lating glucocorticoids were associated with plasma LSD concentra-
tions over time and showed no acute pharmacological tolerance.
LSD alters eyes-closed functional connectivity within the early visual cortex in a retinotopic fashion [140]

Human Brain Mapp • August 2016

Roseman L1,2, Sereno MI3, Leech R2, Kaelen M1

Orban C1, McGonigle J1, Feilding A4, Nutt DJ1, Carhart-Harris RL1

1Centre for Neuropsychopharmacology

Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, W12 0NN, UK
2Computational, Cognitive and Clinical Neuroscience Laboratory
Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, W12 0NN, UK
3Birkbeck-UCL Centre for Neuroimaging, London, WC1H 0AP, UK
4The Beckley Foundation, Beckley Park
Oxford, OX3 9SY, UK

The question of how spatially organized activity in the visual cortex behaves
during eyes-closed, lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD)-induced “psychedelic im-
agery” (e.g., visions of geometric patterns and more complex phenomena) has
never been empirically addressed, although it has been proposed that under
psychedelics, with eyes-closed, the brain may function “as if” there is visual in-
put when there is none. In this work, resting-state functional connectivity
(RSFC) data was analyzed from 10 healthy subjects under the influence of LSD
and, separately, placebo. It was suspected that eyes-closed psychedelic imag-
ery might involve transient local retinotopic activation, of the sort typically as-
sociated with visual stimulation. To test this, it was hypothesized that, under
LSD, patches of the visual cortex with congruent retinotopic representations
would show greater RSFC than incongruent patches. Using a retinotopic local-
izer performed during a nondrug baseline condition, nonadjacent patches of
V1 and V3 that represent the vertical or the horizontal meridians of the visual
field were identified. Subsequently, RSFC between V1 and V3 was measured
with respect to these a priori identified patches. Consistent with our prior hy-
pothesis, the difference between RSFC of patches with congruent retinotopic
specificity (horizontal-horizontal and vertical-vertical) and those with incon-
gruent specificity (horizontal-vertical and vertical-horizontal) increased signifi-
cantly under LSD relative to placebo, suggesting that activity within the visual
cortex becomes more dependent on its intrinsic retinotopic organization in the
drug condition. This result may indicate that under LSD, with eyes-closed, the
early visual system behaves as if it were seeing spatially localized visual inputs.
 Hallucinogen Persisting Perception Disorder
and Risk of Suicide [141]
Journal Of Pharmacology Practice • August 2016

Brodrick J1, Mitchell BG2

1Department of Pharmacy
Michael E. DeBakey Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Houston, TX, USA
2Department of Pharmacy, Michael E. DeBakey Veterans Affairs Medical Center
Houston, TX, USA Menninger Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences
Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA brian.mitchell3@va.gov

A 30-year-old male patient developed a hallucinogen persist-

ing perception disorder (HPPD) after smoking cannabis laced
with phencyclidine (PCP) or lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD)
10 years prior to hospital admission. Clinically, he reported see-
ing vivid, saturated colors and caricature-like objects. The pa-
tient described perceiving objects or people in motion as mov-
ing faster than normal. He reported living in a dream-like state
and feeling numb and detached from other people and his sur-
roundings. Upon pharmacotherapy initiation, facility transfer,
and subsequent discharge from an acute psychiatry unit, he ulti-
mately committed suicide. Although hallucinogen abuse is com-
mon in the United States, this case suggests that HPPD maybe
significantly underdiagnosed and undertreated. In some cases,
this oversight may perpetuate years of unnecessary patient suf-
fering and can ultimately lead to severe depression and suicide.
 LSD-induced entropic brain activity
predicts subsequent personality change [142]
Human Brain Mapp • September 2016

Lebedev AV1, Kaelen M2, Lövdén M1, Nilsson J1

Feilding A3, Nutt DJ2, Carhart-Harris RL2

1Aging Research Center, Karolinska Institutet (Department of Neurobiology

Care Sciences and Society) & Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
2Division of Brain Sciences, Department of Medicine
Centre for Neuropsychopharmacology, Imperial College London, UK
3The Beckley Foundation, Beckley Park, United Kingdom

Personality is known to be relatively stable throughout adulthood. Nev-

ertheless, it has been shown that major life events with high personal sig-
nificance, including experiences engendered by psychedelic drugs, can
have an enduring impact on some core facets of personality. In the pres-
ent, balanced-order, placebo-controlled study, we investigated biological
predictors of post-lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) changes in personali-
ty. Nineteen healthy adults underwent resting state functional MRI scans
under LSD (75µg, I.V.) and placebo (saline I.V.). The Revised NEO Personal-
ity Inventory (NEO-PI-R) was completed at screening and 2 weeks after
LSD/placebo. Scanning sessions consisted of three 7.5-min eyes-closed
resting-state scans, one of which involved music listening. A standardized
preprocessing pipeline was used to extract measures of sample entropy,
which characterizes the predictability of an fMRI time-series. Mixed-ef-
fects models were used to evaluate drug-induced shifts in brain entropy
and their relationship with the observed increases in the personality trait
openness at the 2-week follow-up. Overall, LSD had a pronounced global
effect on brain entropy, increasing it in both sensory and hierarchically
higher networks across multiple time scales. These shifts predicted endur-
ing increases in trait openness. Moreover, the predictive power of the en-
tropy increases was greatest for the music-listening scans and when “ego-
dissolution” was reported during the acute experience. These results shed
new light on how LSD-induced shifts in brain dynamics and concomitant
subjective experience can be predictive of lasting changes in personality.
 Exploring Hallucinogen Pharmacology
and Psychedelic Medicine with Zebrafish Models [143]
Zebrafish • October 2016

Kyzar EJ1, Kalueff AV2,3,4,5,6

1Department of Psychiatry
College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois
2Research Institute for Marine Drugs and Nutrition, College of Food Science and Technology
Guangdong Ocean University (GDOU), Zhanjiang, China
3ZENEREI Institute, Slidell, Louisiana
4Institute of Translational Biomedicine, St. Petersburg State University, St. Petersburg, Russia
5Institutes of Chemical Technology and Natural Sciences
Ural Federal University, Ekaterinburg, Russia
6The International Zebrafish Neuroscience Research Consortium, Slidell, Louisiana

After decades of sociopolitical obstacles, the field of psychiatry is expe-

riencing a revived interest in the use of hallucinogenic agents to treat
brain disorders. Along with the use of ketamine for depression, recent
pilot studies have highlighted the efficacy of classic serotonergic halluci-
nogens, such as lysergic acid diethylamide and psilocybin, in treating ad-
diction, post-traumatic stress disorder, and anxiety. However, many basic
pharmacological and toxicological questions remain unanswered with
regard to these compounds. In this study, we discuss psychedelic medi-
cine as well as the behavioral and toxicological effects of hallucinogenic
drugs in zebrafish. We emphasize this aquatic organism as a model ideal-
ly suited to assess both the potential toxic and therapeutic effects of ma-
jor known classes of hallucinogenic compounds. In addition, novel drugs
with hallucinogenic properties can be efficiently screened using zebraf-
ish models. Well-designed preclinical studies utilizing zebrafish can con-
tribute to the reemerging treatment paradigm of psychedelic medicine,
leading to new avenues of clinical exploration for psychiatric disorders.
 Psychedelics
in the treatment of
unipolar mood disorders:
a systematic review [271]
Journal of Psychopharmacology • November 2016

James JH Rucker1,2*, Luke A Jelen1,3*, Sarah Flynn4

Kyle D Frowde4 and Allan H Young1,3

1 The Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience

King’s College London, London, UK
2 South West London and St George’s Mental Health NHS Trust, London
3South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust, London
4King’s College London School of Medicine, London
These authors contributed equally to this manuscript
Corresponding author:
James JH Rucker, The Institute of Psychiatry
Psychology and Neuroscience, King’s College London
16 De Crespigny Park, London SE5 8AF, UK
Email: james.rucker@kcl.ac.uk

Unipolar mood disorders, including major depressive disor-

der and persistent depressive disorder (dysthymia), confer
high rates of disability and mortality and a very high socioeco-
nomic burden. Current treatment is suboptimal in most cases
and there is little of note in the pharmaceutical development
pipeline. The psychedelic drugs, including lysergic acid dieth-
ylamide and psilocybin, were used extensively in the treat-
ment of mood disorders, and other psychiatric conditions,
before their prohibition in the late 1960s. They are relatively
safe when used in medically controlled environments, with
no reported risk of dependence. Here, we present a system-
atic review of published clinical treatment studies using psy-
chedelics in patients with broadly defined UMD, and consider
their place in psychiatry. Whilst all of the included studies have
methodological shortcomings, of 423 individuals in 19 stud-
ies, 335 (79.2%) showed clinician-judged improvement after
treatment with psychedelics. A recently completed pilot study
in the UK favours the use of psilocybin with psychological sup-
port in treatment resistant depressive disorder. The evidence
overall strongly suggests that psychedelics should be re-ex-
amined in modern clinical trials for their use in unipolar mood
disorders and other non-psychotic mental health conditions.
 The use of illicit drugs
as self-medication in the treatment of cluster headache:
Results from an Italian online survey [144]
Cephalalgia • February 2016

Di Lorenzo C1, Coppola G2, Di Lorenzo G3, Bracaglia M4, Rossi P5, Pierelli F6

1Don Carlo Gnocchi Onlus Foundation, Italy cherub@inwind.it

2G.B. Bietti Foundation-IRCCS, Italy
3Department of Systems Medicine, University of Rome “Tor Vergata,” Italy
4”Sapienza” University of Rome Polo Pontino
Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences and Biotechnologies Latina, Italy
5Headache Clinic, INI Grottaferrata (RM), Italy
6”Sapienza” University of Rome Polo Pontino
Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences and Biotechnologies Latina, Italy
IRCCS-Neuromed, Pozzilli (IS), Italy

Cluster headache (CH) patients often receive unsatisfactory treatment and

may explore illicit substances as alternatives. We aimed to explore this use of
illicit drugs for CH treatment. We invited CH patients from an Internet-based
self-help group to complete a questionnaire regarding their therapeutic use
of illicit substances. Of the 54 respondents, 29 were classified as chronic and
39 were drug-resistant cases. Fifty patients had previously tried subcutaneous
sumatriptan, 40 had tried O2, and 48 had tried at least one prophylactic treat-
ment. All 54 patients specified that they were dissatisfied with conventional
treatments. Thirty-four patients had used cannabinoids, 13 cocaine, 8 heroin,
18 psilocybin, 12 lysergic acid amide (LSA), and 4 lysergic acid diethylamide
(LSD). Some patients with intractable CH decided to try illicit drugs concomi-
tantly with cessation of medical care. Most of these patients found suggestions
for illicit drug use on the Internet. Many patients seemed to underestimate
the judicial consequences of, and had an overestimated confidence in the
safety of, such illicit treatments. Physicians are often not informed by patients
of their choice to use illicit drugs. This leads to questions regarding the true
nature of the physician-patient relationship among dissatisfied CH patients.
 The good, the bad and the tasty:
The many roles of mushrooms [811]
Studies In Mycology • September 2016

de Mattos-Shipley KM1, Ford KL2, Alberti F3

Banks AM4, Bailey AM2, Foster GD2

Fungi are often inconspicuous in nature and this

means it is all too easy to overlook their importance.
Often referred to as the “Forgotten Kingdom”, fungi
are key components of life on this planet. The phylum
Basidiomycota, considered to contain the most com-
plex and evolutionarily advanced members of this
Kingdom, includes some of the most iconic fungal
species such as the gilled mushrooms, puffballs and
bracket fungi. Basidiomycetes inhabit a wide range of
ecological niches, carrying out vital ecosystem roles,
particularly in carbon cycling and as symbiotic part-
ners with a range of other organisms. Specifically in
the context of human use, the basidiomycetes are
a highly valuable food source and are increasingly
medicinally important. In this review, seven main
categories, or ‘roles’, for basidiomycetes have been
suggested by the authors: as model species, edible
species, toxic species, medicinal basidiomycetes, sym-
bionts, decomposers and pathogens, and two spe-
cies have been chosen as representatives of each
category. Although this is in no way an exhaustive
discussion of the importance of basidiomycetes, this
review aims to give a broad overview of the impor-
tance of these organisms, exploring the various ways
they can be exploited to the benefit of human society.
 Self-Reported Ecstasy/MDMA/“Molly” Use
in a Sample of Nightclub and Dance Festival Attendees
in New York City [351]
Substance Use & Misuse • September 2016

Joseph J. Palamar, Patricia Acosta, Danielle C. Ompad & Charles M. Cleland

aDepartment of Population Health, New York University Langone Medical Center, New York, NY
bCenter for Drug Use and HIV Research, New York University College of Nursing, New York, NY
cCenter for Health, Identity, Behavior & Prevention Studies, New York University, New York, NY
dNew York University College of Nursing, New York, NY

Ecstasy (MDMA) use has regained popularity in the United States, particularly in the form of
“Molly,” which is often marketed as pure MDMA. Surveys have generally not included “Molly” in
the definition of ecstasy, so rates of use may be underestimated. As popularity of ecstasy increas-
es, research is needed to examine use among those at highest risk for use—nightlife attendees.
We surveyed 679 young adults (age 18–25) entering nightclubs and festivals holding electronic
dance music (EDM) parties inNewYork City in 2015. A variation of time-space sampling was uti-
lized. We examined prevalence and correlates of self-reported lifetime ecstasy use. Self-reported
lifetime ecstasy use was common (42.8%, 95% CI: 32.8, 52.7). Use was most common among
older participants, frequent party attendees, and those reporting higher levels of exposure to
users. Those surveyed outside of festivals were less likely to report use compared to those sur-
veyed outside of nightclubs (AOR=0.37, p=.015). Over a third of ecstasy users (36.8%) reported
use in pill, powder, and crystal form. Ecstasy users were also more likely to report use of other
drugs, including novel psychoactive substances (e.g., 2C series drugs, synthetic cathinones “bath
salts”). Half (50.4%) reported suspecting (21.9%) or finding out (28.5%) that their ecstasy had
ever contained a drug other than MDMA. A large percentage of nightlife attendees in NYC report
lifetime ecstasy use. Findings should inform prevention and harm reduction programming. Fur-
ther research is needed as ecstasy continues to change (e.g., in form, purity, and name).
 Psilocybin produces substantial and sustained
decreases in depression and anxiety in patients with
life-threatening cancer: A randomized double-blind trial
[327]
Journal of Psychopharmacology • December 2016

Roland R Griffiths1,2, Matthew W Johnson1, Michael A Carducci3,

Annie Umbricht1, William A Richards1, Brian D Richards1,
Mary P Cosimano1 and Margaret A Klinedinst1

1 Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences

Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD
2 Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD
3 Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center
Johns Hopkins, University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD

Cancer patients often develop chronic, clinically significant symptoms of depression

and anxiety. Previous studies suggest that psilocybin may decrease depression and
anxiety in cancer patients. The effects of psilocybin were studied in 51 cancer pa-
tients with life-threatening diagnoses and symptoms of depression and/or anxiety.
This randomized, double-blind, cross-over trial investigated the effects of a very low
(placebo-like) dose (1 or 3 mg/70 kg) vs. a high dose (22 or 30 mg/70 kg) of psilocy-
bin administered in counterbalanced sequence with 5 weeks between sessions and
a 6-month follow-up. Instructions to participants and staff minimized expectancy
effects. Participants, staff, and community observers rated participant moods, atti-
tudes, and behaviors throughout the study. High-dose psilocybin produced large
decreases in clinician- and self-rated measures of depressed mood and anxiety, along
with increases in quality of life, life meaning, and optimism, and decreases in death
anxiety. At 6-month follow-up, these changes were sustained, with about 80% of
participants continuing to show clinically significant decreases in depressed mood
and anxiety. Participants attributed improvements in attitudes about life/self, mood,
relationships, and spirituality to the high-dose experience, with >80% endorsing
moderately or greater increased well-being/life satisfaction. Community observer
ratings showed corresponding changes. Mystical-type psilocybin experience on ses-
sion day mediated the effect of psilocybin dose on therapeutic outcomes.
CHAPTER THREE
THE 2015 Peer Review
 Hallucinogenic drugs
in pre-Columbian Mesoamerican cultures
[393 English & 394 Spanish]
Neurologia • January - February 2015
[Article in English, Spanish]

By F.J. Carod-Artal

Servicio de Neurología, Hospital Virgen de la Luz, Cuenca, España

Electronic address: fjcarod-artal@hotmail.com

The American continent is

very rich in psychoactive
plants and fungi, and many
pre-Columbian Mesoameri- A ritual enema (above) and a Tepantitla mural (below) depicting Priests bearing
can cultures used them for psilocybin mushrooms around the god Tlaloc
magical, therapeutic and
religious purposes. The ar-
chaeological, ethno-historical
and ethnographic evidence
of the use of hallucinogenic
substances in Mesoamerica is
reviewed. Hallucinogenic cac-
tus, plants and mushrooms
were used to induce altered states of consciousness in heal-
ing rituals and religious ceremonies. The Maya drank balché
(a mixture of honey and extracts of Lonchocarpus) in group
ceremonies to achieve intoxication. Ritual enemas and other
psychoactive substances were also used to induce states of
trance. Olmec, Zapotec, Maya and Aztec used peyote, hallu-
cinogenic mushrooms (teonanacatl: Psilocybe spp) and the
seeds of ololiuhqui (Turbina corymbosa), that contain mesca-
line, psilocybin and lysergic acid amide, respectively. The skin
of the toad Bufo spp contains bufotoxins with hallucinogenic
properties, and was used since the Olmec period. Jimson
weed (Datura stramonium), wild tobacco (Nicotiana rustica),
water lily (Nymphaea ampla) and Salvia divinorum were used
for their psychoactive effects. Mushroom stones dating from
3000 BC have been found in ritual contexts in Mesoamerica.
Archaeological evidence of peyote use dates back to over 5000 years. Several chroniclers, mainly
Fray Bernardino de Sahagún, described their effects in the sixteenth century. The use of psychoac-
tive substances was common in pre-Columbian Mesoamerican societies. Today, local shamans and
healers still use them in ritual ceremonies in Mesoamerica.
Toloache
James Douglas Morrison (pictured below) was born on December 8th, 1943 and left this world on
July 3rd, 1971, a wonderful life cut short by stardom and drugs. An American singer, songwriter
and poet, JIm is best remembered as the lead singer of the Doors. Due to his poetic lyrics, distinc-
tive voice, wild personality, performances and dramatic circumstances surrounding his life and early
death, Morrison is regarded as one of the most iconic and influential singers in rock music history.

D. stramonium is known as toloache or ‘devil’s herb’ in Mesoamerica (below). Numerous native peo-
ples of northern Mexico and the southern United States used the plant as medicine, a means of
diagnosing disease, to expe-
rience their novice visions
during puberty rites, and
as a hunting aid. Unlike
the different substances
that were used to achieve
trance states and better
perception of conscious-
ness, toloache, with its
anticholinergic effect,
was used to create states
of delirium featuring agi-
tation and intense hal-
lucinations. Researchers
in the Mexican state of
Hidalgo have discovered
pre-Columbian represen-
tations of reclining fig-
ures with toloache plants
growing from their bel-
lies. Toloache was proba-
bly used in rites associat-
ed with human sacrifice.
The Huichol regarded it
as the opposite of peyo-
te, which overcomes to-
loache according to their
mythology.

El Toloache al prepararse en jugo de naranja deja un sabor como a guayaba y una textura pastosa
 Long-term use of psychedelic drugs
is associated with differences in brain structure
and personality in humans:
Cortical thickness and psychedelic drugs [547]
European Neuropsychopharmacology • January 2015

José Carlos Bouso, Fernanda Palhano-Fontes, Antoni

Rodríguez-Fornells, Sidarta Ribeiro, Rafael Sanches, José Alexandre S. Crippa
Jaime E.C. Hallak, Draulio B. de Araujo, Jordi Riba

1Human Neuropsychopharmacology Group

Sant Pau Institute of Biomedical Research (IIBSant Pau), C/Sant Antoni María Claret, 167. 08025, Barcelona, Spain
2International Center for Ethnobotanical Education Research & Service
3Brain Institute/Hospital Universitario Onofre Lopes, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, Brazil
4Cognition and Brain Plasticity Group, Bellvitge Biomedical Research Institute, L’Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain
5Department of Basic Psychology, University of Barcelona, Barcelona 08035, Spain
6Catalan Institution for Research and Advanced Studies, Barcelona, Spain
7Neuroscience and Behaviour Department, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Brazil
8Centre d’Investigació de Medicaments, Servei de Farmacologia Clínica
Hospital de la Santa Creu i Sant Pau, Barcelona, Spain, Departament de Farmacologia i Terapèutica
Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental, CIBERSAM

Psychedelic agents have a long history of use by humans for their capacity to induce pro-
found modifications in perception, emotion and cognitive processes. Despite increasing
knowledge of the neural mechanisms involved in the acute effects of these drugs, the im-
pact of sustained psychedelic use on the human brain remains largely unknown. Molecular
pharmacology studies have shown that psychedelic 5-hydroxytryptamine (5HT)2A agonists
stimulate neurotrophic and transcription factors associated with synaptic plasticity. These
data suggest that psychedelics could potentially induce structural changes in brain tissue.
Here we looked for differences in cortical thickness (CT) in regular users of psychedelics. We
obtained magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) images of the brains of 22 regular users of aya-
huasca (a preparation whose active principle is the psychedelic 5HT2A agonist N,N-dimeth-
yltryptamine (DMT)) and 22 controls matched for age, sex, years of education, verbal IQ and
fluid IQ. Ayahuasca users showed significant CT differences in midline structures of the brain,
with thinning in the posterior cingulate cortex (PCC), a key node of the default mode network.
CT values in the PCC were inversely correlated with the intensity and duration of prior use
of ayahuasca and with scores on self-transcendence, a personality trait measuring religious-
ness, transpersonal feelings and spirituality. Although direct causation cannot be established,
these data suggest that regular use of psychedelic drugs could potentially lead to structural
changes in brain areas supporting attentional processes, self-referential thought, and inter-
nal mentation. These changes could underlie the previously reported personality changes
in longterm users and highlight the involvement of the PCC in the effects of psychedelics.
 Moral bioenhancement
and the utilitarian catastrophe [316]
Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics • January 2015

By N. Agar

This article challenges recent calls for moral bioenhancement-

the use of biomedical means, including pharmacological and
genetic methods, to increase the moral value of our actions
or characters. It responds to those who take a practical inter-
est in moral bioenhancement. I argue that moral bioenhance-
ment is unlikely to be a good response to the extinction
threats of climate change and weapons of mass destruction.
Rather than alleviating those problems, it is likely to aggra-
vate them. We should expect biomedical means to generate
piecemeal enhancements of human morality. These predict-
ably strengthen some contributors to moral judgment while
leaving others comparatively unaffected. This unbalanced
enhancement differs from the manner of improvement that
typically results from sustained reflection. It is likely to make
its subjects worse rather than better at moral reasoning.
 Psilocybin-occasioned
Mystical Experiences
in the Treatment of Tobacco Addiction
[385]
Current Drug Abuse Reviews • 2015

Albert Garcia-Romeu, PhD1, Roland R. Griffiths, PhD1,2

and Matthew W. Johnson, PhD1

1Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences

Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD
2Department of Neuroscience
Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD

Psilocybin-occasioned mystical experiences have been

linked to persisting effects in healthy volunteers includ-
ing positive changes in behavior, attitudes, and values,
and increases in the personality domain of openness. In
an open-label pilot-study of psilocybin-facilitated smok-
ing addiction treatment, 15 smokers received 2 or 3 doses
of psilocybin in the context of cognitive behavioral thera-
py (CBT) for smoking cessation. Twelve of 15 participants
(80%) demonstrated biologically verified smoking absti-
nence at 6-month follow-up. Participants who were absti-
nent at 6 months (n=12) were compared to participants
still smoking at 6 months (n=3) on measures of subjective
effects of psilocybin. Abstainers scored significantly higher
on a measure of psilocybin-occasioned mystical experi-
ence. No significant differences in general intensity of drug
effects were found between groups, suggesting that mysti-
cal-type subjective effects, rather than overall intensity of
drug effects, were responsible for smoking cessation. Nine
of 15 participants (60%) met criteria for “complete” mysti-
cal experience. Smoking cessation outcomes were signifi-
cantly correlated with measures of mystical experience on
session days, as well as retrospective ratings of personal
meaning and spiritual significance of psilocybin sessions.
These results suggest a mediating role of mystical experi-
ence in psychedelic-facilitated addiction treatment.
 Novel 5-HT5A receptor antagonists
ameliorate scopolamine-induced
working memory deficit
in mice and reference memory impairment
in aged rats [195]
Journal of Pharmacological Sciences • February 2015

Mayako Yamazaki*, 1, Mayuko Okabe 1

Noriyuki Yamamoto, Junko Yarimizu, Katsuya Harada

Neuroscience Research Unit, Drug Discovery Research

Astellas Pharma Inc., 21 Miyukigaoka, Tsukuba-shi, Ibaraki, 305-8585, Japan

Despite the human 5-HT5A receptor being cloned in 1994, the bio-
logical function of this receptor has not been extensively charac-
terized due to a lack of specific ligands.We recently reported that
the selective 5- HT5A receptor antagonist ASP5736 ameliorated
cognitive impairment in several animal models of schizophrenia.
Given that areas of the brain with high levels of 5-HT5A receptor
expression, such as the hippocampus and cerebral cortex, have
important functions in cognition and memory, we evaluated the
chemically diverse, potent and brain-penetrating 5-HT5A recep-
tor antagonists ASP5736, AS2030680, and AS2674723 in rodent
models of cognitive dysfunction associated with dementia. Each
of these compounds exhibited a high affinity for recombinant 5-
HT5A receptors that was comparable to that of the non-selective
ligand of this receptor, lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD). Although
each compound had a low affinity for other receptors, 5-HT5A
was the only receptor for which all three compounds had a high
affinity. Each of the three compounds ameliorated scopolamine-
induced working memory deficit in mice and improved refer-
ence memory impairment in aged rats at similar doses. Further,
ASP5736 decreased the binding of LSD to 5-HT5A receptors in the
olfactory bulb of rats in a dose-dependent manner and occupied
15% to 50% of brain 5-HT5A receptors at behaviorally effective
doses. These results indicate that the 5-HT5A receptor is involved
in learning and memory and that treatment with 5-HT5A recep-
tor antagonists might be broadly effective for cognitive impair-
ment associated with not only schizophrenia but also dementia.
 Classic psychedelic use
is associated with reduced psychological distress
and suicidality in the United States
adult population [518]
Journal Of Psychopharmacology • March 2015

Hendricks PS1, Thorne CB2, Clark CB3, Coombs DW2, Johnson MW4

1Department of Health Behavior, University of Alabama at Birmingham

Birmingham, AL, USA phendricks@uab.edu
2Department of Health Behavior, University of Alabama at Birmingham
Birmingham, AL, USA
3Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurobiology
University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
4Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences
Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA

Mental health problems are endemic across the globe, and suicide, a strong
corollary of poor mental health, is a leading cause of death. Classic psyche-
delic use may occasion lasting improvements in mental health, but the ef-
fects of classic psychedelic use on suicidality are unknown. We evaluated
the relationships of classic psychedelic use with psychological distress and
suicidality among over 190,000 USA adult respondents pooled from the last
five available years of the National Survey on Drug Use and Health (2008-
2012) while controlling for a range of covariates. Lifetime classic psyche-
delic use was associated with a significantly reduced odds of past month
psychological distress (weighted odds ratio (OR)=0.81 (0.72-0.91)), past year
suicidal thinking (weighted OR=0.86 (0.78-0.94)), past year suicidal planning
(weighted OR=0.71 (0.54-0.94)), and past year suicide attempt (weighted
OR=0.64 (0.46-0.89)), whereas lifetime illicit use of other drugs was largely as-
sociated with an increased likelihood of these outcomes. These findings indi-
cate that classic psychedelics may hold promise in the prevention of suicide,
supporting the view that classic psychedelics’ most highly restricted legal
status should be reconsidered to facilitate scientific study, and suggesting
that more extensive clinical research with classic psychedelics is warranted.
 Psychedelics not linked to mental health problems
or suicidal behavior: a population study [532]
Journal Of Psychopharmacology • March 2015

Johansen PØ1, Krebs TS2

1EmmaSofia, Oslo, Norway

2Department of Neuroscience
Norwegian University of Science and Technology
Trondheim, Norway krebs@ntnu.no

A recent large population study of 130,000 adults in the United States failed
to find evidence for a link between psychedelic use (lysergic acid diethyl-
amide, psilocybin or mescaline) and mental health problems. Using a new
data set consisting of 135,095 randomly selected United States adults, in-
cluding 19,299 psychedelic users, we examine the associations between
psychedelic use and mental health. After adjusting for sociodemograph-
ics, other drug use and childhood depression, we found no significant as-
sociations between lifetime use of psychedelics and increased likelihood of
past year serious psychological distress, mental health treatment, suicidal
thoughts, suicidal plans and suicide attempt, depression and anxiety. We
failed to find evidence that psychedelic use is an independent risk factor for
mental health problems. Psychedelics are not known to harm the brain or
other body organs or to cause addiction or compulsive use; serious adverse
events involving psychedelics are extremely rare. Overall, it is difficult to see
how prohibition of psychedelics can be justified as a public health measure.
 Designer drugs 2015:
assessment and management [808]
Addiction Science & Clinical Practice • March 2015

Weaver MF1, Hopper JA2, Gunderson EW3

1The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston

1941 East Road, BBSB 1222, 77054, Houston, TX - Michael.F.Weaver@uth.tmc.edu
2St. Joseph Mercy Hospital, 5333 McAuley Drive, Suite R-3009, 48197-1014
Ypsilanti, MI - John.Hopper@stjoeshealth.org
3The University of Virginia, Center for Wellness and Change
1007 East High Street, 22902, Charlottesville, VA
EWG2N@hscmail.mcc.virginia.edu

Recent designer drugs, also known as “legal highs,” include

substituted cathinones (e.g., mephedrone, methylone, and
methylenedioxypyrovalerone, often referred to as “bath
salts”); synthetic cannabinoids (SCs; e.g., Spice); and syn-
thetic hallucinogens (25I-NBOMe, or N-bomb). Compound
availability has evolved rapidly to evade legal regulation
and detection by routine drug testing. Young adults are the
primary users, but trends are changing rapidly; use has be-
come popular among members of the military. Acute toxic-
ity is common and often manifests with a constellation of
psychiatric and medical effects, which may be severe (e.g.,
anxiety, agitation, psychosis, and tachycardia), and mul-
tiple deaths have been reported with each of these types
of designer drugs. Clinicians should keep designer drugs
in mind when evaluating substance use in young adults
or in anyone presenting with acute neuropsychiatric com-
plaints. Treatment of acute intoxication involves supportive
care targeting manifesting signs and symptoms. Long-term
treatment of designer drug use disorder can be challenging
and is complicated by a lack of evidence to guide treatment.
 Psychedelic drugs should be legally reclassified so that researchers can investigate their therapeutic potential [539]
British Medical Journal • May 2015

By James J.H. Rucker

James J H Rucker is a specialist registrar in adult psychiatry and honorary clinical lecturer, MRC Social, Genetic and Developmental Psychiatry Centre
Institute of Psychiatry Psychology and Neuroscience, King’s College, London, SE5 8AF

Trials of physiologically safe and non-addictive drugs such as LSD are almost impossible, writes James chedelic drugs are habit forming; little evidence shows that they are harmful in controlled settings;
J H Rucker, calling on the authorities to downgrade their unnecessarily restrictive class A, schedule 1 and much historical evidence has shown that they could have use in common psychiatric disorders.
classification. Psychedelic drugs, especially lysergic acid A growing number of organisations, most recently in
diethylamide (LSD) and psilocybin, which is found in Norway, are questioning the need for such draconian
the Psilocybe genus of “magic” mushrooms that grow restrictions.
throughout the United Kingdom, were extensively
used and researched in clinical psychiatry before their Where’s the harm?
prohibition in 1967. Hundreds of papers, involving
tens of thousands of patients, presented evidence Psychedelic drugs do not induce dependence. A 1984
for their use as psychotherapeutic catalysts of men- review of adverse reactions to psychedelics found little
tally beneficial change in many psychiatric disorders, evidence of harm in controlled settings. Furthermore,
problems of personality development, recidivistic be- in 2010, an analysis of harms caused to recreational
haviour, and existential anxiety. This research abrupt- users and to society by a range of psychotropic sub-
ly ended after 1967, when psychedelics were legally stances ranked LSD and psilocybin among the safest
classified as schedule 1 drugs under the UK Misuse of all those studied. The therapeutic index (toxic dose
of Drugs Regulations and as class A drugs under the as a ratio of standard dose) for LSD and psilocybin is
UK Misuse of Drugs Act 1971. Schedule 1 in the UK about 1000; for cocaine it is 15, for heroin it is 6, and for
broadly mirrors schedule 1 of the 1971 United Nations alcohol it is 10.8 The belief that psychedelics induce
Convention onmPsychotropic Substances, adoption homicidal or suicidal behaviour was inculcated by the
of which is a requirement of UN membership. This politically driven and media led condemnation of LSD
classification denoted psychedelic drugs as having no in the 1960s. In a population study of 130,152 respon-
accepted medical use and the greatest potential for dents to the US National Survey on Drug Use and Health
harm, despite the existence of research evidence to (NSDUH) from 2001 to 2004, a history of reported psy-
the contrary. Indeed, in 1992 John Ehrlichman, former chedelic use was associated with lower reported levels
assistant to Richard Nixon—the US president who in- of serious psychological distress, the need for mental
tensified the “war on drugs” in the 1970s—notoriously health treatment, and psychiatric medicine. Research-
admitted that the administration had lied about the ers found no association with psychosis. Using data
harmful effects of drugs and had manipulated media from the 2008-12 NSDUH (n=191,382) Hendricks et al
coverage of them for political advantage. Nearly 50 found that ever having used psychedelics was associ-
years later psychedelic drugs remain more legally re- ated with a significantly reduced risk of suicide. These
stricted than heroin and cocaine, which are schedule results have been broadly replicated in another sam-
2, class A in the UK. But no evidence shows that psy- ple of 135,095 randomly selected US adults.
 Evidence for medical use
Many of the clinical trials of psychedelics published in the 1950s and ’60s, before prohibition, fell
short of modern standards; however, several good quality, controlled trials were performed. Us-
ing data from six such trials in alcoholism, a recent meta-analysis that compared treatment with
LSD against controls in 536 people found that LSD treatment was favoured in terms of objectively
measured improvements in alcohol misuse, with an odds ratio of 1.96 (95% confidence interval 1.36
to 2.84). Recent pilot studies performed outside the UK have shown clinical efficacy in anxiety as-
sociated with advanced cancer, obsessive compulsive disorder, tobacco addiction, alcohol addic-
tion, and cluster headaches. However, larger clinical studies are almost impossible throughout the
Western world because of the practical, financial, and bureaucratic obstacles imposed by schedule
1 classification or its equivalent. For example, because of the burden of compliance with the UN’s
schedule 1, only one manufacturer in the world produces psilocybin at sufficient quality, quoting
our group a prohibitive £100,000 for 1 gram (50 doses). In the
UK, to hold a schedule 1 drug, institutions require a licence
costing about £5000. Only four hospitals currently hold
such licences, which come with regular police inspections
and onerous rules on storage and transport. Prescribers of a
schedule 1 substance also must hold a licence, which costs
£3000. These restrictions, and the accompanying bureau-
cracy, mean that the cost of clinical research using psyche-
delics is 5-10 times that of research into less restricted (but
more harmful) drugs such as heroin—with no prospect that
the benefits can be translated into wider medical practice.
The self reinforcing cycle of stigma generated by schedule
1 classification means that almost all grant funders are un-
comfortable funding research into psychedelics, and similar
problems are encountered with ethics committees.
Legal prohibition of some psychotropic substances con-
tinues to be a condition of UN membership, stigmatising a
facet of behaviour and arguably causing more harm than
it prevents. The UN schedule 1 creates its own circular ar-
gument for psychedelics to remain stringently restricted,
even though the original reasons for classifying them as
such were largely fallacious. Because psychedelics are not
harmful in relation to other controlled substances and are
not habit forming, and because evidence suggests medical
use, we call on the UK Advisory Council on the Misuse of
Drugs and the 2016 UN General Assembly Special Session
on Drugs to recommend that psychedelics be reclassified as schedule 2 compounds to enable a
comprehensive, evidence based assessment of their therapeutic potential.
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8 Gable RS. Comparison of acute lethal toxicity of commonly abused psychoactive substances. Addiction 2004;99:686-96.
9 Grinspoon L, Bakalar J. Psychedelic drugs reconsidered. 1st ed. Lindesmith Center, 1997.
10 Krebs TS, Johansen PØ. Psychedelics and mental health: a population
study. PLoS One 2013;8:e63972.
11 Hendricks PS, Thorne CB, Clark CB, et al. Classic psychedelic use is
associated with reduced psychological distress and suicidality in the
United States adult population. J Psychopharmacol 2015;29:280-8.
12 Johansen PØ, Krebs TS. Psychedelics not linked to mental health
problems or suicidal behavior: a population study. J Psychopharmacol
2015;29:270-9.
13 Krebs TS, Johansen PØ. Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) for alcohol-
ism: meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J Psychopharmacol
2012;26:994-1002.
14 Grob CS, Danforth AL, Chopra GS, et al. Pilot study of psilocybin
treatment for anxiety in patients with advanced stage cancer. Arch Gen
Psychiatry 2011;68:71-8.
15 Moreno FA, Wiegand CB, Taitano EK, Delgado PL. Safety, tolerability,
and efficacy of psilocybin in 9 patients with obsessive-compulsive dis-
order. J Clin Psychiatry 2006;67:1735-40.
16 Johnson MW, Garcia-Romeu A, Cosimano MP, Griffiths RR. Pilot study
of the 5-HT2AR agonist psilocybin in the treatment of tobacco addic-
tion. J Psychopharmacol 2014;28:983-92.
17 Bogenschutz M, Forcehimes A, Pommy J, et al. Psilocybin-assisted
treatment for alcohol dependence: a proof-of-concept study. J Psycho-
pharmacol 2015;29:289-99.
18 Sewell RA, Halpern JH, Pope HG. Response of cluster headache to
psilocybin and LSD. Neurology 2006;66:1920-2.
19 Nutt DJ, King LA, Nichols DE. Effects of schedule I drug laws on
neuroscience research and treatment innovation. Nat Rev Neurosci
2013;14:577-85.
20 Hari J. Chasing the scream. 1st ed. Bloomsbury Publishing, 2015.
 LSD-associated
“Alice in Wonderland Syndrome” (AIWS):
A Hallucinogen Persisting Perception
Disorder (HPPD) Case Report [239]
Israeli Journal Of Psychiatry Related Science • 2015

Arturo G. Lerner, MD,1,2 and Shaul Lev Ran, MD,3

1 Lev Hasharon Mental Health Medical Center, Pardessya, Israel

2 Sackler School of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Ramat Aviv, Israel
3 Addiction Medicine Clinic, Department of Psychiatry
Sheba Medical Center, Tel Hashomer, Israel

A side effect associated with the use of LSD is the return of

perceptual disturbances which anteriorly emerged during in-
toxication, despite absence of present use. Here we present
the case of a patient with a previous history of sporadic and
recreational cannabis, alcohol and LSD consumption who re-
ported LSD associated “Alice in Wonderland Syndrome” (AIWS)
or Todd’s syndrome. AIWS is basically characterized by four
frequent visual illusions: macropsia, micropsia, pelopsia and
teleopsia. AIWS only appeared during LSD consumption and
continued after LSD suspension, namely, Hallucinogen Per-
sisting Perception Disorder (HPPD). This phenomenon did not
cause a major functional impairment but provoked sufficient
worry and concern due to its persistent continuation. The pa-
tient refused medical treatment and continued psychiatric
follow-up. At the one year follow-up he reported complete re-
mission. To the best of our knowledge this is the first reported
case of AIWS which persist after LSD interruption (HPPD) in
the professional literature. Reasons for this intriguing, benign,
reversible and apparently harmless side effect are proposed.
 Recent advances
in the neuropsychopharmacology
of serotonergic hallucinogens [233]
Behavior & Brain Research • January 2015

By A.L. Halberstadt

Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA

Electronic address: ahalberstadt@ucsd.edu

Serotonergic hallucinogens, such as (+)-lysergic acid dieth-

ylamide, psilocybin, and mescaline, are somewhat enig-
matic substances. Although these drugs are derived from
multiple chemical families, they all produce remarkably
similar effects in animals and humans, and they show cross-
tolerance. This article reviews the evidence demonstrating
the serotonin 5-HT2A receptor is the primary site of hal-
lucinogen action. The 5-HT2A receptor is responsible for
mediating the effects of hallucinogens in human subjects,
as well as in animal behavioral paradigms such as drug
discrimination, head twitch response, prepulse inhibition
of startle, exploratory behavior, and interval timing. Many
recent clinical trials have yielded important new findings
regarding the psychopharmacology of these substances.
Furthermore, the use of modern imaging and electro-
physiological techniques is beginning to help unravel how
hallucinogens work in the brain. Evidence is also emerg-
ing that hallucinogens may possess therapeutic efficacy.
 Psychedelics and Immunomodulation:
Novel Approaches and Therapeutic Opportunities
[69]
Frontiers In Immunology • July 2015

By A. Szabo

Department of Immunology, Faculty of Medicine

University of Debrecen, Debrecen, Hungary

Classical psychedelics are psychoactive substances, which, besides their

psychopharmacological activity, have also been shown to exert significant
modulatory effects on immune responses by altering signaling pathways
involved in inflammation, cellular proliferation, and cell survival via acti-
vating NF-κB and mitogen-activated protein kinases. Recently, several neu-
rotransmitter receptors involved in the pharmacology of psychedelics, such
as serotonin and sigma-1 receptors, have also been shown to play crucial
roles in numerous immunological processes. This emerging field also offers
promising treatment modalities in the therapy of various diseases includ-
ing autoimmune and chronic inflammatory conditions, infections, and can-
cer. However, the scarcity of available review literature renders the topic
unclear and obscure, mostly posing psychedelics as illicit drugs of abuse
and not as physiologically relevant molecules or as possible agents of fu-
ture pharmacotherapies. In this paper, the immunomodulatory potential
of classical serotonergic psychedelics, including N,N-dimethyltryptamine
(DMT), 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine (5-MeO-DMT), lysergic acid di-
ethylamide (LSD), 2,5-dimethoxy-4-iodoamphetamine, and 3,4-methylene-
dioxy-methamphetamine will be discussed from a perspective of molecular
immunology and pharmacology. Special attention will be given to the func-
tional interaction of serotonin and sigma-1 receptors and their cross-talk
with toll-like and RIG-I-like pattern-recognition receptor-mediated signal-
ing. Furthermore, novel approaches will be suggested feasible for the treat-
ment of diseases with chronic inflammatory etiology and pathology, such
as atherosclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, multiple sclerosis, schizophrenia,
depression, and Alzheimer’s disease. Images for this report on next page.
 IMAGE A IMAGE B

Image A:
Pharmacological modulation of APC and lymphocyte cytokine signaling by psychedelics. Psychedelics can
significantly interfere with immune cell cytokine profiles. This may lead to suppression of antigen pre-
sentation and inflammatory cytokine and chemokine secretion, as well as inhibition of isotype switching
or elevated levels of anti-inflammatory cytokines in the tissue environment. Arrows represent activation
or migration of cells, or secretion of cytokines. T-arrows mean inhibition. Abbreviations: Mo, monocyte;
DC, dendritic cell; MΦ, macrophage; colored halos around cells represent activation/cytokine secretion.

Image B:
Cross-talk of PRR, 5-HTR, and sigmar-1 pathways. Toll-like receptors (TLRs) and RIG-I-like receptors (RLRs) are expressed
on the cell surface, localized on intracellular membranes or in the cytoplasm, respectively. These PRRs recognize vari-
ous sets of pathogenic structures and transduce signals through the NF-κB/IRF pathways. The interaction of a specific
PAMP/DAMP with TLRs/RLRs results in downstream signaling through the MyD88/TRIF (TLRs) or MAVS (RLRs) adap-
tor proteins. This receptor–adaptor interaction leads to the activation of TBK1, MAP-kinase kinases (MKKs), or IKKs
via TRAF3 or TRAF6, and leads to the subsequent phosphorylation of IRF3/IRF7, MAPKs-AP-1, or NF-κB, respectively.
These transcription factors then translocate to the nucleus regulating the transcription of type I IFN, chemokine,
and inflammatory cytokine genes, such as IFNβ, IL-8, IL-1β, IL-6, and TNFα. Classical psychedelics can trigger 5-HT1A,
5-HT2A-C, and/or sigma-1 receptor (Sigmar-1) signaling and thereby control intracellular Ca2+ levels through IP3. 5-
HTRs and sigmar-1 can use cPKC and Akt to interfere with PRR-mediated NF-κB and MAPK signaling. Thus, NF-κB and
MAPK have a cardinal role in both the collaboration and essential signaling processes of PRRs, 5-HTRs, and sigmar-1.
 Designer drugs 2015:
assessment and management [362]
Addiction Science & Clinical Practice • 2015

Michael F Weaver1*, John A Hopper2 and Erik W Gunderson3

1The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston

1941 East Road, BBSB 1222, 77054 Houston, TX

Recent designer drugs, also known as “legal highs,” include sub-

stituted cathinones (e.g., mephedrone, methylone, and methyl-
enedioxypyrovalerone, often referred to as“bath salts”); synthet-
ic cannabinoids (SCs; e.g., Spice); and synthetic hallucinogens
(25I-NBOMe, or N-bomb). Compound availability has evolved
rapidly to evade legal regulation and detection by routine
drug testing. Young adults are the primary users, but trends are
changing rapidly; use has become popular among members of
the military. Acute toxicity is common and often manifests with
a constellation of psychiatric and medical effects, which may be
severe (e.g., anxiety, agitation, psychosis, and tachycardia), and
multiple deaths have been reported with each of these types of
designer drugs. Clinicians should keep designer drugs in mind
when evaluating substance use in young adults or in anyone
presenting with acute neuropsychiatric complaints. Treatment
of acute intoxication involves supportive care targeting mani-
festing signs and symptoms. Long-term treatment of designer
drug use disorder can be challenging and is complicated by a
lack of evidence to guide treatment.
 Illicit drug use among rave attendees in a nationally representative sample of US high school seniors [804]

Drug & Alcohol Dependence • July 2015 • By J.J. Palamar, M. Griffin-Tomas and D.C. Ompad

The popularity of electronic dance music and

rave parties such as dance festivals has increased
in recent years. Targeted samples of party-goers
suggest high rates of drug use among attend-
ees, but few nationally representative studies
have examined these associations. We examined
sociodemographic correlates of rave attendance
and relationships between rave attendance and
recent (12-month) use of various drugs in a rep-
resentative sample of US high school seniors
(modal age: 18) from the Monitoring the Future
study (2011-2013; Weighted N=7373). One out
of five students (19.8%) reported ever attend-
ing a rave, and 7.7% reported attending at least
monthly. Females and highly religious students
were less likely to attend raves, and Hispanics,
students residing in cities, students with higher
income and those who go out for fun multiple
times per week were more likely to attend. Rave
attendees were more likely than non-attendees
to report use of an illicit drug other than mari-
juana (35.5% vs. 15.6%, p<0.0001). Attendees
were more likely to report use of each of the
18 drugs assessed, and attendees were more
likely to report more frequent use (≥6 times) of
each drug (ps<0.0001). Controlling for sociode-
mographic covariates, frequent attendance
(monthly or more often) was associated with
higher odds of use of each drug (ps<0.0001).
Frequent attendees were at highest risk for use
of “club drugs.” Findings from this study can help
inform prevention and harm reduction among
rave attendees at greatest risk for drug use.
 Salvinorin-A Induces Intense Dissociative Effects,
Blocking External Sensory Perception and Modulating
Interoception and Sense of Body Ownership in Humans [348]
International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology • 2015

Ana Elda Maqueda, MSc; Marta Valle, PhD; Peter H. Addy, PhD;
Rosa Maria Antonijoan, PhD; Montserrat Puntes, MD; Jimena Coimbra, MD;
Maria Rosa Ballester, MSc; Maite Garrido, MSc; Mireia González, MSc;
Judit Claramunt, MSc; Steven Barker, PhD; Matthew W. Johnson, PhD;
Roland R. Griffiths, PhD; and Jordi Riba, PhD

Human Neuropsychopharmacology Group. Sant Pau Institute of Biomedical Research (IIB-Sant Pau). Sant Antoni María
Claret, Barcelona, Spain (Drs Maqueda and Riba); Centre d’Investigació de Medicaments, Servei de Farmacologia Clíni-
ca, Hospital de la Santa Creu i Sant Pau, Barcelona, Spain (Drs Valle, Antonijoan, Puntes, Coimbra, Ballester, Garrido,
González, Claramunt, and Riba); Departament de Farmacologia i Terapèutica, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Spain
(Drs Valle, Antonijoan, and Riba); Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental, CIBERSAM, Barcelona,
Spain (Drs Valle, Antonijoan, and Riba); Pharmacokinetic and Pharmacodynamic Modelling and Simulation, IIB Sant Pau.
Sant Antoni María Claret, 167, 08025 Barcelona, Spain (Dr Valle); Medical Informatics, VA Connecticut Healthcare System,
West Haven, CT (Dr Addy); Medical Informatics, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT (Dr Addy); Depart-
ment of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Skip Bertman Drive
at River Road, Baton Rouge, LA (Dr Barker); Behavioral Pharmacology Research Unit, Department of Psychiatry and Be-
havioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 5510 Nathan Shock Drive, Baltimore, MD (Drs Johnson
and Griffiths); Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD (Dr Griffiths).

Salvinorin-A is a terpene with agonist properties at the kappa-opioid receptor, the binding
site of endogenous dynorphins. Salvinorin-A is found in Salvia divinorum, a psychoactive
plant traditionally used by the Mazatec people of Oaxaca, Mexico, for medicinal and spiritual
purposes. Previous studies with the plant and salvinorin-A have reported psychedeliclike
changes in perception, but also unusual changes in body awareness and detachment from
external reality. Here we comprehensively studied the profiles of subjective effects of increas-
ing doses of salvinorin-A in healthy volunteers, with a special emphasis on interoception.
 Psychedelics and Creativity:
a Review of the Quantitative Literature
[349]
CC-BY 4.0 Open Access • June 2015

Matthew J. Baggott, PhD1, §

1San Francisco, California, USA
§Email: matthew@baggott.net

After a 40-year hiatus, the question of whether psyche-

delics can increase creativity is being asked with renewed
vigor. This article critically reviews the conceptual issues
of studying psychedelic induced creativity by summariz-
ing the limited evidence on the question and suggesting
two broader frameworks. There are two important chal-
lenges to researchers on this topic. One is to separate
creativity from other effects of the drug that may be mis-
taken for creativity The second is to develop operational
measures to quantify it. This article reviews the major
studies assessing creativity (or related constructs) in-
duced by psychedelics, including a reanalysis of raw data
from one study. Results are modest and inconclusive but
are consistent with reports that psychedelics give rise
to unusual or novel thoughts. Given the lack of robust
changes in creativity measures, I suggest creativity may
be too specific of a construct to accurately and fully char-
acterize the putatively beneficial cognitive changes that
psychedelic users report. Feelings of creativity may be
an inconsistent result of a more general effect of these
drugs, such as alterations in availability of mental repre-
sentations or changes in Bayesian inference. Ultimately,
creativity may not be a sufficiently creative construct to
capture the beneficial effects of psychedelics.

An association of psychedelics and creativity has been

noted in a broad range of nonscientific publications. This
includes well-known cases of creative individuals who
attribute breakthroughs in their work to use of psyche-
delics, such as Nobel laureate Kerry Mullis (1998) and
author Ken Kesey (1996). Architect Kiyo Izumi used LSD for inspira-
tion when designing a hospital in Saskatchewan (Edginton, 2010).
Society’s encounter with LSD is believed to have led to innovative
albums like the Beach Boys’ Pet Sounds and the Beatles’ Revolver
and movies like Easy Rider (DeRogatis, 2003; Benshoff, 2001). Study
of illustrator Robert Crumb’s work suggests considerable influence
of psychedelics on his style (Jones, 2007). More broadly, Markoff
(2005) has argued that the hallucinogen-oriented counterculture
had a profound, if difficult to quantify, influence on the early per-
sonal computing industry. Along with qualitative descriptions of
hallucinogen effects, these anecdotes suggest that psychedelics
may facilitate creativity (Sessa, 2008; Dobkin de Rios and Janiger,
2003; ten Berge, 1999; ten Berge, 2002; Krippner, 1985).

In this publication, I review the projects that have measured the

effects of psychedelics on creativity and discuss mechanisms by
which psychedelics might enhance creativity. This literature turns
out to be modest in both its size and the consistency of results. This
may be partly because creativity both is an inconsistent effect and is
an inadequate description of the drug effects that sometimes lead
to feelings of insight and altered meaning. I therefore discuss two
broader conceptualizations of psychedelic effects that may clarify
creativity-related changes. Feelings of insight and altered meaning
are reported with enough consistency after psychedelic administra-
tion to be included in most self-report questionnaires developed to
measure the effects of these drugs. For example, the Altered States
of Consciousness Questionnaire (APZ-OAV) includes items such as
“things around me had new, strange meanings” and “I gained in-
sights into things that were puzzling to me before” (Dittrich, 1998).
The Hallucinogen Rating Scale (HRS) includes “new thoughts or in-
sights” and “insights into personal or occupational concerns” (Strass-
man, 2005). The Linton-Langs questionnaire asks “have you felt that
certain things were especially clear to you or that you understood
them better?” and “have you seen new connections between cer-
tain events or experiences that you hadn’t seen before?” (Linton and
Langs, 1962). The Subjective Drug Effects Questionnaire (SDEQ), de-
veloped with LSD as a main test drug, contains the question “have
some things had a different meaning for you?” (Katz et al., 1968).
Thus, feelings of increased insight and altered significance are rec-
ognized as a common acute effect of psychedelics.
 Acute health problems
due to recreational drug use
in patients presenting to an urban
emergency department in Switzerland [79]
Swiss Medical Weekly • July 2015

Evangelia Liakonia, Patrick C. Doldera,b

Katharina Rentschb, Matthias E. Liechtia

a Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology

University Hospital Basel and University of Basel, Switzerland
b Laboratory Medicine, University Hospital Basel
and University of Basel, Switzerland

Questions Under Study

To describe acute toxicity of recreational drugs including novel psychoac-

tive substances. We included all cases presenting at the emergency de-
partment (ED) of the University Hospital of Basel, Switzerland, between
October 2013 and September 2014 with acute toxicity due to self-report-
ed recreational drug use or with symptoms/signs consistent with acute
toxicity. Isolated ethanol intoxications were excluded. Intoxications were
confirmed with immunoassays and liquid chromatography coupled with
mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), which also detected novel psychoactive
substances. Among the 47,767 attendances at the ED, 216 were directly
related to acute toxicity of recreational drugs. The mean patient age was
31 years and 69% were male. Analytical drug confirmation was available
in 180 cases. Most presentations were related to cocaine (36%), cannabis
(31%), opioids (13%), 3,4-methylenedioxy-methamphetamine (MDMA,
9%), other amphetamines (7%), benzodiazepines (7%), and lysergic acid
diethylamide (LSD, 5%). The substances most commonly detected ana-
lytically were cannabis (37%), cocaine (33%), opioids (29%), benzodiaz-
epines (21%), and amphetamines including MDMA (13%). Notably, there
were only two cases of novel psychoactive substances (2,5-dimethoxy-4-
bromophenethylamine [2C-B] and pentylone). The most frequent symp-
toms were tachycardia (31%), anxiety (27%), nausea or vomiting (23%),
and agitation (22%). Severe complications included myocardial infarc-
tion (2), psychosis (10), seizures (10), and 1 fatality. Most patients were
discharged home (68%), 8% were admitted to intensive care and 9%
were referred to psychiatric care. Medical problems related to illicit drugs
mostly concerned cocaine and cannabis and mainly involved sympatho-
mimetic toxicity and/or psychiatric disorders. ED presentations associ-
ated with novel psychoactive substances appeared to be relatively rare.
 Epigenetic Mechanisms
of Serotonin Signaling [86]
ACS Chemistry & Neuroscience • July 2015

Terrell Holloway† and Javier González-Maeso†,‡,§

*†Department of Psychiatry
Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, NY
New York 10029, United States
‡Department of Neurology
Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, NY
New York 10029, United States
§Friedman Brain Institute
Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, NY
New York 10029, United States

Histone modifications and DNA methylation represent

central dynamic and reversible processes that regu-
late gene expression and contribute to cellular phe-
notypes. These epigenetic marks have been shown
to play fundamental roles in a diverse set of signaling
and behavioral outcomes. Serotonin is a monoamine
that regulates numerous physiological responses in-
cluding those in the central nervous system. The car-
dinal signal transduction mechanisms via serotonin
and its receptors are well established, but fundamen-
tal questions regarding complex interactions between
the serotonin system and heritable epigenetic modi-
fications that exert control on gene function remain
a topic of intense research and debate. This review
focuses on recent advances and contributions to our
understanding of epigenetic mechanisms of serotonin
receptor-dependent signaling, with focus on psychi-
atric disorders such as schizophrenia and depression.
 Therapeutic Potential
of 5-HT2C Receptor Agonists
for Addictive Disorders [108]
ACS Chemistry & Neuroscience • July 2015

Higgins GA1, Fletcher PJ2

1InterVivo Solutions Inc., 120 Carlton Street

Toronto, ON M5A 4K2, Canada
2Section of Biopsychology and Campbell
Family Mental Health Research Institute
Centre for Addiction and Mental Health
250 College Street, Toronto, ON M5T 1R8, Canada

The neurotransmitter 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT; serotonin) has

long been associated with the control of a variety of motivated
behaviors, including feeding. Much of the evidence linking 5-HT
and feeding behavior was obtained from studies of the effects
of the 5-HT releaser (dex)fenfluramine in laboratory animals and
humans. Recently, the selective 5-HT2C receptor agonist lorca-
serin received FDA approval for the treatment of obesity. This re-
view examines evidence to support the use of selective 5-HT2C
receptor agonists as treatments for conditions beyond obesity,
including substance abuse (particularly nicotine, psychostimu-
lant, and alcohol dependence), obsessive compulsive, and ex-
cessive gambling disorder. Following a brief survey of the early
literature supporting a role for 5-HT in modulating food and drug
reinforcement, we propose that intrinsic differences between
SSRI and serotonin releasers may have underestimated the value
of serotonin-based pharmacotherapeutics to treat clinical forms
of addictive behavior beyond obesity. We then highlight the
critical involvement of the 5-HT2C receptor in mediating the ef-
fect of (dex)fenfluramine on feeding and body weight gain and
the evidence that 5-HT2C receptor agonists reduce measures
of drug reward and impulsivity. A recent report of lorcaserin ef-
ficacy in a smoking cessation trial further strengthens the idea
that 5-HT2C receptor agonists may have potential as a treatment
for addiction. This review was prepared as a contribution to the
proceedings of the 11th International Society for Serotonin Re-
search Meeting held in Hermanus, South Africa, July 9-12, 2014.
 25i-NBOMe: a new dangerous drug
similar to LSD [254]
Revista Brasileira de Psiquiatria • August 2015
Lysa Remy,1 Nino Marchi,1 Juliana Scherer,1
Tais R. Fiorentin,1,2 Renata Limberger,1,2, 1 Felix Kessler1
1Center for Drug and Alcohol Research, Hospital de Clı´nicas de
Porto Alegre, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS),
Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil. 2Graduate Program in Pharmaceutical
Sciences, School of Pharmacy, UFRGS, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
A 26-year-old Brazilian woman with a history of club drug use,
in addition to cannabis and alcohol use, was referred to a clinic
for substance abuse treatment after being found unconscious
by security guards at a street party. Upon admission, the patient
reported that she started using psychoactive substances when
she was 16 years old. At that occasion, she ran away from home
and started living with a friend who was a synthetic drug dealer.
Motivated by the availability of drugs at a low price, and being
in close contact with drug users, she started to increasingly use
drugs such as 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA).
Increased consumption led to increased tolerance, and as a result
she started to look for substances with more powerful and lon-
ger-lasting effects. Eight months before admission, she started
using NBOMe (25I-NBOMe) weekly at electronic music parties,
having as many as four blotters per week. While intoxicated, the
patient reported engaging in moral and sexual exposure, includ-
ing being nude and masturbating in public and having unpro-
tected sex with several different partners. After these events, she
would not remember anything about the actions, locations or in-
dividuals with whom she had been. As she started treatment, she
was tested for HIV and had a positive result. A diagnosis of other
hallucinogen use disorder – NBOMe (304.50 – F16.20 severe) and
conduct disorder (312.82 – F16.20 moderate) was established ac-
cording to DSM-5 and ICD-11. There is a growing international
concern over the manufacturing and distribution of synthetic
analogs of controlled substances as an attempt to circumvent
drug laws and evade interdiction. In fact, the consumption of
these substances has become a public health problem in many
parts of the world. Controlled substance analogs include a
large number of substituted phenethylamines; of these, the
NBOMe series, a generic denomination for phenethylamines,
has been attracting attention from medical and legal authori-
ties due to the high number of cases of intoxication, followed
or not by death – including in Brazil.1 This growing class of
potent stimulant and hallucinogenic synthetic substances
has effects similar to those of LSD and can severely affect the
central nervous system.2 Recreational users of NBOMe refer
hallucinogenic and dissociative effects and feelings of eu-
phoria, fear, and paranoia. Effects range from mild to severe
changes in cognition, mood and affect, with powerful sen-
sory/somatic effects and mystical experiences.3 According
to the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime,4 substanc-
es such as the 2C series (e.g., 2C-I) and NBOMe compounds
are present in 17% of the world market of new psychoac-
tive substances. NBOMe drugs have been sold as an alterna-
tive to LSD, with the price of a blotter ranging from R$ 30
to R$ 40.4 Data on the prevalence of NBOMe use is available
from only two subpopulation surveys of individuals attend-
ing nightclubs in the United States and England. In the first
study, 582 of 22,289 (2.6%) respondents of the 2013 Global
Drug Survey reported having used an NBOMe, the most com-
mon type being 25I-NBOMe (442 of the respondents, 2.0%
of the whole cohort, and 75.9% of those who had used an
NBOMe).2 The second study surveyed 397 clubbers in Lon-
don in 2013: 11.8% of the interviewees had heard of NBOMe
drugs (compared with 96.0% for mephedrone), and 4.8% had
used an NBOMe (compared with 76.6% for mephedrone).2 To
the best of our knowledge, only one Brazilian study has so far
been published on NBOMes.5 In that study, 77 blotters seized
on the streets were analyzed; 66.7% of the samples contained
one or more types of NBOMes, confirming the growing pres-
ence of these novel substances in the market. According to
the author, users are often misled to believe that they are tak-
ing LSD, when in fact they are taking new, little known drugs
like NBOMes or other substituted phenethylamines.5 The
scarcity of research on the topic and the fact that intoxica-
tion reactions associated with these drugs are still unknown
provide further grounds for concern in clinical practice.
 Acute Effects of Lysergic Acid Diethylamide
in Healthy Subjects [103]
Biology & Psychiatry • October 2015

Schmid Y1, Enzler F1, Gasser P2, Grouzmann E3

Preller KH4, Vollenweider FX4, Brenneisen R5
Müller F6, Borgwardt S6, Liechti ME7

After no research in humans for >40 years, there is renewed interest in using
lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) in clinical psychiatric research and practice.
There are no modern studies on the subjective and autonomic effects of LSD,
and its endocrine effects are unknown. In animals, LSD disrupts prepulse inhi-
bition (PPI) of the acoustic startle response, and patients with schizophrenia
exhibit similar impairments in PPI. However, no data are available on the ef-
fects of LSD on PPI in humans. In a double-blind, randomized, placebo-con-
trolled, crossover study, LSD (200 μg) and placebo were administered to 16
healthy subjects (8 women, 8 men). Outcome measures included psychomet-
ric scales; investigator ratings; PPI of the acoustic startle response; and auto-
nomic, endocrine, and adverse effects. Administration of LSD to healthy sub-
jects produced pronounced alterations in waking consciousness that lasted
12 hours. The predominant effects induced by LSD included visual hallucina-
tions, audiovisual synesthesia, and positively experienced derealization and
depersonalization phenomena. Subjective well-being, happiness, closeness
to others, openness, and trust were increased by LSD. Compared with pla-
cebo, LSD decreased PPI. LSD significantly increased blood pressure, heart
rate, body temperature, pupil size, plasma cortisol, prolactin, oxytocin, and
epinephrine. Adverse effects produced by LSD completely subsided within 72
hours. No severe acute adverse effects were observed. In addition to marked
hallucinogenic effects, LSD exerts methylenedioxymethamphetamine-like
empathogenic mood effects that may be useful in psychotherapy. LSD altered
sensorimotor gating in a human model of psychosis, supporting the use of
LSD in translational psychiatric research. In a controlled clinical setting, LSD
can be used safely, but it produces significant sympathomimetic stimulation.

Trial Registration:
ClinicalTrials.gov NCT01878942.
 Illicit drug use and its association with key
sexual risk behaviours and outcomes:
Findings from Britain’s third National Survey
of Sexual Attitudes and Lifestyles (Natsal-3) [361]
PLoS One • Accepted May 2015 • Published May 2017

Rachelle Paquette1, Clare Tanton1, Fiona Burns1, Philip Prah1

Maryam Shahmanesh1, Nigel Field1, Wendy Macdowall2
Kirsten Gravningen1,3, Pam Sonnenberg1, Catherine H. Mercer

1Research Department of Infection and Population Health, University College London, UK

2 Department of Social and Environmental Health Research
London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK
3 Department of Microbiology and Infection Control
University Hospital of North Norway, Tromsø, Norway

We explore the hypothesis that using illicit drugs other than, or in addition to, cannabis is as-
sociated with sexual risk behaviour and sexual health outcomes in the British population. We
analysed data, separately by gender, reported by sexually-active participants (those reporting
> = 1 partners/past year) aged 16±44 years (3,395 men, 4,980 women) in Britain’s third National
Survey of Sexual Attitudes and Lifestyles (Natsal-3), a probability surveym undertaken 2010±12
involving computer-assisted personal-interview and computer-assisted self-interview. Analy-
ses accounted for the stratification, clustering and weighting of the data. Multivariable logistic
regression was used to calculate adjusted odds ratios. Use of illicit drugs other than, or in ad-
dition to, cannabis in the past year was reported by 11.5% (95%CI:10.4%-12.8%) of men and
5.5% (4.8%-6.3%) of women. Use of these types of drugs was more common among those <35
years, those who reported poor general and/or sexual health behaviours, e.g. binge drinking >
= weekly (age-adjusted ORs, aAORs, 10.91 (6.27±18.97) men; 9.95 (6.11±16.19) women); hav-
ing > = 2 condomless partners in the past year (aAOR:5.50 (3.61±8.39) men; 5.24 (3.07±8.94)
women). Participants reporting illicit drug use were more likely (than those who did not) to
report sexual health clinic attendance (ORs after adjusting for age, sexual identity and partner
numbers: 1.79 (1.28± 2.51) men; 1.99 (1.34±2.95) women), chlamydia testing (1.42 (1.06±1.92)
men; 1.94 (1.40±0) women), unplanned pregnancy (2.93 (1.39±6.17) women), and among men
only, sexually transmitted infection diagnoses (3.10 (1.63±5.89)). In Britain, those reporting re-
cent illicit drug use were more likely to report other markers of poor general and sexual health.
They were also more likely to attend sexual health clinics so these should be considered ap-
propriate settings to implement holistic interventions to maximise health gain.
 Indoleamine Hallucinogens in Cluster Headache:
Results of the Clusterbusters Medication Use Survey [6]
Journal of Psychoactive Drugs • November 2015
Emmanuelle A. D. Schindler M.D., Ph.D., Christopher H. Gottschalk M.D.,
Marsha J. Weil, Robert E. Shapiro M.D., Douglas A. Wright D.C. & Richard Andrew Sewell, M.D.
aDepartment of Neurology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT
bClusterbusters, Inc, Lombard, IL
cDepartment of Neurology, University of Vermont College of Medicine, Burlington, VT
dDepartment of Psychiatry, West Haven Veterans Affairs Hospital, West Haven, CT, and
Department of Neurology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT
Please address correspondence to Emmanuelle A. D. Schindler
Department of Neurology, Yale University School of Medicine
800 Howard Street, New Haven, CT 06519; phone: +1-203-785-4085
fax: +1-203-785-4937
email: emmanuelle.schindler@yale.edu
Cluster headache is one of the most debilitating pain syndromes.
A significant number of patients are refractory to conventional
therapies. The Clusterbusters.org medication use survey sought
to characterize the effects of both conventional and alterna-
tive medications used in cluster headache. Participants were
recruited from cluster headache websites and headache clin-
ics. The final analysis included responses from 496 participants.
The survey was modeled after previously published surveys
and was available online. Most responses were chosen from a
list, though others were free-texted. Conventional abortive and
preventative medications were identified and their efficacies
agreed with those previously published. The indoleamine hal-
lucinogens, psilocybin, lysergic acid diethylamide, and lysergic
acid amide, were comparable to or more efficacious than most
conventional medications. These agents were also perceived to
shorten/abort a cluster period and bring chronic cluster head-
ache into remission more so than conventional medications.
Furthermore, infrequent and non-hallucinogenic doses were re-
ported to be efficacious. Findings provide additional evidence
that several indoleamine hallucinogens are rated as effective in
treating cluster headache. These data reinforce the need for fur-
ther investigation of the effects of these and related compounds
in cluster headache under experimentally controlled settings.
Classic hallucinogens in the treatment of addictions [9]
Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry • 2015
3a Michael P. Bogenschutz, Matthew W. Johnson b
3a Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences
University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, MSC11 60351
University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87131
4 b Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences
Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine, 5510 Nathan Shock Drive, Baltimore, MD
Addictive disorders are very common and have devastating individual and social consequences.
Currently available treatment ismoderately effective at best. Aftermany years of neglect, there
is renewed interest in potential clinical uses for classic hallucinogens in the treatment of addic-
tions and other behavioral health conditions. In this
paperwe provide a comprehensive reviewof both
historical and recent clinical research on the use
of classic hallucinogens in the treatment of ad-
diction, selectively review other relevant research
concerning hallucinogens, and suggest direc-
tions for future research. Clinical trial data are very
limited except for the use of LSD in the treatment
of alcoholism, where a meta-analysis of controlled
trials has demonstrated a consistent and clinically
significant beneficial effect of high-dose LSD. Re-
cent pilot studies of psilocybin-assisted treatment
of nicotine and alcohol dependence had striking-
ly positive outcomes, but controlled trials will be
necessary to evaluate the efficacy of these treat-
ments. Although plausible biologicalmechanisms
have been proposed, currently the strongest evi-
dence is for the role of mystical or other meaning-
ful experiences as mediators of therapeutic effects.
Classic hallucinogens have an excellent record of
safety in the context of clinical research. Given our
limited understanding of the clinically relevant
effects of classic hallucinogens, there is a wealth
of opportunities for research that could contrib-
ute important new knowledge and potentially
lead to valuable new treatments for addiction.
 Neural correlates of the LSD experience
revealed by multimodal neuroimaging [70]
Proceedings Of The National Academy Of Sciences USA • September 2015

Robin L. Carhart-Harrisa,1, Suresh Muthukumaraswamyb,c,d, Leor Rosemana,e,2

MendelmKaelena,2, Wouter Droogb, Kevin Murphyb, Enzo Tagliazucchif,g
Eduardo E. Schenberga,h,i, Timothy Nestj, Csaba Orbana,e, Robert Leeche, Luke T. Williamsa
Tim M. Williamsk, Mark Bolstridgea, Ben Sessaa,l, John McGoniglea, Martin I. Serenom
David Nicholsn, Peter J. Hellyere, Peter Hobdenb, John Evansb, Krish D. Singhb
Richard G. Wiseb, H. Valerie Currano, Amanda Feildingp, and David J. Nutta

aCentre for Neuropsychopharmacology, Department of Medicine

Imperial College London, W12 0NN, London, United Kingdom
bDepartment of Psychology, Cardiff University Brain Research Imaging Centre
CF10 3AT, Cardiff, United Kingdom; cSchool of Pharmacy
University of Auckland 1142 Auckland, New Zealand
dSchool of Psychology, University of Auckland, 1142 Auckland, New Zealand
eComputational, Cognitive and Clinical Neuroscience Laboratory
Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, W12 0NN, London, United Kingdom
fInstitute of Medical Psychology, Christian Albrechts University, 24118 Kiel, Germany
gBrain Imaging Center and Neurology Department
Goethe University 60528 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
hDepartment of Psychiatry, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, 04038-020, São Paulo, Brazil
iInstituto Plantando Consciencia, 05.587-080, São Paulo, Brazil
jDepartment of Psychiatry, McGill University, H3A 1A1, Montréal, Canada
kDepartment of Psychiatry, University of Bristol, BS8 2BN, Bristol, United Kingdom
lDepartment of Neuroscience, Cardiff University, CF24 4HQ, Cardiff, United Kingdom
mBirkbeck-UCL Centre for Neuroimaging, WC1H 0AP, London, United Kingdom
nEschelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27514
oClinical Psychopharmacology Unit, University College London, WC1E 6BT, London, UK
pThe Beckley Foundation, Beckley Park, OX3 9SY, Oxford, United Kingdom
Edited by Marcus E. Raichle, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO

Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) is the prototypical psychedelic drug, but its effects on the
human brain have never been studied before with modern neuroimaging. Here, three comple-
mentary neuroimaging techniques: arterial spin labeling (ASL), blood oxygen leveldependent
(BOLD) measures, and magnetoencephalography (MEG), implemented during resting state
conditions, revealed marked changes in brain activity after LSD that correlated strongly with
its characteristic psychological effects. Increased visual cortex cerebral blood flow (CBF), de-
creased visual cortex alpha power, and a greatly expanded primary visual cortex (V1) function-
al connectivity profile correlated strongly with ratings of visual hallucinations, implying that
intrinsic brain activity exerts greater influence on visual processing in the psychedelic state,
thereby defining its hallucinatory quality. LSD’s marked effects on the visual cortex did not
significantly correlate with the drug’s other characteristic effects on consciousness, however.
Rather, decreased connectivity between the parahippocampus and retrosplenial cortex (RSC) FIGURE 1
correlated strongly with ratings of “ego-dissolution” and “altered meaning,” implying the im-
portance of this particular circuit for the maintenance of “self” or “ego” and its processing of
“meaning.” Strong relationships were also found between the different imaging metrics, en-
abling firmer inferences to be made about their functional significance. This uniquely compre-
hensive examination of the LSD state represents an important advance in scientific research
with psychedelic drugs at a time of growing interest in their scientific and therapeutic value.
The present results contribute important new insights into the characteristic hallucinatory and
consciousness-altering properties of psychedelics that inform on how they can model certain
pathological states and potentially treat others.

SIGNIFICANCE

Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), the prototypical “psychedelic,” may be unique among
psychoactive substances. In the decades that followed its discovery, the magnitude of its
effect on science, the arts, and society was unprecedented. LSD produces profound, some-
times life-changing experiences in microgram doses, making it a particularly powerful
scientific tool. Here we sought to examine its effects on brain activity, using cutting-edge
and complementary neuroimaging techniques in the first modern neuroimaging study
of LSD. Results revealed marked changes in brain blood flow, electrical activity, and net-
work communication patterns that correlated strongly with the drug’s hallucinatory and
other consciousness-altering properties. These results have implications for the neurobi-
ology of consciousness and for potential applications of LSD in psychological research.

Fig. 1.
Whole-brain cerebral blood flow maps for the placebo and LSD conditions, plus the difference
map (cluster-corrected, P < 0.05; n = 15).

Fig. 2.
Significant between-condition differences (orange = increases) in RSFC between the V1 seed
region (purple) and the rest of the brain. Unthresholded maps can be viewed here: neurovault.
org/collections/FBVSAVDQ/ (n = 15).

Fig. 3.
Significant between-condition differences in RSFC between the PH seed and the rest of the
brain (orange = increases; blue = decreases). Unthresholded maps can be viewed here: neu-
rovault.org/collections/FBVSAVDQ/ (n = 15).

Fig. 4.
(A) Mean percentage differences (+SEM) in CBF (red), integrity (blue), and signal variance
(green) in 12 different RSNs under LSD relative to placebo (red asterisks indicate statistical sig-
nificance, *P < 0.05; **P < 0.01, Bonferroni corrected). (B) Differences in between-RSN RSFC or
RSN “segregation” under LSD vs placebo. Each square in the matrix represents the strength
of functional connectivity (positive = red, negative = blue) between a pair of different RSNs
(parameter estimate values). The matrix on the far right displays the between-condition dif-
ferences in covariance (t values): red = reduced segregation and blue = increased segregation
under LSD. White asterisks represent significant differences (P < 0.05, FDR corrected; n = 15).

Fig. 5.
MEG results. (A) Statistical analysis of planar gradiometer-configured MEG data comparing LSD FIGURE 2
with placebo in the eyes-closed condition. Blue indicates less power under LSD. Units are t-sta-
tistics. Significant sensor clusters are marked such that stars correspond to P < 0.01 and crosses
to P < 0.05 (corrected). Source localization results are also displayed. (B) Significant correlations
between changes (decreases) in oscillatory power and subjective phenomena. (C) Power spec-
tra for the significant sensor cluster in B (simple hallucinations), with placebo data plotted in
blue and LSD in red (n = 14).
FIGURE 3 FIGURE 4
FIGURE 5
 Turn on and tune in
to evidence-based
psychedelic research [17]
Psychiatry • Volume 2 • January 2015
By Ben Sessa
Somerset Partnership Foundation NHS Trust
CAMHS Foundation House, Wellsprings Road
Taunton, Somerset TA2 7PQ, UK
For many people, words such as psychedelic and
LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide) refer only to dan-
gerous drugs of abuse. Less well known is that tens
of thousands of patients were treated effectively
with psychedelic drugs in the 1950s and 1960s,
and that these drugs had almost become part of
mainstream medicine by the time they became
demonized and research was halted for 40 years.
Once again, psychedelic drugs have become a
topic of research, with a plethora of new projects
across the world. Several charitable and non-gov-
ernment-funded organisations have flourished in
recent years, financing international psychedelic
studies. The Multidisciplinary Association for Psy-
chedelic Studies, the Heffter Research Institute,
and the Beckley Foundation are investigating the
potential role for psychedelic assisted psycho-
therapy to manage treatment-resistant psychi-
atric disorders. The classical psychedelic drugs,
LSD and psilocybine (the active component in
so-called magic mushrooms), are physiological-
ly safe, have a low dependency risk, and might
be effective and safe adjuncts to psychotherapy
for patients with a range of psychiatric disorders
when used at therapeutic doses and in controlled
conditions. These psychedelic drugs might also
provide existential support and opportunities for
personal growth and development. Use of psy-
chedelic drugs for the treatment of addictions
has been explored since the 1950s. Indeed, Bill
Wilson, the founder of Alcoholics Anonymous,
was a keen supporter of LSD therapy. A meta-
analysis of LSD-based therapy for alcoholism in
the 1950s and 1960s gathered several hetero-
geneous studies. None was as methodologically
robust as contemporary research studies, but
when analysed together they showed a signifi-
cant effect size. 60 years later, with pharmaco-
logical treatments for alcohol and opiate addic-
tions remaining relatively poor, researchers are
now revisiting psilocybine-assisted psychother-
apy for the treatment of alcohol dependency.
For example, ketamine-assisted psychotherapy
yielded positive results in Russia in the 1990s.
Evegeny Krupitsky and Alexander Grinenko com-
pared 111 patients with alcohol addiction given
ketamine-assisted psychotherapy with 100 pa-
tients with alcohol addiction given conventional
management. 66% of patients given ketamine-
assisted psychotherapy remained sober after 1
year, compared with 24% of the control group.
Anxiety disorders are particularly amenable to
psychedelic therapy because the drugs allow
the patient to safely revisit painful memories
that otherwise block progress with traditional
psychological therapies. 3,4-methylenedioxy-
methamphetamine (MDMA) has been used in
psychotherapy for patients with post-traumatic
stress disorder (PTSD), in which it enables pa-
tients to address traumatic memories without
any overwhelmingly negative side-effects. A
4 year follow-up of a cohort of treatment-re-
sistant patients with PTSD who were given a
single course of MDMA-assisted psychotherapy
showed sustained remission of PTSD. Clinical
phase 3 development of MDMA is now on the
horizon, with projects underway in Australia,
Canada, Israel, Jordan, the UK, and the USA. Patients undergoing MDMA therapy re-
ported a reduction in coincidental tinnitus, so this association is now being investi-
gated. The empathogenic qualities of MDMA are being explored as a way to improve
Theory of Mind in patients with anxiety associated with autism.
The function of the psychedelic experience in management of issues associated with
death has been studied intensely in the past. Stanislav Grof, Joan Halifax, and Elizabeth
Kuber-Ross pioneered the use of LSD-assisted psychotherapy for patients with cancer in
the 1960s. Results from two contemporary randomised trials, one using psilocybine and
another using LSD, showed successful treatment of anxiety in end-stage cancer. Obsessive-
compulsive disorder, which shows substantial resistance to treatment, has been treated
successfully with psilocybine-assisted psychotherapy. The anecdotal phenomenon that
cluster headaches can be relieved by recreational use of LSD and psilocybin has led to a
randomised trial to test this hypothesis. Psychedelic drugs are also being investigated to
advance neuroscience. Results of magneto encephalography and functional MRI studies
at Cardiff University and Imperial College, London, showed that psilocybin and LSD de-
creased blood flow and reduced electrical activity in the medial prefrontal cortex.
These results suggest that the subjective effects of psychedelic drugs are caused by de-
creased activity and connectivity in the brain’s key connector hubs, enabling a state of un-
constrained cognition—a contemporary neurobiological perspective of Aldous Huxley’s
so-called reducing valve hypothesis and an important advance in understanding of the
neurophysiological substrates of consciousness. Whether psilocybine-assisted psycho-
therapy could be developed as a treatment for resistant depression is being investigated
(Nutt D, personal communication).
Anthropological links between spirituality and the use of natural hallucinogens exist. Re-
sults from a double blind randomised trial with psilocybine in the 1960s showed spon-
taneous mystical experiences in participants who were otherwise naive to psychedelic
drugs. A team at Johns Hopkins University is now exploring how a psychedelic-induced
mystical experience can positively affect maladaptive personality traits, with a view to
manage addictions.
Despite a controversial history, these drugs could have an exciting future. Important
reports challenge the dated belief that MDMA at therapeutic doses causes lasting
neurotoxic effects, and results from a large population study of 20,000 users of recre-
ational psychedelic drugs showed no evidence of substantial mental health problems
in these people. If the medical profession can continue to concentrate on evidence-
based data and avoid the pitfalls and negative bias of the past (panel), the future for
psychedelic drug research looks promising.
PANEL:
Barriers to psychedelic research
and mainstream medical practice
Psychedelic drugs-assisted studies are not well funded. The
pharmaceutical industry lends little support for psychedelic re-
search. The drugs themselves (LSD, MDMA, psilocybin) are all off
patent, the recommended doses are low and infrequent, and
they do not require repeated long-term use. Consequently, most
funding comes from private and charitable donations, which is
slow and laborious. The saying that ”psychotherapy must only oc-
cur with the sober patient” is a challenge to psychotherapists and
psychologists who are unaccustomed to working with patients
in the unique psychedelic mental state. The War On Drugs of
the past 40 years has created negatively biased risk information,
which labels any drug with a history of recreational misuse as of
limited therapeutic value. Peculiarly, this view does not seem to
apply to opiates, even though they are far more toxic and addic-
tive than psychedelics. This erroneous belief requires challeng-
ing. Epidemiological and pharmacological evidence indicates
that psychedelic drugs can be safe and effective in controlled
clinical conditions. Indeed, psychedelic drugs satisfy risk-ben-
efit analysis more robustly than many other medications used
in psychiatric practice. Historical associations with uncontrolled
recreational misuse and hedonistic approaches have negative-
ly biased general opinion about psychedelic substances, and
this bias might prevent many clinicians from getting involved
in psychedelic research. This opinion needs to be challenged
by our contemporary, sober, and evidence-based approaches.
 Psychedelic medicine:
a re-emerging therapeutic paradigm [18]
CMAJ • 2015

Kenneth W. Tupper PhD, Evan Wood MD PhD

Richard Yensen PhD, Matthew W. Johnson PhD

Medical interest in psychedelic drugs as treatments for illnesses such as

anxiety, addiction and post-traumatic stress disorder has been renewed.
Small-scale studies involving human participants in the United States, Eu-
rope and Canada are showing that such research can be conducted in a
safe and scientifically rigorous manner. Preliminary findings show some
successful results for these treatments, with significant clinical improve-
ments and few — if any — serious adverse effects. The emerging results
may have implications for future medical and neuroscientific research,
medical education and training, and public policy.

Psychedelic and nonpsychedelic

LSD and psilocybin for cluster headache [20]
CMAJ • 2015

Wm. Jeptha Davenport MD

Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Edmonton, Canada

Tupper and colleagues highlight reasons for renewed interest in the use of
psychedelic drugs as adjuncts to psychotherapy. Clinicians have an interest
in extending research into headache medicine, especially the treatment of
cluster headaches (prevalence roughly 0.1%) when episodes are refractory to
standard therapies, including other serotonergic agents. Patients with clus-
ter headache have turned to LSD and psilocybin to abort periods of cluster
headache. This may often occur without the involvement of patients’ health
care providers. Of interest, an open-label study found that similar com-
pounds (2-bromo-LSD) without psychedelic effect were promising for this
purpose. I hope that Tupper and colleagues’ contribution to an open discus-
sion of these treatments will encourage more research and better treatment
for patients with a variety of disorders presumably linked to serotonin.
 Tolerance to LSD and DOB induced
shaking behaviour: differential adaptations of
frontocortical 5-HT(2A) and
glutamate receptor binding sites [260]
Behavioral Brain Research • March 2015

Buchborn T1, Schröder H2, Dieterich DC3, Grecksch G4, Höllt V5

1Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology

Otto-von-Guericke University, 39120 Magdeburg, Germany
Electronic address: tobias.buchborn@med.ovgu.de
2Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology
Otto-von-Guericke University, 39120 Magdeburg, Germany
Electronic address: helmut.schroeder@med.ovgu.de
3Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology
Otto-von-Guericke University, 39120 Magdeburg, Germany
Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Magdeburg, Germany
Center for Behavioral Brain Sciences (CBBS), Magdeburg, Germany
Electronic address: daniela.dieterich@med.ovgu.de
4Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Otto-von-Guericke University
39120 Magdeburg, Germany
Electronic address: gisela.grecksch@med.ovgu.de
5Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology
Otto-von-Guericke University, 39120 Magdeburg, Germany
Electronic address: volker.hoellt@med.ovgu.de

Serotonergic hallucinogens, such as lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) and dimethoxy-bro-

moamphetamine (DOB), provoke stereotype-like shaking behaviour in rodents, which is
hypothesised to engage frontocortical glutamate receptor activation secondary to seroto-
nin2A (5-HT2A) related glutamate release. Challenging this hypothesis, we here investigate
whether tolerance to LSD and DOB correlates with frontocortical adaptations of 5-HT2A
and/or overall-glutamate binding sites. LSD and DOB (0.025 and 0.25 mg/kg, i.p.) induce a
ketanserin-sensitive (0.5 mg/kg, i.p., 30-min pretreatment) increase in shaking behaviour (in-
cluding head twitches and wet dog shakes), which with repeated application (7× in 4 ds) is
undermined by tolerance. Tolerance to DOB, as indexed by DOB-sensitive [(3)H]spiroperidol
and DOB induced [(35)S]GTP-gamma-S binding, is accompanied by a frontocortical de-
crease in 5-HT2A binding sites and 5-HT2 signalling, respectively; glutamate-sensitive
[(3)H]glutamate binding sites, in contrast, remain unchanged. As to LSD, 5-HT2 signalling
and 5-HT2A binding, respectively, are not or only marginally affected, yet [(3)H]glutamate
binding is significantly decreased. Correlation analysis interrelates tolerance to DOB to the
reduced 5-HT2A (r=.80) as well as the unchanged [(3)H]glutamate binding sites (r=.84); tol-
erance to LSD, as opposed, shares variance with the reduction in [(3)H]glutamate binding
sites only (r=.86). Given that DOB and LSD both induce tolerance, one correlating with 5-
HT2A, the other with glutamate receptor adaptations, it might be inferred that tolerance can
arise at either level. That is, if a hallucinogen (like LSD in our study) fails to induce 5-HT2A
(down-)regulation, glutamate receptors (activated postsynaptic to 5-HT2A related gluta-
mate release) might instead adapt and thus prevent further overstimulation of the cortex.
 At left, NIH Publication No. 15-7589 printed October 2010, re-
vised April 2011, July 2013 and March 2015, is a propaganda
piece whose revelations, conclusions and advice are in direct
opposition to the vast majority of the peer review. The Na-
tional Institute On Drug Abuse (NIDA) is a part of the National
Institutes of Health in Washington DC espousing the disap-
proving and vilifying disinformation necessary to keep what is
the most incredible pharmaceutical product ever invented in
a laboratory by a medical professional out of the hands and
minds of the public whose benefits could never be tolerated.

LSD PDF #197

 Crowdfunding sought for study
that will provide first images of human brain on LSD [506]
British Medical Journal • March 2015

By Ingrid Torjesen • London

The neuropsychopharmacologist who was sacked as the UK government’s adviser on drugs after he ar-
gued against tougher laws on cannabis and ecstasy is trying to raise crowdfunding to support research
into the effects of LSD on the brain. Numerous studies were conducted on LSD in the 1950s and 1960s,
but there have been only three in the 50 years since the drug was made illegal in 1967, and none in the
United Kingdom, because of the difficulty and cost of getting the necessary licences to undertake the
research. David Nutt, professor of neuropsychopharmacology at Imperial College London, said that the
resulting censorship of research was “the worst censorship in the history of science.” He added, “The only
comparable example is when the Catholic church banned the telescope in 1616, and the ban on the writ-
ings of Copernicus [that the earth orbits the sun] lasted 150 years.”

Nutt has been the principal investigator of a psychedelic research programme at Imperial, which has
managed to obtain permission to conduct research. The programme has so far focused primarily on the
effects on the brain of psilocybin, the active compound in magic mushrooms, and now the team is con-
ducting a similar study on the effects of LSD.

Supported with £100 000 (€140 000; $155 000) from the Beckley Foundation, which supports research
into drug science and policy, the team administered a 75 μg intravenous dose of LSD to 20 participants
and used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and magnetoencephalography (MEG) imaging
to produce highly detailed images of the effects of the drug on the brain, which will help to begin to
clarify its mechanisms of action. fMRI captures snapshots of activity taking place in the brain, and MEG
measures oscillating neuroactivity to show how brain processes are affected by LSD.

When the Imperial group carried out similar imaging of the brains of participants who had taken psilocy-
bin they found that the drug decreased the blood supply to the brain and caused a “de-synchrony in the
activity.” They predicted that LSD worked in a similar but more powerful way. Robin Carhart-Harris, the
lead investigator, explained that psychedelic drugs have an affinity for the serotonin 5-HT2A receptor.
“LSD is incredibly sticky: it is one of the most potent psychoactive drugs,” he said. They need a further £25
000 to fully analyse the results they have collected, which they are trying to raise through the crowdfund-
ing website Walacea.com. The crowdfunding campaign will run for 45 days from 5 March. Carhart-Harris
said that researchers had begun to look at the use of psychedelic drugs in addiction (alcohol and smok-
ing) and in reducing anxiety related to dying and that the Imperial team planned to begin a study on the
use of psilocybin in depression in May.
 Pharmacokinetics and concentration-effect
relationship of oral LSD in humans [28]
International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology • June 2015

Patrick C. Dolder1, 2*, Yasmin Schmid1*, Manuel Haschke1,

Katharina M. Rentsch2, and Matthias E. Liechti1

1Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology

Department of Biomedicine and Department of Clinical Research, and
2Laboratory Medicine, University Hospital and University of Basel, Switzerland

Address for Correspondence: Prof. Matthias E. Liechti, MD, Division of Clinical

Pharmacology and Toxicology, University Hospital Basel, Hebelstrasse 2, Basel, CH-4031,
Switzerland; Tel: +41 61 328 68 68; Fax: +41 61 265 45 60; E-mail: matthias.liechti@usb.ch

The pharmacokinetics of oral lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) are unknown,

despite its common recreational use and renewed interest in its use in psy-
chiatric research and practice. We characterized the pharmacokinetic pro-
file, pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic relationship, and urine recovery
of LSD and its main metabolite after administration of a single oral dose of
LSD (200 μg) in eight male and eight female healthy subjects. Plasma LSD
concentrations were quantifiable (> 0.1 ng/ml) in all of the subjects up to
12 h after administration. Maximal concentrations of LSD (mean ± SD: 4.5 ±
1.4 ng/ml) were reached (median, range) 1.5 (0.5-4) h after administration.
Concentrations then decreased following first-order kinetics with a half-
life of 3.6 ± 0.9 h up to 12 h and slower elimination thereafter with a termi-
nal half-life of 8.9 ± 5.9 h. One percent of the orally administered LSD was
eliminated in urine as LSD, and 14% was eliminated as 2-oxo-3- hydroxy-
LSD within 24 h. No sex differences were observed in the pharmacokinetic
profiles of LSD. The acute subjective and sympathomimetic responses to
LSD lasted up to 12 h and were closely associated with the concentrations
in plasma over time and exhibited no acute tolerance.

Conclusions (images on following page)

These first data on the pharmacokinetics and concentration-effect relation-

ship of oral LSD are relevant for further clinical studies and serve as a refer-
ence for the assessment of intoxication with LSD.

Trial registration: Registration identification number: NCT01878942

ClinicalTrials.gov: http://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT01878942
 FIGURE 1
Pharmacokinetics (PK) of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) and 2-oxo-3-hydroxy-LSD (O-H-LSD).
(a) Individual LSD plasma concentration-time curves with the geometric mean shown in the
inset. Filled circles indicate male subjects, and open circles indicate female subjects. (b) Semi-
logarithmic plot of the individual concentrations of LSD. Curves are shown separately for each
individual in the supplementary Material (supplementary Figure S1). First-order kinetics were
observed in all 16 subjects up to 12 hours. LSD levels fell below the lower limit of quantifica-
tion (0.1ng/mL) in 2 subjects at 16 hours and 5 subjects at 24 hours. Slower elimination was
observed between 12 and 24 hours. (c) Individual O-H-LSD plasma concentration-time curves
in 8 subjects in whom metabolite concentrations could be determined, with the geometric
mean shown in the inset. (d) Semilogarithmic plot of the individual concentrations of O-H-LSD.
Curves are shown separately in supplementary Figure S2. LSD was administered at t = 0 hours.
FIGURE 2
Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) effects plotted against LSD plasma concentrations (geometric means).
The pharmacodynamic values are the mean±SEM differences from placebo at each time point in 16
subjects. The time of sampling is noted next to each point (in hours after LSD administration). Heart
rate (a), mean arterial pressure (b), and bad drug effect (g) showed no hysteresis. Counterclockwise
hysteresis was observed for body temperature (c), pupil size (d), any drug effect (e), and good drug
effect (f ), consistent with a delay between plasma concentration and effect. For most dynamic vari-
ables, maximal plasma concentrations (at approximately 2 hours) coincided with maximal dynamic
effects. The dynamic changes then gradually decreased over time with decreasing plasma levels. No
evidence of acute tolerance (clockwise hysteresis) was observed for any of the dynamic effects of LSD.
 The hallucinogenic world of tryptamines:
an updated review [125]
Archives In Toxicology • August 2015

Araújo AM1, Carvalho F, Bastos Mde L, Guedes de Pinho P, Carvalho M.

1UCIBIO-REQUIMTE, Laboratório de Toxicologia

Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Faculdade de Farmácia
Universidade do Porto, Rua Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, 228, 4050-313, Porto, Portugal
ana.margarida.c.araujo@gmail.com

In the area of psychotropic drugs, tryptamines are known to be a broad class

of classical or serotonergic hallucinogens. These drugs are capable of produc-
ing profound changes in sensory perception, mood and thought in humans
and act primarily as agonists of the 5-HT2A receptor. Well-known tryptamines
such as psilocybin contained in Aztec sacred mushrooms and N,N-dimeth-
yltryptamine (DMT), present in South American psychoactive beverage aya-
huasca, have been restrictedly used since ancient times in sociocultural and
ritual contexts. However, with the discovery of hallucinogenic properties of
lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) in mid-1900s, tryptamines began to be used
recreationally among young people. More recently, new synthetically pro-
duced tryptamine hallucinogens, such as alpha-methyltryptamine (AMT), 5-
methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine (5-MeO-DMT) and 5-methoxy-N,N-diiso-
propyltryptamine (5-MeO-DIPT), emerged in the recreational drug market,
which have been claimed as the next-generation designer drugs to replace
LSD (‘legal’ alternatives to LSD). Tryptamine derivatives are widely accessible
over the Internet through companies selling them as ‘research chemicals’, but
can also be sold in ‘headshops’ and street dealers. Reports of intoxication and
deaths related to the use of new tryptamines have been described over the
last years, raising international concern over tryptamines. However, the lack of
literature pertaining to pharmacological and toxicological properties of new
tryptamine hallucinogens hampers the assessment of their actual potential
harm to general public health. This review provides a comprehensive update
on tryptamine hallucinogens, concerning their historical background, preva-
lence, patterns of use and legal status, chemistry, toxicokinetics, toxicodynam-
ics and their physiological and toxicological effects on animals and humans.
Peak experiences and the afterglow phenomenon:
when and how do therapeutic effects
of hallucinogens depend on
psychedelic experiences? [65]
Journal Of Psychopharmacology • March 2015

Majić T1, Schmidt TT2, Gallinat J3

1Clinic for Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Charité University Medicine

Berlin, Germany tomislav.majic@charite.de
2Neurocomputation and Neuroimaging Unit, Freie Universität, Berlin, Germany
Bernstein Center for Computational Neuroscience, Berlin, Germany
3Clinic for Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Charité University Medicine, Berlin
Department for Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Medical Center
Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany

Interest in the therapeutic potential of psychedelic substances has re-

cently resumed. During an early phase of human psychedelic research,
their therapeutic application in different pathologies had been sug-
gested, and the first evidence for efficacy was provided. The range of re-
cent clinical applications of psychedelics spans from cluster headaches
and obsessive-compulsive disorder to addiction and the treatment of
fear and anxiety in patients suffering from terminal illness, indicating
potentially different therapeutic mechanisms. A variety of approaches
in psychotherapy emphasize subjective experiences, such as so-called
peak experiences or afterglow phenomena, as differentially medi-
ating therapeutic action. This review aims to re-evaluate earlier and
recent concepts of how psychedelic substances may exert beneficial
effects. After a short outline of neurophenomenological aspects, we
discuss different approaches to how psychedelics are used in psycho-
therapy. Finally, we summarize evidence for the relationship between
subjective experiences and therapeutic success. While the distinction
between pharmacological and psychological action obviously cannot
be clear-cut, they do appear to contribute differently from each other
when their effects are compared with regard to pathologies.
 Review:
Biology, Genetics
and Management of Ergot (Claviceps spp.)
in Rye, Sorghum, and Pearl Millet [732]
Toxins • February 2015

Thomas Miedaner 1,* and Hartwig H. Geiger 2

1 State Plant Breeding Institute, University of Hohenheim, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany

2 Institute of Plant Breeding, Seed Science, and Population Genetics,University of Hohenheim
70599 Stuttgart, Germany; E-Mail: h.h.geiger@uni-hohenheim.de

Ergot is a disease of cereals and grasses caused by fungi in the genus

Claviceps. Of particular concern are Claviceps purpurea in temperate
regions, C. africana in sorghum (worldwide), and C. fusiformis in pearl
millet (Africa, Asia). The fungi infect young, usually unfertilized ovaries,
replacing the seeds by dark mycelial masses known as sclerotia. The
percentage of sclerotia in marketable grain is strictly regulated in many
countries. In winter rye, ergot has been known in Europe since the early
Middle Ages. The alkaloids produced by the fungus severely affect the
health of humans and warm-blooded animals. In sorghum and pearl
millet, ergot became a problem when growers adopted hybrid tech-
nology, which increased host susceptibility. Plant traits reducing ergot
infection include immediate pollination of receptive stigmas, closed
flowering (cleistogamy), and physiological resistance. Genetic, nonpol-
len-mediated variation in ergot susceptibility could be demonstrated in
all three affected cereals. Fungicides have limited efficacy and applica-
tion is weather dependent. Sorting out the sclerotia from the harvest by
photocells is expensive and time consuming. In conclusion, molecular-
based hybrid rye breeding could improve pollen fertility by introgress-
ing effective restorer genes thus bringing down the ergot infection level
to that of conventional population cultivars. A further reduction might
be feasible in the future by selecting more resistant germplasm.
 Lysergic Acid Diethylamide and Psilocybin Revisited [236]
Mark A. Geyer

Biological Psychiatry • October 2015

This work was supported by National Institute on Drug Abuse Grant No. R01 DA002925-31 (“Monoamine and Hallucinogen Effects on Rodent Behavior”) and
the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs VISN (Veterans Integrated Service Networks) 22 Mental Illness Research, Education, and Clinical Center (“Functional Outcome in Chronic Psychosis”)
In the past 3 years, MAG has received consulting compensation from Abbott Laboratories, Dart NeuroScience, H. Lundbeck A/S, Neurocrine Biosciences, Omeros Corporation, Otsuka America Pharmaceutical, and Sunovion Pharmaceuticals
and holds an equity interest in San Diego Instruments. From the Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego La Jolla; and Research Service, Veterans Administration San Diego Healthcare System, San Diego, California.
Address correspondence to Mark A. Geyer, Ph.D. Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093-0804 • E-mail: mgeyer@ucsd.edu

The past decade brought the beginnings of a renais- mann also identified psilocybin as the active principle
sance in research on psychedelic drugs. Two articles in Psilocybe mushrooms (“magic mushrooms”) in 1958
in this issue of Biological Psychiatry signify that the (2). Largely as a result of the pioneering work of the
resurrection of this longignored topic has begun to Vollenweider group in Zurich, Switzerland, psilocybin
mature and bear at least the promise of fruit. In the became the foremost practical laboratory tool suitable
early 1970s, the onset of the “War on Drugs” brought for use in experimental medicine studies in healthy
with it a near-total hiatus in serious research on psy- human volunteers. The article by Kraehenmann et al.
chedelic drugs, especially in the United States. The (3) reflects the maturation of this group’s research by
resumption of credible work in this area has come building on their studies addressing the behavioral,
from Switzerland, where many of the original pio- emotional, psychophysiologic, electrophysiologic, and
neering studies were initiated in the 1950s and 1960s. brain imaging alterations resulting from administra-
tion of psilocybin, ketamine, and other psychoactive
The two articles presented here address the phenom- drugs in healthy humans. Many of these pharmacolog-
enology and underlying mechanisms of action for two ic studies were conducted in parallel with assessments
classic psychedelic drugs: lysergic acid diethylamide in psychiatric patient populations. Kraehenmann et
(LSD) and psilocybin. Schmid et al. (1) examined the ef- al. (3) used functional magnetic resonance imaging
fects of the most famous psychedelic, LSD, which was to confirm that acutely administered psilocybin led
discovered in Basel, Switzerland, by Hofmann in 1943 to a decrease in right amygdala reactivity to negative
(2). Schmid et al. demonstrated that a robust dose of LSD stimuli that was associated with a psilocybin-induced
was feasible for studies in healthy volunteers and that reduction in emotional reactivity to negative stimuli.
it markedly reduced sensorimotor gating as indexed by Furthermore, this change in the amygdala response
prepulse inhibition of the startle response (PPI). This dis- was related to a psilocybin-induced enhancement of
ruption of PPI by LSD mimicked not only the disruption positive mood. The demonstration that LSD disrupts
reported in parallel experiments in rodents but also the PPI in healthy subjects has several implications, as dis-
similar deficit in PPI observed in patients with schizo- cussed by Kraehenmann et al. (3). As summarized else-
phrenia. Kraehenmann et al. (3) combined state-of- where (2), the original idea that LSD intoxication may
the-art imaging methods with validated clinical rating provide a model of psychosis that could help identify
scales and a well-established affect modulation task to substrates of psychotic disorders such as schizophre-
characterize the effects of psilocybin on positive mood nia was vitalized by Swiss researchers a year before
and identify circuitry subserving these effects. Hof- serotonin was suggested to be a neurotransmitter in
1948. In the mid-1950s, Woolley and Shaw hypothesized that serotonin could be involved in the eti- effects of psychedelics are attributable to 5-HT2A agonist actions. Kometer et al. (8) used self-report
ology and treatment of schizophrenia. Although American psychiatric researchers largely dismissed and event-related potential measures of responses to emotional cues such as facial expressions to
LSD as a useful model psychosis, European scientists continued to explore this model, leading to show that psilocybin enhanced positive moods, while attenuating the impact of negative emotional
Janssen’s development of the atypical antipsychotic risperidone as a compound that blocked the stimuli, and that both alterations were prevented by the 5-HT2A antagonist ketanserin. As with the
behavioral effects of amphetamine and LSD in animals. The report by Schmid et al. (1) that acute rapid and lasting antidepressant effects of acutely administered ketamine, a glutamate receptor an-
administration of LSD mimics the deficit in PPI seen in patients with schizophrenia and some other tagonist often characterized as a psychotomimetic, some reports in the literature had prompted the
psychotic disorders (4) helps to validate retroactively animal studies showing that LSD disrupts PPI speculation that acute experiences with psilocybin might also have antianxiety, antidepressant, or
by acting as a 5-hydroxytryptamine 2A (5-HT2A) receptor antagonist (5,6). It is now recognized that positive mood effects that outlive the duration of drug action. As discussed by Kraehenmann et al. (3),
5-HT2A agonists disrupt not only PPI but also more controlled forms of inhibition as well as attention a safety study in patients with terminal cancer found reductions in anxiety and increases in positive
and that all these effects are prevented by a 5-HT2A antagonist (7). One wonders how much earlier
we might have developed atypical antipsychotics with strong 5-HT2A receptor antagonist effects if
more investigators had used model psychosis paradigms involving 5-HT2A agonists. One long-stand-
ing mystery regarding the mechanism of action of psychedelic drugs was that lisuride, a congener
of LSD, is not hallucinogenic despite being a 5-HT2A agonist. More recent studies have shown that
although lisuride disrupts PPI in rodents as does LSD, it does so by a dopaminergic mechanism rather
than via its 5-HT2A agonist action (6). Work with lisuride indicates that agonist-directed trafficking, or
functional selectivity, may explain why not all 5-HT2A agonists are hallucinogenic in humans. It will
be interesting in future studies to assess the effects of lisuride on PPI in healthy human volunteers.

The article by Schmid et al. (1) provides other important conclusions. First, despite sympathomi-
metic effects that warrant cautious monitoring, experimental studies with robust doses of LSD
are feasible when subjects are carefully selected, settings are nonthreatening, and investiga-
tors follow the subjects beyond the extended duration of the drug effect. Drug effects clearly
persisted in several subjects for 16 hours after ingestion. The robustness of the 200-mg dose of
LSD was clear; scores on symptom rating scales far surpassed the scores produced by other psy-
chedelic drugs such as psilocybin. The high scores on measures of empathogenic effects, which
are more commonly associated with the nonhallucinogenic serotonin releaser methylenedioxy-
methamphetamine, were another surprising result. At a biological level, LSD increased plasma
oxytocin in addition to expected increases in stress-related markers. The authors opine that
these observations may indicate some utility for LSD treatment in psychotherapeutic settings.

Previous studies in Vollenweider’s laboratory had used behavioral and electrophysiologic assess-
ments to demonstrate that the psychedelic psilocybin may have antidepressant properties insofar as
it increased positive moods, while decreasing the emotional and neural reactions to visually present-
ed negative stimuli. Based on strong evidence in the literature showing amygdala involvement in the
affective response to negative images, Kraehenmann et al. (3) tested and confirmed the hypothesis
that the previously observed behavioral and neural activity changes were attributable to psilocybin-
induced activation of the right amygdala. Particularly striking was the observation that the attenua-
tion of amygdala reactivity to negative stimuli was significantly correlated with scores on the positive
affect subscale of the Positive and Negative Affect Scale. The authors discussed prior evidence from
their group and related preclinical work in rodents strongly supporting the belief that these affective
mood 6 months after a single administration of psilocy-
bin (9). Similarly, Griffiths et al. (10) demonstrated that
healthy volunteers given psilocybin acutely reported
striking spiritual and mystical experiences that appeared
to have positive sequelae over many months. Given such
reports and the strong empirical data provided by Krae-
henmann et al. (3) identifying neural circuits subserving
positive mood effects of psilocybin, it would be interest-
ing to examine whether psilocybin might have rapid and
potentially lasting antidepressant effects in patients with
severe depression.

In conclusion, these two articles describing rigorous and

sophisticated examinations of the effects of two 5-HT2A
agonists, LSD and psilocybin, in healthy human volun-
teers offer the promise of a resurgence of psychedelic
drug research to understand mechanisms underlying
their actions and gain insights into normal and abnor-
mal brain function. After nearly half a century in which
the field was largely constrained to a small cadre of pre-
clinical researchers studying these mysterious drugs in
necessarily simple animal paradigms, it is refreshing to
see the reopening of this work in humans.

Nevertheless, it is unclear whether this promise will be

fully materialized. Although the Swiss National Science
Foundation supported the work of Schmid et al. (1), the
work of Kraehenmann et al. (3) and most of the related
studies from the Vollenweider laboratory were support-
ed by visionary private foundations instead of govern-
mental agencies. In the United States, support from the
National Institutes of Health for research on psychedelic
drugs has diminished from programs operating in sev-
eral basic science laboratories in the recent past to only
three currently listed in NIH RePORTER (http://projectre-
porter.nih.gov/reporter.cfm). The promise of this line of
research is just beginning to be realized; thus, it will be
important for adequate research funding to be identi-
fied to extend this work further and answer the question
whether or not there are therapeutically beneficial ef-
fects of this intriguing family of compounds.
 LSD enhances the
emotional response to music [145]
Psychopharmacology • October 2015
Kaelen M1, Barrett FS, Roseman L
Lorenz R, Family N, Bolstridge M,
Curran HV, Feilding A, Nutt DJ, Carhart-Harris RL.
1Centre for Neuropsychopharmacology
Division of Brain Sciences, Faculty of Medicine
Imperial College London, London, UK
m.kaelen@imperial.ac.uk
There is renewed interest in the therapeutic potential
of psychedelic drugs such as lysergic acid diethylamide
(LSD). LSD was used extensively in the 1950s and 1960s
as an adjunct in psychotherapy, reportedly enhancing
emotionality. Music is an effective tool to evoke and study
emotion and is considered an important element in psy-
chedelic-assisted psychotherapy; however, the hypoth-
esis that psychedelics enhance the emotional response
to music has yet to be investigated in a modern placebo-
controlled study. The present study sought to test the
hypothesis that music-evoked emotions are enhanced
under LSD. Ten healthy volunteers listened to five differ-
ent tracks of instrumental music during each of two study
days, a placebo day followed by an LSD day, separated by
5-7 days. Subjective ratings were completed after each
music track and included a visual analogue scale (VAS) and
the nine-item Geneva Emotional Music Scale (GEMS-9).
Results demonstrated that the emotional response to mu-
sic is enhanced by LSD, especially the emotions “wonder”,
“transcendence”, “power” and “tenderness”. These findings
reinforce the long-held assumption that psychedelics en-
hance music-evoked emotion, and provide tentative and
indirect support for the notion that this effect can be har-
nessed in the context of psychedelic-assisted psychother-
apy. Further research is required to test this link directly.
LSD enhances suggestibility Psilocybin - publicly available psychodysleptic
in healthy volunteers [146]
Postepy Higieny I Medycyny Doswiadczalnej • September 2015
Psychopharmacology • February 2015
Dydak K1, Śliwińska-Mossoń M2, Milnerowicz H2
Carhart-Harris RL1, Kaelen M, Whalley MG
1Studenckie Koło Naukowe przy Katedrze
Bolstridge M, Feilding A, Nutt DJ. i Zakładzie Biomedycznych Analiz Środowiskowych
2Katedra i Zakład Biomedycznych Analiz Środowiskowych
Uniwersytet Medyczny im. Piastów Śląskich we Wrocławiu
1Centre for Neuropsychopharmacology, Division of Brain Sciences
Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, UK
r.carhart-harris@imperial.ac.uk
Substances of plant origin have been used to induce hallucinations for a
long time, in religious ceremonies and rituals as well as in pain relief. Psi-
Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) has a history of use as a psy-
locybin and psilocin naturally occur in the fungal genus Psilocybe. Due to
chotherapeutic aid in the treatment of mood disorders and
the psychedelic effects and relative harmlessness of these substances and
addiction, and it was also explored as an enhancer of mind
the fact that they do not cause physical addiction, psilocybin and psilo-
control. The present study sought to test the effect of LSD on
cin recently have been increasingly replacing synthetic psychodysleptics,
suggestibility in a modern research study. Ten healthy vol-
such as diethylamide D-lysergic acid. Both compounds as psychoactive
unteers were administered with intravenous (i.v.) LSD (40-80
substances are illegal, but psilocybin, in addition to psychotropic action,
μg) in a within-subject placebo-controlled design. Suggest-
also shows positive effects, which from a medical point of view indicate its
ibility and cued mental imagery were assessed using the
therapeutic potential and capacity for use in therapy. However, poisoning
Creative Imagination Scale (CIS) and a mental imagery test
by psilocin and its derivatives is still a major clinical and social problem,
(MIT). CIS and MIT items were split into two versions (A and
mainly among young people, which is why quick and reliable identifica-
B), balanced for ‘efficacy’ (i.e. A ≈ B) and counterbalanced
tion of these substances is very important. Traditional ways of assigning
across conditions (i.e. 50 % completed version ‘A’ under LSD).
the sample to a particular taxon, such as morphological and biochemical
The MIT and CIS were issued 110 and 140 min, respectively,
analysis or palynological and sporological studies, are not very universal
post-infusion, corresponding with the peak drug effects.
and often do not provide clear results. Credibility, high speed and lower
Volunteers gave significantly higher ratings for the CIS (p =
cost of DNA analysis make genetic methods more often used to determine
0.018), but not the MIT (p = 0.11), after LSD than placebo.
the species of fungi. These methods are random amplification of polymor-
The magnitude of suggestibility enhancement under LSD
phic DNA (RAPD), amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) and
was positively correlated with trait conscientiousness mea-
high resolution melting (HRM). Moreover, analysis of the regions ITS1 and
sured at baseline (p = 0.0005). These results imply that the
nLSU was suggested as a valid method for application in the molecular
influence of suggestion is enhanced by LSD. Enhanced sug-
taxonomy of fungi for forensic purposes. Modern methods of identifying
gestibility under LSD may have implications for its use as an
psilocybin and psilocin in fungi and biological material are: zone capillary
adjunct to psychotherapy, where suggestibility plays a ma-
electrophoresis, high performance liquid chromatography, gas chroma-
jor role. That cued imagery was unaffected by LSD implies
tography and liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry.
that suggestions must be of a sufficient duration and level
The mentioned methods are successfully used for the identification of
of detail to be enhanced by the drug. The results also imply
psychoactive substances in fungi as well as in blood and urine samples.
that individuals with high trait conscientiousness are espe-
cially sensitive to the suggestibility-enhancing effects of LSD.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26400885
 The epistemic innocence
of psychedelic states [210]
Consciousness and Cognition • August 2015

By Dr. Chris Letheby

Department of Philosophy, University of Adelaide

North Terrace, Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia

One recent development in epistemology, the philosophical

study of knowledge, is the notion of ‘epistemic innocence’ in-
troduced by Bortolotti and colleagues. This concept expresses
the idea that certain suboptimal cognitive processes may none-
theless have epistemic (knowledge-related) benefits. The idea
that delusion or confabulation may have psychological bene-
fits is familiar enough. What is novel and interesting is the idea
that such conditions may also yield significant and otherwise
unavailable epistemic benefits. I apply the notion of epistemic
innocence to research on the transformative potential of psy-
chedelic drugs. The popular epithet ‘hallucinogen’ exemplifies
a view of these substances as fundamentally epistemically det-
rimental. I argue that the picture is more complicated and that
some psychedelic states can be epistemically innocent. This
conclusion is highly relevant to policy debates about psyche-
delic therapy. Moreover, analysing the case of psychedelics can
shed further light on the concept of epistemic innocence itself.
 Finding the Self by Losing the Self:
Neural Correlates of Ego-Dissolution
Under Psilocybin [214]
Human Brain Mapping • April 2015

Alexander V. Lebedev,1,2* Martin L€ovd en,1 Gidon Rosenthal,3

Amanda Feilding,4 David J. Nutt,5 and Robin L. Carhart-Harris5

1Aging Research Center

Karolinska Institutet & Stockholm University, Sweden
2Centre for Age-Related Medicine
Stavanger University Hospital, Norway
3Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences
Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Israel
4The Beckley Foundation, Beckley Park, United Kingdom
5Division of Brain Sciences, Department of Medicine
Centre for Neuropsychopharmacology
Imperial College London, UK

Ego-disturbances have been a topic in schizophrenia research since

the earliest clinical descriptions of the disorder. Manifesting as a feel-
ing that one’s “self,” “ego,” or “I” is disintegrating or that the border be-
tween one’s self and the external world is dissolving, “ego-disintegra-
tion” or “dissolution” is also an important feature of the psychedelic
experience, such as is produced by psilocybin (a compound found in
“magic mushrooms”). Fifteen healthy subjects took part in this pla-
cebo controlled study. Twelve-minute functional MRI scans were ac-
quired on two occasions: subjects received an intravenous infusion of
saline on one occasion (placebo) and 2 mg psilocybin on the other.
Twenty-two visual analogue scale ratings were completed soon after
scanning and the first principal component of these, dominated by
items referring to “ego-dissolution”, was used as a primary measure
of interest in subsequent analyses. Employing methods of connec-
tivity analysis and graph theory, an association was found between
psilocybin-induced ego-dissolution and decreased functional con-
nectivity between the medial temporal lobe and high-level cortical
regions. Ego-dissolution was also associated with a “disintegration” of
the salience network and reduced interhemispheric communication.
Addressing baseline brain dynamics as a predictor of drug-response,
individuals with lower diversity of executive network nodes were
more likely to experience ego-dissolution under psilocybin. These re-
sults implicate MTL-cortical decoupling, decreased salience network
integrity, and reduced inter-hemispheric communication in psilocy-
bin-induced ego disturbance and suggest that the maintenance of
“self”or “ego,” as a perceptual phenomenon, may rest on the normal
functioning of these systems. Hum Brain Mapp 00:000–000, 2015.
 LSD-assisted psychotherapy
for anxiety associated with a life-threatening
disease: a qualitative study of acute and
sustained subjective effects [104]
Journal Of Psychopharmacology • January 2015

Gasser P1, Kirchner K2, Passie T3

1Medical Office for Psychiatry and Psychotherapy

Solothurn, Switzerland pgasser@gmx.net
2Psychologist MSc, Dietikon, Switzerland
3Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA

A recently published study showed the safety and efficacy of LSD-assisted

psychotherapy in patients with anxiety associated with life-threatening
diseases. Participants of this study were included in a prospective follow-
up. 12 months after finishing LSD psychotherapy, 10 participants were
tested for anxiety (STAI) and participated in a semi-structured interview.
A Qualitative Content Analysis (QCA) was carried out on the interviews to
elaborate about LSD effects and lasting psychological changes. None of
the participants reported lasting adverse reactions. The significant ben-
efits as measured with the STAI were sustained over a 12-month period.
In the QCA participants consistently reported insightful, cathartic and in-
terpersonal experiences, accompanied by a reduction in anxiety (77.8%)
and a rise in quality of life (66.7%). Evaluations of subjective experiences
suggest facilitated access to emotions, confrontation of previously un-
known anxieties, worries, resources and intense emotional peak experi-
ences à la Maslow as major psychological working mechanisms. The ex-
periences created led to a restructuring of the person’s emotional trust,
situational understanding, habits and world view. LSD administered in a
medically supervised psychotherapeutic setting can be safe and gener-
ate lasting benefits in patients with a life-threatening disease. Explan-
atory models for the therapeutic effects of LSD warrant further study.
 A Suicide Attempt Following Analytically Confirmed
25I-NBOMe Ingestion [77]
Joji Suzuki, M.D.a, Justin L. Poklis, B.S.b, and Alphonse Poklis, Ph.D.c

Journal Of Psychoactive Drugs • November 2015

aDirector, Division of Addiction Psychiatry

Department of Psychiatry, Brigham and Women’s Hospital
Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA
bManager of the Mass Spectroscopy Core Laboratory
Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology
Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA
cDirector, MCV Hospitals Toxicology Lab, Department of Pathology
Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology
Department of Forensic Science, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA

A new class of synthetic hallucinogens called NBOMe has emerged, and reports
of adverse effects are beginning to appear. We report on a case of a suicide at-
tempt after LSD ingestion which was analytically determined to be 25I-NBOMe
instead. Clinicians need to have a high index of suspicion for possible NBOMe
ingestion in patients reporting the recent use of LSD or other hallucinogens.

Mr. B is an 18 year old male who was brought to the emergency room after
calling 911 to report he had tried to kill himself following the ingestion of “2
hits of acid”. Mr. B, a college freshman, reported no prior medical history, psy-
chiatric diagnosis, suicidal ideation or attempts, self-injurious behaviors, psy-
chiatric hospitalizations, psychiatric medication use, or treatment by a mental
health professional. Mr. B noted a 3–4 month history of mild depression in the
context of stressors at school, but denied any prior suicidal ideation or per-
ceptual disturbances. He drank alcohol infrequently but smoked marijuana
regularly. He denied any other drug use including hallucinogens, except for
having tried salvia divinorum once in high school. Mr. B had an interest in try-
ing LSD, and approached a friend who claimed to have “good LSD.” The night
prior to his presentation to the emergency room, Mr. B obtained 2 “blotters”
of approximately ¼-inch size and placed them under his tongue. He recalled
the taste to be moderately bitter. Mr B’s mental state at the time of ingestion
was described as calm and mildly anxious. He had no significant expectations
about LSD intoxication other than that it may help him experience interesting
sensations. Mr B ingested the drug in his friend’s dorm room in the presence “My Friend Said it was Good LSD”
of several friends, none of whom were going to ingest the substance. After
approximately one hour, he began to experience euphoria, tachycardia, and
visual hallucinations. The drug effects continued to increase in intensity over
the next several hours, and he became increasingly anxious and confused.
At this point Mr B retreated to his own dorm room, and was alone for the
remainder of the night. Mr. B experienced repetitive thoughts that he was
“trapped” which further worsened his anxiety and he began to panic. When
these feelings did not subside, he began to contemplate suicide as a way to
end the experience. He then proceeded to use a pair of scissors to stab himself
in the neck and chest. He was unable to remember the events that followed,
and suspects he may have lost consciousness. Approximately 11 hours after
initially ingesting LSD, he realized the extent of his injuries and called 911.

On arrival in the emergency room, Mr. B was noted to be alert and orient-
ed, anxious and in moderate distress, and reported he was no longer un-
der the influence of LSD. He was afebrile, and had a heart rate of 90bpm,
blood pressure of 140/84mmHg, respirations of 20/minute, and oxygen
saturation of 99% on room air. On exam, his pupils were mildly dilated
at 5mm, and the following injuries were noted—a 12cm gaping wound
in the anterior neck visible to the thyroid cartilage and trachea, two 8cm
wounds to the right lateral neck not penetrating fascia, and a 2cm left an-
terior chest wall penetrating stab wound that extends beyond the fascia.
Laboratory studies were within normal limits, and the routine toxicologi-
cal screen of urine was positive only for marijuana metabolites. Imaging
studies showed moderately sized left pneumothorax causing a shift of the
mediastinum, a small left pleural effusion, and patchy opacities in the left
base. A chest tube was placed, and Mr. B was sent to the operating room
for wound exploration, bronchoscopy, endoscopy, washout, and closure.

During the hospitalization, Mr. B reported feeling depressed given the sever-
ity of his injuries, but denied any ongoing suicidal ideation. No symptoms of
psychosis or mania were noted. Mr. B provided consent to having his blood
sample sent for analysis for NBOMes. On hospital day 3, he was transferred to
a psychiatric facility for continued treatment. He was discharged home one
week later to outpatient psychiatric follow-up. Two weeks after the incident,
he was evaluated at the surgery clinic where his wounds were noted to be
healing well. No further psychiatric complications were reported by the pa-
tient. A serum sample obtained at the time of admission to the emergency
room was sent for testing which applied a deuterated internal standard mod-
ification of a previously described method (Poklis et al. 2013). Analysis indi-
cated the presence of 25I-NBOMe at a concentration of 34pcg/ml. This case
represents the first report of an LSD ingestion that was analytically confirmed to
be 25I-NBOMe instead.
 DISCUSSION
NBOMes are N-methoxy-benzyl substituted 2C class of hallucinogens, initially syn-
thesized for research purposes as a potent 5HT2A receptor agonists (Braden et al.
2006). The 2C hallucinogens (i.e. 2C-I, 2C-B, etc) are phenylethylamines with methoxy
substitutions at the 2- and 5- positions, structurally related to mescaline, producing
psychological and somatic effects common to hallucinogens that are 5-HT2A recep-
tor agonists. However, compared to previous 2C compounds, NBOMes have a sig-
nificantly higher affinity at the 5-HT2A receptor (Halberstadt and Geyer 2014). As a
consequence, sublingual doses as low as 100μg may produce threshold effects (Zuba,
Sekuła, and Buczek 2013). Drug effects are likely to be similar to the 2C hallucinogens
and LSD, including powerful visual and sensory effects, alterations in cognition and
affect, and mystical experiences (Erowid and Erowid 2013).
Currently, the most widely used NBOMe derivative appears to be 25I-NBOMe (io-
dine substitution), followed by 25B-NBOMe (bromine substitution) and 25C-NBOMe
(chlorine substitution) (Lawn et al. 2014). They are
typically sold on blotter paper but may also ap-
pear as powder, with names such as “N-Bomb” and
“Smiles”(Erowid and Erowid 2013). Historically, LSD
has been distributed on blotter paper with colorful
and/or unique artwork which may serve as a trade-
mark in the illicit drug trade. NBOMe blotter paper
is similarly marked with identifying artwork. Due
to the declining availability of LSD in recent years,
NBOMes are reportedly being sold as LSD not only
because they produce similar effects but also be-
cause of the potency which permits NBOMes to
be taken as blotters (Erowid and Erowid 2013). The
emergence of NBOMes as an LSD substitute raises
significant public health concerns. Adverse reac-
tions to LSD and other classical hallucinogens are
typically time-limited in nature. Most common
adverse reaction is an acute episode of anxiety or
panic (“bad trip”) that resolves with reassurance and the use of benzodiazepines.
Even though prolonged psychotic reactions have been noted in vulnerable indi-
viduals, suicide attempts while intoxicated are rare and there are no known cases
of a fatal LSD overdose (Passie et al. 2008). In contrast, despite the short duration
for which NBOMes have been available, case reports have documented a range
of adverse effects including tachycardia, palpitations, clonus, pyrexia, elevated
creatine kinase, severe agitation, delirium, tonic-clonic seizures, renal failure, fatal
overdoses and traumatic deaths (Hill et al. 2013; Poklis et al. 2014; Rose, Poklis, and
Poklis 2013). Given the potency of this drug, it is impossible for users to estimate
the dose by observation alone and therefore users can easily overdose. Addition-
ally, even though NBOMes may mimic LSD’s psychoactive effects, a user who is
specifically attempting to obtain LSD may nevertheless ingest NBOMe without
knowing they are doing so. Indeed in this case, neither Mr. B nor the friend were
aware of the actual substance contained on the blotter. Although it is possible Mr.
B may have attempted suicide even if he had in-
gested LSD, this case illustrates the potential harm
that may occur during an acute NBOMe intoxica-
tion. The high potency and small dose ingested
makes laboratory detection of NBOMes exceedingly
difficult. Even facilities with advanced confirmatory
testing capabilities will find it challenging to posi-
tively identify these compounds. As such, clinical
suspicion must remain high for a possible NBOMe
ingestion in patients reporting the use of any hallu-
cinogen. Patients who are known to be using hallu-
cinogens should be made aware of the potential for
ingesting NBOMes even if their source is confident
the substance is LSD. Additionally, users should be
advised against using hallucinogens alone without
a sober “sitter,” to use extreme caution when dosing
to minimize the risk of overdose, and to avoid insuf-
flating or injecting NBOMe hallucinogens.
 Next generation
of novel psychoactive substances
on the horizon - A complex problem to face
[263]
Drug & Alcohol Dependence • December 2015

Zawilska JB1, Andrzejczak D2.

1Department of Pharmacodynamics
Medical University of Lodz, Poland
Electronic address: jolanta.zawilska@umed.lodz.pl
2Department of Pharmacodynamics
Medical University of Lodz, Poland

The last decade has seen a rapid and continuous growth in the avail-
ability and use of novel psychoactive substances (NPS) across the
world. Although various products are labeled with warnings “not for
human consumption”, they are intended to mimic psychoactive ef-
fects of illicit drugs of abuse. Once some compounds become regu-
lated, new analogues appear in order to satisfy consumers’ demands
and at the same time to avoid criminalization. This review presents
updated information on the second generation of NPS, introduced
as replacements of the already banned substances from this class,
focusing on their pharmacological properties and metabolism,
routes of administration, and effects in humans. Literature search,
covering years 2013-2015, was performed using the following key-
words alone or in combination: “novel psychoactive substances”,
“cathinones”, “synthetic cannabinoids”, “benzofurans”, “phenethyl-
amines”, “2C-drugs”, “NBOMe”, “methoxetamine”, “opioids”, “toxicity”,
and “metabolism”. More than 400 NPS have been reported in Europe,
with 255 detected in 2012-2014. The most popular are synthetic
cannabimimetics and psychostimulant cathinones; use of psyche-
delics and opioids is less common. Accumulating experimental and
clinical data indicate that potential harms associated with the use
of second generation NPS could be even more serious than those
described for the already banned drugs. NPS are constantly emerg-
ing on the illicit drug market and represent an important health
problem. A significant amount of research is needed in order to
fully quantify both the short and long term effects of the second
generation NPS, and their interaction with other drugs of abuse.
 Shamans, Sacraments, and Psychiatrists [225]
Journal of Psychoactive Drugs • May 2015

Gary Brayo, M.D.* & Charles Grob, M.D.*

•Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, University of California, Irvine.

Please address reprint requests to Charles Grob, M.D.
UCI Medical Center, Department of Psychiatry
101 City Drive South/Bldg. 2, Orange, California 92668

This article reviews the role of psychedelic drugs as potential tools for
psychiatric research and practice. The decline in the utilization of these
substances is linked to social reactions, which led to psychedelics being
scheduled as controlled substances and consequently unavailable for
human research. Three different paradigms for the use of psychedelics in
psychiatry are reviewed: the psychotomimetic, the psycholytic, and the
psychedelic approaches. The psychotomimetic paradigm, which viewed
hallucinogens as agents for temporarily inducing psychoses, proved to
be of limited value to the understanding and treatment of mental illness.
The psycholytic approach, which was derived from the psychoanalytic
paradigm, is a technique employing low doses of psychedelic drugs to
reduce psychological defenses and to release unconscious information.
The high-dose psychedelic paradigm frequently produced reports of
mystical or spiritual experiences, thus recasting the psychiatrist as the
modem-day shaman. This paradigm has alienated many in the psychiat-
ric profession and has led to a reaction against the use of psychedelics
in psychotherapy. If the opportunity should arise to pursue sanctioned
clinical research with these unique psychoactive substances, however, it
will be imperative to learn from the traditional models of shamanic heal-
ers in order to optimally assess true clinical efficacy and safety.
 Ultra-structural hair alterations of drug abusers:
a scanning electron microscopic investigation [78]
International Journal Of Clinical & Experimental Medicine • June 2015

Turkmenoglu FP1, Kasirga UB2, Celik HH3

1Department of Pharmaceutical Botany, Faculty of Pharmacy

Hacettepe University Ankara, Turkey
2Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine
Maltepe University Istanbul, Turkey
3Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine
Hacettepe University Ankara, Turkey

As drug abuse carries a societal stigma, patients do not often report

their history of drug abuse to the healthcare providers. However, drug
abuse is highly co-morbid with a host of other health problems such
as psychiatric disorders and skin diseases, and majority of individu-
als with drug use disorders seek treatment in the first place for other
problems. Therefore, it is very important for physicians to be aware of
clinical signs and symptoms of drug use. Recently diagnostic value of
dermatologic tissue alterations associated with drug abuse has be-
come a very particular interest because skin changes were reported
to be the earliest noticeable consequence of drug abuse prompting
earlier intervention and treatment. Although hair is an annex of skin,
alterations on hair structure due to drug use have not been demon-
strated. This study represents the first report on ultra-structural hair
alterations of drug abusers. We have investigated ultra-structure of
the hair samples obtained from 6 cocaine, 6 heroin, 7 cannabis and
4 lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) abusers by scanning electron mi-
croscope (SEM). SEM analysis of hair samples gave us drug-specific
discriminating alterations. We suggest that results of this study will
make a noteworthy contribution to cutaneous alterations associated Figure 1
with drug abuse which are regarded as the earliest clinical manifesta- Scanning electron micrograph showing the ultra-structure of drug free healthy hair shaft. Scale: 10 μm.
tions, and this SEM approach is a very specific and effective tool in the
detection of abuse of respective drugs, leading to early treatment.
 Figure 2
Scanning electron micrograph showing the ultra-structure of hair samples from
cocaine abusers: A: Ribbon-like hair fiber. A-F: Cuticular damage and non-cuticu-
lar pattern. D-F: Balloon-like enlargement of hair shaft. Scale: 10 μm A, B, D and F,
2 μm C and E.
 Figure 3
Scanning electron micrograph showing the ultra-structure of hair samples from
heroin abusers. A-D: Intact and regular hair shaft and squamous debris. E and F:
Pores over the cuticular surface of hair shaft. Scale: 20 μm A, 10 μm B-D, 2 μm E and F.
 Figure 4 at left
Scanning electron micrograph showing the ultra-structure of hair samples from cannabis abusers. A-D:
Tightly associated, intact cuticle. A and C: Indistinct cuticular surface. C and D: Node-shaped enlarged area
of hair shaft. Scale: 20 μm A and D, 10 μm B, 30 μm C.

Figure 5 below
Scanning electron micrograph showing the ultra-structure of hair samples from LSD abusers. A: Destroyed
area on the cuticle. A-D: Cuticle cells which were detached and lifted from the hair shaft. Scale: 10 μm A-D.
 Psychedelic Drugs Redux:
Don’t Leapfrog the Research
FDA to determine whether they were
Disclosures • July 2015 safe and effective for clinical practice.
We have had a nearly 50-year hiatus
Jeffrey A. Lieberman, MD in any serious investigation, except
for some heroic investigators at a few
Hello. This is Dr Jeffrey Lieberman of Columbia University in New York universities, primarily in Europe but
City, speaking to you today for Medscape. I am calling my comments also in the United States. We are now
“Psychedelic Drugs Redux” because we are experiencing appeals for the seeing increasing calls for using (or
use—for therapeutic purposes—of drugs that previously were consid- at least studying) these drugs from
ered recreational hallucinogens. To some degree, this resonates with an people within the medical profession
earlier blog on ketamine, which could have been titled “When Practice and outside the medical profession,
Leaps Ahead of Research.” In the case of ketamine, I was highlighting in the general public of informed ob-
the growing use of ketamine based on very solid research indicating servers of literature on this topic. My
that it was effective as an antidepressant agent, particularly in patients point is not to say that these drugs
with treatment-refractory disease. My point was that the increasing should be discounted and relegated
use of ketamine for these purposes and other psychiatric indications to the criticism and dismissal similar
had leapfrogged the research that would systematically determine the to that of clearly unfounded new-
safety and benefits of ketamine usage for these purposes. In the case of age, nutraceutical, or naturopathic
psychedelic drugs, we have something that is similar but with some im- treatments, for which we have no
portant differences. During recent months and years, there have been basis for claims of therapeutic effi-
calls in the media (and to some degree in the professional literature) for cacy. These psychedelic drugs clearly
the use of various psychedelic agents for psychotherapeutic purposes. are pharmacologically active, have
Specifically, these appeals referred to lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), profound effects, could be useful
psilocybin, ayahuasca—which is used for religious rituals in some South for therapeutic purposes, and need
American and Central American indigenous populations—and finally to be studied in an intensive and
MDMA (methylenedioxy-methamphetamine) or ecstasy. These have extensive way before an informed
been proposed to be useful for various disorders, including post-trau- determination can be made. If not,
matic stress disorder, addiction, depression, and various types of per- we will find ourselves in a situation http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/847768
sonality disorders. These pleas are occurring in an environment with that may resemble what we are see-
no framework or context for how the drugs should be studied and on ing with marijuana, with its increasing legalization despite having an inadequate knowledge base, because of social and politi-
what basis they could be used safely. As most people know, psychedel- cal pressure. I believe that the scientific investigation of mind-altering psychedelic drugs in the 1960s and ‘70s was a truncated but
ic drugs were developed and began to be studied for medical purposes promising avenue of research, and that these medications, these drugs, could have significant value for a variety of indications if stud-
in the 1950s. In the 1960s, these drugs were ensnared by the social and ied adequately. Until we have studied them, however, it is not prudent for any proposals for these to be used on an ad hoc experi-
cultural turmoil of the counterculture and because of their widespread mental basis. They need to be studied, and we need to determine for what purposes they should be used and what risks and benefits
recreational use. They were made illegal and then were banned from are associated with these treatments. I am calling for more serious, prudent, thoughtful, and informed opinions to be expressed on
medical research. At that time, there was promising evidence for their this topic before it catches on in the lay public and the medical community does not pay sufficient attention and respond to them
useful application to treat mental disorders, but this really was never accordingly. We need to know how to react to a growing body of opinion, which calls for treatments that are not necessarily ready
fully developed to a degree that the data could be reviewed by the for primetime. Thank you for listening. This is Dr Jeffrey Lieberman from Columbia University, speaking to you today for Medscape.
 Psilocybin,
psychological distress,
and suicidality [388]
The Journal Of Psychopharmacology • September 2015

Peter S Hendricks1, Matthew W Johnson2, and Roland R Griffiths2

1University of Alabama at Birmingham School of Public Health

Department of Health Behavior, Birmingham, AL, USA
2Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine,
Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Baltimore, MD

Hendricks et al. (2015) found that having ever used any classic psychedelic substance—
namely, dimethyltryptamine (DMT), ayahuasca, lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), mes-
caline, peyote or San Pedro, or psilocybin—was associated with a significantly reduced
likelihood of past month psychological distress (weighted OR = .81 (.72–.91)), past year
suicidal thinking (weighted OR = .86 (.78–.94)), past year suicidal planning (weighted
OR = .71 (.54–.94)), and past year suicide attempt (weighted OR = .64 (.46–.89)) in the
United States adult population. Although these findings comport with an emerging
literature suggesting classic psychedelics may be effective in the treatment of men-
tal health conditions and prevention of self-harm, they do not speak to the potential
risk profile or therapeutic applications of psilocybin in particular, which is the most
commonly examined classic psychedelic in contemporary clinical research. Consider-
ing that psilocybin may be a candidate for future approved medical use in the United
States, the United Kingdom, and other nations (Bogenschutz et al., 2015; Grob et al.,
2011; Johnson et al., 2014; see also Nutt et al., 2013), an analysis of the specific rela-
tionships of psilocybin use with psychological distress and suicidality may help inform
decisions by the United States Food and Drug Administration and regulatory bodies
of other nations. The objectives of the current research, therefore, were to extend the
analysis of Hendricks et al. (2015) by evaluating the associations of lifetime psilocybin
use, per se, with past month psychological distress, past year suicidal thinking, past
year suicidal planning, and past year suicide attempt in the United States adult popu-
lation. Methods and data analysis were similar to those of Hendricks et al. (2015). Par-
ticipants in the current study were adult (≥18 years old) respondents of the National
Survey on Drug Use and Health pooled across years 2008 through 2012 with valid data
on the variables of interest. To isolate unique associations with psilocybin use, four
mutually exclusive groups of respondents were examined: 1. Psilocybin Only (those
reporting lifetime use of psilocybin but no other classic psychedelic); 2. Psilocybin &
Other Psychedelics (those reporting lifetime use of psilocybin in addition to other clas-
sic psychedelics); 3. Non-Psilocybin Psychedelics Only (those reporting lifetime ...
 Fatal Intoxications with
25B-NBOMe
and
25I-NBOMe
in Indiana During 2014 [147]
Journal Of Annals In Toxicology • October 2015

Shanks KG1, Sozio T2, Behonick GS3.

1AIT Laboratories, Indianapolis, IN 46241, USA kshanks@aitlabs.com

2Marion County Coroner’s Office, Indianapolis, IN 46225, USA
3AIT Laboratories, Indianapolis, IN 46241, USA

Over the last few years, NBOMe substances have been

used either as a legal alternative to lysergic acid di-
ethylamide (LSD) or sold surreptitiously as LSD to un-
known users. These NBOMe substances have been
detected in blotter papers, powders, capsules and liq-
uids. We report the deaths of two teenage male sub-
jects that were related to 25B-NBOMe and 25I-NBOMe
in Indiana during 2014. Samples were extracted via a
solvent protein precipitation with acetonitrile and an-
alyzed via ultra-performance liquid chromatography
with tandem mass spectrometry. For these two cases,
we describe the NBOMe instrumental analysis, toxico-
logical results for postmortem heart blood and urine
specimens and the relevant case history and pathologi-
cal findings at autopsy. In the first case, 25B-NBOMe
was detected in postmortem heart blood at 1.59 ng/
mL; in the second case, 25I-NBOMe was detected in
postmortem heart blood at 19.8 ng/mL. We also review
relevant published casework from clinical toxicology
and postmortem toxicology in which analytically con-
firmed 25B-NBOMe and 25I-NBOMe were determined
to be causative agents in intoxications or deaths.
Profiles in drug metabolism and toxicology:
Richard Tecwyn Williams (1909-1979)
[148]
Drug Metabolism Reviews • November 2015

By A.W. Jones

Department of Clinical Pharmacology

Faculty of Medicine, University of Linköping, Linköping, Sweden

This article pays homage to the life and work of a veritable

pioneer in toxicology and drug metabolism, namely a Welsh-
man, Richard Tecwyn Williams, FRS. Professor Williams, or RT
as he was known, made major contributions to knowledge
about the metabolism and toxicology of drugs and xeno-
biotics during a scientific career spanning nearly 50 years.
Author or coauthor of close to 400 research articles and re-
views, including a classic book, entitled Detoxication Mech-
anisms, Williams and his research school investigated virtu-
ally all aspects of drug metabolism, especially conjugations.
In particular, the concepts of phase 1 and phase II metabolic
pathways were introduced by Williams; the biliary excretion
of drugs was extensively studied as were species differences
in drug metabolism and detoxication. Besides investigating
the metabolism of many pharmaceutical drugs, such as sul-
fonamides and thalidomide, Williams and his group investi-
gated the disposition and fate in the body of organic pesti-
cides and recreational drugs of abuse, such as amphetamine,
methamphetamine and lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD).
 Hallucinogen Use
Medscape • November 2015

By Brooke S Parish, MD 

Associate Professor, Department of Psychiatry

University of New Mexico School of Medicine

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

The first synthetic hallucinogen, lysergic acid dieth-
Hallucinogens are a diverse group of drugs that
ylamide (LSD) 25, was serendipitously discovered in
cause an alteration in perception, thought, or mood.
1938 by Sandoz laboratories while searching for a new
A rather heterogeneous group, these compounds
ergot-derived analeptic agent. Its discoverer, a Swiss
have different chemical structures, different mech-
chemist named Albert Hoffman, began to experience
anisms of action, and different adverse effects. De-
hallucinations after an inadvertent percutaneous ex-
spite their name, most hallucinogens do not con-
posure to the drug. Sandoz began marketing the new
sistently cause hallucinations, which are defined as
drug in 1947. Delysid, as the drug was called, was
false sensations that have no basis in reality. Often,
used by psychiatrists who believed its use in psycho-
they are more likely to cause changes in mood or in
therapy could help the patient access repressed emo-
thought than actual hallucinations.
tions. The US Central Intelligence Agency also con-
ducted human experiments with LSD, testing its use
Hallucinogens share a rich history. Many cultures
as an interrogation tool and as a mind-control agent.
have used hallucinogens for religious or mystical ex-
Unfortunately, many of these studies were conducted
periences. The Hindu holy book, Rig Veda, mentions
without the consent or knowledge of the participant.
soma, a sacred substance used to induce higher lev-
els of consciousness. Soma is thought to have been
LSD use increased in the late 1950s and early 1960s.
derived from the juice of the hallucinogenic mush-
Popularized by the media and by people such as
room Amanita muscaria as depicted in the image be-
Timothy Leary, experimentation with psychedelics
low. The Aztecs in pre-Columbian Mexico described
reached a peak in the mid 1960s. As use increased,
the ceremonial use of teotlaqualli, a paste made from
adverse reactions began to be reported. In 1966,
the hallucinogenic flower, ololiuqui. Rubbed on the
because of mounting public health concerns, the
skin of Aztec priests and soldiers, it was thought to
federal government banned LSD. Illicit manufacture
eliminate fear and place the user in a proper mental
and use of hallucinogens, of course, has continued.
state to serve the Aztec gods. The Mexican Indians
Hallucinogen use declined in the 1970s and early
have a long history of using peyote, a mescaline-
1980s. Recent studies show an increase in use dur-
containing hallucinogen, in religious ceremonies.
ing the 1990s, particularly in the high school and
Hallucinogens have also been proposed as a cause
college-age population. LSD is presently classified
of the “immoral and illicit” behavior of alleged
as a schedule I drug, ie, an agent with high abuse
witches in the Salem, Massachusetts witch trials.
potential and no documented medical indication.
 Acute recreational drug and new psychoactive substance
toxicity in Europe: 12 months data collection from the
European Drug Emergencies Network (Euro-DEN) [248]
Clinical Toxicology • November 2015

Dines AM1, Wood DM1,2, Yates C3, Heyerdahl F4, Hovda KE4
Giraudon I5, Sedefov R5, Dargan PI1,2; Euro-DEN Research Group
With 25 Collaborators

1a Clinical Toxicology, Guy’s and St Thomas’ NHS Foundation Trust and King’s Health Partners, London, UK
2b Faculty of Life Sciences and Medicine, King’s College London, London , UK
3c Emergency Department and Clinical Toxicology Unit, Hospital Universitari Son Espases, Mallorca, Spain
4d The National CBRNe Centre of Medicine, Department of Acute Medicine, Oslo University Hosp, Norway
5e European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA), Lisbon, Portugal

Despite the potential for recreational drugs and new psychoactive substances (NPSs)
to cause significant morbidity and mortality, there is limited collection of systematic
data on acute drug/NPS toxicity in Europe. [Our objective was] To report data on acute
drug/NPS toxicity collected by a network of sentinel centres across Europe with a
specialist clinical and research interest in the acute toxicity of recreational drugs and
NPS to address this knowledge gap. Sixteen sentinel centres in 10 European coun-
tries (Denmark, Estonia, France, Germany, Ireland, Norway, Poland, Spain, Switzer-
land and the UK) collected data on all acute drug toxicity presentations to their Emer-
gency Rooms (ERs) for 12 months (October 2013-September 2014); information on
the drug(s) involved in the presentations was on the basis of patient self-reporting.
Data were collected on a total of 5529 presentations involving 8709 drugs (median
(interquartile range [IQR]): 1 (1-2) drugs per presentation), a median of 0.3% of all ER
attendances. Classical recreational drugs were most common (64.6%) followed by
prescription drugs (26.5%) and NPS (5.6%). The ‘top five’ drugs recorded were heroin
(1345 reports), cocaine (957), cannabis (904), GHB/GBL (711) and amphetamine (593).
69.5% of individuals went to hospital by ambulance (peak time between 19:00 and
02:00 at weekends); the median (IQR) age was 31 (24-39) years and 75.4% were male.
Although serious clinical features were not seen in most presentations and 56.9%
were medically discharged from the ER (median length of stay: 4.6 hours), a signifi-
cant number (26.5%) was agitated, in 10.5% the GCS was 8 or less and 35 presented
in cardiac arrest. There were 27 fatalities with opioids implicated in 13. The Euro-
DEN dataset provides a unique insight into the drugs involved in and clinical pattern
of toxicity/outcome of acute recreational drug toxicity presentations to hospitals
around Europe. This is complimentary to other indicators of drug-related harm and
helps to build a fuller picture of the public health implications of drug use in Europe.
 Validation of the revised
Mystical Experience Questionnaire
in experimental sessions with psilocybin
[389]
The Journal Of Psychopharmacology • November 2015

Frederick S Barrett1, Matthew W Johnson1, and Roland R

Griffiths1,2

1Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences

Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine
Baltimore, MD
2Department of Neuroscience
Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine
Baltimore, MD

The 30-item revised Mystical Experience

Questionnaire (MEQ30) was previously
developed within an online survey of
mystical-type experiences occasioned by
psilocybin-containing mushrooms. The
rated experiences occurred on average
eight years before completion of the questionnaire. The current
paper validates the MEQ30 using data from experimental studies
with controlled doses of psilocybin. Data were pooled and analyzed
from five laboratory experiments in which participants (n=184) re-
ceived a moderate to high oral dose of psilocybin (at least 20 mg/70
kg). Results of confirmatory factor analysis demonstrate the reliabil-
ity and internal validity of the MEQ30. Structural equation models
demonstrate the external and convergent validity of the MEQ30 by
showing that latent variable scores on the MEQ30 positively predict
persisting change in attitudes, behavior, and well-being attributed
to experiences with psilocybin while controlling for the contribu-
tion of the participant-rated intensity of drug effects. These findings
support the use of the MEQ30 as an efficient measure of individual
mystical experiences. A method to score a “complete mystical ex-
perience” that was used in previous versions of the mystical expe-
rience questionnaire is validated in the MEQ30, and a stand-alone
version of the MEQ30 is provided for use in future research.
 LSD and Psychotherapy [709]
Journal Of Psychoactive Drugs • August 2015

By Richard Yensen

Institute for Human Development, 2403 Talbot Road, Baltimore, Maryland, 21216

In the four decades since the discovery of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), the sci-
entific community had produced a torrent of research papers on the psychologi-
caln effects and psychotherapeutic utility of this compound. This vast literature is
confounded by the variety of results and conflicting claims about LSD. It is possible
to create some order and understanding of this apparently bewildering data by
considering the history and development of three major conceptualizations of the
effects of LSD:

(1) the psychotomimetic view that LSD creates a model psychosis;

(2) the psycholytic view that LSD alters the relationship between
the conscious and unconscious portions of the personality,
thereby creating a state useful in psychoanalytically-oriented
psychotherapy; and
(3) the psychedelic view that LSD facilitates peak and mystical
experiences when administered in the proper dose and setting.
The latter experiences are considered to be capable of produc-
ing profound, lasting and positive changes in personality.

The origin of the psychotomimetic (psychosismimicking) view precedes the dis-

covery of LSD. The existence of a substance capable of creating schizophrenic or
catatonic psychosis was suggested around the turn of the century by Kraeplin
(1892), who suggested that schizophrenia and catatonia might be produced by
an endogenous toxin that poisoned the brain. In 1924, Louis Lewin, an extremely
influential German, pharmacologist, published a seminal volume titled Phantas-
tika-Die Betaubenden und Erregenden Genuss-Maryland 21216. Lewin described
a category of drugs, phantastica, that included the peyote cactus (tophophora wil-
liamsii) and that would have reasonably included LSD. He suggested that these
substances could be extremely useful to ethnologists and students of religion. In
addition to describing mystical and transcendental effects, Lewin mentioned that
phantastica can create a mental state similar to psychosis, which he felt ought to
interest psychiatrists. He concluded that phantastica gave rise to sensory illusions.
 The use of illicit drugs as self-medication
in the treatment of cluster headache:
Results from an Italian online survey [163]
International Headache Society • 2015

C Di Lorenzo1, G Coppola2, G Di Lorenzo3

M Bracaglia4, P Rossi5 and F Pierelli4,6

1Don Carlo Gnocchi Onlus Foundation, Italy

2G.B. Bietti Foundation-IRCCS, Italy
3Department of Systems Medicine, University of Rome ‘‘Tor Vergata,’’ Italy
4‘‘Sapienza’’ University of Rome Polo Pontino, Department of Medical
and Surgical Sciences and Biotechnologies Latina, Italy
5Headache Clinic, INI Grottaferrata (RM), Italy
6IRCCS-Neuromed, Pozzilli (IS), Italy

Cluster headache (CH) patients often receive unsatisfactory

treatment and may explore illicit substances as alternatives.
We aimed to explore this use of illicit drugs for CH treatment.
We invited CH patients from an Internet-based self-help
group to complete a questionnaire regarding their therapeu-
tic use of illicit substances. Of the 54 respondents, 29 were
classified as chronic and 39 were drug-resistant cases. Fifty
patients had previously tried subcutaneous sumatriptan,
40 had tried O2, and 48 had tried at least one prophylactic
treatment. All 54 patients specified that they were dissatis-
fied with conventional treatments. Thirty-four patients had
used cannabinoids, 13 cocaine, 8 heroin, 18 psilocybin, 12
lysergic acid amide (LSA), and 4 lysergic acid diethylamide
(LSD). Some patients with intractable CH decided to try illicit
drugs concomitantly with cessation of medical care. Most of
these patients found suggestions for illicit drug use on the
Internet. Many patients seemed to underestimate the judi-
cial consequences of, and had an overestimated confidence
in the safety of, such illicit treatments. Physicians are often
not informed by patients of their choice to use illicit drugs.
This leads to questions regarding the true nature of the phy-
sician-patient relationship among dissatisfied CH patients.
CHAPTER FOUR
THE 2014 Peer Review
 Synesthesias
in the context of hallucinogen-induced
persistent perception disorder
following the use of LSD [115]
Tijdschritte Voor Psychiatrie • 2014
[Full Text PDF in Dutch]

Neven A, Blom JD.

The hallucinogen-induced persistent perception disorder

(hppd) is a disturbing complication resulting from the use
of hallucinogens. We report on a case-study in which an
artist suffering from visual, auditory and olfactory halluci-
nations also experienced chromatic-phonemic synesthe-
sias that had persisted for two years after he had stopped
using lysergic acid diethylamide (lsd). The case described
demonstrates that individuals suffering from hppd can
also experience synesthesias that may in fact differ phe-
nomenologically from ‘coloured hearing’, which is a symp-
tom known to occur in the context of substance abuse.
 The effects of psilocybin and MDMA
on between-network
resting state functional connectivity
in healthy volunteers [413]
Frontiers In Human Neuroscience • May 2014

Roseman L1, Leech R2, Feilding A3

Nutt DJ4, Carhart-Harris RL4.

1Centre for Neuropsychopharmacology, Division of Brain Sciences

Department of Medicine, Imperial College London London, UK;
Computational, Cognitive and Clinical Neuroscience Laboratory
Division of Brain Sciences, Department of Medicine
Imperial College London London, UK
2Computational, Cognitive and Clinical Neuroscience Laboratory
Division of Brain Sciences, Department of Medicine
Imperial College London London, UK
3The Beckley Foundation Oxford, UK
4Centre for Neuropsychopharmacology, Division of Brain Sciences
Department of Medicine, Imperial College London London, UK

Perturbing a system and observing the consequences is a classic scientif-

ic strategy for understanding a phenomenon. Psychedelic drugs perturb
consciousness in a marked and novel way and thus are powerful tools for
studying its mechanisms. In the present analysis, we measured changes
in resting-state functional connectivity (RSFC) between a standard tem-
plate of different independent components analysis (ICA)-derived rest-
ing state networks (RSNs) under the influence of two different psycho-
active drugs, the stimulant/psychedelic hybrid, MDMA, and the classic
psychedelic, psilocybin. Both were given in placebo-controlled designs
and produced marked subjective effects, although reports of more pro-
found changes in consciousness were given after psilocybin. Between-
network RSFC was generally increased under psilocybin, implying that
networks become less differentiated from each other in the psychedelic
state. Decreased RSFC between visual and sensorimotor RSNs was also
observed. MDMA had a notably less marked effect on between-network
RSFC, implying that the extensive changes observed under psilocybin
may be exclusive to classic psychedelic drugs and related to their espe-
cially profound effects on consciousness. The novel analytical approach
applied here may be applied to other altered states of consciousness to
improve our characterization of different conscious states and ultimately
advance our understanding of the brain mechanisms underlying them.
 LSD And Other Hallucinogens [335]
Drugs & Behavior • August 2014
(Authors Unpublished Adobe InDesign Copy)

By Levinthal

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Source: Schultes, R.E. & Hofman, A., (1979) “Plants of the gods: Origins of hallucinogenic use,” published in New York by McGraw Hill
 The ethical desirability of moral bioenhancement:
a review of reasons [354]
BMC Medical Ethics • 2014

Jona Specker1*, Farah Focquaert2, Kasper Raus2

Sigrid Sterckx2 and Maartje Schermer1

1Department of Medical Ethics and Philosophy

Erasmus University Medical Center Rotterdam
P.O. Box 2040, 3000, CA, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
2Bioethics Institute Ghent, Department of Philosophy & Moral
Sciences, Ghent University, Blandijnberg 2, 9000 Gent, Belgium

The debate on the ethical aspects of moral bioenhancement focuses on the

desirability of using biomedical as opposed to traditional means to achieve
moral betterment. The aim of this paper is to systematically review the ethical
reasons presented in the literature for and against moral bioenhancement. A
review was performed and resulted in the inclusion of 85 articles. We classi-
fied the arguments used in those articles in the following six clusters: (1) why
we (don’t) need moral bioenhancement, (2) it will (not) be possible to reach
consensus on what moral bioenhancement should involve, (3) the feasibil-
ity of moral bioenhancement and the status of current scientific research,
(4) means and processes of arriving at moral improvement matter ethically,
(5) arguments related to the freedom, identity and autonomy of the indi-
vidual, and (6) arguments related to social/group effects and dynamics. We
discuss each argument separately, and assess the debate as a whole. First,
there is little discussion on what distinguishes moral bioenhancement from
treatment of pathological deficiencies in morality. Furthermore, remarkably
little attention has been paid so far to the safety, risks and side-effects of
moral enhancement, including the risk of identity changes. Finally, many
authors overestimate the scientific as well as the practical feasibility of the
interventions they discuss, rendering the debate too speculative. Based on
our discussion of the arguments used in the debate on moral enhancement,
and our assessment of this debate, we advocate a shift in focus. Instead of
speculating about non-realistic hypothetical scenarios such as the genetic
engineering of morality, or morally enhancing ‘the whole of humanity’, we
call for a more focused debate on realistic options of biomedical treatment of
moral pathologies and the concrete moral questions these treatments raise.
 A qualitative report
on the subjective experience of intravenous psilocybin
administered in an FMRI environment
Current Drug Abuse Reviews • 2014

Turton S, Nutt DJ, Carhart-Harris RL1.

1Neuropsychopharmacology Unit, Imperial College London, UK

r.carhart-harris@imperial.ac.uk

This report documents the phenomenology of the sub-

jective experiences of 15 healthy psychedelic expe-
rienced volunteers who were involved in a functional
magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) study that was de-
signed to image the brain effects of intravenous psilo-
cybin. The participants underwent a semi-structured
interview exploring the effects of psilocybin in the MRI
scanner. These interviews were analysed by Interpreta-
tive Phenomenological Analysis. The resultant data is or-
dered in a detailed matrix, and presented in this paper.
Nine broad categories of phenomenology were iden-
tified in the phenomenological analysis of the experi-
ence; perceptual changes including visual, auditory and
somatosensory distortions, cognitive changes, changes
in mood, effects of memory, spiritual or mystical type
experiences, aspects relating to the scanner and re-
search environment, comparisons with other experi-
ences, the intensity and onset of effects, and individual
interpretation of the experience. This article documents
the phenomenology of psilocybin when given in a novel
manner (intravenous injection) and setting (an MRI scanner). The findings of the analysis are consistent with previous published work regarding
the subjective effects of psilocybin. There is much scope for further research investigating the phenomena identified in this paper.

PMID: 25563444
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25563444
 Raising awareness of new psychoactive substances: respectively; p < 0.05 vs. MDMA). ‘Bloom’ and ‘Blow’ showed hepatotoxic effects similar to MDMA (EC50
= 0.788 and 0.870 mM, respectively), with cathinones present in these mixtures contributing addi-
chemical analysis and in vitro
tively to the overall toxicological effect. Our results show a miscellany of psychoactive compounds
toxicity screening of ‘legal high’ packages ... [177] present in ‘legal high’ products with evident hepatotoxic effects. These data contribute to increase the
awareness on the real composition of ‘legal high’ packages and unveil the health risks posed by NPS.
Archive für Toxikologie · June 2014

By Maria Joao Valente, Marcia Carvalho

Felix Carvalho and Paula Guedes de Pinho

Laboratório de Toxicologia, Departamento de

Ciências Biológicas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade do
Porto, Rua Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, 228, 4050‑313 Porto, Portugal
e-mail: ana.margarida.c.araujo@gmail.com

The world’s status quo on recreational drugs has dramatically changed in recent years due to
the rapid emergence of new psychoactive substances (NPS), represented by new narcotic or
psychotropic drugs, in pure form or in preparation, which are not controlled by international
conventions, but that may pose a public health threat comparable with that posed by sub-
stances listed in these conventions. These NPS, also known as ‘legal highs’ or ‘smart drugs’, are
typically sold via Internet or ‘smartshops’ as legal alternatives to controlled substances, being
announced as ‘bath salts’ and ‘plant feeders’ and is often sought after for consumption espe-
cially among young people. Although NPS have the biased reputation of being safe, the vast
majority has hitherto not been tested and several fatal cases have been reported, namely for
synthetic cathinones, with pathological patterns comparable with amphetamines.

Additionally, the unprecedented speed of appearance and distribution of the NPS world-
wide brings technical difficulties in the development of analytical procedures and risk as-
sessment in real time. In this study, 27 products commercialized as ‘plant feeders’ were
chemically characterized by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry and nuclear mag-
netic resonance spectroscopy. It was also evaluated, for the first time, the in vitro hepato-
toxic effects of individual synthetic cathinones, namely methylone, pentedrone, 4-methy-
lethcathinone (4-MEC) and 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV). Two commercial
mixtures (‘Bloom’ and ‘Blow’) containing mainly cathinone derivatives were also tested,
and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) was used as the reference drug. The
study allowed the identification of 19 compounds, showing that synthetic cathinones
are the main active compounds present in these products. Qualitative and quantitative
variability was found in products sold with the same trade name in matching or different
‘smartshops’. In the toxicity studies performed in primary cultured rat hepatocytes, pente-
drone and MDPV proved to be the most potent individual agents, with EC50 values of 0.664
and 0.742 mM, respectively, followed by MDMA (EC50 = 0.754 mM). 4-MEC and methylone
were the least potent substances, with EC50 values significantly higher (1.29 and 1.18 mM,
 Flashbacks and HPPD:
A Clinical-Oriented Concise Review
[317]
Israeli Journal Of Psychiatry & Related Sciences • 2014

Arturo G. Lerner, MD,1-2 Dmitri Rudinski, MD,1

Oren Bor, MD,1 and Craig Goodman, PhD1

1 Lev Hasharon Mental Health Medical Center, Pardessya, Israel

2 Sackler School Of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Ramat Aviv, Israel

A unique characteristic of LSD, LSD-like and substances

with hallucinogenic properties is the recurrence of some
or all the hallucinogenic symptoms which had appeared
during the intoxication after the immediate effects of the
substance had worn off. This recurring syndrome, mainly
visual, is not clearly understood. The terms Flashback
and Hallucinogen Persisting Perception Disorder (HPPD)
have been used interchangeably in the professional lit-
erature. We have observed at least two different recur-
rent syndromes, the first Flashback Type we refer to as
HPPD I, a generally short-term, non-distressing, benign
and reversible state accompanied by a pleasant affect. In
contrast, the second HPPD Type we refer to as HPPD II, a
generally long-term, distressing, pervasive, either slowly
reversible or irreversible, non-benign state accompanied
by an unpleasant affect. HPPD I and II appear to be part
of a broad spectrum of non-psychopathological and psy-
chopathological states reported by hallucinogen users.

HPPD I and II may be clinically characterized by prodro-

mal symptoms, onset, content of visual imagery, precipi-
tators, frequency, duration and intensity of perceptual
recurrences, severity, course, differential diagnosis, ac-
companying mood and affect, insight and remission.
Pharmacological therapy with or without preceding or
following co-occurring psychiatric disorders have been
shown to ameliorate this syndrome. A large variety of
medications may be utilized to alleviate this condition,
but with differential results suggesting several sub-
types. The purpose of this manuscript is to provide
a clinical-oriented, comprehensive and concise
review to treating psychiatrists.

Hallucinogens encompass a group of natu-

rally occurring and synthetic substances
(1) which may trigger a transient and gen-
erally reversible state of intoxication char-
acterized by perceptual disturbances pri-
marily visual in nature, often referred to
as “trips” (2, 3). A unique characteristic
of LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide) and
LSD-like substances is the total or partial
recurrence of perceptual disturbances
which appeared during previous intoxi-
cation and reappeared in the absence of
voluntarily or involuntarily recent use (1-
3). This syndrome is still poorly understood
(2, 3). LSD is the prototype of synthetic hal-
lucinogenic substances and it is probably the
most investigated hallucinogen associated with
the etiology of this condition. Other substances
that have been associated with the development of
this condition include: psilocybin (Magic Mushrooms
or Shrooms) (4), mescaline (San Pedro and Peyote Hal-
lucinogenic Cacti) (5), cannabis (6), 5-MeO-DiPT (Synthet-
ic Hallucinogen) (7), Ecstasy (MDMA) (8), Phencyclidine (PCP)
(9, 10), dextromethorphan (11) and ketamine (12). Datura, salvia
divinorum, ayahuasca, ibogaine, synthetic cannabis and inhalants
also appeared to be implicated (13). Recurrent visual disturbanc-
es attributed to this syndrome are geometric hallucinations, false
perception of movement in the peripheral visual fields, flashes of
colors, intensified colors, trails of images of moving objects, posi-
tive afterimages, halos around objects, macropsia and micropsia
(9). A variety of distinct visual disturbances that are reminiscent
of those generated by the previous use of substances have been
widely reported and described by patients.
 Comprehensive analysis of “ bath salts ”
purchased from California stores and the internet [285]
Clinical Toxicology • June 2014

By A. Schneir 1, B.T. Ly, 1 K. CasaGrande, 2 M. Darracq, 1 S.R. Offerman, 3

S. Thornton, 1 C. Smollin, 4 R. Vohra, 5 C. Rangun, 6
C. Tomaszewski, 1 and R.R. Gerona 4

1 Division of Medical Toxicology, Department of Emergency Medicine

University of California San Diego Health System, San Diego, CA, USA
2 Department of Pharmacy, Universit é d ’ Auvergne, Auvergne, France
3 Kaiser Permanente South Sacramento, Sacramento, CA, USA
4 University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
5 UCSF Fresno, Fresno, CA, USA
6 Los Angeles County Department of Health, Los Angeles, CA, USA

To analyze the contents of “ bath salt ” products purchased from California stores and the In-
ternet qualitatively and quantitatively in a comprehensive manner [Study objective]. A conve-
nience sample of “ bath salt ” products were purchased in person by multiple authors at retail
stores in six California cities and over the Internet (U.S. sites only), between August 11, 2011 and
December 15, 2011. Liquid chromatography-time-of-flight mass spectrometry was utilized to
identify and quantify all substances in the purchased products. Thirty-five “ bath salt ” products
were purchased and analyzed. Prices ranged from $9.95 to $49.99 (U.S. dollars). Most products
had a warning against use. The majority (32/35, 91%) had one (n=15) or multiple cathinones
(n=17) present. Fourteen different cathinones were identified, 3,4-methylene dioxypyrovalerone
(MDPV) being the most common. Multiple drugs found including cathinones (buphedrone,
ethcathinone, ethylone, MDPBP, and PBP), other designer amines (ethylamphetamine, fluoram-
phetamine, and 5-IAI), and the antihistamine doxylamine had not been previously identified
in U.S. “ bath salt ” products. Quantification revealed high stimulant content and in some cases
dramatic differences in either total cathinone or synthetic stimulant content between products
with the same declared weight and even between identically named and outwardly appearing
products. Comprehensive analysis of “bath salts” purchased from California stores and the In-
ternet revealed the products to consistently contain cathinones, alone, or in different combina-
tions, sometimes in high quantity. Multiple cathinones and other drugs found had not
been previously identified in U.S. “ bath salt ” products. High total stimulant
content in some products and variable qualitative and quantitative
composition amongst products were demonstrated.
 25i-NBOMe Critical Review Report

World Health Organization (WHO) Expert Committee on Drug Dependence - Thirty-Sixth Meeting [726]
Geneva, Switzerland • June 16th - 20th • 2014

SUMMARY

25I-NBOMe is a knowingly sub-

stituted phenethylamine and
derivative of 2C-I. It is a potent
full agonist of the serotonin
5-HT2A receptor in particular
and appears to have stimulant
and particularly hallucinogen-
ic effects. It has been associ-
ated with numerous non-fatal
intoxications and some deaths,
with seized material and use
reported in many countries.
It has been reportedly sold as
LSD or as a ‘legal’ alternative
to LSD or “research chemical”
usually via Internet websites.
The variation in formulations
and resultant dosage cou-
pled with its potency results
in health risks to the individ-
ual. There are no data con-
cerning the abuse or depen-
dence potential of 25INBOMe.
 Self-experimentations with psychedelics
among mental health professionals:
LSD in the former Czechoslovakia [149]
Journal Of Psychoactive Drugs • January 2014

By P. Winkler and L. Csémy

This article enquires into auto-experiments with psychedelics. It is fo-

cused on the experiences and current attitudes of mental health pro-
fessionals who experimented with LSD in the era of legal research of
this substance in the former Czechoslovakia. The objective of the fol-
low-up study presented was to assess respondents’ long-term views
on their LSD experience(s). A secondary objective was to capture the
attitude of the respondents toward the use of psychedelics within
the mental health field. A total of 22 individuals participated in struc-
tured interviews. None of the respondents reported any long-term
negative effect and all of them except two recorded enrichment in the
sphere of self-awareness and/or understanding to those with mental
disorder(s). Although there were controversies with regard to the abil-
ity of preventing possible negative consequences, respondents were
supportive towards self-experiments with LSD in mental health sci-
ences. This article is the first systematic examination of the self-experi-
mentation with psychedelics that took place east of the Iron Curtain.
 Hallucinogenic 5-HT2AR agonists LSD and DOI
enhance dopamine D2R protomer recognition
and signaling of D2-5-HT2A heteroreceptor
complexes [258]
Biochemistry & Biophysical Research Community • 2014

Borroto-Escuela DO1, Romero-Fernandez W2

Narvaez M3, Oflijan J4, Agnati LF5, Fuxe K6.

1Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet

Stockholm, Sweden • Electronic address: Dasiel.Borroto-Escuela@ki.se
2Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
Electronic address: wromfdez@gmail.com
3Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, University of Málaga, Spain
Electronic address: mnarvaez@uma.es
4Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Tartu, Estonia
Electronic address: juliaofli@gmail.com
5IRCCS Lido, Venice, Italy. Electronic address: luigiagnati@tin.it
6Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
Electronic address: Kjell.Fuxe@ki.se

Dopamine D2LR-serotonin 5-HT2AR heteromers were demonstrated

in HEK293 cells after cotransfection of the two receptors and shown to
have bidirectional receptor-receptor interactions. In the current study
the existence of D2L-5-HT2A heteroreceptor complexes was demon-
strated also in discrete regions of the ventral and dorsal striatum with
in situ proximity ligation assays (PLA). The hallucinogenic 5-HT2AR ago-
nists LSD and DOI but not the standard 5-HT2AR agonist TCB2 and 5-HT
significantly increased the density of D2like antagonist (3)H-raclopride
binding sites and significantly reduced the pKiH values of the high affin-
ity D2R agonist binding sites in (3)H-raclopride/DA competition experi-
ments. Similar results were obtained in HEK293 cells and in ventral stria-
tum. The effects of the hallucinogenic 5-HT2AR agonists on D2R density
and affinity were blocked by the 5-HT2A antagonist ketanserin. In a for-
skolin-induced CRE-luciferase reporter gene assay using cotransfected
but not D2R singly transfected HEK293 cells DOI and LSD but not TCB2
significantly enhanced the D2LR agonist quinpirole induced inhibition
of CRE-luciferase activity. Haloperidol blocked the effects of both quin-
pirole alone and the enhancing actions of DOI and LSD while ketanse-
rin only blocked the enhancing actions of DOI and LSD. The mechanism
for the allosteric enhancement of the D2R protomer recognition and
signalling observed is likely mediated by a biased agonist action of the
hallucinogenic 5-HT2AR agonists at the orthosteric site of the 5-HT2AR
protomer. This mechanism may contribute to the psychotic actions of
LSD and DOI and the D2-5-HT2A heteroreceptor complex may thus be
a target for the psychotic actions of hallunicogenic 5-HT2A agonists.
 Enhanced Repertoire of Brain Dynamical States
During the Psychedelic Experience [215]
Human Brain Mapping • May 2014

Enzo Tagliazucchi,1* Robin Carhart-Harris,2

Robert Leech,3 David Nutt,2 and Dante R. Chialvo4

1Neurology Department and Brain Imaging Center

Goethe University, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
2Imperial College London, Centre for Neuropsychopharmacology
Division of Experimental Medicine, London, United Kingdom
3Computational, Cognitive and Clinical Neuroimaging Laboratory
Division of Brain Sciences, Imperial College London, UK
4Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Cientificas y Tecnologicas
Buenos Aires, Argentina

The study of rapid changes in brain dynamics and functional connectiv-

ity (FC) is of increasing interest in neuroimaging. Brain states departing
from normal waking consciousness are expected to be accompanied by
alterations in the aforementioned dynamics. In particular, the psyche-
delic experience produced by psilocybin (a substance found in “magic
mushrooms”) is characterized by unconstrained cognition and profound
alterations in the perception of time, space and selfhood. Considering the
spontaneous and subjective manifestation of these effects, we hypoth-
esize that neural correlates of the psychedelic experience can be found
in the dynamics and variability of spontaneous brain activity fluctuations
and connectivity, measurable with functional Magnetic Resonance Im-
aging (fMRI). Fifteen healthy subjects were scanned before, during and
after intravenous infusion of psilocybin and an inert placebo. Blood-Oxy-
gen Level Dependent (BOLD) temporal variability was assessed comput-
ing the variance and total spectral power, resulting in increased signal
variability bilaterally in the hippocampi and anterior cingulate cortex.
Changes in BOLD signal spectral behavior (including spectral scaling ex-
ponents) affected exclusively higher brain systems such as the default
mode, executive control, and dorsal attention networks. A novel frame-
work enabled us to track different connectivity states explored by the
brainduring rest. This approach revealed a wider repertoire of connectiv-
ity states post-psilocybin than during control conditions. Together, the
present results provide a comprehensive account of the effects of psilo-
cybin on dynamical behavior in the human brain at a macroscopic level
and may have implications for our understanding of the unconstrained,
hyper-associative quality of consciousness in the psychedelic state.
 Psychedelics as medicines
for substance abuse rehabilitation:
evaluating treatments with
LSD, Peyote, Ibogaine and Ayahuasca
Currents Drug Abuse Reviews • 2014

By Michael Winkelman
He is retired from the School of Human Evolution
and Social Change, Arizona State University, USA
michaeljwinkelman@gmail.com

Substances known as psychedelics, hallucinogens and entheogens have

been employed in ethnomedical traditions for thousands of years, but af-
ter promising uses in the 1950’s and 1960’s they were largely prohibited in
medical treatment and human research starting in the 1970’s as part of the
fallout from the war on drugs. Nonetheless, there are a number of stud-
ies which suggest that these substances have potential applications in the
treatment of addictions. While these substances are generally classified as
Schedule I, alleging no established medical uses and a high drug abuse po-
tential, there is nonetheless evidence indicating they might be safe and ef-
fective tools for short term interventions in addictions treatment. Evidence
suggests that the psychedelics have a much greater safety profile than the
major addictive drugs, having extremely low levels of mortality, and pro-
ducing little if any physical dependence. This paper reviews studies evalu-
ating the use of LSD, peyote, ibogaine and ayahuasca in the treatment of
dependencies and the possible mechanisms underlying the indications of
effectiveness. Evidence suggests that these substances help assist recov-
ery from drug dependency through a variety of therapeutic mechanisms,
including a notable “after-glow” effect that in part reflects their action on
the serotonin neurotransmitter system. Serotonin has been long recog-
nized as central to the psychedelics’ well-known phenomenological, physi-
cal, emotional and cognitive dynamics. These serotonin-based dynamics
are directly relevant to treatment of addiction because of depressed se-
rotonin levels found in addict populations, as well as the role of serotonin
as a neuromodulators affecting many other neurotransmitter systems.

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25563446
LSD PDF #191

2o14
 From Hofmann to the Haight Ashbury, and into the Future: Why Psychiatry Needs Psychedelics
The Past and Potential of Lysergic Acid Diethlyamide [30] and Psychedelics Need Psychiatry [31]

Journal of Psychoactive Drugs • March 2014 Journal of Psychoactive Drugs • March 2014

David E. Smith M.D. F.A.S.A.M. F.A.A.C.T.a Ben Sessa M.B.B.S. (M.D.) B.Sc. M.R.C. Psych.a
Glenn E. Raswyck E.M.T.a & Leigh Dickerson Davidson A.B.a a Consultant Psychiatrist in Addictions and Senior Research
a David E. Smith, M.D. & Associates, San Francisco, CA Fellow at Cardiff University, Medical School, Cardiff, UK

Since the discovery of its psychedelic properties in 1943, lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) has Without researching psychedelic drugs for medical therapy, psychiatry is turning its back on a group
been explored by psychiatric/therapeutic researchers, military/intelligence agencies, and a of compounds that could have great potential. Without the validation of the medical profession, the
significant portion of the general population. Promising early research was halted by LSD’s psychedelic drugs, and those who take them off-license, remain archaic sentiments of the past, with the
placement as a Sched- users maligned as rec-
ule I drug in the early reational drug abusers
1970s. The U.S. Army and subject to contin-
and CIA dropped their ued negative opinion.
research after finding These two disparate
it unreliable for their groups—psychiatrists
purposes. NSDUH esti- and recreational psy-
mates that more than chedelic drug users—
22 million (9.1% of are united by their
the population) have shared recognition of
used LSD at least once the healing potential
in their lives. Recent- of these compounds. A
ly, researchers have resolution of this con-
been investigating the flict is essential for the
therapeutic use of LSD future of psychiatric
and other psychedel- medicine and psyche-
ics for end-of-life anxi- delic culture alike. Pro-
ety, post-traumatic gression will come from
stress disorder (PTSD), professionals working
cancer, and addiction in the field adapting to
treatment. Adverse fit a conservative para-
psychedelic reactions digm. In this way, they
can be managed using can provide the public
talkdown techniques developed and in use since the 1960s. with important treatments and also raise the profile of expanded consciousness in mainstream society.

NSDUH estimates that more than 22 million (9.1% of the population) have used LSD at least once in their lives
 A review of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD)
in the treatment of addictions:
historical perspectives and future prospects [151]
Current Drug Abuse Reviews • 2014

By M.B. Liester

1P.O. Box 302, 153 N. Washington Street

Suite 103, Monument, CO 80132 Email: liester@aol.com

Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) is a semisynthetic compound with strong

psychoactive properties. Chemically related to serotonin, LSD was initially
hypothesized to produce a psychosislike state. Later, LSD was reported to
have benefits in the treatment of addictions. However, widespread indis-
criminate use and reports of adverse affects resulted in the classification of
LSD as an illicit drug with no accepted medical use. This article reviews LSD’s
storied history from its discovery, to its use as a research tool, followed by
its widespread association with the counterculture movement of the 1960s,
and finally to its rebirth as a medicine with potential benefits in the treat-
ment of addictions. LSD’s pharmacology, phenomenology, effects at neu-
rotransmitter receptors, and effects on patterns of gene expression are re-
viewed. Based upon a review of the literature, it is concluded that further
research into LSD’s potential as a treatment for addictions is warranted.
 Club drugs:
coming to a
patient near you [127]
The Nurse Practitioner • March 2014

By J.J. Talbert

Medical director at Steps Recovery Systems

Payson, Utah; Owner, JTC Advanced Practice, Lindon
Utah; and Assistant Professor at
Utah Valley University, Orem, Utah

Club drugs have become increas-

ingly popular with young adults and
adolescents. Although users report
similar effects of these drugs, they
are pharmacologically and physi-
ologically different. Understanding
these differences and recognizing
trends and effects of club drugs is
essential for nurse practitioners.
 Editor’s Introduction: Psychedelic Resurgence
Research and Therapeutic Uses, Past and Present [32]
Journal of Psychoactive Drugs • March 2014

By Terry Chambers B.A.

Former Managing Editor, Haight Ashbury Publications, San Francisco, CA
Please address correspondence to Terry Chambers, Haight Ashbury Publications
856 Stanyan Street, San Francisco, CA 94117
Phone: 415-566-1259; fax: 415-933-8674; email: hajournal@comcast.net

The second half of the twentieth century has become famous (in part) as a time in which aware-
ness and use of mind-altering drugs became widespread in the world. Starting with LSD, in all
cases such drugs were declared too dangerous to warrant further investigation into their prop-
erties and the reactions they caused. This halting of research coincided with the uncontrolled
spread of their use to the general population, although in the majority of cases scientific (or
other) investigations concerning these drugs had nothing to do with the spread of experimen-
tal use in the population at large. The lapse in research efforts since drugs such as LSD and
MDMA were placed in Schedule I (meaning they were declared by the U.S. government to have
no recognized medical use and to not be safe for use under medical supervision) has slowly
been overcome by the persistence of researchers who want to know if these drugs can be both
safe and useful. Certainly moving drugs to Schedule I did not succeed in curbing their use.

This issue of the Journal of Psychoactive Drugs touches on some of the results, active consid-
erations, and ongoing efforts of such research. It addresses past and current efforts to gain an
objective understanding of mindaltering drugs and seriously consider whether they can be of
use to humanity.

Such drugs, in various natural forms, have been taken by people throughout history, generally
in a social context that guides their use and purposes. This type of use continues into the pres-
ent day. In the nineteenth century, potentially harmful drugs such as absinthe and opium were
freely available, as were benzodiazapines and amphetamines in the 1950s (by prescription). At
the same time, the military of a few countries looked into using the new, synthetic mind-alter-
ing drugs for their purposes, and rejected the idea. Alcohol, a potentially harmful drug, has
been and is banned in various parts of the world at various times. The relationship of mankind
and mind-altering drugs is long and continuing.

We are past the point when research into psychoactive drugs should appear to be a threat
to social stability. Unauthorized experimentation and consumption are likely to continue.
Clearly, it is possible that the continued research into positive uses will produce positive
results. An increase in knowledge about such drugs can only be helpful in both situations.

This issue begins with “From Hofmann to the Haight Ashbury, and into the Future: The Past and
Potential of Lysergic Acid Diethlyamide” by David E. Smith, M.D., F.A.S.A.M., F.A.A.C.T., Glenn E.
Raswyck, E.M.T., and Leigh Dickerson Davidson, A.B., which is a brief history of one of the most
famous psychedelic drugs, LSD. It is followed by another view of LSD. In “Self-
Experimentations with Psychedelics Among Mental Health Professionals: LSD
in the Former Czechoslovakia,” Petr Winkler, PhDr., and Ladislav Csémy, PhDr.,
present “. . . the first systematic examination of self-experimentation with hal-
lucinogens that took place east of the Iron Curtain” by interviewing mental
health professionals in the former Czechoslovakia who had experimented with
LSD to find out about their experiences and present attitudes toward them.

Turning to current research, David E. Nichols, Ph.D., describes ongoing ef-

forts focused on studying the therapeutic use of psilocybin in “The Heffter
Research Institute: Past and Hopeful Future.” In “History and Future of the
Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies (MAPS),” Amy Emerson,
B.S., Linnae Ponté, B.A., Lisa Jerome, Ph.D., & Rick Doblin, Ph.D., outline the
many activities of MAPS, which are mostly focused on producing studies of
the use of MDMA with psychotherapy for people suffering from PTSD. “The
Potential Dangers of Using MDMA for Psychotherapy” by Andrew C. Parrott,
Ph.D., is an examination of the potential benefits and harms of using MDMA
in therapy. Jon C. Cole, Ph.D., discusses MDMA from a different perspec-
tive in “MDMA and the ‘Ecstasy Paradigm’,” where he discusses the nature
of research that has been done on MDMA and the mindset existing toward
that research. Ben Sessa, M.B.B.S. (M.D.), B.Sc., M.R.C. Psych., in “Why Psy-
chiatry Needs Psychedelics and Psychedelics Need Psychiatry,” explains why
he believes that psychedelics and psychotherapy should be used together.

Two very recent studies are included. “Therapeutic Effects of Ritual Aya-
huasca Use in the Treatment of Substance Dependence—Qualitative Re-
sults” by Anja Loizaga-Velder, Dipl.-Psych., Ph.D., & Rolf Verres, M.D., Dipl.-
Psych., describes a qualitative study using interviews with 13 therapists
who apply ayahuasca professionally in the treatment of addictions, two
expert researchers, and 14 persons who have undergone ayahuasca-as-
sisted therapy for addictions. In “PTSD Symptom Reports of Patients Evalu-
ated for the New Mexico Medical Cannabis Program,” George R. Greer, M.D.,
Charles S. Grob, M.D., and Adam L. Halberstadt, Ph.D., present the results
of their study that reports and statistically analyzes psychometric data on
PTSD symptoms collected during 80 psychiatric evaluations of patients ap-
plying to the New Mexico Medical Cannabis Program. Finally, Psychedel-
ic Medicine: New Evidence for Hallucinogenic Substances as Treatments,
a comprehensive two-volume report on the second wave of psychedelic
research edited by Michael J. Winkelman and Thomas B. Roberts, is re-
viewed by John C. Rhead, Ph.D. Obviously, this issue of the Journal is not
a comprehensive presentation of the activity of those attempting to un-
derstand the properties and uses of psychedelic drugs, but it is an indica-
tion of the serious and interesting research being done on this subject.
 Humphry Fortescue Osmond (1917–2004)
a radical and conventional psychiatrist:
The transcendent years [241]
Journal Of Medical Biographies • March 2014
Graduate School of Medicine, University of Wollongong, Australia
Robert M Kaplan, PO Box 316, Thirroul, NSW 2515, Australia
Email: rob.liaison@gmail.com
“Our normal waking consciousness
is but one special type of conscious-
ness. Whilst all about it, parted from
it by the filmiest of screens, there lie
potential forms of consciousness
entirely different. No account of
the universe in its totality can be fi-
nal that leaves these disregarded.”

~ William James
By Robert M Kaplan

“Psychedelics, used responsibly and with proper caution,

would be for psychiatry what the microscope is for biology
and medicine or the telescope is for astronomy”
~ Stan Grof

“I believe that if people would learn to use LSD’s

vision-inducing capability more wisely, under suitable
conditions, in medical practice and in conjunction with
meditation, then in the future this problem child
could become a wonder child”
~ Albert Hofmann

This article describes the life and work of the psychiatrist Humphry
Osmond who pursued a radical path as a psychiatrist while he
remained within the establishment. To the public mind howev-
er, he is best known as the man who introduced Aldous Huxley
to mescaline and coined the iconic word psychedelic. From an
early stage of his career, Henry Osmond embraced new ideas to
break the nexus in psychiatry at a time when neither biological
nor psychoanalytic treatments were shown to have much ben-
efit. To do this, he joined the radical social experiment in health
in the Canadian province of Saskatchewan where he initiated a
range of innovations that attracted international attention, as
well as controversy over his espousal of the use of hallucino-
gens better to understand the experiences of psychotic patients.
 At the end of the 19th century the neurologist Samuel Weir Mitchell
described the mescaline visions he experienced as:

“. . . a rush of countless points of white light swept across

(my) field of view, as if the unseen millions of the milky
way were to flow a sparkling river before the eye. I would see
thick, glorious fields of jewels, solitary or clustered, some-
times with a dull rich glow. Then they would spring up
into flower-like shapes beneath my gaze, and then seem to
turn into gorgeous butterfly forms or endless folds of glis-
tening, iridescent, fibrous wings of wonderful insects . .
. what I experienced perceptually in the external world were
not separated any more, as if body and object were a unity.”
In 1954, Huxley wrote The Doors of Perception, speculating that religious experiences and madness could be chemically
induced, adding to public interest in the drugs. The two men remained friends for life, able to converse over a huge range of
topics at a rapid rate because of their intellectual affinity. Huxley’s wife Laura recalled how rapidly they could jump from one
topic to another without concern about leaving behind the other conversationalist. In 1956 Huxley sent Osmond a rhyme:

“To make this trivial world sublime

Take half a gram of phanerothyme”
(Thymos means soul in Greek)
to which Osmond responded:

“To fathom Hell or soar angelic

Just take a pinch of psychedelic”
The two men stayed in touch until Huxley’s death in 1964 when famously he took LSD in his terminal state. Thus
was fashioned the iconic name that became a cultural signifier for an age. The word had Greek roots, mean-
ing mind-manifesting. Osmond called it clear, euphonious and uncontaminated by other associations. Os-
mond publically unveiled his new term at a meeting of the New York Academy of Sciences in 1957. Not all were
entranced by his etymology. Strictly speaking, it was not semantically correct (it should have been psychodel-
ic) but it was outstanding compared to the alternatives: psychephoric, psychehormic, psycheplastic, psychezy-
mic, psycherhexic, delirients, fantasticants, psychotomimetics, entheogens or psychelytic. As late as 1969, an an-
noyed Elliot Slater wrote a snippy letter to the British Medical Journal describing the term as a barbarism. While
psychedelic remained firmly embedded in the popular lexicon, its scientific use was more limited over time.
By the late 1970s, psychedelic was being replaced by hallucinogenic, a term that Osmond himself was using.
 The entropic brain:
a theory of conscious states
informed by neuroimaging research
with psychedelic drugs [397]
Frontiers In Huma Neuroscience • February 2014

Carhart-Harris RL1, Leech R2, Hellyer PJ2, Shanahan M3

Feilding A4, Tagliazucchi E5, Chialvo DR6, Nutt D1

Entropy is a dimensionless quantity that is used for measuring uncertainty

about the state of a system but it can also imply physical qualities, where
high entropy is synonymous with high disorder. Entropy is applied here in
the context of states of consciousness and their associated neurodynam-
ics, with a particular focus on the psychedelic state. The psychedelic state
is considered an exemplar of a primitive or primary state of conscious-
ness that preceded the development of modern, adult, human, normal
waking consciousness. Based on neuroimaging data with psilocybin, a
classic psychedelic drug, it is argued that the defining feature of “primary
states” is elevated entropy in certain aspects of brain function, such as
the repertoire of functional connectivity motifs that form and fragment
across time. Indeed, since there is a greater repertoire of connectivity mo-
tifs in the psychedelic state than in normal waking consciousness, this im-
plies that primary states may exhibit “criticality,” i.e., the property of being
poised at a “critical” point in a transition zone between order and disorder
where certain phenomena such as power-law scaling appear. Moreover,
if primary states are critical, then this suggests that entropy is suppressed
in normal waking consciousness, meaning that the brain operates just
below criticality. It is argued that this entropy suppression furnishes nor-
mal waking consciousness with a constrained quality and associated
metacognitive functions, including reality-testing and self-awareness. It
is also proposed that entry into primary states depends on a collapse of
the normally highly organized activity within the default-mode network
(DMN) and a decoupling between the DMN and the medial temporal
lobes (which are normally significantly coupled). These hypotheses can
be tested by examining brain activity and associated cognition in other
candidate primary states such as rapid eye movement (REM) sleep and
early psychosis and comparing these with non-primary states such as
normal waking consciousness and the anaesthetized state.
 Safety and Efficacy of Lysergic Acid Diethylamide-Assisted
Psychotherapy for Anxiety Associated With
Life-threatening Diseases [36]
The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease • July 2014
Peter Gasser, MD,* Dominique Holstein, PhD,Þ Yvonne Michel, PhD,þ Rick Doblin, PhD,§
Berra Yazar-Klosinski, PhD,§ Torsten Passie, MD, MA,|| and Rudolf Brenneisen, PhD
*Medical Office for Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Solothurn, Switzerland
†Department for Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy University of Bern, Switzerland
‡Statistical Consulting, Daniel Island, SC
§Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies, Santa Cruz, CA
||Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA and
¶Department of Clinical Research, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
Send reprint requests to Peter Gasser, MD
Medical Office for Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Hauptbahnhofstrasse 5
4500 Solothurn, Switzerland
Interim findings were presented at The Psychedelic Science in
the 21st Century conference, April 15 to 18, 2010, San Jose,
California, and the 20th IFP World Congress of Psychothera-
py conference, June 16 to 19, 2010, in Lucerne, Switzerland.
A double-blind, randomized, active placebo-controlled pi-
lot study was conducted to examine safety and efficacy of
lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD)-assisted psychotherapy in
12 patients with anxiety associated with lifethreatening dis-
eases. Treatment included drug-free psychotherapy sessions
supplemented by two LSD-assisted psychotherapy sessions
2 to 3 weeks apart. The participants received either 200 Kg
of LSD (n = 8) or 20 Kg of LSD with an open-label crossover
to 200 Kg of LSD after the initial blinded treatment was un-
masked (n = 4). At the 2-month follow-up, positive trends
were found via the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) in re-
ductions in trait anxiety ( p = 0.033) with an effect size of 1.1,
and state anxiety was significantly reduced ( p = 0.021) with
an effect size of 1.2, with no acute or chronic adverse effects
persisting beyond 1 day after treatment or treatment-relat-
ed serious adverse events. STAI reductions were sustained
for 12 months. These results indicate that when adminis-
tered safely in a methodologically rigorous medically su-
pervised psychotherapeutic setting, LSD can reduce anxi-
ety, suggesting that larger controlled studies are warranted.
LSD-assisted psychotherapy for anxiety
associated with a life-threatening disease:
A qualitative study of acute and sustained subjective effects [33]
Journal of Psychopharmacology • November 2014
Peter Gasser, Katharina Kirchner and Torsten Passie
1 Medical Office for Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Solothurn, Switzerland
2Psychologist MSc, Dietikon, Switzerland
3Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
Corresponding author:
Peter Gasser, private practice, Hauptbahnhofstrasse 5, CH-4500
Solothurn, Switzerland - Email: pgasser@gmx.net
Objective: A recently published study showed the safety and efficacy of LSD-assisted psy-
chotherapy in patients with anxiety associated with lifethreatening diseases. Participants
of this study were included in a prospective follow-up. 12
months after finishing LSD psychotherapy, 10 participants
were tested for anxiety (STAI) and participated in a semi-
structured interview. A Qualitative Content Analysis (QCA)
was carried out on the interviews to elaborate about LSD
effects and lasting psychological changes. None of the par-
ticipants reported lasting adverse reactions. The significant
benefits as measured with the STAI were sustained over a
12-month period. In the QCA participants consistently re-
ported insightful, cathartic and interpersonal experiences,
accompanied by a reduction in anxiety (77.8%) and a rise
in quality of life (66.7%). Evaluations of subjective experi-
ences suggest facilitated access to emotions, confronta-
tion of previously unknown anxieties, worries, resources
and intense emotional peak experiences à la Maslow as
major psychological working mechanisms. The experienc-
es created led to a restructuring of the person’s emotional
trust, situational understanding, habits and world view.
Conclusions
LSD administered in a medically supervised psychothera-
peutic setting can be safe and generate lasting benefits in
patients with a life-threatening disease. Explanatory mod-
els for the therapeutic effects of LSD warrant further study.
 Superior pattern processing
is the essence of the
evolved human brain [190]
Frontiers In Neuroscience • August 2014

By M.P. Mattson

1Laboratory of Neurosciences
National Institute on Aging Intramural Research Program and
Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine
Baltimore, MD, USA

Humans have long pondered the nature of their mind/brain and, particularly why its capacities for reason-
ing, communication and abstract thought are far
superior to other species, including closely related
anthropoids. This article considers superior pat-
tern processing (SPP) as the fundamental basis
of most, if not all, unique features of the human
brain including intelligence, language, imagina-
tion, invention, and the belief in imaginary entities
such as ghosts and gods. SPP involves the elec-
trochemical, neuronal network-based, encoding,
integration, and transfer to other individuals of
perceived or mentally-fabricated patterns. During
human evolution, pattern processing capabilities
became increasingly sophisticated as the result of
expansion of the cerebral cortex, particularly the
prefrontal cortex and regions involved in process-
ing of images. Specific patterns, real or imagined,
are reinforced by emotional experiences, indoctri-
nation and even psychedelic drugs. Impaired or
dysregulated SPP is fundamental to cognitive and
psychiatric disorders. A broader understanding
of SPP mechanisms, and their roles in normal and
abnormal function of the human brain, may en-
able the development of interventions that reduce
irrational decisions and destructive behaviors.
 From Hofmann to the Haight Ashbury, and into the future:
the past and potential of lysergic acid diethlyamide [152]
Journal Of Psychoactive Drugs • January 2014
Smith DE, Raswyck GE, Davidson LD.

Since the discovery of its psychedelic properties in 1943, lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) has
been explored by psychiatric/therapeutic researchers, military/intelligence agencies, and a
significant portion of the general population. Promising early research was halted by LSD’s
placement as a Schedule I drug in the early 1970s. The U.S. Army and CIA dropped their re-
search after finding it unreliable for their purposes. NSDUH estimates that more than 22 million
(9.1% of the population) have used LSD at least once in their lives. Recently, researchers have
been investigating the therapeutic use of LSD and other psychedelics for end-of-life anxiety,
post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), cancer, and addiction treatment. Adverse psychedelic
reactions can be managed using talkdown techniques developed and in use since the 1960s.

History and future of the Multidisciplinary Association

for Psychedelic Studies (MAPS) [153]
Journal Of Psychoactive Drugs • January 2014
Emerson A, Ponté L, Jerome L, Doblin R.

This article describes the teenage vision of the founder of the Multidisciplinary Association
for Psychedelic Studies (MAPS) that humanity’s future would be aided by the therapeutic and
spiritual potential of psychedelic substances. The article traces the trajectory of MAPS from in-
ception in 1986 to its present, noting future goals with respect to research, outreach, and harm
reduction. MAPS was created as a non-profit psychedelic pharmaceutical company in response
to the 1985 scheduling of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA). Overcoming many
hurdles, MAPS developed the first double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of MDMA-assisted
psychotherapy for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and plans for FDA prescription approv-
al in 2021. MAPS’ program of research expanded to include a trial of lysergic acid diethylamide
(LSD)-assisted psychotherapy for anxiety when facing life-threatening illness, observational
studies of ibogaine in the treatment of addiction, and studies of MDMA for social anxiety in
people with autism spectrum disorders. MAPS meets the challenges of drug development
through a clinical research team led by a former Novartis drug development professional ex-
perienced in the conduct, monitoring, and analysis of clinical trials. MAPS’ harm-reduction
efforts are intended to avoid backlash and build a post-prohibition world by assisting non-
medical users to transform difficult psychedelic experiences into opportunities for growth.
 Efficacy and enlightenment:
LSD psychotherapy and
the Drug Amendments of 1962 [154]
Journal Of The History Of Medicine & Allied Sciences • April 2014

By M. Oram

Department of History, School of Philosophical and Historical Inquiry

The University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia

The decline in therapeutic research with lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) in

the United States over the course of the 1960s has commonly been attrib-
uted to the growing controversy surrounding its recreational use. However,
research difficulties played an equal role in LSD psychotherapy’s demise, as
they frustrated researchers’ efforts to clearly establish the efficacy of treat-
ment. Once the Kefauver Harris Drug Amendments of 1962 introduced the
requirement that proof of efficacy be established through controlled clini-
cal trials before a drug could be approved to market, the value of clinical
research became increasingly dependent on the scientific rigor of the trial’s
design. LSD psychotherapy’s complex method of utilizing drug effects to
catalyze a psychological treatment clashed with the controlled trial meth-
odology on both theoretical and practical levels, making proof of efficacy
difficult to obtain. Through a close examination of clinical trials performed
after 1962, this article explores how the new emphasis on controlled clini-
cal trials frustrated the progress of LSD psychotherapy research by focusing
researchers’ attention on trial design to the detriment of their therapeutic
method. This analysis provides a new perspective on the death of LSD psy-
chotherapy and explores the implications of the Drug Amendments of 1962.
 LSD Flashbacks –
The Appearance of New Visual Imagery
Not Experienced During Initial Intoxication:
Two Case Reports [240]
Israeli Journal Of Psychiatry Related Sciences
Volume 51 - No 4 • 2014

Arturo G. Lerner, MD,1,2 Craig Goodman, PhD,

Dmitri Rudinski, MD,1 and Shaul Lev-Ran, MD3

1 Lev Hasharon Mental Health Medical Center, Pardessya, Israel

2 Sackler School of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Ramat Aviv, Israel
3 Addiction Medicine Clinic, Department of Psychiatry
Sheba Medical Center, Tel Hashomer, Israel

A side effect associated with the use of synthetic hallucino-

gens such as lysergic acid diethylamide-(LSD) is the partial or
total recurrence of perceptual disturbances which previously
appeared during intoxication, despite absence of recent use.
These are commonly referred to as “flashbacks” or Hallucinogen
Persisting Perception Disorder (HPPD). Here we present two
cases of patients with a prior history of LSD use who turned to
psychiatric consultation following brief episodes of HPPD. Sur-
prisingly, in both cases new visual imagery appeared during ep-
isodes of flashbacks which was not experienced during primary
LSD use. Both subjects reported the ability to discern between
LSD-associated visual disturbances and new visual imagery.
This phenomenon did not cause functional impairment and in
both cases caused gradual concern due to its persistence. Both
patients refused medical treatment and continued psychiatric
follow-up. At one year follow-up both patients reported almost
complete spontaneous remission. To the best of our knowledge
these are the first reported cases of LSD-related benign flash-
backs in which new imagery is experienced. Reasons for this
reversible and apparently harmless side effect are proposed.
Conclusions from case reports should be taken with caution.
 Baths salts, spice, and related designer drugs:
the science behind the headlines [807]
The Journal Of Neuroscience • November 2014

Baumann MH1, Solis E Jr2, Watterson LR3

Marusich JA4, Fantegrossi WE5, Wiley JL4

1Designer Drug Research Unit, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse
National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, Maryland 21224 • Email: mbaumann@mail.nih.gov
2Department of Physiology & Biophysics
Virginia Commonwealth University School of Medicine, Richmond, Virginia 23298
3Department of Psychology, Behavioral Neuroscience Area
Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona 85287
4RTI International, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709 and
5Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology
University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, Arkansas 72205

The abuse of synthetic psychoactive substances known as “designer

drugs,” or “new psychoactive substances” (NPS), is increasing at an
alarming rate. NPS are purchased as alternatives to traditional illicit
drugs of abuse and are manufactured to circumvent laws regulating
the sale and use of controlled substances. Synthetic cathinones (i.e.,
“bath salts”) and synthetic cannabinoids (i.e., “spice”) are two types of
NPS that have received substantial media attention. Although low rec-
reational doses of bath salts or spice compounds can produce desir-
able effects, high doses or chronic exposure often leads to dangerous
medical consequences, including psychosis, violent behaviors, tachy-
cardia, hyperthermia, and even death. Despite the popularity of NPS,
there is a paucity of scientific data about these drugs. Here we pro-
vide a brief up-to-date review describing the mechanisms of action
and neurobiological effects of synthetic cathinones and cannabinoids.
 ~ Symposium ~

Baths Salts, Spice,

and Related Designer Drugs:
The Science Behind the Headlines
[392]
The Journal of Neuroscience • November 2014

Michael H. Baumann,1 Ernesto Solis, Jr.,2 XLucas R. Watterson,3

Julie A. Marusich,4 William E. Fantegrossi,5 and Jenny L. Wiley4

1Designer Drug Research Unit, Intramural Research Program

National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD
2Department of Physiology & Biophysics
Virginia Commonwealth University School of Medicine
Richmond, Virginia 23298
3Department of Psychology, Behavioral Neuroscience Area
Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona 85287
4RTI International, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709, and
5Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology
University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences
Little Rock, Arkansas 72205

The abuse of synthetic psychoactive substances known as “designer

drugs,” or “new psychoactive substances” (NPS), is increasing at an
alarming rate. NPS are purchased as alternatives to traditional illicit
drugs of abuse and are manufactured to circumvent laws regulating
the sale and use of controlled substances. Synthetic cathinones (i.e.,
“bath salts”) and synthetic cannabinoids (i.e., “spice”) are two types of
NPS that have received substantial media attention. Although low rec-
reational doses of bath salts or spice compounds can produce desir-
able effects, high doses or chronic exposure often leads to dangerous
medical consequences, including psychosis, violent behaviors, tachy-
cardia, hyperthermia, and even death. Despite the popularity of NPS,
there is a paucity of scientific data about these drugs. Here we provide
a brief up-to-date review describing the mechanisms of action and
neurobiological effects of synthetic cathinones and cannabinoids.
 Pilot Study
of the 5-HT2AR Agonist Psilocybin
in the Treatment of Tobacco Addiction
[387]
The Journal Of Psychopharmacology • November 2014

Matthew W. Johnson, PhD1, Albert Garcia-Romeu, PhD1

Mary P. Cosimano, MSW1, and Roland R. Griffiths, PhD1,2

1Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences

Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD
2Department of Neuroscience
Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD

Despite suggestive early findings on the therapeutic use

of hallucinogens in the treatment of substance use disor-
ders, rigorous follow up has not been conducted. To deter-
mine the safety and feasibility of psilocybin as an adjunct
to tobacco smoking cessation treatment we conducted
an open-label pilot study administering moderate (20mg/
70kg) and high (30mg/70kg) doses of psilocybin within a
structured 15-week smoking cessation treatment proto-
col. Participants were 15 psychiatrically healthy nicotine-
dependent smokers (10 males; mean age of 51 years), with
a mean of 6 previous lifetime quit attempts, and smoking a
mean of 19 cigarettes per day for a mean of 31 years at in-
take. Biomarkers assessing smoking status, and self-report
measures of smoking behavior demonstrated that 12 of 15
participants (80%) showed seven-day point prevalence ab-
stinence at 6-month follow-up. The observed smoking ces-
sation rate substantially exceeds rates commonly reported
for other behavioral and/or pharmacological therapies
(typically <35%). Although the open-label design does not
allow for definitive conclusions regarding the efficacy of
psilocybin, these findings suggest psilocybin may be a po-
tentially efficacious adjunct to current smoking cessation
treatment models. The present study illustrates a frame-
work for future research on the efficacy and mechanisms
of hallucinogen-facilitated treatment of addiction.
 Enhanced repertoire of brain dynamical states
during the psychedelic experience [414]
Human Brain Mapp • November 2014

Tagliazucchi E1, Carhart-Harris R, Leech R, Nutt D, Chialvo DR.

1Neurology Department and Brain Imaging Center

Goethe University, Frankfurt am Main, Germany

The study of rapid changes in brain dynamics and functional connec-

tivity (FC) is of increasing interest in neuroimaging. Brain states depart-
ing from normal waking consciousness are expected to be accompa-
nied by alterations in the aforementioned dynamics. In particular, the
psychedelic experience produced by psilocybin (a substance found in
“magic mushrooms”) is characterized by unconstrained cognition and
profound alterations in the perception of time, space and selfhood.
Considering the spontaneous and subjective manifestation of these
effects, we hypothesize that neural correlates of the psychedelic ex-
perience can be found in the dynamics and variability of spontaneous
brain activity fluctuations and connectivity, measurable with func-
tional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI). Fifteen healthy subjects
were scanned before, during and after intravenous infusion of psilo-
cybin and an inert placebo. Blood-Oxygen Level Dependent (BOLD)
temporal variability was assessed computing the variance and total
spectral power, resulting in increased signal variability bilaterally in
the hippocampi and anterior cingulate cortex. Changes in BOLD sig-
nal spectral behavior (including spectral scaling exponents) affected
exclusively higher brain systems such as the default mode, executive
control, and dorsal attention networks. A novel framework enabled
us to track different connectivity states explored by the brain during
rest. This approach revealed a wider repertoire of connectivity states
post-psilocybin than during control conditions. Together, the present
results provide a comprehensive account of the effects of psilocybin
on dynamical behavior in the human brain at a macroscopic level and
may have implications for our understanding of the unconstrained,
hyper-associative quality of consciousness in the psychedelic state.
Current European data collection on emergency department presentations with acute recreational drug toxicity: gaps and national variations [124]
Clinical Toxicology Philadelphia • December 2014
Heyerdahl F1, Hovda KE, Giraudon I, Yates C., Dines AM, Sedefov R, Wood DM, Dargan PI.
1Medical Division, Department of Acute Medicine, Norwegian National Unit for CBRNe Medicine, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway

The number of new (novel) psychoactive substances (NPS) avail-

able in the illegal market is increasing; however, current monitor-
ing of the drug situation in Europe focuses mainly on classical
drugs of abuse, with limited emphasis on clinical presentation
in the emergency department (ED). The European Drug Emer-
gencies Network (Euro-DEN) is a European Commission-funded
project that aims to improve the knowledge of acute drug tox-
icity of both classical recreational drugs and NPS. As a baseline
for this project, we performed a study to establish which data are
currently being collected and reported in Europe on ED presen-
tations with acute toxicity related to NPS and classical drugs of
abuse. We used a three-pronged approach to identify any system-
atic collection of data on NPS toxicity in Europe by i) performing
a literature search, ii) utilising an online survey of the European
Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction Re seau Europe
en d’Information sur les Drogues et les Toxicomanies national fo-
cal points and iii) exploiting the knowledge and resources of the
Euro-DEN network members. The literature search revealed 21
papers appropriate for assessment, but only one described a sys-
tematic collection of clinical data on NPS. Twenty-seven of thirty
countries responded to the online survey. More than half of all
the countries (52%) did not perform any registration at all of such
data, 37% collected systematic clinical data on NPS at a national
level, while 44% collected data on classical drugs. A few examples
for good practice of systematic collection of clinical data on ED
presentations due to acute toxicity were identified. The system-
atic collection of data on ED presentation of toxicity related to
NPS and classical drugs in Europe is scarce; the existing collection
is limited to single centres, single countries, groups of patients
or not focused on novel drugs; the collection of data is highly
variable between the different countries. Euro-DEN, a European
Commission funded project, aims at closing some of these gaps.
[283]
 CHAPTER FIVE
2009 - 2013 Peer Review
 Studying the Effects of Classic Hallucinogens
in the Treatment of Alcoholism:
Rationale, Methodology,
and Current Research
with Psilocybin [235]
Current Drug Abuse Reviews • 2013

Michael P. Bogenschutz

Department of Psychiatry, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center

University of New Mexico Center on Alcoholism, Substance Abuse, and Addictions
Albuquerque, NM 87131-0001, USA

Recent developments in the study of classic hallucinogens, com-

bined with a re-appraisal of the older literature, have led to a renew-
al of interest in possible therapeutic applications for these drugs,
notably their application in the treatment of addictions. This article
will first provide a brief review of the research literature providing
direct and indirect support for the possible therapeutic effects of
classic hallucinogens such as psilocybin and lysergic acid diethyl-
amide (LSD) in the treatment of addictions. Having provided a ratio-
nale for clinical investigation in this area, we discuss design issues in
clinical trials using classic hallucinogens, some of which are unique
to this class of drug. We then discuss the current status of this field
of research and design considerations in future randomized trials.
 The neural basis of flashback formation:
the impact of viewing trauma [181]
Psychological Medicine • August 2013

C. Bourne1, C. E. Mackay1,2 and E. A. Holmes1,3

1 Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford, Warneford Hospital, Oxford, UK

2 FMRIB Centre, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
3 MRC Cognition and Brain Sciences Unit, Cambridge, UK

Psychological traumatic events, such as war or road traffic accidents, are widespread.
A small but significant proportion of survivors develop post-traumatic stress disorder
(PTSD). Distressing, sensory-based involuntary memories of trauma (henceforth ‘flash-
backs ’) are the hallmark symptom of PTSD. Understanding the development of flash-
backs may aid their prevention. This work is the first to combine the trauma film para-
digm (as an experimental analogue for flashback development) with neuroimaging
to investigate the neural basis of flashback aetiology. We investigated the hypothesis
that involuntary recall of trauma (flashback) is determined during the original event
encoding. A total of 22 healthy volunteers viewed a traumatic film whilst undergo-
ing functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). They kept a 1-week diary to record
flashbacks to specific film scenes. Using a novel prospective fMRI design, we compared
brain activation for those film scenes that subsequently induced flashbacks with both
non-traumatic control scenes and scenes with traumatic content that did not elicit
flashbacks (‘ potentials ’). Encoding of scenes that later caused flashbacks was associat-
ed with widespread increases in activation, including in the amygdala, striatum, rostral
anterior cingulate cortex, thalamus and ventral occipital cortex. The left inferior fron-
tal gyrus and bilateral middle temporal gyrus also exhibited increased activation but
only relative to ‘potentials ’. Thus, these latter regions appeared to distinguish between
traumatic content that subsequently flashed back and comparable content that did
not. Results provide the first prospective evidence that the brain behaves different-
ly whilst experiencing emotional events that will subsequently become involuntary
memories – flashbacks. Understanding the neural basis of analogue flashback memory
formation may aid the development of treatment interventions for this PTSD feature.
 Psilocybin:
Summary of knowledge and new perspectives [217]
European Neuropsychopharmacology • 2013

Filip Tylš 1,2, Tomáš Páleníček 1,2, Jiří Horáček 1,2

1Prague Psychiatric Center, Czech Republic

23rd Faculty of Medicine, Charles University in Prague, Czech Republic
Contact: Filip Tylš, MD
tyls@pcp.lf3.cuni.cz

Psilocybin, a psychoactive alkaloid contained in hallucinogenic mush-

rooms, is nowadays given a lot of attention in the scientific community
as a research tool for modeling psychosis as well as due to its potential
therapeutic effects. However, it is also a very popular and frequently
abused natural hallucinogen. This review summarizes all the past and re-
cent knowledge on psilocybin. It briefly deals with its history, discusses
the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics, and compares its action
in humans and animals. It attempts to describe the mechanism of psyche-
delic effects and objectify its action using modern imaging and psycho-
metric methods. Finally, it describes its therapeutic and abuse potential.
 Psychedelic Drugs No Risk to Mental Health,
Possibly Beneficial
News & Perspectives In Psychiatry • August 2013

By Megan Brooks

Using classic psychedelic drugs does not raise the risk for mental health
problems; on the contrary, it may offer some protection, new research
suggests. Among 130,152 representative US adults, including 21,967 re-
ported psychedelic drug users, researchers found no significant link be-
tween lifetime use of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), psilocybin, mesca-
line, or peyote and an increased rate of mental health problems. Rather,
in several cases, psychedelic drug use was associated with a lower rate of
mental health problems, Teri S. Krebs, PhD, and Pål-Ørjan Johansen, PhD,
of the Department of Neuroscience, Norwegian University of Science and
Technology, Trondheim, report.

“We were not particularly surprised. Overall, there is a lack of evidence that
psychedelics cause lasting mental health problems,” Dr. Krebs told Medscape
Medical News. More than 30 million Americans have used LSD, psilocybin, or
mescaline at some time in their lives. Some case reports of mental illness in
people who had used psychedelics fueled some concern of a link. But there
are “many potential biases of relying on individual anecdotes,” Dr. Krebs said. “In
particular, mental illness is rather common, and symptoms often appear in the
early 20s, which is the same time that people often first use psychedelics.” In the
current population study, after adjusting for other risk factors, there was no
link between psychedelic drug use and a range of mental health outcomes,
including serious psychologic distress, mental health treatment, symptoms of
8 psychiatric disorders (panic disorder, major depressive episode, mania, so-
cial phobia, general anxiety disorder, agoraphobia, posttraumatic stress dis-
order, and nonaffective psychosis), and 7 specific symptoms of nonaffective
psychosis. In fact, lifetime use of psilocybin or mescaline and past-year use of
LSD were associated with lower rates of serious psychologic distress. Lifetime
use of LSD was also significantly associated with a lower rate of outpatient
mental health treatment and psychiatric medicine prescription. “We cannot
exclude the possibility that use of psychedelics might have a negative effect
on mental health for some individuals or groups, perhaps counterbalanced
at a population level by a positive effect on mental health in others,” the au-
thors note. Nevertheless, “recent clinical trials have also failed to find any
evidence of any lasting harmful effects of psychedelics.” “This is
an important analysis,” Matthew W. Johnson, PhD, of the Be-
havioral Pharmacology Research Unit, Department of Psychia-
try and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School
of Medicine, in Baltimore, Maryland, who was not involved in
the study, told Medscape Medical News.

“Although there is evidence suggesting beneficial effects of psyche-

delics in well-controlled clinical research, that does not address the
occurrence of psychiatric adverse effects in the population. It is very
interesting to know that these drugs are not associated with adverse
mental health outcomes at the population level,” Dr. Johnson said.
“However, as the authors note, it is certainly possible that individ-
ual recreational users experience harms. This analysis would just
suggest that this may be limited in scope, and possibly offset by
some individuals also receiving benefit at the population level,” he
added. This study “chimes very much with what we know already
about psychedelics — that they are essentially much less harmful
than other illicit substances,” Mark Bolstridge, BSc, MRCPsych,
Centre for Neuropsychopharmacology, Imperial College Lon-
don, United Kingdom, told Medscape Medical News.

“Having personally worked in mental health and trained in psychiatry,

I am yet to see any individual suffering from significant mental health
problems as a result of using psychedelics. Alcohol, amphetamines,
and cannabis, yes, but never psychedelics,” said Dr. Bolstridge, who
was not involved in the study. Dr. Krebs noted that “psychedelics
interact with a specific type of serotonin receptor in the brain and
may stimulate the formation of new connections and patterns. They
generally seem to open an individual to an awareness of new per-
spectives and opportunities for action. People often report deeply
personally and spiritually meaningful experiences with psychedelics,”
she said. Researchers at Imperial College London have found that
healthy adults recall memories much more vividly while under the
influence of psilocybin, and functional magnetic resonance imag-
ing (fMRI) data reveal a neurobiological basis for this effect. Their
research also shows that psilocybin has potential in the treatment
of depression, anxiety, and possibly cluster headaches.
“We know categorically that psychedelics
taken in a controlled clinical environment
with appropriate support almost certainly
never lead to any recurring or enduring men-
tal health problems,” Dr. Bolstridge said.

“All in all, I think the [new] paper is an impor-

tant addition to the scientific literature, and
it can only help in dispelling the myths sur-
rounding these much maligned substances
and in reinforcing the case for continued in-
vestigations into how these fascinating com-
pounds work in the brain,” Dr. Bolstridge said.

“In particular, [it can help in] attempting to

determine whether they can prove effective
in helping those patients incapacitated by
ongoing mental health problems and who
are little helped by conventional psychiatric
treatments,” he added.

Dr. Krebs said clinical trials looking at the po-

tential benefits of psilocybin in alcoholism
and smoking cessation are also under way.
Last year, she and Dr. Johansen published a
meta-analysis of randomized controlled tri-
als of LSD in alcoholism, which provided evi-
dence for a beneficial effect of LSD for treating
alcohol dependency. The study was sup-
ported by the Research Council of Norway.
The authors, Dr. Johnson, and Dr. Bolstridge
report no relevant financial relationships.
 The Substance
And Historical Movement Of LSD [87]

The Substance
Ou l’Histoire Mouvementée Du LSD [87]
PDF in French

Médecine & Sciences 2013

By François Beck1 and Nicolas Bonnet2

1 Sociologue, statisticien, chercheur au Cermes 3

Équipe Cesames (Centre de recherche médecine, sciences, santé, mentale, société)
Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Inserm U988/EHESS)
45 rue des Saints-Pères, 75270 Paris Cedex 06, France
2 Pharmacien en santé publique, directeur du réseau des établissements de
santé pour la prévention des addictions (RESPADD)
96, rue Didot, 75014 Paris, France
francois.beck@gmail.com
nicolas.bonnet@respadd.org

This article reviews the recent knowledge on LSD stemming from var-
ious disciplines among which pharmacology, sociology and epide-
miology. The d-lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) is a particularly
powerful hallucinogenic substance. It produces distortions
and hearing, visual and tactile hallucinations. Rarely used
(only 1.7% of people aged 15-64 years old have
tried it in their lifetime), this very power-
ful drug generates a strong appre-
hension within the general
population, but the
ethnographical stud-
ies show that its im-
age seems rather good
among illicit drug us-
ers. This representation
relies both on the proper
effects of this substance
and also on the history of
LSD very closely linked to
the counterculture charac-
teristic of the years 1960-1970.
 Lisuride LSD
Animal models
of serotonergic psychedelics [189]
ACS Chemical Neuroscience • January 2013

Hanks JB1, González-Maeso J.

1Department of Psychiatry, Friedman Brain Institute

Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, New York 10029

The serotonin 5-HT(2A) receptor is the major target

of psychedelic drugs such as lysergic acid diethyl-
amide (LSD), mescaline, and psilocybin. Serotoner-
gic psychedelics induce profound effects on cogni- Serotonin
tion, emotion, and sensory processing that often
seem uniquely human. This raises questions about 5-HT2A
the validity of animal models of psychedelic drug
action. Nonetheless, recent findings suggest be- Receptor
havioral abnormalities elicited by psychedelics in
rodents that predict such effects in humans. Here
we review the behavioral effects induced by psy-
chedelic drugs in rodent models, discuss the trans-
lational potential of these findings, and define areas
where further research is needed to better under-
stand the molecular mechanisms and neuronal cir-
cuits underlying their neuropsychological effects.
 Dose-related Effects
of Salvinorin A in Humans:
Dissociative, Hallucinogenic,
and Memory Effects [340]
Psychopharmacology Berlin • March 2013

Katherine A. MacLean1, Matthew W. Johnson1

Chad J. Reissig1, Thomas E. Prisinzano2 and Roland R. Griffiths1,3

1Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences

Johns Hopkins University School of, Medicine, Baltimore, MD
2Department of Medicinal Chemistry, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS
3Department of Neuroscience
Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD

Salvinorin A is a kap-
pa opioid agonist
and the principal
psychoactive con-
stituent of the plant
Salvia divinorum,
which has increased
in popularity as a rec-
reational drug over the
past decade. Few human studies have examined salvinorin
A. This double-blind, placebo-controlled study evaluated the
dose-related effects of
inhaled salvinorin A
in individuals with
histories of hallu-
cinogen use. Eight
healthy hallucino-
gen-using adults
inhaled up to 16
doses of salvinorin
A (0.375- 21 μg/kg) in
ascending order. Physiological, behavioral, and subjective ef-
fects were assessed every 2 min for 60 min after administra-
tion. Qualitative subjective effects were assessed retrospec-
tively via questionnaires at the end of sessions. Persisting
effects were assessed 1 month later. Orderly dose-related
effects peaked at 2 min and then rapidly dissipated, repli-
cating previous findings. Subjective effects were intense,
with maximal drug strength ratings or unresponsiveness
frequently observed at high doses. Questionnaires assess-
ing qualitative effects (Hallucinogen Rating Scale, Phar-
macological Class Questionnaire) suggested some over-
lap with serotonergically mediated classic hallucinogens.
Salvinorin A also produced dose-related dissociative ef-
fects and impairments in recall/recognition memory. At
1-month follow-up, there was no evidence of persisting
adverse effects. Participants reported salvinorin A effects
were qualitatively different from other drugs. Salvinorin
A produces a unique profile of subjective and cognitive
effects, including strong dissociative effects and memory
impairment, which only partially overlap with classic hal-
lucinogen effects. Along with nonhuman studies of sal-
vinorin A, these results are important for understanding
the neurobiology of the kappa opioid system and may
ultimately have important therapeutic applications.
 The Substance Experience:
A history of LSD [68]
Medical Science Paris • April 2013
(PDF in French)

Beck F1, Bonnet N.

1Sociologue, Statisticien, Chercheur au Cermes 3, Équipe Cesames

(Centre de Recherche Médecine, Sciences, Santé, Santé Mentale, Société)
Université Paris Descartes, 75270 Paris Cedex 06, France
francois.beck@gmail.com

This article reviews the recent knowledge on LSD stemming from vari-
ous disciplines among which pharmacology, sociology and epidemiol-
ogy. The d-lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) is a particularly powerful
hallucinogenic substance. It produces distortions and hearing, visual
and tactile hallucinations. Rarely used (only 1.7% of people aged 15-64
years old have tried it in their lifetime), this very powerful drug gener-
ates a strong apprehension within the general population, but the eth-
nographical studies show that its
image seems rather good among
illicit drug users. This representa-
tion relies both on the proper ef-
fects of this substance and also
on the history of LSD very closely
linked to the counterculture char-
acteristic of the years 1960-1970.
 June 2013

[247]
 Perspectives on Zebrafish Models
of Hallucinogenic Drugs
and Related Psychotropic Compounds [76]
Neuroscience • July 2013

Nikhil Neelkantan,†,‡ Alina Mikhaylova,†,‡

Adam Michael Stewart,†,§ Raymond Arnold,†,‡ Visar Gjeloshi,†
Divya Kondaveeti,† Manoj K. Poudel,†,‡ and Allan V. Kalueff*,†

†Zebrafish Neuroscience Research Consortium (ZNRC) and ZENEREI Institute

309 Palmer Court, Slidell, Louisiana 70458, United States
‡Departments of Physiology and Pharmacology
International American University College of Medicine, Vieux Fort, St. Lucia, WI
§Department of Neuroscience, University of Pittsburgh
A210 Langley Hall, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15260, United States

Among different classes of psychotropic drugs, hallucinogenic

agents exert one of the most prominent effects on human and
animal behaviors, markedly altering sensory, motor, affective, and
cognitive responses. The growing clinical and preclinical interest in
psychedelic, dissociative, and deliriant hallucinogens necessitates
novel translational, sensitive, and high-throughput in vivo models
and screens. Primate and rodent models have been traditionally
used to study cellular mechanisms and neural circuits of hallucino-
genic drugs’ action. The utility of zebrafish (Danio rerio) in neurosci-
ence research is rapidly growing due to their high physiological and
genetic homology to humans, ease of genetic manipulation, robust
behaviors, and cost effectiveness. Possessing a fully characterized
genome, both adult and larval zebrafish are currently widely used for
in vivo screening of various psychotropic compounds, including hal-
lucinogens and related drugs. Recognizing the growing importance
of hallucinogens in biological psychiatry, here we discuss hallucino-
genic-induced phenotypes in zebrafish and evaluate their potential
as efficient preclinical models of drug-induced states in humans.
 Illicit Use of LSD or Psilocybin
but not MDMA or Nonpsychedelic Drugs
is Associated with Mystical Experiences
in a Dose-Dependent Manner [209]
Journal of Psychoactive Drugs • August 2013

Michael Lyvers Ph.D. & Molly Meester Honours Psychology

Both Authors are affiliated with the Department of Psychology

Bond University, Gold Coast Queensland, Australia

Psychedelic drugs have long been known to be capable of induc-

ing mystical or transcendental experiences. However, given the
common “recreational” nature of much present-day psychedelic
use, with typical doses tending to be lower than those common-
ly taken in the 1960s, the extent to which illicit use of psychedel-
ics today is associated with mystical experiences is not known.
Furthermore the mild psychedelic MDMA (“Ecstasy”) is more
popular today than “full” psychedelics such as LSD or psilocybin,
and the contribution of illicit MDMA use to mystical experiences
is not known. The present study recruited 337 adults from the
website and newsletter of theMultidisciplinary Association for
Psychedelic Studies (MAPS), most of whom reported use of a
variety of drugs both licit and illicit including psychedelics. Al-
though only a quarter of the sample reported “spiritual” motives
for using psychedelics, use of LSD and psilocybin was signifi-
cantly positively related to scores on two well-known indices of
mystical experiences in a dose-related manner, whereas use of
MDMA, cannabis, cocaine, opiates and alcohol was not. Results
suggest that even in today’s context of “recreational” drug use,
psychedelics such as LSD and psilocybin, when taken at higher
doses, continue to induce mystical experiences in many users.
[284]
 Brave new world?
Oxford University Press’s Academic Insights for the Thinking World • November 2013

By Richard J. Miller

Today is the 50th anniversary of the death of the psychotropic drugs like caffeine, virtually all the
author Aldous Huxley. Huxley was celebrated for others, including drugs like alcohol, hallucino-
many things and his involvement with the culture gens, cannabis, psychostimulants, and opiates, are
of psychotropic drugs was certainly one of his subject to legal controls of one kind or another.
most famous, or perhaps infamous, associations. This raises certain questions. First of all, should we
Indeed, the story is told of how, on his death bed, have laws regulating the use of these drugs and,
Huxley instructed his wife Laura to inject him with if so, do the laws that we have make any sense?
LSD as he slipped into the hereafter. Huxley un-
derstood that psychotropic drugs were not just We should remember that many societies have lived
toys for recreational purposes but had the pow- quite happily alongside the widespread use of psy-
er to fuel political and religious change. In the chotropic agents. Cannabis was widely used from
1930s, his breakthrough novel Brave New World ancient times on the Indian subcontinent; cocaine
described the use of a fictitious psychotropic was widely used in pre-Columbian South America;
drug for mass control of a subservient population. and hallucinogens, such as psilocybin and ayahuas-
Later in his life he discovered real hallucinogens ca, were used in Central and South America. On the
– first mescaline and then LSD. He experimented other hand modern American and European cultures
with them and concluded that they could be used have never been comfortable with the use of such
as agents for self-discovery and enlightenment drugs. Drug taking seems to suggest something pre-
as described in his final utopian novel Island. Christian or pagan, which does not sit well with so-
cieties that think rewards should be the result of our
One story has it that Huxley was first introduced labors. Why should we be privy to a profound psy-
to mescaline in the 1930s by the famous occult- chological experience just by popping a pill — we
ist Aleister Crowley (“the great beast,” “the wick- didn’t work for it did we? It is also true that nowa-
edest man in the world”). He would subsequently days the available preparations of many drugs are
write about his mescaline experience in his book of high purity, making their effects more immediate
The Doors of Perception, read by every hippie in and powerful. So, perhaps we do indeed require laws
the 1960s. Huxley felt that the hallucinogenic ex- to “protect” our society from these substances. Most
perience was something that could be truly reve- people would agree that some limits are necessary.
latory and his views fit in well with entheogenic But do our laws make sense? Since the early 1970s
theories concerning the origins of religion. These laws have been on the books in the United States
ideas posit that the discovery and use of naturally and Europe that list drugs according to a schedule
occurring hallucinogens by ancient peoples was of perceived dangers. Schedule 1 drugs (using the
a major influence on their emerging ideas about US system as an example) are drugs which cannot be
the spiritual world and the development of their civilizations. As Huxley once said, “Pharma- prescribed even by a physician, and are almost impossible to obtain even for research purposes.
cology came before agriculture.” Now that it has been 50 years since Huxley’s death, one won- These drugs have been designated as having “no medical utility or other uses” and are supposed to
ders what he would think about the status of psychotropic drugs these days. Apart from a few have a high degree of likelihood for abuse. Schedule 1 drugs include cannabis, heroin, LSD, psilocy-
bin, and ecstasy. This makes very little sense. One may wonder
who exactly determined that these drugs have “no potential for
medical or other general use”? Most people would agree that
there is no particular reason why anybody would need heroin
(originally introduced as a cough medicine in 1898), but what
about the others? Hallucinogenic drugs like LSD and psilocybin
are not addictive in the normal sense of the word, and Huxley
would have argued that they might be used in a beneficial and
enlightening manner for self-improvement. Cannabis is also
not very addictive and has a wide potential for medical util-
ity in treating the symptoms of many diseases including can-
cer, chronic pain, AIDS, multiple sclerosis, and diabetes. It has
even been suggested in some circles that ecstasy might find a
place in psychiatry. Should we not be actively considering the
potentially positive uses of such interesting and mind-expand-
ing chemicals?

The laws that presently exist in the United States and Britain do
not reflect these possibilities at all. Most of these laws are the resi-
due of political opinions that came into play in the early part of
the 20th century, when little was known about how psychotropic
drugs work or what dangers were really associated with their use.
For example US laws governing cannabis use are contradictory.
Many states are moving towards a more liberal attitude to canna-
bis use, whereas the federal government remains basically intran-
sigent in its attitude and maintains cannabis’ status on Schedule
1. A significant problem has been the fact that the people respon-
sible for drug laws are lawyers and politicians. Scientists may be
“consulted” but basically this has always just proved to be window
dressing as their opinions are ignored if they don’t fit it in with
somebody’s political stance. Many people think that we are really
missing an opportunity by ignoring the potential of these inter-
esting substances, stuck as we are with our conservative, unen-
lightened, and clearly confused attitudes. So what would Huxley
have thought of our world 50 years after his death? New – yes.
Brave – no!

Richard J. Miller is the Alfred Newton Richards Professor of Pharma-

cology at Northwestern University in Chicago. He is the author of
“Drugged: The Science and Culture Behind Psychotropic Drugs”
 Current ‘‘Legal Highs’’ [364]
The Journal of Emergency Medicine • 2013

Lucas A. Johnson, MC, USN,*

Rebecca L. Johnson, MC, USN,† and
Ray-Bernard Portier, MC, USN‡

*III Marine Headquarters Group, III Marine Expeditionary Force

Unit 35640, FPO AP 96606-5640, †III Marine Logistics Group, and
‡31st Marine Expeditionary Unit, III Marine Expeditionary Force
Unit 38463, FPO AP 96604-8463
Correspondence: Ray-Bernard Portier, MC, USN, 31st Marine Expeditionary

A growing number of novel substances have been

abused as recreational drugs by young people in the
United States (US), Europe, and Australia. Called ‘‘le-
gal highs,’’ these substances range from plant-based
to completely synthetic compounds. Spice, Salvia,
mephedrone, methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV),
and other cathinone derivatives have psychotropic
effects and are marketed for recreational use through
exploitation of inadequacies in existing controlled
substance laws. This article reviews available litera-
ture on the most common ‘‘legal highs’’ as well as dis-
cussing the scientific basis for the legal difficulties in
controlling trafficking in these novel substances. ‘‘Le-
gal highs’’ continue to increase in use in the US, Eu-
rope, and Australia. These substances are powerful,
can mimic effects of more traditional drugs of abuse,
and are intentionally manufactured to circumvent ex-
isting controlled substance laws. As controlled sub-
stance legislation may be inadequate in the face of
the quickly evolving legal highs, physicians are likely
to see an increase in the prevalence of legal highs.
 Self-inflicted Testicular Amputation in First Lysergic Acid Diethylamide Use [536]
Addiction Medicine • January 2013

Christian Blacha, MD, Markus M. Schmid, MD, Maximilian Gahr, MD, Roland W. Freudenmann, MD,Paul L. Plener, MD,
Florian Finter, MD, Bernhard J. Connemann, MD, and Carlos Schonfeldt-Lecuona, MD

From the Departments of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy III (CB, MMS, MG,
RWF, BJC, CS-L), Urology(FF), and Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and
Psychotherapy (PLP), University of Ulm, Germany
The authors declare no conflicts of interest

Self-inflicted testicular injuries, the most frequent form of genital self- Mr A. was admitted to the primary-care unit after he had been ob-
mutilation in males, are a rare but dramatic phenomenon (Romilly served in the public banging his head repeatedly against a tree and
and Isaac, 1996). Existing reports on self-inflicted testicular injuries tearing out his testes and then putting them into his mouth in a
reveal an association between self-damaging behavior and the pres- state of vigorous agitation. On admission, he presented a blood
ence of personality disorder, schizophrenia, or transsexuality (Money alcohol concentration of 0.93 g/L. Because of severe agitation, the
and De Priest, 1976; Greilsheimer and Groves, 1979; Siddiquee and low body temperature, and the major loss of blood, tracheal intu-
Dashpande, 2007). In a small number of cases, the use of illicit drugs bation was carried out by the emergency physician. An immediate
such as cocaine (Karila et al., 2007), amphetamine (Kratofil et al., 1996; surgical treatment with debridement, irrigation, and reconstruc-
Israel and Lee, 2002) and cannabis (Ahsaini et al., 2011) was associ- tion of scrotum and penile shaft was conducted. Subsequently he
ated with genital self-mutilation (for review, see Gahr et al., 2012). was transferred to the Department of Urology at the University of
Ulm, Germany. Mr A. was extubated without complications and
Classic hallucinogens such as lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) are subsequently a first psychiatric examination was carried out by our
known to cause affective and psychotic symptoms during or af- psychiatric consultation service (C.B.). At this time, the patient de-
ter substance use. These symptoms are typically experienced by scribed amnesia for the incident, particularly for the automutilation.
consumers in a state of complete wakefulness (Criterion C, Diag- Mr A. reported to remember that he had drunk alcohol at night first
nostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders [Fourth Edition, and then in a discotheque consumed an LSD “trip” for the first time.
Text Revision]). Even single doses of LSD can trigger delusions, He reported the feeling of “a fear of death,” without being able to
hallucinatory phenomena and disorganization of thinking and exactly indicate the course of events. On the basis of the available
behavior (Passie et al., 2008). Regarding self-mutilating behavior information, it could be determined that the time between LSD in-
under LSD, few cases have been published until now. The ma- take and self-injury was no more than 8 hours. Within the next 30
jority of reports refer to eye injuries (Rosen and Hoffman, 1972; hours, the psychotic symptoms disappeared. When asked about a
Thomas and Fuller, 1972), whereas genital self-mutilation associ- history of neurological or psychiatric disorders, the patient reported
ated with LSD has not previously been reported. We report the a head trauma with consequent subdural hematoma 2 years ago,
case of a 32-year-old man, who self-amputated both testes after but without any psychological impairment. Otherwise, the personal
using LSD for the first time in combination with alcohol. psychiatric history was unremarkable. There was no dependence on
alcohol or other psychotropic substances. Mr A. had never been
treated in a psychiatric in- or out-patient setting. Family and socio-
biographical history were unremarkable concerning psychiatric
risk factors including a stable partnership since 2008 and a satisfy-
ing job situation. Because symptoms ceased in less than 48 hours,
hallucinogen-intoxication delirium (International Classification of
Diseases, Tenth Revision F16.03) was diagnosed. The (qualitative)
toxicological serum examination showed proof of LSD, whereas
opioids, cocaine, amphetamines, tetrahydrocannabinol, and ben-
zodiazepines were negative. With regard to the first psychiatric
consultation, tiredness and anterograde amnesia for the time pe-
riod between drug intake and awakening in hospital were present.
His mood was slightly depressed, possibly due to realizing his in-
juries. There were no indications of acute suicidality or impending
self-harming behavior. One week after admission, the patient was
discharged from the urological inpatient unit. There were no more
signs of depressed mood; no other psychopathological changes
or abnormalities were found.
Psychopathological examinations after 4 weeks, 4 months, and 6
months (performed by C.B.) were unremarkable. During follow-up,
the patient reported some emotional lability subsequent to social
events with particular emotional impact (such as a friend becom-
ing father for the first time). The partnership with his girlfriend was
still stable and supporting, even if burdened by the prospect of in-
fertility. There were no signs of a mental disorder. In the meantime,
there was a first plastic surgery with reconstruction of the scrotum,
and in a second surgical step, artificial testes could be implanted,
both interventions without complications. To our best knowledge,
this case appears to be the first report of a self-inflicted testicular
amputation under a first dose of LSD. On the basis of the Naranjo
Adverse Drug Reaction Probability Scale (Naranjo et al., 1981), the
role of LSD as causative for the mentioned intoxication is rated as
probable. A causal role of alcohol appears rather improbable be-
cause former intake in comparable doses did not lead to intoxi-
cation or self-mutilating behavior, although alcohol might have
played a significant role as preconditioning factor. This case il-
lustrates that a single exposition to LSD, associated with alcohol
use, can induce intoxication, which may lead to irreversible body
damage and permanent consequences.
REFERENCES
1. Ahsaini M, Tazi F, Khalouk A, et al. Bilateral testicular self-cas-
tration due to cannabis abuse-case report. J Med Case Rep
2011;5:404.
2. Gahr M, Plener PL, Kolle MA, et al. Self-mutilation induced by
psychotropic substances: a systematic review [published on-
line ahead of print July 27,2012]. Psychiatry Res. doi:10.1016/
j.psychres.2012.06.028
3. Greilsheimer H, Groves JE.Male genital self-mutilation. Arch
Gen Psychiatry 1979;36:441–446.
4. Israel JA, Lee K. Amphetamine usage and genital self-mutila-
tion. Addiction 2002;97:1215–1218.
5. Karila L, FerreriM, Coscas S, et al. Self-mutilation induced by cocaine
abuse: the pleasure of bleeding. Presse Med 2007;36:235–237.
6. Kratofil PH, Baberg HT, Dimsdale JE. Self-mutilation and severe
selfinjurious behavior associated with amphetamine psychosis.
GenHosp Psychiatry 1996;18:117–120.
7. Money J,De PriestM. Three cases of genital self-surgery and
their relationship to transsexualism. J Sex Res 1976;12:283–294.
Naranjo CA, Busto U, Sellers EM, et al. A method for estimating
the probability of adverse drug reactions. 1981;30: 239–245.
8. Passie T, Halpern JH, Stichtenoth DO, et al. The pharmacol-
ogy of lysergic acid diethylamide: a review. CNS Neurosci Ther
2008;14:295–314.
9. Romilly CS, Isaac MT. Male genital self-mutilation. Br J Hosp
Med 1996; 55:427–431.
10. Rosen DH, Hoffman AM. Focal suicide: self-enucleation by two
young psychotic individuals. Am J Psychiatry 1972;128:1009–1012.
11. Siddiquee RA, Dashpande S. A case of genital self-mutilation
in a patient with psychosis. Ger J Psychiatry 2007;10:25–28.
12. Thomas RB, Fuller DH. Self-inflicted ocular injury associated
with drug use. J S C Med Assoc 1972;68:202–203.
 Sales Of Synthetic Drugs
Are On A High [729]
M. Morri & I. Walker

April 2013

It was a massive haul – 40,000 pack-

ets of synthetic cannabis. But police
didn’t even know if they could charge
the owners. The powder, which is
usually diluted with nail polish re-
mover, sprayed on to dried leaf then
put in 1g, 3g or 7g sealed bags and
sold through Sydney shops as a le-
gal high, was seized in the western
suburbs in October. What followed
was an agonising wait as investiga-
tors worked through a canon of laws
where the line between what is le-
gal and illegal is constantly shifting.
Finally, on Tuesday, two men aged
28 and 30, were charged with two
counts of large commercial drug sup-
ply and dealing with the proceeds of
crime in relation to the seizure of 7kg
of raw synthetic powder and more
than 100kg of packaged, synthetic
cannabis. The drug squad is locked
in a chemical war against the rising
tide of synthetic drugs – including
fake cocaine and LSD – being sold
throughout the state as legitimate.

LSD Screening in Urine
Performed by CEDIAw LSD Assay:
Positive Interference with Sertraline [286]
Oxford University Press • Letter To The Editor
2012
By Antony Citterio-Quentin*, Eric Seidel, Laurence Ramuz,
Franc¸ ois Parant and Mustapha Moulsma
Laboratory of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology
Department of Phamacotoxicology and Trace Elements
Edouard Herriot Hospital, Lyon, France
Email: antony.citterio-quentin@chu-lyon.fr
To The Editor:
Although more specific than the enzyme multiplied
immunoassay technique (EMITw) (1), cloned enzyme
donor immunoassay (CEDIAw)(Microgenics Corp., Fre-
mont, CA) lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) screening in
urine is subject to various cross-reactions, particularly with
ambroxol (2) and fentanyl (3). Following a clinical observation,
we carried out several tests to confirm a cross-reaction with ser-
traline [one of the most prescribed antidepressants, particular-
ly in the United States (4)], which, to our knowledge, has not
been described in the literature.
A 16-year-old boy suffering from abdominal pain, diarrhea, vomit-
ing, headache and tremors presented to Lyon hospital’s pediatric emer-
gency department. He claimed not to have taken drugs. He had been
treated for social phobia for three months with a combination of ser-
traline (Zoloftw 50 mg) and hydroxyzine (Ataraxw 25 mg). The clini-
cal examination showed a serotonin syndrome (sinus tachycardia,
hypertension: 168/70 mmHg, excessive sweating, extra-cellular
dehydration and hyperreflexia in the lower limbs with myoclon-
ic jerks) associated with visual hallucinations. The toxicological
screenings confirmed he had taken Zoloftw. After a broadspec-
trum screening in serum by high-performance liquid chroma-
tography–diode-array detection (HPLC–DAD) that revealed
a 0.27 mg/L supra-therapeutic serum concentration of ser-
traline [therapeutic concentrations: 0.05–0.25 mg/L (TIAFT:
The International Association of Forensic Toxicologists)],
we measured sertraline (as a parent compound) in urine by HPLC–DAD/mass spectrometry
(MS) (m/z 308) and found a 1.91 mg/L urinary concentration. Mor over, the LSD screening in
urine using the CEDIAw assay was positive. In a new interview with the medical team, the
boy confirmed that he had taken four tablets of sertraline 12 hours earlier, but the positive
LSD result remained unexplained. His family assured them he was unable to obtain LSD
because he rarely left home. Despite the clinical compatibility, the LSD screening in urine
was secondarily verified by HPLC–DAD/MS [LSD (m/z 324) and nor LSD (m/z 310) limits
of quantification ¼ 1.0 mg/L]. The result was negative, suggesting possible interference,
so we decided to test. We fortified urine samples from a control subject who had not
taken LSD with sertraline (concentration range of 0–2 mg/ L). On each of the fortified
samples, we performed an LSD screening in urine with the CEDIAw assay using two
different batches of reagent and confirmed the result with HPLC–DAD/ MS. We
also considered the case of a second patient with a sertraline overdose (serum
concentration: 1.43 mg/L, urinary concentration: 1.78 mg/L)
and two other cases of patients receiving long-term ser-
traline treatment (serum concentrations: 0.120 and
0.145 mg/L, urinary concentrations: 0.530 and 1.20
mg/L). On the urine samples from the latter cases,
we performed LSD screening with the CEDIAw
assay and confirmed the results with HPLC–DAD/
MS. The results obtained from the urine samples
fortified with sertraline showed that the CEDIAw
LSD screening was positive when concentrations
reached 1.5 mg/L (see Table I). We also obtained
false-positive LSD screenings with the CEDIAw assay
in the urine samples from the second case of overdose, as
well as in the sertraline-treated patients whose serum concen-
trations were within the accepted therapeutic range. All of these results were
consistent with the observation of the initial case. Thus, the CEDIAw assay for LSD
screening in urine is not only sensitive to positive interferences related to a slight
sertraline overdose, but also in samples from patients receiving long-term sertraline
treatment. This interference seems to be attributable to a cross-reaction with sertra-
line, as shown by our fortified samples, and probably its urinary metabolites. Few data
regarding sertraline metabolism in humans are available. However, a study showed
that, in animals, less than 0.2% of sertraline is excreted as a parent compound (5). The
urinary concentrations of sertraline (parent compound) found in our patients
tend to indicate this is not the case in humans. To conclude, a positive LSD
CEDIAw screening in urine must be confirmed by a specific separation
method when a sertraline overdose or long-term sertraline treatment
is suspected. In addition, because sertraline is among the most pre-
scribed antidepressants, this interference can be frequently detected.
Additional testing is needed to determine whether this interference
occurs with other structurally similar compounds.
 Bath salts: they are not what you think
Journal Of Psychosocial Nursing & Mental Health Services
February 2012

Wieland DM1, Halter MJ, Levine C.

1La Salle University, Philadelphia, PA, USA

wieland@lasalle.edu

Psychoactive bath salts are a relatively new group of designer

drugs sold as tablets, capsules, or powder and pur-chased in plac-
es such as tobacco and convenience stores, gas stations, head
shops, and the Internet. Bath salts are stimulant agents that mimic
cocaine,lysergic acid diethylamide, methamphetamine, or methy-
lenedioxymethamphetamine (ecstasy). The most common bath
salts are the cathinone derivatives 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalero
ne(MDPV), 4-methylmethcathinone(mephedrone), and 3,4-methy-
lenedioxy-N-methylcathinone (methylone). The drugs cause in-
tense stimulation, eu-phoria, elevated mood, and a pleasurable
“rush” Tachycardia, hypertension,peripheral constriction, chest
pain, hallucinations, paranoia, erratic behavior,inattention, lack of
memory of substance use, and psychosis have been observed in
those who have used bath salts. The U.S. Drug Enforcement Admin-
istration recently exercised an emergency authority to name three
key ingredients in bath salts as Schedule I, thereby making them
illegal to possess or sell in the United States. Nursing implications
related to both clinical and educational settings are discussed.

PMID: 22439144
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22439144
 Psilocybin dose-dependently causes delayed, transient headaches in healthy volunteers [345]
Drug & Alcohol Dependency • June 2012

Matthew W. Johnsona, R. Andrew Sewellb,c, and Roland R. Griffithsa,d

aJohns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences
bYale University School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry
cVA Connecticut Healthcare System
dJohns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Department of Neuroscience

Psilocybin is a well-characterized classic

hallucinogen (psychedelic) with a long his-
tory of religious use by indigenous cultures,
and nonmedical use in modern societies.
Although psilocybin is structurally related
to migraine medications, and case studies
suggest that psilocybin may be efficacious
in treatment of cluster headache, little is
known about the relationship between psi-
locybin and headache. This double-blind
study examined a broad range of psilocy-
bin doses (0, 5, 10, 20, and 30 mg/70 kg) on
headache in 18 healthy participants. Psi-
locybin frequently caused headache, the
incidence, duration, and severity of which
increased in a dose-dependent manner. All
headaches had delayed onset, were tran-
sient, and lasted no more than a day after
psilocybin administration. Possible mecha-
nisms for these observations are discussed,
and include induction of delayed headache
through nitric oxide release. These data
suggest that headache is an adverse event
to be expected with the nonmedical use of
psilocybin-containing mushrooms as well
as the administration of psilocybin in hu-
man research. Headaches were neither se-
vere nor disabling, and should not present a
barrier to future psilocybin research.
 Psychedelics and Mental Health:
A Population Study [255]
PlosOne • August 2012

By Teri S. Krebs* and Pal-Ørjan Johansen

*Department of Neuroscience, Faculty of Medicine

Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway

The classical serotonergic psychedelics LSD, psilocybin, mes-

caline are not known to cause brain damage and are regarded
as non-addictive. Clinical studies do not suggest that psyche-
delics cause long-term mental health problems. Psychedelics
have been used in the Americas for thousands of years. Over
30 million people currently living in the US have used LSD, psi-
locybin, or mescaline. Objective: To evaluate the association
between the lifetime use of psychedelics and current mental
health in the adult population. Data drawn from years 2001 to
2004 of the National Survey on Drug Use and Health consisted
of 130,152 respondents, randomly selected to be representa-
tive of the adult population in the United States. Standardized
screening measures for past year mental health included seri-
ous psychological distress (K6 scale), mental health treatment
(inpatient, outpatient, medication, needed but did not receive),
symptoms of eight psychiatric disorders (panic disorder, major
depressive episode, mania, social phobia, general anxiety disor-
der, agoraphobia, posttraumatic stress disorder, and nonaffec-
tive psychosis), and seven specific symptoms of non-affective
psychosis. We calculated weighted odds ratios by multivariate
logistic regression controlling for a range of sociodemograph-
ic variables, use of illicit drugs, risk taking behavior, and expo-
sure to traumatic events. Results: 21,967 respondents (13.4%
weighted) reported lifetime psychedelic use. There were no
significant associations between lifetime use of any psyche-
delics, lifetime use of specific psychedelics (LSD, psilocybin,
mescaline, peyote), or past year use of LSD and increased rate
of any of the mental health outcomes. Rather, in several cases
psychedelic use was associated with lower rate of mental health
problems. Conclusion: We did not find use of psychedelics
to be an independent risk factor for mental health problems.
 Serotonergic and dopaminergic distinctions in the behavioral pharmacology of
(±)-1-(2,5-dimethoxy-4-iodophenyl)-2-aminopropane (DOI) and lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) [201]
Pharmacological & Biochemical Behaviors • March 2012

Emmanuelle A. D. Schindler**, Kuldip D. Dave, Ph.D., Elaine M. Smolock, Ph.D., Vincent J., Aloyo, Ph.D., and John A. Harvey, Ph.D.

Drexel University College of Medicine, Department of Pharmacology & Physiology, 245 N. 15th Street, MS488, Philadelphia, PA, 19102

Although the mechanism of action also demonstrated clinical utility

of hallucinogens is incompletely in pain, drug addiction, headache,
understood, serotonin (5-HT) and depression, and anxiety disorders
the serotonin2A (5-HT2A) recep- (Griffiths et al., 2006; Griffiths et al.,
tor are thought to play a signifi- 2008; Grob et al., 2011; Kast and
cant role in mediating their effects Collins, 1964; Mangini, 1998; Sewell
(Nichols, 2004). There are two ma- et al., 2006). While the psychedelic
jor chemical classes fitting this pro- effects of hallucinogens may be es-
file—the phenethylamines (e.g. sential for some types of therapy,
mescaline) and the tryptamines these and other physiologic side ef-
(e.g. lysergic acid diethylamide, fects may preclude widespread clin-
psilocybin). Hallucinogens have ical use of these drugs. As opposed
significant value as pharmacologi- to other rereational drugs, however,
cal agents. They have been used hallucinogens are not habit-form-
to model psychosis and to better ing in humans, nor are they reinforc-
understand human cognition and ing in animals (Chilcoat and Shurtz,
perception (Nichols, 2004). Their 1996; Passie et al., 2008). Decipher-
role in the discovery of the seroto- ing the mec anisms by which hallu-
nergic system has also proven in- cinogens exert their various effects
valuable (Nichols, 2004; Passie et will significantly benefit areas of ba-
al., 2008). These compounds have sic and clinical science (Vollenwei-
der and Kometer, 2010). Drug-elicited head movement is a widely used behavioral model with DOI hallucinogens, such as LSD, may help further explain the contribution of 5-HT2C recep-
which to investigate hallucinogens and there is a strong correlation between the dose of halluci- tors in hallucinogen-elicited behavior. Although 5-HT2A receptors are found in many brain
nogens used to elicit mouse head twitch behavior and that used recreationally in humans (Corne regions, direct infusion of the hallucinogen, DOI, into the frontal cortex of rats (Willins and
and Pickering, 1967). Serotonin2A receptors Meltzer, 1997) or rabbits (Dave et al., 2007) has
have been implicated in head movements been shown to elicit head shakes and head
elicited by the phenethylamine hallucino- bobs, respectively. Previous studies have
gen, (±)-1-(2,5-dimethoxy-4-iodophenyl)-2- also demonstrated that repeated systemic
aminopropane (DOI; Darmani et al., 1990; administration of DOI or LSD robustly down-
Dave et al., 2002; Dave et al., 2007; Schreiber regulates frontocortical 5-HT2A receptors
et al., 1995; Willins and Meltzer, 1997), but in both rats and rabbits (Aloyo et al., 2001;
a role for this receptor in the action of the Smith et al., 1999). Thus, the frontocortical
indoleamine hallucinogen, lysergic acid di- area is an appropriate brain region in which
ethylamine (LSD), which also elicits head to investigate the role of 5-HT2A receptors
movements, is not as clear. Serotonergic in mediating the effects of hallucinogens.
antagonists such as cyprohe tadine (Vetu-
lani et al., 1980), methysergide (Yamamoto The dopaminergic system is believed to
and Ueki, 1981), and bromo-LSD (Sloviter play a major role in human psychosis, a con-
et al., 1980) block LSD-elicited rodent head dition that hallucinogens have been shown
movements, but these antagonists are rela- to mimic (Nichols, 2004). Hallucinogens
tively non-selective for the 5-HT2A receptor. differ in their dopaminergic pharmacol-
ogy, however. For example, LSD binds do-
The report of the absence of head twitch pamine receptors, but DOI does not (Burt
behavior elicited by LSD in mice lacking 5- et al., 1976; Watts et al., 1995). Investigat-
HT2A receptors suggests that the 5-HT2A ing the role of dopaminergic receptors in
receptor is necessary for LSD mediation the animal head movement model would
of this behavior in this species (Gonzalez- not only improve our understanding of hal-
Maeso et al., 2007). The pharmacology lucinogen pharmacology, but might also
that characterizes the head movement re- offer new insight into human psychosis.
sponse in mice may be more complex than Presently, dopamine1 (D1) receptor antago-
that for other animals, however. For exam- nists are known to block DOI-elicited head
ple, 5-HT2C receptors were not implicated shakes in rats (Schreiber et al., 1995), but
in either DOI-elicited head shakes in rat the role of D1 receptors in LSD-elicited head
(Schreiber et al., 1995) or head bobs in rab- movement behavior has not been studied.
bit (Dave et al., 2002). In contrast, 5-HT2C
receptors contributed significantly to DOI- The present study compares and con-
elicited head twitch behavior in mice (Canal trasts the 5-HT2A and D1 receptor actions
et al., 2010). More precisely, Fantegrossi and as- of hallucinogens, represented by two chemi-
sociates (2010) demonstrated that 5-HT2C receptor antagonism right shifted the descending cal classes, the phenethylamines (DOI) and the indoleamines (LSD). The experiments in-
limb of the DOI dose response curve in mice. These findings support an inhibitory role of 5- clude receptor binding properties and behavioral actions. The goal of these experiments is
HT2C activation at high doses of DOI (Fantegrossi et al., 2010). Further investigation with non- to identify the essential pharmacological components shared among hallucinogenic agents.
 Beyond colour perception:
Auditory and visual synaesthesia induces experiences
of geometric objects in specific locations [227]
Science Direct • April 2012

Rocco Chiou*, Marleen Stelter and Anina N. Rich*

Department of Cognitive Science

ARC Centre of Excellence in Cognition and its Disorders
Macquarie University, Australia

Our brain constantly integrates signals across different senses. Auditoryevisu-

al synaesthesia is an unusual form of cross-modal integration in which sounds
evoke involuntary visual experiences. Previous research primarily focuses on
synaesthetic colour, but little is known about non-colour synaesthetic visual
features. Here we studied a group of synaesthetes for whom sounds elicit
consistent visual experiences of coloured ‘geometric objects’ located at spe-
cific spatial location.Changes in auditory pitch alter the brightness, size, and
spatial height of synaesthetic experiences in a systematic manner resembling
the cross-modal correspondences of non-synaesthetes, implying synaesthe-
sia may recruit cognitive/neural mechanisms for ‘normal’ cross-modal pro-
cesses. To objectively assess the impact of synaesthetic objects on behaviour,
we devised a multi-feature cross-modal synaesthetic congruency paradigm
and asked participants to perform speeded colour or shape discrimination.
We found irrelevant sounds influenced performance, as quantified by con-
gruency effects, demonstrating that synaesthetes were not able to suppress
their synaesthetic experiences even when these were irrelevant for the task.
Furthermore, we found some evidence for taskspecific effects consistent with
feature-based attention acting on the constituent features of synaesthetic
objects: synaesthetic colours appeared to have a stronger impact on perfor-
mance than synaesthetic shapes when synaesthetes attended to colour, and
vice versa when they attended to shape. We provide the first objective evi-
dence that visual synaesthetic experience can involve multiple features form-
ing object-like percepts and suggest that each feature can be selected by at-
tention despite it being internally generated. These findings suggest theories
of the brain mechanisms of synaesthesia need to incorporate a broader neu-
ral network underpinning multiple visual features, perceptual knowledge,
and feature integration, rather than solely focussing on colour-sensitive areas.
 Magic truffles or Philosopher’s stones:
a legal way to sell psilocybin? [219]
Drug Testing and Analysis • July 2012

Manuela Pellegrini,a Maria Concetta Rotolo,a Emilia Marchei,a

Roberta Pacifici,a Francesco Saggiob and Simona Pichinia*

* Correspondence to: Simona Pichini

Department of Therapeutic Research and Medicines Evaluation
Istituto Superiore di Sanità, V.le Regina Elena 299 00161 Rome, Italy
E-mail: simona.pichini@iss.it
a Department of Therapeutic Research and Medicines Evaluation
Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
b Comando Carabinieri per la Tutela della Salute, Rome, Italy

“Magic mushrooms” is the most common name given to hallucinogenic

fungi containing the psychoactive alkaloids psilocybin and psilocin. In
recent years, fungis’ sclerotia, commonly called “magic truffles” have be-
come a form of supply of psychoactive Psilocybe alkaloids since Psilo-
cybe sclerotia are not specifically included in the laws banning the sale,
the purchase and the use of such substances and mushrooms containing
them. A liquid chromatography –tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS)
method was developed for the rapid determination of psilocybin and
psilocin in Psilocybe sclerotia. Following a simple step extraction with
methanol, the alkaloids were separated on a reversed-phase column us-
ing a gradient of 0.1% formic acid – acetonitrile s a mobile phase at a
flow rate of 0.2 mL/min.. Separated analytes were detected by electro-
spray ionization tandem mass spectrometry in the positive ion mode us-
ing multiple reaction monitoring. The developed method was linear over
the calibration range for all two substances under investigation, with a
r2>0.99. The detection and quantification limits were 0.3mg and 1mg
per 100mg truffles, for both psilocin and psilocybin and the intra- and in-
ter-day coefficients of variation were always better than 15%. Using this
method, the presence of only psilocybin was demonstrated in examined
Psilocybe sclerotia. The content of psilocybin was found to vary over a
concentration range of 59.3 to 167.8mg per 100mg of fresh sclerotia.
 Repression of death consciousness and the psychedelic trip [39] Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) for alcoholism:
meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials [40]
Journal of Cancer Research and Therapeutics • July 2012
Journal of Psychopharmacology • March 2012
By Varsha Dutta
Department of Clinical Neuroscience and ACRO
Dr. Balabhai Nanavati Hospital, S. V. Road, Vile Parle, Mumbai, India Teri S Krebs and Pål-Ørjan Johansen
For correspondence: Dr. Varsha Dutta, Department of Clinical Neuroscience and ACRO 1 Department of Neuroscience, Faculty of Medicine
Dr. Balabhai Nanavati Hospital, S. V. Road, Vile Parle, Mumbai, India Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway
E-mail: varsha.dutta@vinnana-cns.com 2 Laboratory for Integrative Psychiatry, Division of Alcohol and Drug Abuse
McLean Hospital, Belmont, MA, USA and
Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
Death is our most repressed consciousness, it inheres our condition as the primordial fear. Perhaps
it was necessary that this angst be repressed in man or he would Corresponding author:
Pål-Ørjan Johansen, Department of Neuroscience
be hurled against the dark forces of nature. Modern ethos was Faculty of Medicine NTNU, N-7489 Trondheim, Norway
built on this edifice, where the ‘denial of death’ while ‘embrac- Email: pal.johansen@ntnu.no
ing one’s symbolic immortality’ would be worshipped, so this
ideology simply overturned and repressed looking into the Assessments of lysergic acid diethylamide
morass of the inevitable when it finally announced itself. Once
this slowly pieced its way into all of life, ‘death’ would soon be- (LSD) in the treatment of alcoholism have
come a terminology in medicine too and assert its position, by not been based on quantitative meta-anal-
giving a push to those directly dealing with the dying to shy ysis. Hence, we performed a meta-analysis
away from its emotional and spiritual affliction. The need to of randomized controlled trials in order to
put off death and prolong one’s life would become ever more evaluate the clinical efficacy of LSD in the
urgent. Research using psychedelics on the terminally ill which treatment of alcoholism. Two reviewers
had begun in the 1950s and 1960s would coerce into another
realm and alter the face of medicine; but the aggression with independently extracted the data, pool-
which it forced itself in the 1960s would soon be politically ing the effects using odds ratios (ORs) by
maimed, and what remained would be sporadic outpours that a generic inverse variance, random effects
trickled its way from European labs and underground boot model. We identified six eligible trials, in-
camps. Now, with the curtain rising, the question has etched cluding 536 participants. There was evi-
itself again, about the use of psychedelic drugs in medicine,
dence for a beneficial effect of LSD on alco-
particularly psychedelic psychotherapy with the terminally ill.
This study is an attempt to philosophically explore death anxi- hol misuse (OR, 1.96; 95% CI, 1.36–2.84; p
ety from its existential context and how something that is in- = 0.0003). Between-trial heterogeneity for
nate in our condition cannot be therapeutically cured. Psyche- the treatment effects was negligible (I² =
delic use was immutably linked with ancient cultures and only 0%). Secondary outcomes, risk of bias and
recently has it seen its scientific revival, from which a scientific limitations are discussed. A single dose of
culture grew around psychedelic therapy. How much of what
LSD, in the context of various alcoholism
was threaded in the ritual and spiritual mores can be extricated
and be interpreted in our own mechanized language of medi- treatment programs, is associated with a
cine is the question that nudges many. decrease in alcohol misuse.
 Inspector Generals Report
about the use of Psychoactive Drugs
for Interrogations at Guantanamo Bay Prison Camp [326]
July 19, 2012

The Pentagon Inspector General has released a declassified report under FOIA dis-
cussing the use of psychoactive drugs on inmates in Gitmo. The report is titled “In-
vestigations of Allegations of the Use of Mind-Altering Drugs to Facilitate Interro-
gations of Detainnees (U)”. The report may have been triggered by widely-reported
allegations that Guantanamo Bay detainee José Padilla was given a “truth serum”
by intravenous injection. The report describes an incident in which an unnamed
detainee alleges he or she was given an intravenous LSD injection, and concludes
that LSD was not administered. The report asserts that the detainee was given a
routine flu shot, and was told that the shot was a truth serum or hallucinogen “as a
ruse”. ((U) Appendix 2, pg. 14)

The Pentagon contends the alleged injections were flu shots, and that is mostly
what is found in this report. Some inmates were diagnosed as schizophrenic and
administered Haldol, others were given sedatives, and effects probably persisted
into interrogation sessions.

In short, at least as far as the Pentagon has publicly maintained, psychoactive

drugs were never intentionally administered for the sole or primary purpose
of interrogation.
 Therapeutic mechanisms
of classic hallucinogens
in the treatment of addictions:
from indirect evidence
to testable hypotheses [534]
Drug Testing & Analysis • July 2012

Bogenschutz MP1, Pommy JM.

1University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center

Department of Psychiatry Center for Psychiatric Research
University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87131
mbogenschutz@salud.unm.edu

Alcohol and drug addiction are major public health problems, and ex-
isting treatments are only moderately effective. Although there has
been interest for over half a century in the therapeutic use of classic hal-
lucinogens to treat addictions, clinical research with these drugs was
halted at an early stage in the early 1970s, leaving many fundamental
questions unanswered. In the past two decades, clinical research on
classic hallucinogens has resumed, although addiction treatment tri-
als are only now beginning. The purpose of this paper is to provide a
targeted review of the research most relevant to the therapeutic po-
tential of hallucinogens, and to integrate this information with cur-
rent thinking about addiction and recovery. On the basis of this infor-
mation, we present a heuristic model which organizes a number of
hypotheses that may be tested in future research. We conclude that
existing evidence provides a convincing rationale for further research
on the effects of classic hallucinogens in the treatment of addiction.
 Spice, bath salts, and the U.S. military: the emergence of synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists and cathinones in the U.S. Armed Forces
Military Medicine • September 2012

Loeffler G1, Hurst D, Penn A, Yung K.

1Department of Mental Health, Naval Medical Center San Diego, 34800 Bob Wilson Drive, San Diego, CA 92134, USA

Designer drugs are synthetic compounds that con- tain modified molecular structures of illegal or
controlled substances. They are produced clandes- tinely with the intent to elicit effects similar to con-
trolled substances while circumventing existing drug laws. Two classes of designer drugs that have
risen to recent prominence are “spice,” synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists that mimic the ef-
fect of tetrahydrocannabinol, the active ingredient in cannabis, and “bath salts,” synthetic cathinones,
stimulants structurally related to amphetamines that have effects similar to cocaine and metham-
phetamine. Although these substances have only gained prominence recently, service members of
the U.S. armed forces have not been immune to spice and bath salt abuse. These substances are
often perceived as safe and are available via the In- ternet, in head shops and from dealers. Spice and
bath salt abuse is increasingly associated with se- rious medical and psychiatric problems. Military
health care providers must be familiar with these important new classes of drugs. This article dis-
cusses the background, current civilian and mili- tary legal status, clinical effects, pharmacology, the
and clinical management of the synthetic canna- binoid receptor agonists and synthetic cathinones.
 FIGURE 1

Functional Connectivity Measures

After Psilocybin Inform a Novel Hypothesis
of Early Psychosis [216]
Schizophrenia Bulletin • Volume 39 Number 6 • October 2012

Robin L. Carhart-Harris*,1,2, Robert Leech3, David Erritzoe1

Tim M. Williams2, James M. Stone1, John Evans4, David J. Sharp3
Amanda Feilding5, Richard G. Wise4, and David J. Nutt1,2

Published by Oxford University Press

on behalf of the Maryland Psychiatric Research Center

1Imperial College London, Centre for Neuropsychopharmacology

Division of Experimental Medicine, London, UK; 2University of Bristol
Academic Unit of Psychiatry, Bristol, UK
3Imperial College London, the Computational, Cognitive,
and Clinical NeuroimagingLaboratory, Division of Experimental Medicine, London, UK
4Cardiff University Brain Research Imaging Centre, School of Psychology
Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK
5The Beckley Foundation, Beckley Park, Oxford, UK

Psilocybin is a classic psychedelic and a candidate drug model of psychosis. This

study measured the effects of psilocybin on resting-state network and thalamo-
cortical functional connectivity (FC) using functional magnetic resonance imaging
(fMRI). Fifteen healthy volunteers received intravenous infusions of psilocybin and
placebo in 2 task-free resting-state scans. Primary analyses focused on changes
in FC between the default-mode- (DMN) and task-positive network (TPN). Spon-
taneous activity in the DMN is orthogonal to spontaneous activity in the TPN,
and it is well known that these networks support very different functions (ie, the
DMN supports introspection, whereas the TPN supports externally focused atten-
tion). Here, independent components and seed-based FC analyses revealed in-
creased DMN-TPN FC and so decreased DMN-TPN orthogonality after psilocybin.
Increased DMN-TPN FC has been found in psychosis and meditatory states, which
share some phenomenological similarities with the psychedelic state. Increased
DMN-TPN FC has also been observed in sedation, as has decreased thalamocorti-
cal FC, but here we found preserved thalamocortical FC after psilocybin. Thus, we
propose that thalamocortical FC may be related to arousal, whereas DMN-TPN FC
is related to the separateness of internally and externally focused states. We sug-
gest that this orthogonality is compromised in early psychosis, explaining simi-
larities between its phenomenology and that of the psychedelic state and sup-
porting the utility of psilocybin as a model of early psychosis. Figure 1 at right.
Default-mode network-resting-state network (DMN-RSN) connectivity after psilocybin vs after pla- psilocybin vs after placebo. (D) Positive (orange) and “negative” (blue) FC with the ventro-
cebo. (A) anteriorly loaded DMN (aDMN)-left frontoparietal network connectivity, (B) aDMN-right medial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) based on data from fifteen placebo condition 12-min rest-
frontoparietal connectivity, (C) aDMN-dorsal attention network connectivity, (D) aDMN-salience ing-state scans. This vmPFC-positive network is the DMN, and the vmPFC-negative network
network connectivity, (E) aDMN-visual network connectivity, (F) aDMN-auditory network connec- is the task-positive network. (E) The complete time series for the DMN and task-positive net-
tivity, (G) aDMN-motor network work (TPN) for a single subject’s
connectivity, (H) aDMN-cer- psilocybin scan. Note the in-
ebellar network connectivity, FIGURE 2 crease in DMN-TPN FC after
(I) aDMN-precuneus network psilocybin. Subject CR rated
connectivity, (J) aDMN-poste- the intensity of the effects at
rior DMN connectivity. Images 9/10 and JB 10/10.
show the aDMN in orange and
the relevant RSN in blue with FIGURE 3 (next page)
the adjacent chart displaying
the regression coefficient or Increased functional FC be-
“functional connectivity (FC) tween the default-mode-
strength” after placebo (gray) and task-positive network
and psilocybin (blue). The be- under psilocybin. (A) vmP-
tas on the y-axis refer to regres- FC-positive- (DMN, orange)
sion coefficients. Contrasts B, and vmPFC-negative regions
C, D and F were all statistically (TPN, blue). (B) Increased FC
significant when corrected for between the DMN and TPN
multiple comparisons (cor- after psilocybin vs placebo (P
rected α = 0.005). = .001). (C) Increased FC be-
tween the DMN and TPN post
FIGURE 2 (at right) vs prepsilocybin (P = .009).

The effect of psilocybin on FIGURE 4 (following page)

DMN connectivity seen at
the single-subject level. (A) Thalamic connectivity with
The aDMN (orange) and sa- the DMN and TPN. (A) The
lience network (blue) de- thalamic (orange) and DMN
rived from Independent (blue) masks from which time
Components Analysis. (B) series were extracted. (B)
An illustrative single-subject Thalamic-DMN connectivity
time series for the DMN (red) postplacebo vs postpsilocy-
and salience network (blue) after bin (P = .1). (C) Thalamic-DMN con-
placebo injection. (C) The same subject’s time series for the DMN and salience network after nectivity postpsilocybin vs prepsilocybin (P = .2). (D) The thalamic (orange) and TPN (blue)
psilocybin injection. Note the increase in FC between the DMN and salience network after networks from which time series were extracted. (E) Thalamic-TPN connectivity postplacebo
vs postpsilocybin (P = .03). (F) Thalamic-TPN connectivity post- vs prepsilocybin (P = .06).
FIGURE 3
FIGURE 4
 Health status of ayahuasca users
[416]
Drug Testing & Analysis • 2012

Barbosa PC1, Mizumoto S

Bogenschutz MP, Strassman RJ

1Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz, Ilheus, Bahia, Brazil

PBarbosa@salud.unm.edu

Ayahuasca is a psychedelic brew originally used for

magico-religious purposes by Amerindian popu-
lations of the western Amazon Basin. Through-
out the last four decades, the use of ayahuasca
spread towards major cities in all regions of Brazil
and abroad. This trend has raised concerns that
regular use of this N,N-dimethyltryptamine- and
harmala-alkaloid-containing tea may lead to
mental and physical health problems associated
typically with drug abuse. To further elucidate the
mental and physical health of ayahuasca users, we
conducted a literature search in the international
medical PubMed database. Inclusion criteria were
evaluation of any related effect of ayahuasca use
that occurred after the resolution of acute effects
of the brew. Fifteen publications were related to
emotional, cognitive, and physical health of aya-
huasca users. The accumulated data suggest that
ayahuasca use is safe and may even be, under
certain conditions, beneficial. However, method-
ological bias of the reviewed studies might have
contributed to the preponderance of beneficial
effects and to the few adverse effects reported.
The data up to now do not appear to allow for
definitive conclusions to be drawn on the effects
of ayahuasca use on mental and physical health,
but some studies point in the direction of ben-
eficial effects. Additional studies are suggested to
provide further clarification.
 Designer Drug (DD) abuse in Poland:
A review of the psychoactive and toxic properties of substances found from seizures of illegal drug products
and the legal consequences thereof—Part 1­—cannabinoids and cathinones [806]

Annals Of Agricultural & Environmental Medicine • November 2012 • By P. Biliński1, P. Hołownia, L. Kapka-Skrzypczak and A. Wojtyła

1Chief Sanitary Inspectorate, Warsaw, Poland

Faced with the rapidly growing increase of designer drug abuse, particularly amongst
the younger generation, various legislative strategies are currently employed world-
wide for tackling this problem - however with mixed results. The key issue is that the
producers of DDs are able to either exploit existing legal substances intended for other
uses, but which have been found to possess psychoactive properties, or to synthesise
new psychoactive substances by introduc- ing chemical modifications, often very mi-
nor ones, thereby avoiding the prohibited use of chemicals included on any banned
lists. Some countries opt to ban new drugs as and when shown or considered to be
harmful, while others introduce sweeping bans based on chemical structure. Never-
theless, an ever increasing diversity of new DDs are constantly appearing on domes-
tic and Internet markets. Poland, together with the UK and Eire, has placed temporary
bans on all DDs whenever they have been identified, thus enabling sufficient time
for assessing their potential hazards to health. Part of this ‘holding’ strategy entails
a thorough review of the scientific litera- ture, including expert opinion when direct
evidence is lacking, as well as information received from EU support organisations Eu-
ropol and the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA).
This paper, in two parts, therefore aims to provide an up-to-date summary review of
available scientific evidence on the harm caused by the six main chemical group-
ings of DDs found in drug seizures of ille- gal products recently made in Poland. The
first part is devoted to Cannabinoids and Cathinones derivatives. Ensuing legisla-
tion can therefore be rapidly formulated to make the bans permanent as appropriate.
 Response of cluster headache
to psilocybin and LSD [4]
American Academy Of Neurology • December 2012

R. Andrew Sewell, MD; John H. Halpern, MD; and Harrison G. Pope, Jr., MD

From the Biological Psychiatry Laboratory (J.H.H., H.G.P.) and Clinical

Research Laboratory (R.A.S.), Alcohol and Drug Abuse Research Center,
McLean Hospital/Harvard Medical School, Belmont, MA.

The authors interviewed 53 cluster

headache patients who had used psi-
locybin or lysergic acid diethylamide
(LSD) to treat their condition. Twenty-
two of 26 psilocybin users reported
that psilocybin aborted attacks; 25
of 48 psilocybin users and 7 of 8 LSD
users reported cluster period termi-
nation; 18 of 19 psilocybin users and
4 of 5 LSD users reported remission
period extension. Research on the ef-
fects of psilocybin and LSD on cluster
headache may be warranted.
 Neuroimaging:
a scanner, colourfully [813]
Currents In Biology • April 2012

By J.P. Roiser1 and G. Rees

1UCL Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, London, UK

Two recent studies report

changes in human brain re-
sponses after exposure to psi-
locybin, the active ingredient of
hallucinogenic mushrooms. Psi-
locybin increased sensory cor-
tex responses during emotional
recollection, but decreased rest-
ing-state blood flow in prefron-
tal cortex, with potential impli-
cations for treating depression.
 Psychoactive Substances: Issues for policy makers [728] ing psychoactive substances. This was a threefold increase from the number of online shops which
were found just two years earlier (EMCDDA, 2011a). The EMCDDA also found that controlled sub-
EURAD • 2012 stances were often being sold side-by-side NPS in online shops and that the information provided
by online retailers in terms of ingredients and chemical names varied widely. In spite of being
Registration number: 41155759.
Correspondence & EU Office: EURAD labelled ‘new psychoactive substances’ by governments, it is important to note that these sub-
3rd Floor, 17 Rue Archimede, Brussels, Belgium, B1000 stances are not necessarily new. One example of this is ketamine, which has been available since
the late 1980’s/ early 1990’s but has not yet come under international or EU control and therefore
In lay man’s terms, new psychoactive substances (NPS) are substances that mimic the effects of remains classed as a NPS WHO, 2012; EMCDDA, 2002). Other substances which were patented in
controlled substances (such as cannabis, amphetamines or heroin), but which are not covered by the 1970’s have come to the fore recently as they have been synthesised to produce effects similar
the United Nations (UN) Drug Control Conventions. to those found in known illicit substances.
The chemical structure of these new substances is
modified to circumvent international drug control, From 2004 onwards, synthetic cannabinoids such
and should one such drug be banned, the possibil- as ‘spice’ (Figure 1) appeared on the market, fol-
ity to change the chemical structure and create a lowed by synthetic cathinones (Figure 2) as well as
new modified substance is almost unlimited. These other emerging groups such as piperazines (phar-
modified substances may or may not produce simi- maceutical drugs which were never brought to
lar effects and risks as the original substances. Com- market) and other plant-based substances (UNO-
monly, NPS have been referred to as legal highs, DC 2013a). Figure 3 shows the number of new
designer drugs, herbal highs, synthetic drugs or re- substances notified through the EU early warning
search chemicals (Transnational Institute, 2011). system between 2005 and 2010. In Europe, the
last few years have seen record levels of new sub-
As these substances may not be controlled, suppli- stances being identified, with 41 new substances
ers can produce them without fear of legal sanc- being identified in 2010 alone. In total, there are
tions and distribution has been noted to have taken around 150 substances being monitored at EU
place in open marketplaces, such as online shops, level (EMCDDA, 2011b), with the UNODC being
at music festivals as well as in specially made high- aware of around 241 substances (UNODC 2013a).
street stores (some of which are known as head However, in spite of this increase in the number
shops). The sale of NPS through the internet has re- of available products, some drug researchers ar-
ceived particular attention, as it offers easy access gue that this is spike in trends rather than a rising
to large numbers of consumers, reduces the costs tide (Caulkins & Coulson 2011). The issue of how
of operation and allows anonymity for producers to tackle new psychoactive substances is high up
as well as sellers. The internet can also be used to the current drug policy agenda. The reasons for
bypass the laws of many countries as it is more dif- this are clear; the use and diversity of psychoac-
ficult to control than for example, high-street shops tive substances are apparently increasing; their
(UNODC 2013a). production, distribution (including online sales)
and consumption circumvent drug law restric-
At the European level, the European Monitoring tions (Winstock & Wilkins 2011) and at the same
Centre for Drug and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA), re- time, little is actually known about the harm
cently identified 631 online shops which were sell- caused by some of these substances.
 How do researchers categorize drugs,
and how do drug users categorize them? [814]
THIS Contemporary Drug Problems • Fall 2012
paper considers drug classifi-
cations and terms widely used in US survey By J.P. Lee1 and T.M. Antin1
research, and compares these to classifications and
terms used by drug users. We begin with a critical review of 1Prevention Research Center, Pacific Institute for Research and Evaluation
drug classification systems, including those oriented to public policy
and health services as well as survey research. We then consider the results
of a pile sort exercise we conducted with 76 respondents within a mixed meth-
od study of Southeast Asian American adolescent and young adult drug users in
urban Northern California, USA. We included the pile sort to clarify how respondents
handled specific terms which we understood to be related to Ecstasy and methamphet-
amines. Results of the pile sort were analyzed using graphic layout algorithms as well as
content analysis of pile labels. Similar to the national surveys, our respondents consistently
differentiated Ecstasy terms from methamphetamine terms. We found high agreement be-
tween some specific local terms (thizz, crystal) and popular drug terms, while other terms
thought to be mainstream (crank, speed) were reported as unknown by many respon-
dents. In labeling piles, respondents created taxonomies based on consumption method
(in particular, pill) as well as the social contexts of use. We conclude by proposing that
divergences between drug terms utilized in survey research and those used by drug
users may reflect two opposing tendencies: the tendency of survey researchers to
utilize standardized language that constructs persons and experiences as rel-
atively homogeneous, varying only within measurable degrees, and the
tendency of drug users to utilize specialized language (argot) that
reflects their understandings of their experiences as hybrid
and diverse. The findings problematize the valid-
ity of drug terms and categories used
in survey research.
 High doses of dextromethorphan,
an NMDA antagonist, produce effects
similar to classic hallucinogens [342]
Psychopharmacology Berlin • September 2012

Chad J. Reissig
Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences
Johns Hopkins University School ofMedicine, 5510 Nathan Shock Drive
Baltimore, MD 21224-6823, USA, Telephone: 716 228-5243
Lawrence P. Carter
Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology
University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, AR
Matthew W. Johnson
Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of
Medicine, 5510 Nathan Shock Drive, Baltimore, MD
Miriam Z. Mintzer
Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of
Medicine, 5510 Nathan Shock Drive, Baltimore, MD
Margaret A. Klinedinst, and
Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of
Medicine, 5510 Nathan Shock Drive, Baltimore, MD
Roland R. Griffiths
Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of
Medicine, 5510 Nathan Shock Drive, Baltimore, MD; Department of Neuroscience
Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 5510 Nathan Shock Drive, Baltimore, MD
Chad J. Reissig: chadreissig@gmail.com; Roland R. Griffiths: rgriff@jhmi.edu

Although reports of dextromethorphan (DXM) abuse have increased recently, few studies have
examined the effects of high doses of DXM. This study in humans evaluated the effects of su-
pratherapeutic doses of DXM and triazolam. Single, acute, oral doses of DXM (100, 200, 300,
400, 500, 600, 700, 800 mg/70 kg), triazolam (0.25, 0.5 mg/70kg), and placebo were admin-
istered to twelve healthy volunteers with histories of hallucinogen use, under double-blind
conditions, using an ascending dose run-up design. Subjective, behavioral, and physiological
effects were assessed repeatedly after drug administration for 6 hours. Triazolam produced
dose-related increases in subject-rated sedation, observer-rated sedation, and behavioral im-
pairment. DXM produced a profile of dose-related physiological and subjective effects differ-
ing from triazolam. DXM effects included increases in blood pressure, heart rate, and emesis,
increases in observer-rated effects typical of classic hallucinogens (e.g. distance from reality,
visual effects with eyes open and closed, joy, anxiety), and participant ratings of stimulation
(e.g. jittery, nervous), somatic effects (e.g. tingling, headache), perceptual changes, end-of-ses-
sion drug liking, and mystical-type experience. After 400 mg/70kg DXM, 11 of 12 participants
indicated on a pharmacological class questionnaire that they thought they had received a clas-
sic hallucinogen (e.g. psilocybin). Drug effects resolved without significant adverse effects by
the end of the session spirituality and positive changes in attitudes, moods, and behavior to
the session experiences. High doses of DXM produced effects distinct from triazolam and had
characteristics that were similar to the classic hallucinogen psilocybin.
 Factor Analysis
of the Mystical Experience Questionnaire:
A Study of Experiences Occasioned by
the Hallucinogen Psilocybin [386]
Journal Of The Scientific Study Of Religion • December 2012

Katherine A. Maclean
Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences
Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine
Jeannie-Marie S. Leoutsakos
Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences
Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine
Matthew W. Johnson
Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences
Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine
Roland R. Griffiths
Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences
Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine

A large body of historical evidence describes the use of hallucinogenic

compounds, such as psilocybin mushrooms, for religious purposes. But few
scientific studies have attempted to measure or characterize hallucinogen-
occasioned spiritual experiences. The present study examined the factor
structure of the Mystical Experience Questionnaire (MEQ), a self-report mea-
sure that has been used to assess the effects of hallucinogens in laboratory
studies. Participants (N=1602) completed the 43-item MEQ in reference to
a mystical or profound experience they had had after ingesting psilocybin.
Exploratory factor analysis of the MEQ retained 30 items and revealed a
4-factor structure covering the dimensions of classic mystical experience:
unity, noetic quality, sacredness (F1); positive mood (F2); transcendence of
time/space (F3); and ineffability(F4). MEQ factor scores showed good in-
ternal reliability and correlated with the Hood Mysticism Scale, indicating
convergent validity. Participants who endorsed having had a mystical ex-
perience on psilocybin, compared to those who did not, had significantly
higher factor scores, indicating construct validity. The 4-factor structure
was confirmed in a second sample (N=440) and demonstrated superior fit
compared to alternative models. The results provide initial evidence of the
validity, reliability, and factor structure of a 30-item scale for measuring sin-
gle, hallucinogen-occasioned mystical experiences, which may be a useful
tool in the scientific study of mysticism.
 Problematizing ‘drugs’:
A cultural assessment
of recreational pharmaceutical use
among young adults in the US [815]
Contemporary Drug Problems • Fall 2012

By G. Quintero

Recent trends in the recreational use of pharmaceuticals

among young adults in the United States highlight a num-
ber of issues regarding the problematization of drugs. Two
constructions of recreational pharmaceutical use are ana-
lyzed. On the one hand, categorical frameworks based upon
epidemiological data are created by institutions and media
and depict recreational pharmaceutical use as illicit in un-
qualified, absolute terms. This is done through discourses
that equate nonmedical pharmaceutical use with culturally
established forms of illicit drug use. On the other hand, users’
multi-dimensional constructions of recreational pharmaceu-
tical use emphasise social context, personal experience, and
individual risk perceptions. The problematization of recre-
ational pharmaceutical use points to intergenerational con-
flicts, as well as to struggles over definitions of “drug abuse”
and “hard drugs”, and highlights the impact of pharmaceu-
ticalization on recreational drug use among young people.
WORLD VIEW A personal take on events

Legal Highs: The Dark Side Of Medicinal Chemistry

 Neuropharmacology
of the naturally occurring kappa-opioid
hallucinogen salvinorin A [281]
Pharmacology Reviews • June 2011

Cunningham CW1, Rothman RB, Prisinzano TE.

1Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Kansas

Lawrence, KS 66045-7582, USA

Salvia divinorum is a perennial sage native to Oaxaca,

Mexico, that has been used traditionally in divination
rituals and as a treatment for the “semimagical” disease
panzón de borrego. Because of the intense “out-of-body”
experiences reported after inhalation of the pyrolized
smoke, S. divinorum has been gaining popularity as a
recreational hallucinogen, and the United States and sev-
eral other countries have regulated its use. Early studies
isolated the neoclerodane diterpene salvinorin A as the
principal psychoactive constituent responsible for these
hallucinogenic effects. Since the finding that salvinorin
A exerts its potent psychotropic actions through the ac-
tivation of KOP receptors, there has been much interest
in elucidating the underlying mechanisms behind its ef-
fects. These effects are particularly remarkable, because
1) salvinorin A is the first reported non-nitrogenous opi-
oid receptor agonist, and 2) its effects are not mediated
by the 5-HT(2A) receptor, the classic target of hallucino-
gens such as lysergic acid diethylamide and mescaline.
Rigorous investigation into the structural features of
salvinorin A responsible for opioid receptor affinity and
selectivity has produced numerous receptor probes, af-
finity labels, and tools for evaluating the biological pro-
cesses responsible for its observed psychological effects.
Salvinorin A has therapeutic potential as a treatment
for pain, mood and personality disorders, substance
abuse, and gastrointestinal disturbances, and suggests
that nonalkaloids are potential scaffolds for drug de-
velopment for aminergic G-protein coupled receptors.
 Drug use and nightlife:
more than just dance music [803]
Substance Abuse, Treatment, Prevention & Policy • July 2011

Van Havere T1, Vanderplasschen W, Lammertyn J, Broekaert E, Bellis M.

1Department of Social Work and Welfare Studies

University College Ghent, Ghent, Brussels, Belgium
Tina.VanHavere@hogent.be

Research over the last decade has focused almost exclusively on the association be-
tween electronic music and MDMA (3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine or “ecsta-
sy”) or other stimulant drug use in clubs. Less attention has been given to other night-
life venues and music preferences, such as rock music or southern/funky music. This
study aims to examine a broader spectrum of nightlife, beyond dance music. It looks
at whether certain factors influence the frequency of illegal drug and alcohol use: the
frequency of going to certain nightlife venues in the previous month (such as, pubs,
clubs or goa parties); listening to rock music, dance music or southern and funky mu-
sic; or sampling venues (such as, clubs, dance events or rock festivals). The question of
how these nightlife variables influence the use of popular drugs like alcohol, MDMA,
cannabis, cocaine and amphetamines is addressed. The study sample consisted of
775 visitors of dance events, clubs and rock festivals in Belgium. Study participants
answered a survey on patterns of going out, music preferences and drug use. Odds
ratios were used to determine whether the odds of being an illegal substance user
are higher for certain nightlife-related variables. Furthermore, five separate ordinal
regression analyses were used to investigate drug use in relation to music preference,
venues visited during the last month and sampling venue. Respondents who used
illegal drugs were 2.5 times more likely to report that they prefer dance music. Goa
party visitors were nearly 5 times more likely to use illegal drugs. For those who re-
ported visiting clubs, the odds of using illegal drugs were nearly 2 times higher. Hav-
ing gone to a pub in the last month was associated with both more frequent alcohol
use and more frequent illegal substance use. People who reported liking rock music
and attendees of rock festivals used drugs less frequently. It was concluded that a
more extended recreational environment, beyond dance clubs, is associated with
frequent drug use. This stresses the importance of targeted prevention in various
recreational venues tailored to the specific needs of the setting and its visitors.
 Ecstasy use and suicidal behavior among adolescents: findings from a national survey [303]
Suicide & Life Threatening Behavior • August 2011

Kim J1, Fan B, Liu X, Kerner N, Wu P.

1College of Physicians and Surgeons

Columbia University, New York, NY, USA

The relationship between ecstasy use and suicidal behavior among adolescents in the United States was examined. Data from the adolescent
subsample (ages 12-17, N = 19,301) of the 2000 National Household Survey on Drug Abuse were used in the analyses. Information on adoles-
cent substance use, suicidal behaviors, and related sociodemographic, family, and individual factors was obtained in the survey. The rate of past
year suicide attempt among adolescents with lifetime ecstasy use was almost double that of adolescents who had used other drugs only, and
nine times that of adolescents with no history of illicit drug use. In multinomial logistic regression analyses controlling for related factors, the
effect of ecstasy use remained significant. Adolescent ecstasy users may require enhanced suicide prevention and intervention efforts.
 Is BOL-148 hallucinogenic? [253]
International Headache Society • September 2011

Tfelt-Hansen P.

The Above Essay Is A Comment On:

The non-hallucinogen
2-bromo-lysergic acid diethylamide
as preventative treatment for cluster headache:
an open, non-randomized case series. [274]
Cephalalgia • September 2010

Karst M1, Halpern JH, Bernateck M, Passie T.

1Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany

karst.matthias@mh-hannover.de

The Comment Is Based On Data Also Referenced In This Essay:

LSD-like delirium following ingestion of

a small amount of its brom analog (BOL-148) [275]
Annals Of Internal Medicine • 1958

By Nelson Richards, Loring F. Chapman

Helen Goodell and Harold G. Wolfe, F.A.C.P., NY
 Clinical toxicology of newer recreational drugs [126]
Clinical Toxicology Philadelphia • October 2011
Hill SL1, Thomas SH.
1National Poisons Information Service (Newcastle Unit), Newcastle upon Tyne Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK - Email: simon.hill@nuth.nhs.uk

New novel synthetic “designer” drugs surveys, poisons centre calls, activity
with stimulant, ecstasy-like (entactogen- on internet drug forums, hospital atten-
ic) and/or hallucinogenic properties have dance data and mortality data. Some
become increasingly popular among rec- population sub groups such as younger
reational drug users in recent years. The adults who attend dance music clubs
substances used change frequently in re- are more likely to use these substances.
sponse to market trends and legislative The internet plays an important role in
controls and it is an important challenge determining the awareness of and avail-
for poisons centres and clinical toxicolo- ability of these newer drugs of abuse.
gists to remain updated on the phar- Most novel synthetic stimulant, entacto-
macological and toxicological effects of genic or hallucinogenic drugs of abuse
these emerging agents. [Our aims were] can be classified according to chemical
To review the available information on structure as piperazines (e.g. benzylpi-
newer synthetic stimulant, entactogen- perazine (BZP), trifluoromethylphenyl-
ic and hallucinogenic drugs, provide piperazine), phenethylamines (e.g. 2C
a framework for classification of these or D-series of ring-substituted amfe-
drugs based on chemical structure and tamines, benzodifurans, cathinones,
describe their pharmacology and clinical aminoindans), tryptamines (e.g. di-
toxicology. A comprehensive review of methyltryptamine, alpha-methyltrypt-
the published literature was performed amine, ethyltryptamine, 5-methoxy-al-
using PUBMED and Medline databases, phamethyltryptamine) or piperidines
together with additional non-peer re- and related substances (e.g. desoxypip-
viewed information sources, including radrol, diphenylprolinol). Alternatively
books, media reports, government publi- classification may be based on clinical
cations and internet resources, including effects as either primarily stimulant, en-
drug user web forums. Novel synthetic tactogenic or hallucinogenic, although
stimulant, entactogenic or hallucinogen- most drugs have a combination of such
ic designer drugs are increasingly avail- effects. CLINICAL TOXICOLOGY: Pipera-
able to users as demonstrated by user zines, phenethylamines, tryptamines
and piperidines have actions at
multiple central nervous system
(CNS) receptor sites, with pat-
terns of effects varying between
agents. Predominantly stimulant
drugs (e.g. benzylpiperazine, me-
phedrone, naphyrone, diphenyl-
prolinol) inhibit monoamine (es-
pecially dopamine) reuptake and
are characteristically associated
with a sympathomimetic toxi-
drome. Entactogenic drugs (e.g.
phenylpiperazines, methylone)
provoke central serotonin release,
while newer hallucinogens (e.g.
5-methoxy-N,N-diisopropyltrypt-
amine (5-MeO-DiPT), 2,5-dime-
thoxy-4-bromoamfetamine (DOB))
are serotonin receptor agonists.
As a result, serotoninergic effects
predominate in toxicity. There are
limited reliable data to guide cli-
nicians managing patients with
toxicity due to these substances.
The harms associated with emerg-
ing recreational drugs are not fully
documented, although it is clear
that they are not without risk. Man-
agement of users with acute toxic
effects is pragmatic and primarily
extrapolated from experience with
longer established stimulant or
hallucinogenic drugs such as am-
fetamines, 3,4-methylenedioxy-
methamfetamine (MDMA) and ly-
sergic acid diethylamide (LSD).
 Treatment of Alcoholism
Using Psychedelic Drugs:
A Review of
the Program of Research [541]
Journal of Psychoactive Drugs • September 2011

By Mariavittoria Mangini, M.S., Ph.D.

University of California at San Francisco

Following Albert Hofmann’s discovery of LSD’s

psychoactive properties in 1943, and previous
to their scheduling as controlled substances, the
psychedelic drugs were widely studied six inter-
national conferences and hundreds of papers
discussed their potential therapeutic usefulness.
The observation that the frightening experience
of delirium tremens sometimes led alcoholics to
moderate their alcohol intake suggested to early
psychedelic researchers that the “psychotomi-
metic” experience thought to be produced by
LSD could be used to treat akoholisrn. A number
of hypothesis generating studies employing a
variety of research designs to examine this prem-
ise were completed, but relatively few controlled
trials attempted hypothesis testing. After twen-
ty-five years of study, a combination of flawed
methodology, uneven results and social repre-
hension led to the abandonment of research on
the therapeutic use of psychedelic drugs, leaving
many avenues of inquiry unexplored and many
questions unanswered. Today, after a thirty-year
hiatus, this research is gradually being resumed,
and there is renewed interest in the findings of
previous studies. This article explores the his-
tory of one branch of psychedelic research, the
therapeutic use of LSD in the treatment of al-
coholism, and of the events that led to the rela-
beling of the “hallucinogens” as drugs of abuse.
 Hallucinogens, Serotonin
and Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder [25]
Journal of Psychoactive Drugs • September 2011

Pedro L. Delgado, MD & Francisco A. Moreno, MD

University of Arizona College of Medicine, Tucson, AZ

The serotonin (5·HT) neurotransmitter system has been

implicated in the pathophysiology of several neuropsy-
chiatric disorders, especially obsessive-compulsive disor-
der (OCD). Blockade of 5-HT re uptake appears to be an
important initial neurobiological event in the therapeutic
mechanism of action of antiobsessional drugs. However,
for reasons that continue to be poorly understood, clinical
improvement fo llowing initiation of treatment with 5-HT
reuptake inhibitors can take up to eight to 12 weeks, and
most patients do not fully improve. Recent data suggest
that activation of 5-HT,A and/or 5-HT,c receptors may be
important for the improvement of OCD symptoms. Most
psychedelic drugs are potent agonists at 5-HT,A and 5-
HT2c receptors and their binding potency to these recep-
tors is strongly correlated with their human potency as
hallucinogens. This article will briefly review the relevant
clinical and preclinical studies relating to the effects of
hallucinogens on OCD. These data suggest that activa-
tion of 5-HT2 receptors by hallucinogens may lead to
acute reduction of, as well as possible longer-lasting ben-
eficial effects on, the symptoms of OCD. Evidence for and
against involvement of 5-HT,A and/or 5-HT,c receptors in
the therapeutic effects of drug therapies for OCD are re-
viewed. Issues related to the pharmacological properties
and safety of psychedelic drugs, when considered as po-
tential treatments for patients with OCD, are summarized.
The authors suggest that controlled trials of potent 5-HT,
agonists in people suffering from OCD are warranted.
 Implications for psychedelic-assisted psychotherapy:
a functional magnetic resonance imaging study
with psilocybin [418]
The British Journal Of Psychiatry • November 2011

R. L. Carhart-Harris, R. Leech, T. M. Williams, D. Erritzoe, N. Abbasi, T. Bargiotas,

P. Hobden, D. J. Sharp, J. Evans, A. Feilding, R. G. Wise and D. J. Nutt

Psilocybin is a classic psychedelic drug that has a history of use in psychotherapy. One of the
rationales for its use was that it aids emotional insight by lowering psychological defences.
To test the hypothesis that psilocybin facilitates access to personal memories and emotions
by comparing subjective and neural responses to positive autobiographical memories under
psilocybin and placebo. Ten healthy participants received two functional magnetic resonance
imaging scans (2mg intravenous psilocybin v. intravenous saline), separated by approximately
7 days, during which they viewed two different sets of 15 positive autobiographical memory
cues. Participants viewed each cue for 6 s and then closed their eyes for 16 seconds and imag-
ined re-experiencing the event. Activations during this recollection period were compared
with an equivalent period of eyes-closed rest. We split the recollection period into an early
phase (first 8 s) and a late phase (last 8 s) for analysis. Robust activations to the memories were
seen in limbic and striatal regions in the early phase and the medial prefrontal cortex in the late
phase in both conditions (P50.001, whole brain cluster correction), but there were additional
visual and other sensory cortical activations in the late phase under psilocybin that were ab-
sent under placebo. Ratings of memory vividness and visual imagery were significantly higher
after psilocybin (P50.05) and there was a significant positive correlation between vividness and
subjective wellbeing at follow-up (P50.01). Evidence that psilocybin enhances autobiographi-
cal recollection implies that it may be useful in psychotherapy either as a tool to facilitate the
recall of salient memories or to reverse negative cognitive biases.

Declaration of interest
None
 Feed your Head: The Medical Benefits of LSD
December 2011
By A. Constantinou
In 1967, at the height of the LSD craze
of the 1960s, Timothy Leary uttered the
phrase: ‘turn on, tune in, drop out’ to a
crowd of nearly 30,000 hippies in San Fran-
cisco’s Golden Gate Park.  It was a slogan
that became synonymous with the coun-
ter-culture of the age and representative
of its ideals and aspirations.
For many, LSD was a drug that allowed one
to enter a mystical realm. It was seen as
creating experiences similar to those writ-
ten about in religious tomes and allowed the user to reach higher
states of consciousness. LSD though was not always associated with
the vibrant youth culture of the 1960s and has, in fact, a long history
of psychiatric use predating much of the ‘hippie era.’ The ‘War on
Drugs’ essentially outlawed any further re-
search and little was conducted from the
1970s. In recent years though permission
has been granted, allowing a few small tri-
als to be conducted using LSD. This article
will explore the potential medical benefits
of LSD and show, once again, how the pol-
itics of illegal drugs has hindered impor-
tant scientific research.
The effects of LSD were first discovered
by Albert Hoffmann in 1938 when he ac-
cidently spilt a small amount of the sub-
stance on himself. The ensuing psychedelic
experience convinced him of the potential
benefits of the substance and the need for
further research. The medical company,
for which Hoffmann worked, Sandoz, syn-
thesised the chemical on a mass scale and
gave it out to almost anyone who wished
to conduct research. Many studies were
conducted in the 1950s and 1960s and
psychiatrists often found that LSD was
very useful when treating patients who
were dealing with painful repressed
memories. The drug was found to allow
patients to access these memories and
in certain cases produce ‘self-acceptance
and self-surrender’ (Chwelos N, Blewett
D.B., Smith C.M., Hoffer A. (1959). “Use
of d-lysergic acid diethylamide in the
treatment of alcoholism”. Quart. J. Stud.
Alcohol 20: 577–90). In the UK as well, a great deal of work was
conducted using LSD. Many studies utilised a ‘psycholytic’ method
(as opposed to a ‘psychedelic’ one) in which patients were treated
using low doses (20-100 micrograms) for an extended period of
time. Dr Ronald Sandison, the first UK doc-
tor to use LSD, conducted a study entitled
‘The Therapeutic Value of Lysergic Acid
Diethylamide in Mental Illness’ (1954). In it
he gave low doses to LSD to 36 of his most
difficult patients. The study found that af-
ter a year 50% had recovered.    
Further studies in the UK were conduct-
ed and the world’s first purpose built LSD
unit was created in 1956 at Powick Hos-
pital in Worcestershire. Research using
LSD proved to be very popular through-
out this period. A meta-analysis carried
out in 1969 reviewed 20 years of research
and concluded ‘Treatment with LSD is
not without acute adverse reactions, but
given adequate psychiatric supervision
and proper conditions for its administra-
tion, the incidence of such reactions is
not great.’ The study covered the work of 66 therapists
working with 4303 patients. In the analysis of approxi-
mately 50,000 sessions (almost all LSD) only 2 suicides
and 37 psychoses were noted. The report also states that
in these cases there was a high possibility of previous
psychosis. 

As well as psychiatric treatment, LSD was also found to

be beneficial in the treatment of alcoholism. Studies on
thousands of alcoholics in the early 60s found that a single
dose often helped trigger a change in thinking that led
drinkers to quit. In one study it was found that two
thirds stopped drinking for at least 18 months af-
ter a single dose of LSD. This is compared to 25
percent who stopped after group therapy and
12 percent after individual therapy. Between
1950 and 1965 research on LSD and other
hallucinogens produced more than 1,000
scientific papers, six international confer-
ences and was prescribed to more than
40,000 patients. Unfortunately when the
substance was banned, this research was
brought to an abrupt end. From the 1970s
very little research was carried out. Recently
though, after intense lobbying, permission
was granted for a few new studies and these
have produced some interesting results. 
Some contemporary studies have focused
on the use of LSD in combating cluster
headaches. This condition, also known as
a ‘suicide headache’ is a neurological disease
that causes an immense degree of pain to the
head.  A study by Harvard researchers, Dr R. An-
drew Sewell and Dr. John H. Halpern found the sub-
stance to be quite effective against cluster headaches.
In the report they found that 7 out of 8 (88%) of patients
who had used LSD reported the termination of at least
one cluster period. They also found that 4 out of 5 (80%)
of LSD users reported an extension of their remission peri-
ods. A newer study found that three doses of Bromo-LSD
(LSD stripped of its psychoactive part) taken within a ten
day period either broke the cluster headache cycle or sub-
stantially reduced the pain and the frequency of attacks.
A study which was completed this year in collaboration with the Beckley foundation looked at how LSD could be used to treat
anxiety associated with people afflicted with advanced-stage life threatening diseases. The study conducted by Dr. Peter Gasser
found that all 12 participants benefitted in some way. Gasser reported that many patients commented ‘that they see their lives more
clearly; that they are more aware of what is important and meaningful and what is not for the remaining time they have; that they
are more differentiated in relationships that are helpful and joyful and others that are time and energy consuming. They reported
doing good and healthy things like having time for themselves, listening to music they like (or discovering music again) or being
more relaxed toward everything that happened in their everyday life.’

One patient in particular was reported to have sung and danced in the treatment room: ‘something she always wanted to do but
never dared to do in her whole life.’ Another patient who was suffering from metastatic gastric cancer felt that the experience had
allowed him to contact his dead father. In life he had experienced a difficult relationship with him but during this experience: ‘He felt
free. It was just two men meeting at the same level, without any father/son dynamics. The patient loved feeling the closeness, and
there was no longer any feeling of building up an inner wall when he thought of him. Later the subject said that he thought that in
his process of dying it was very important for him to meet with his father at his place, where the dead people are, and to feel their
vicinity without any fear or negative feelings.’

The study contained 30 sessions. In none of these did any of the patients suffer severe side effects such as psychotic experi-
ences, severe anxieties (bad trips), suicidal crises or flashbacks. Gasser therefore concludes ‘that we can show that LSD treat-
ment can be safe when it is done in a carefully controlled clinical setting.’

These modern studies hopefully

signal a thaw in the government’s
thinking towards psychedelic re-
search. Only time will tell. At the
moment, LSD is listed as Class A
drug in the UK. Drugs listed in
this category are deemed to have
no medical value and are likely to
cause harm. Possession of LSD can
result in up to 7 years in prison,
whilst dealing the drug could re-
sult in life. Of course none of this
is based on scientific research. Dr.
David Nutt, former head of the
Advisory Council on Misuse of
Drugs (ACMD), listed LSD as 14th
out of 20 on a list rating the dan-
gers of recreational drugs (legal
and illegal). This was above can-
nabis, tobacco and alcohol. Dr.
Nutt was subsequently sacked for
producing this report.  Despite
the benefits then, it may there-
fore be a long time before LSD is
used for medical purposes.
 Multiple receptors
contribute to the behavioral effects
of indoleamine hallucinogens [186]
Neuropharmacology • September 2011

Halberstadt AL1, Geyer MA.

1Department of Psychiatry, University of California

San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093
ahalbers@ucsd.edu

Serotonergic hallucinogens produce profound

changes in perception, mood, and cognition.
These drugs include phenylalkylamines such as
mescaline and 2,5-dimethoxy-4-methylamphet-
amine (DOM), and indoleamines such as (+)-lyser-
gic acid diethylamide (LSD) and psilocybin. De-
spite their differences in chemical structure, the
two classes of hallucinogens produce remarkably
similar subjective effects in humans, and induce
cross-tolerance. The phenylalkylamine halluci-
nogens are selective 5-HT(2) receptor agonists,
whereas the indoleamines are relatively non-se-
lective for serotonin (5-HT) receptors. There is ex-
tensive evidence, from both animal and human
studies, that the characteristic effects of halluci-
nogens are mediated by interactions with the 5-
HT(2A) receptor. Nevertheless, there is also evi-
dence that interactions with other receptor sites
contribute to the psychopharmacological and be-
havioral effects of the indoleamine hallucinogens.
This article reviews the evidence demonstrating
that the effects of indoleamine hallucinogens in a
variety of animal behavioral paradigms are medi-
ated by both 5-HT(2) and non-5-HT(2) receptors.
 Mystical Experiences
Occasioned by the Hallucinogen Psilocybin
Lead to Increases in the Personality Domain
of Openness [341]
The Journal Of Psychopharmacology • November 2011

Katherine A. MacLean1, Matthew W. Johnson2

and Roland R. Griffiths3

1. Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences

Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 5510 Nathan Shock Drive, MD
2. Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences
Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 5510 Nathan Shock Drive, MD
3. Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences
Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 5510 Nathan Shock Drive, MD
Department of Neuroscience, 5510 Nathan Shock Drive, Baltimore, MD

A large body of evidence, including longitudinal analyses of per-

sonality change, suggests that core personality traits are pre-
dominantly stable after age 30. To our knowledge, no study has
demonstrated changes in personality in healthy adults after an
experimentally manipulated discrete event. Intriguingly, double-
blind controlled studies have shown that the classic hallucinogen
psilocybin occasions personally and spiritually significant mysti-
cal experiences that predict longterm changes in behaviors, at-
titudes and values. In the present report we assessed the effect
of psilocybin on changes in the five broad domains of person-
ality - Neuroticism, Extroversion, Openness, Agreeableness, and
Conscientiousness. Consistent with participant claims of halluci-
nogen-occasioned increases in aesthetic appreciation, imagina-
tion, and creativity, we found significant increases in Openness
following a high-dose psilocybin session. In participants who had
mystical experiences during their psilocybin session, Openness
remained significantly higher than baseline more than one year
after the session. The findings suggest a specific role for psilocy-
bin and mystical-type experiences in adult personality change.
 Psilocybin occasioned mystical-type experiences:
Immediate and persisting dose-related effects [384]
Psychopharmacology Berlin • 2011

R. R. Griffiths1, M.W. Johnson2, W. A. Richards3, B.D. Richards4, U. McCann5 and R. Jesse

1. Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine
5510 Nathan Shock Drive Baltimore, MD;
2. Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine
5510 Nathan Shock Drive Baltimore, MD and Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences
Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 5510 Nathan Shock Drive Baltimore, MD
3. Department of Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins Bayview Medical Center .2516 Talbot Road Baltimore, MD
4. Department of Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins Bayview Medical Center, 2516 Talbot Road Baltimore, MD
5. Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences , Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine
5510 Nathan Shock Drive Baltimore, MD
6. Council on Spiritual Practices Box 460220 San Francisco, CA 94146-0220

This dose-effect study extends previous observations showing that psilocybin can occa-
sion mystical-type experiences having persisting positive effects on attitudes, mood, and
behavior. This double-blind study evaluated psilocybin (0, 5, 10, 20, 30 mg/70 kg, p.o.)
administered under supportive conditions. Participants were 18 adults (17 hallucinogen-
naïve). Five 8-hour sessions were conducted individually for each participant at 1-month
intervals. Participants were randomized to receive the four active doses in either ascend-
ing or descending order (9 participants each). Placebo was scheduled quasi-randomly.
During sessions volunteers used eyeshades and were instructed to direct their attention
inward. Volunteers completed questionnaires assessing effects immediately after and 1
month after each session, and at 14 months follow-up. Psilocybin produced acute per-
ceptual and subjective effects including, at 20 and/or 30mg/70 kg, extreme anxiety/fear
(39% of volunteers) and/or mystical-type experience (72% of volunteers). One month
after sessions at the two highest doses, volunteers rated the psilocybin experience as
having substantial personal and spiritual significance, and attributed to the experience
sustained positive changes in attitudes, mood, and behavior, with the ascending dose
sequence showing greater positive effects. At 14 months, ratings were undiminished and
were consistent with changes rated by community observers. Both the acute and per-
sisting effects of psilocybin were generally a monotonically increasing function of dose,
with the lowest dose showing significant effects. Under supportive conditions, 20 and 30
mg/70 kg psilocybin occasioned mystical-type experiences having persisting positive ef-
fects on attitudes, mood and behavior. Implications for therapeutic trials are discussed.
 Spaced-Out in Saskatchewan:
Modernism, Anti-Psychiatry,
and Deinstitutionalization:
1950-1968 [280]
Published by The Johns Hopkins University Press in
The Bulletin of the History of Medicine · December 2010

Erika Dyck
University of Saskatchewan

On the eve of de-institutionalization, a group of profes-

sionals, including an architect, a psychiatrist, and a psy-
chologist, joined together in pursuit of a middle ground
between outright closure of long-stay hospitals and the
introduction of out-patient services in general hospitals.
Augmented by the use of the hallucinogenic drug LSD,
these men produced a trenchant critique of modern psy-
chiatry and the changing mental health system without
subscribing to antipsychiatry. Caught among shifting psy-
chiatric paradigms, fiscal constraints, and political pressure
to situate mental health within an encroaching system of
publicly funded health care reforms, their proposed men-
tal hospital designs failed to stem the tidal wave of post–
World War II changes in mental health care.
 Contextualising psychological distress
among regular ecstasy users:
the importance of sociodemographic factors
and patterns of drug use [304]
Drug & Alcohol Reviews • 2010

George J1, Kinner SA, Bruno R, Degenhardt L, Dunn M.

1National Drug Research Institute

Curtin University of Technolog
Perth, Australia • j.george@curtin.edu.au

Considerable concern has been raised about associations between

ecstasy use and mental health. Studies of ecstasy users typically
investigate varying levels of lifetime use of ecstasy, and often fail to
account for other drug use and sociodemographic characteristics of
participants, which may explain mixed findings. The current study
aimed to examine the relationship between patterns of recent (last
six months) ecstasy use and psychological distress among current,
regular ecstasy users, controlling for sociodemographic risk factors
and patterns of other drug use. Data were collected from regular
ecstasy users (n = 752) recruited from each capital city in Australia
as part of the Ecstasy and related Drugs Reporting System (EDRS).
Psychological distress was assessed using the Kessler Psychological
Distress Scale (K10). Data were analysed using multinomial logistic
regression. Seven per cent of the sample scored in the ‘high’ dis-
tress category and 55% in the ‘medium’ distress category. Patterns
of ecstasy use were not independently associated with psychologi-
cal distress. The strongest predictors of distress were female sex,
lower education, unemployment, ‘binge’ drug use including ecsta-
sy (use for >48 h without sleep), frequent cannabis use and daily
tobacco use. Regular ecstasy users have elevated levels of psycho-
logical distress compared with the general population; however,
ecstasy use per se was not independently related to such distress.
Other factors, including sociodemographic characteristics and oth-
er drug use patterns, appear to be more important. These findings
highlight the importance of targeting patterns of polydrug use in
order to reduce drug-related harm among regular ecstasy users.
 The neurobiology of psychedelic drugs:
implications for the treatment of mood disorders [311]
National Reviews In Neuroscience • April 2010

Vollenweider FX1, Kometer M.

1Neuropsychopharmacology and Brain Imaging Research Unit

University Hospital of Psychiatry, Zurich, Switzerland

After a pause of nearly 40 years in research into the effects of psychedelic drugs,
recent advances in our understanding of the neurobiology of psychedelics, such
as lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), psilocybin and ketamine have led to renewed
interest in the clinical potential of psychedelics in the treatment of various psychi-
atric disorders. Recent behavioural and neuroimaging data show that psychedelics
modulate neural circuits that have been implicated in mood and affective disor-
ders, and can reduce the clinical symptoms of these disorders. These findings raise
the possibility that research into psychedelics might identify novel therapeutic
mechanisms and approaches that are based on glutamate-driven neuroplasticity.
[338]
 Rhabdomyolysis After LSD Ingestion [294]
Psychosomatics • July 2010
Berrens Z1, Lammers J, White C.
1Psychiatry Consultation Service, 260 Stetson St., Suite 3200; P.O. Box 0559, Cincinnati, OH 45267-0559, USA
Rhabdomyolysis involves the release of intracellular contents secondary to muscle cell in-
jury; it generally presents with muscle pain and weakness. Illicit drugs, including phencycli-
dine, MDMA (“ecstasy”), and cocaine, are frequently documented as a cause of rhabdomyoly-
sis. The authors review the literature on LSD-associated rhabdomyolysis. The authors provide
a new case report of a previously health patient who suffered rhabdomyolysis after LSD in-
gestion. Although frequently listed as a cause of rhabdomyolysis, there are only limited re-
ports of rhabdomyolysis in patients who have ingested LSD. The discussion outlines potential
mechanisms and management of LSD-associated rhabdomyolysis. Consultation psychiatrists
may be called to assist in management of acute mental-status changes or agitation associated
with LSD intoxication in addition to facilitating subsequent chemical-dependency treatment.
Rhabdomyolysis
Rhabdomyolysis is a condition in which damaged skeletal muscle breaks
down rapidly. Symptoms may include muscle pains, weakness, vomiting,
and confusion. There may be tea-colored urine or an irregular heartbeat.
Some of the muscle breakdown products, such as the protein myoglobin,
are harmful to the kidneys and may lead to kidney failure.
The muscle damage is most often the result of a crush injury, strenuous
exercise, medications, or drug abuse. Other causes include infections, elec-
trical injury, heat stroke, prolonged immobilization, lack of blood flow to a
limb, or snake bites. Some people have inherited muscle conditions that
increase the risk of rhabdomyolysis. The diagnosis is supported by a urine
test strip which is positive for “blood” but the urine contains no red blood
cells when examined with a microscope. Blood tests show a creatine kinase
greater than 1,000 U/L, with severe disease being above 5,000 U/L.
The mainstay of treatment is large quantities of intravenous fluids. Other
treatments may include dialysis or hemofiltration in more severe cases.
Once urine output is established sodium bicarbonate and mannitol are
commonly used but they are poorly supported by the evidence. Out-
comes are generally good if treated early. Complications may include
high blood potassium, low blood calcium, disseminated intravascular co-
agulation, and compartment syndrome.
Rhabdomyolysis occurs in about 26,000 people a year in the United States.
While the condition has been commented on throughout history, the
first modern description was following an earthquake in 1908. Important
discoveries as to its mechanism were made during the Blitz of London
in 1941. It is a significant problem for those injured in earthquakes and
relief efforts for such disasters often include medical teams equipped to
treat survivors with rhabdomyolysis.
 Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD-25) XV:
The Effects Produced By Substitution
of a Tap Water Placebo [89]
The Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary and Applied
July 2010

H. A. Abramson a , M. E. Jarvik a, A. Levine a

M. R. Kaufman a & M. W. Hirsch a

a Departments of Medicine, Neurology, and

Psychiatry, the Mount Sinai Hospital, NY

The purpose of this paper is to study the responses given to a

questionnaire by subjects who received a tap water “placebo”
instead of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD-25), and to relate
the number of responses to other variables. These variables
are: body weight, number of responses on a health ques-
tionnaire, arithmetic test scores, scores on the Wechsler-Bel-
levuem Intelligence Scale, and Rorschach test responses. Al-
though the word “placebo” translated means “I shall please,”
the word in medicine generally involves the concept that a
relatively inert substance is given to a patient for either psy-
chotherapeutic purposes or for experiments designed to
test the activity of another drug. An interesting review of the
whole problem connected with the administration of place-
bos to patients appears in Lilly’s “Physicians’ Bulletin” (10, 11)
for January and February, 1955.

The data presented in this communication encompass a set

of circumstances somewhat different from those in which
a placebo is ordinarily used. In the experiments to be re-
ported here, the subjects expected to get a dose of lysergic
acid diethylamide which would produce either a relatively
mild or a relatively severe response, the severe response
being in the nature of a temporary psychosis. For this rea-
son when the dose of LSD-25 was zero, the “placebo” in this
case was not a drug which was “striving to please” but which
psychodynamically was attempting to induce a structured
psychosis because of the way in which the results of the
experiments were limited, to a certain ex-
tent, by the questionnaire employed and
the attitudes of the investigators. The details
of the technique of administration of both
drug and questionnaire are enumerated in
an earlier paper of this series ( 1 ) and will
be discussed under Method. The use of pla-
cebos in a population with neuropsychiat-
ric symptoms is very well illustrated by the
paper of Hampson, Rosenthal, and Frank (4)
where a placebo was studied to ascertain
the specific effect of mephenesin on the
symptomatology of a mixed group of psy-
chiatric outpatients presenting a wide range
of psychiatric symptoms. They found a de-
cline in severity of symptoms with both me-
phenesin and the placebo. In our data there
is no attempt to look for a sign of therapeu-
tic efficacy but only for the symptomatology
of the structured psychological responses
enumerated in the questionnaire. Our zero
dose of LSD-25 or placebo dose should be
classified as a negative placebo because
only symptomatic exacerbation may occur.
It is of interest to quote the data of W. B.
Tucker (13) who, in a somewhat analogous
situation with streptomycin, found that 60
per cent of patients receiving placebo injec-
tions instead of streptomycin showed one
or more manifestations of streptomycin tox-
icity, including hearing loss, eosinophilia,
and impairment of urea clearance. Similarly,
Wolf and Pinsky (13), using physically inert
placebos in patients having anxiety and
tension as prominent complaints, reported
that lightheadedness, drowsiness, weak-
ness, palpitation, and nausea as well as skin
eruptions could occur in addition to diar-
rhea, urticaria, and angioneurotic edema.
 Drugs of abuse:
the highs and lows
of altered mental states
in the emergency department
[293]
Emergency Medical Clinics Of North America
August 2010

Meehan TJ1, Bryant SM, Aks SE.

1Toxikon Consortium, Chicago, IL, USA

tmeeha3@gmail.com

The diagnosis and management of poisoned patients presenting

with alterations in mental status can be challenging, as patients are
often unable (or unwilling) to provide an adequate history. Several
toxidromes exist. Recognition hinges upon vital signs and the physi-
cal examination. Understanding these “toxic syndromes” may guide
early therapy and management, providing insight into the patient’s
underlying medical problem. Despite toxidrome recognition guid-
ing antidotal therapy, the fundamental aspect of managing these
patients involves meticulous supportive care. The authors begin
with a discussion of various toxidromes and then delve into the
drugs responsible for each syndrome. They conclude with a discus-
sion on drug-facilitated sexual assault (“date rape”), which is both an
underrecognized problem in the emergency department (ED) and
representative of the drug-related problems faced in a modern ED.
 The neurobiology of psychedelic drugs:
implications for the treatment of mood disorders [22]
Nature • September 2010

Franz X. Vollenweider and Michael Kometer

Franz X. Vollenweider and Michael Kometer

are at the Neuropsychopharmacology and Brain Imaging Research Unit
University Hospital of Psychiatry, Zurich, Switzerland
Franz X. Vollenweider is also at the School of Medicine
University of Zurich, Switzerland
Correspondence to F.X.V.
e‑mail: vollen@bli.uzh.ch

After a pause of nearly 40 years in research into the effects of psychedelic

drugs, recent advances in our understanding of the neurobiology of psy-
chedelics, such as lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), psilocybin and ket-
amine have led to renewed interest in the clinical potential of psychedel-
ics in the treatment of various psychiatric disorders. Recent behavioural
and neuroimaging data show that psychedelics modulate neural circuits
that have been implicated in mood and affective disorders, and can reduce
the clinical symptoms of these disorders. These findings raise the possibil-
ity that research into psychedelics might identify novel therapeutic mecha-
nisms and approaches that are based on glutamate-driven neuroplasticity.

Early therapeutic findings with psychedelics

By 1953, two forms of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) therapy based on differ-
ent theoretical frameworks were emerging. These have been named psyche-
delic (mind-manifesting)136 and psycholytic (psyche-loosening)15 therapies.
In psychedelic therapy, which was practised mostly in North America, a large
dose of LSD (200–800 μg) was applied in a single session. This was thought
to induce an overwhelming and supposedly conversion-like peak experience
that would bring the subject to a new level of awareness and self-knowledge.
It was thought that that this would facilitate self-actualization and lead to per-
manent changes that would be beneficial to the subject128,129. Furthermore,
it was claimed that intensive psychotherapeutic preparation of the patient
before the drug session and a follow-up integration of the peak experience
in further drug-free sessions were crucial for an optimal outcome130. Prom-
ising therapeutic effects of this therapy were found in people with terminal
cancer20,137, in severe alcoholics138,139, in people who
were addicted to narcotics140 and in patients with neu-
rosis141. For example, a series of studies showed that LSD
could reduce depression and decrease apprehension to-
wards death and, surprisingly, that LSD had transient an-
algesic effects that were superior to those of dihydromor-
phinone (also known as hydromorphone and Palladone
SR (Napp)) and meperidine (also known as pethidine)20.

These effects were confirmed in later studies and the clini-

cal efficacy was linked with the intensity of the psyche-
delic experience129,141,142. Psycholytic therapy was in-
troduced by Ronald Sandison and applied in Europe at 18
treatment centres143. In psycholytic therapy, low to mod-
erate doses of LSD (50–100 μg), psilocybin (10–15 mg)
or, sporadically, ketamine were used repeatedly as an ad-
junct in psychoanalytically oriented psychotherapy to ac-
celerate the therapeutic process by facilitating regression
and the recollection and release of emotionally loaded
repressed memories, and by increasing the transference
reaction15,22,144–147. A review of 42 studies reported
impressive improvement rates in (mostly treatment-resis-
tant) patients with anxiety disorders (improvement in 70%
of patients), depression (in 62% of patients), personality
disorders (in 53–61% of patients), sexual dysfunction (in
50% of patients) and obsessive–compulsive disorders (in
42% of patients)148. Unfortunately, the majority of these
studies had serious methodological flaws by contempo-
rary standards. In particular, with the absence of adequate
control groups and follow-up measurements and with
vague criteria for therapeutic outcome, the studies did
not clearly establish whether it was the drug or the thera-
peutic engagement that produced the reported beneficial
effect. It was also difficult to draw firm conclusions regard-
ing potential long-term efficacy. Nevertheless, the stud-
ies provide a conceptual framework for the application
of psychedelics, with the data suggesting that the most
promising indication for psychedelic use might be found
in the treatment of depression and anxiety disorders.
 Intrahippocampal LSD
accelerates learning and desensitizes
the 5-HT2A receptor in the rabbit,
Romano, et al. [290]
Psychopharmacology • September 2010

Anthony G. Romano & Jennifer L. Quinn & Luchuan Li &

Kuldip D. Dave & Emmanuelle A. Schindler &
Vincent J. Aloyo & John A. Harvey

Parenteral injections of d-lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), a serotonin

5-HT2A receptor agonist, enhance eyeblink conditioning. Another hal-
lucinogen, (±)-1(2,5-dimethoxy-4-iodophenyl)-2-aminopropane hy-
drochloride (DOI), was shown to elicit a 5-HT2A-mediated behavior
(head bobs) after injection into the hippocampus, a structure known
to mediate trace eyeblink conditioning. This study aims to determine
if parenteral injections of the hallucinogens LSD, d,l-2,5-dimethoxy-
4-methylamphetamine, and 5-methoxy-dimethyltryptamine elicit
the 5-HT2A-mediated behavior of head bobs and whether intrahip-
pocampal injections of LSD would produce head bobs and enhance
trace eyeblink conditioning. LSD was infused into the dorsal hippo-
campus just prior to each of eight conditioning sessions. One day af-
ter the last infusion of LSD, DOI was infused into the hippocampus
to determine whether there had been a desensitization of the 5-
HT2A receptor as measured by a decrease in DOI-elicited head bobs.
Acute parenteral or intrahippocampal LSD elicited a 5-HT2A but not
a 5-HT2C-mediated behavior, and chronic administration enhanced
conditioned responding relative to vehicle controls. Rabbits that
had been chronically infused with 3 or 10 nmol per side of LSD dur-
ing Pavlovian conditioning and then infused with DOI demonstrated
a smaller increase in head bobs relative to controls. LSD produced its
enhancement of Pavlovian conditioning through an effect on 5-HT2A
receptors located in the dorsal hippocampus. The slight, short-lived
enhancement of learning produced by LSD appears to be due to the
development of desensitization of the 5-HT2A receptor within the hip-
pocampus as a result of repeated administration of its agonist (LSD).
 The non-hallucinogen 2-bromo-lysergic acid diethylamide
as preventative treatment for cluster headache:
An open, non-randomized case series [45]
Cephalalgia • International Headache Society • January 2010
Matthias Karst1, John H Halpern2, Michael Bernateck1 and Torsten Passie1
1Hannover Medical School, Germany.
2McLean Hospital and Harvard Medical School, USA.
Corresponding author:
Matthias Karst, Department of Anesthesiology, Pain Clinic,
Carl-Neuberg-Str. 1, 30625 Hannover, Germany.
Email: karst.matthias@mh-hannover.de
Cluster headache (CH) is a stereotyped primary headache
characterized by strictly unilateral severe orbital or peri-
orbital pain and categorized as either episodic or chronic
(1,2). Its prevalence is 0.1% (3). Oxygen and sumatriptan
are the treatments of choice for individual attacks, where-
as verapamil, lithium, corticosteroids and other neuro-
modulators can suppress attacks during cluster periods
(1). All standard medication treatments may be ineffec-
tive. Surgical treatment may be an option for medica-
tion non-responders, including deep brain (4) or occipi-
tal nerve stimulation (5). However, serious complications
from brain surgery, including death, can occur (6).
An Internet survey of 53 CH patients reported on claims
that psilocybin is better at aborting acute attacks than
either oxygen or sumatriptan and that LSD and psilocy-
bin are both better at triggering and extending remission
than standard drugs (7). However, due to hallucinogenic-
ity and the absence of established medical indication,
these drugs are criminalized and placed within the most
restrictive Schedule I of the Controlled Substances Act,
which sanctions only limited research use. Although the
hallucinogenic properties of LSD and psilocybin are unde-
sirable from both regulatory and patient safety perspec-
tives, it was unclear to us at the outset whether a non-hal-
lucinogenic analog could also provide meaningful relief
to CH patients. To address the question of whether the CH
relief associated with these two structurally diverse com-
pounds is related to the mechanisms triggering intoxica-
tion, we decided to investigate the efficacy of a nonhal-
lucinogenic analog of LSD. LSD’s hallucinogenic effects
are completely lost when the double bond in the D ring
is saturated and with substitution at R2 (e.g. by bromina-
tion in 2-bromo-LSD) (BOL-148) (8). BOL-148 has been studied in volunteers (up to 20 mg per os) (9)
and in patients suffering from vascular headaches but not, apparently, in patients with CH (9,10).
These past studies concluded that BOL-148 is non-toxic and non-hallucinogenic. Only very mild side
effects, if any, have been observed, when given in the dose range used in our project (30 mg/kg/body
weight) (9). No long-term behavioral or psychological effects from BOL-148 have been reported from
past studies with more than 300 healthy, normal subjects (11), and 30 mg BOL-148 administered dai-
ly over four to five weeks failed to alter active psychosis in chronically ill schizophrenic women (12).
The results show that three single doses of BOL-148 within 10 days can either break a CH cycle
or considerably improve the frequency and intensity of attacks, even resulting in changing from
a chronic to an episodic form, with remission extending for many months or longer. While for
patients S3, S4, and S5 the remission is very likely due to BOL-148 treatment, for S1, who charted
in his diary continued attacks with reduced pain, and S2, who suffered from episodic CH, the ob-
served effects may also be due to the natural course of the disease, despite S1 and S2’s impression
that their cluster attack cycle improved in ways they had
not experienced before BOL-148. Except for very mild
alterations of subjective state and mild to no sympa-
thetic reactions for about two hours, no other side ef-
fects were observed.
Sicuteri et al. used LSD and some of its derivatives (with
BOL-148 among them) in the treatment of migraine and
other vascular headaches (10). Because those studies were
entwined with the task of identifying the pathophysiolog-
ical mechanism of vascular headaches (13), they lack ex-
act documentation and follow-up results of the exposed
subjects. Especially considering the results we report, no
evidence has been found that BOL-148 was administered
specifically for active CH in these earlier trials. A sufferers-
driven interest in the clinical effects of LSD and psilocy-
bin for CH did not develop until recently, from anecdotal
observations to Internet-based discussions to the pub-
lished Internet survey (7) and subsequent science-me-
dia interest. Interestingly, those reports describe a single
dose or a few doses resulting in long-lasting effects, which
we now also demonstrate from BOL-148. Taken together
and in regard to failure of other more direct explanations,
especially for the long-range remission extension, these
results indicate that BOL-148, psilocybin, and LSD may in-
fluence the expression of genes (epigenetics), which are
responsible for the biological clock of the organism (14).
However, prolonged administration of BOL-148 does not
result in cross-tolerance to LSD (15). This, in turn, suggests
that BOL-148’s mechanism of action for CH is unrelated to
those receptor systems thought to be involved with hal-
lucinogenicity: 5-HT-1A and 5-HT-2A (16). Similarly, psilo-
cybin and LSD’s treatment effects for CH also, then, may
have little to do with their capacity to induce hallucino-
genic effects. The ergotamines (includ-
ing BOL- 148, LSD, dihyroergotamine,
and methysergide) likely have positive
treatment effects for CH through sero-
tonin- receptor-mediated vasoconstric-
tion. BOL-148 was specifically created
as a completely non-hallucinogenic
form of LSD, but methysergide was de-
veloped to have even more potency
at serotonin receptors (and less hallu-
cinogenic effects than LSD) (17). While
methysergide, an often effective pre-
ventative compound if taken on a daily
basis for up to six months (18), does
not generally induce remissions, the
repetitive intravenous and subcutane-
ous application of 1mg dihydroergota-
mine for up to three weeks has been
shown in an open retrospective trial to
sometimes break a cluster period (19).
However, dihydroergotamine is not ap-
proved for intravenous or subcutane-
ous injection in Germany. In addition,
BOL-148 seems to exert its effects in a
totally different way, as outlined above.
Although, after extended and chronic
use, both methysergide and dihydro-
ergotamine may be associated with an
increased risk for fibrotic complications
(such as retroperitoneal fibrosis), this
risk is unknown for BOL-148 and seems
to be more unlikely from the limited,
non-chronic dosing regimen of BOL-
148 we employed. Pointedly, there are
no pre-clinical studies linking LSD to
fibrosis, and, despite an extensive his-
tory of illicit use, only one case report
is identified in the PubMed database
describing prior use of LSD in two in-
dividuals with ‘‘idiopathic’’ retroperito-
neal fibrosis (20). None of the approved
ergot-based medications for CH realize
the type of profound and lasting treat-
ment response we report from just
three oral doses of BOL-148 or in the
prior case series of LSD and psilocybin
use (7). BOL-148 apparently also dif-
fers from methysergide in that prior
research indicates methysergide is a
less effective preventative for chronic
CH than for episodic forms (21). The
results of this case series must be re-
garded as preliminary, in that they are
unblinded and uncontrolled. In acute
attack treatment trials, the frequen-
cies of placebo responders were up to
42% while in chronic CH a placebo re-
sponse as low as 14% was reported in
one trial (which employed a very strict
endpoint of cessation of attacks), but
no placebo response (for efficacy) was
noted in five of seven controlled tri-
als (22). Especially since chronic CH
patients appear ‘‘to have a relatively
modest placebo response’’ (22), the
extended durability of response to
three doses of BOL- 148 administered
over ten days is unlikely to be an ar-
tifact. An additional limitation to this
report is that not all known prophy-
lactic alternatives had been tried with
our patients to confirm their extent of
treatment resistance, but all five sub-
jects did respond to BOL-148. In con-
trast to the compassionate use setting
in this case series, follow-up research
with more specific inclusion criteria
(e.g. prior verapamil trial of at least 500
mg/day, separation of evaluation of
BOL-148 for either episodic or chronic
forms) will allow more specific conclu-
sions to be drawn about BOL-148 as a
potential treatment for CH. Given that
the current standard of care involves
interventions that break single head-
ache attacks and reduce pain dura-
tion, frequency and intensity of attack
cycles, and that identified treatments
that extend remission are lacking, the
potential breakthrough treatment of
BOL-148 warrants wide dissemination
of these early findings to encourage
aggressive development to random-
ized controlled trials.
 Agonist-trafficking and hallucinogens [287]
Currents In Medical Chemistry • 2009

González-Maeso J1, Sealfon SC.

1Departments of Psychiatry, Neurology

Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY
Javier.Maeso@mssm.edu

Seven transmembrane domain receptors, also termed G protein-coupled receptors

(GPCRs), represent the most common molecular target for therapeutic drugs. The
generally accepted pharmacological model for GPCR activation is the ternary complex
model, in which GPCRs exist in a dynamic equilibrium between the active and inactive
conformational states. However, the demonstration that different agonists sometimes
elicit a different relative activation of two signaling pathways downstream of the same
receptor has led to a revision of the ternary complex model. According to this agonist-
trafficking model, agonists stabilize distinct activated receptor conformations that
preferentially activate specific signaling pathways. Hallucinogenic drugs and non-hal-
lucinogenic drugs represent an attractive experimental system with which to study ag-
onist-trafficking of receptor signaling. Thus many of the behavioral responses induced
by hallucinogenic drugs, such as lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), psilocybin or mes-
caline, depend on activation of serotonin 5-HT(2A) receptors (5-HT2ARs). In contrast,
this neuropsychological state in humans is not induced by closely related chemicals,
such as lisuride or ergotamine, despite their similar in vitro activity at the 5-HT2AR. In
this review, we summarize the current knowledge, as well as unresolved questions,
regarding agonist-trafficking and the mechanism of action of hallucinogenic drugs.
Prairies, psychedelics and place:
The dynamics of region
in psychiatric research [300]
Health & Place • January 2009

By Erika Dyck

Department of History, University of Saskatchewan

Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada S7N5A5

In 1957, the word ‘psychedelic’ entered the

English lexicon from a rather unexpected lo-
cation: an asylum superintendent working
on the Canadian prairies in one of the pro-
vincial mental hospitals in Saskatchewan.
During the 1950s Saskatchewan-based re-
searchers engaged in political and psychi-
atric reforms that brought international at-
tention to their work in a relatively isolated
geographic location. This article considers
the influence of location on the develop-
ment of a medical theory that challenged
prevailing ideas about the causation and
treatment of mental illness and addiction.
Drawing on perspectives from historians,
politicalscientists, sociologists and geogra-
phers, this case study explores the historical
meanings of region and place and combines
older historiographic altraditions, which de-
fine region in political terms, with concepts
borrowed from other disciplines, which offer
a more nuanced view of cultural geography,
to examine the development of psychedel-
ic research in the post-World War II period.
 The history of
ergot of rye (Claviceps purpurea) I:
from antiquity to 1900 [155]
Journal Of The Royal College Of Physicians Edinburg • June 2009

By M.R. Lee

University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK

This article outlines the history of ergot of rye up to 1900. Ergot is

a fungal disease that affects many grasses but is particularly dam-
aging to rye. It occurs as the result of an infection by the parasitic
organism Claviceps purpurea, which produces characteristic black
spurs on the grass. When incorporated into grain, the ergot fungus
can cause severe outbreaks of poisoning in humans called ergot-
ism. There are two main clinical forms of toxicity, gangrenous and
convulsive, where coma and death often supervene: the death rate
for ergotism has been reported to be between 10 and 20 per cent
in major outbreaks. Historical accounts note that ergot could accel-
erate labour, stop postpartum haemorrhage and inhibit lactation.
At the end of the nineteenth century ergot was still regarded as a
‘glorious chemical mess’, but help would arrive in the early 1900s
and the complex jigsaw would be solved.
[324] 41 Pages • [324]
 LSD Returns—For Psychotherapeutics: patients (eight who will re-
ceive LSD and four a pla-
LSD makes a comeback as a possible clinical treatment
cebo). Finding eligible
candidates has been dif-
Corbis • October 2009
ficult—after 18 months
only five patients had
By Gary Stix
been recruited, and just
Albert Hofmann, the discoverer of LSD, lambasted the countercultural move- four had gone through
ment for marginalizing a chemical that he asserted had potential benefits the trial’s regimen of a
as an invaluable supplement to psychotherapy and spiritual practices such pair of all-day sessions.
as meditation. “This joy at having fathered LSD was tarnished after more than “Because LSD is not a usual
ten years of uninterrupted scientific research and medicinal use when LSD was treatment, an oncologist
swept up in the huge wave of an inebriant mania that began to spread over the will not recommend it to a
Western world, above all the United States, at the end of the 1950s,” Hofmann patient,” Gasser laments.
groused in his 1979 memoir LSD: My Problem Child.
The patients who received
For just that reason, Hofmann was jubilant in the months before his death the drug found the expe-
last year, at the age of 102, when he learned that the first scientific research rience aided them emo-
on LSD in decades was just beginning in his native Switzerland. “He was very tionally, and none experi-
happy that, as he said, ‘a long wish finally became true,’ ” remarks Peter Gasser, enced panic reactions or
the physician leading the clinical trial. “He said that the substance must be in other untoward events.
the hands of medical doctors again.” One patient, Udo Schulz,
told the German week-
The preliminary study picks up where investigators left off. It explores the pos- ly Der Spiegel that the
sible therapeutic effects of the drug on the intense anxiety experienced by pa- therapy with LSD helped
tients with life-threatening disease, such as cancer. A number of the hundreds him overcome anxious
of studies conducted on lysergic acid diethylamide-25 from the 1940s into the feelings after being diag-
1970s (many of poor quality by contemporary standards) delved into the per- nosed with stomach can-
sonal insights the drug supplied that enabled patients to reconcile themselves cer, and the experience
with their own mortality. In recent years some researchers have studied psilocy- with the drug aided his re-
bin (the active ingredient in “magic mushrooms”) and MDMA (Ecstasy), among entry into the workplace.
others, as possible treatments for this “existential anxiety,” but not LSD.
The trials follow a strict
Gasser, head of the Swiss Medical Society for Psycholytic Therapy, which he protocol—“all LSD treat-
joined after his own therapist-administered LSD experience, has only recently ment sessions will begin
begun to discuss his research, revealing the challenges of studying psychedel- at 11 a.m.”—and the re-
ics. The $190,000 study approved by Swiss medical authorities, was almost en- searchers are scrupulous
tirely funded by the Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies, a U.S. about avoiding mistakes
nonprofit that sponsors research toward the goal of making psychedelics and that, at times, occurred
marijuana into prescription drugs. Begun in 2008, the study intends to treat 12 during older psychedelic
trials, when investigators would leave subjects alone during a drug
session. Both Gasser and a female co-therapist are present through-
out the eight-hour sessions that take place in quiet, darkened rooms,
with emergency medical equipment close at hand. Before receiving
LSD, subjects have to undergo psychological testing and preliminary
psychotherapy sessions.

Another group is also pursuing LSD research. The British-based Beck-

ley Foundation is funding and collaborating on a 12-person pilot
study at the University of California, Berkeley, that is assessing how
the drug may foster creativity and what changes in neural activity go
along with altered conscious experience induced by the chemical.
Whether LSD will one day become the drug of choice for psychedelic
psychotherapy remains in question because there may be better solu-
tions. “We chose psilocybin over LSD because it is gentler and generally
less intense,” says Charles S. Grob, a professor of psychiatry at the Uni-
versity of California, Los Angeles, who conducted a trial to test psilo-
cybin’s effects on anxiety in terminal cancer patients. Moreover, “it is
associated with fewer panic reactions and less chance of paranoia and,
most important, over the past half a century psilocybin has attracted far
less negative publicity and carries far less cultural baggage than LSD.”

Others assert the importance of comparative pharmacology—how

does LSD differ from psilocybin?—because of the extended period of
research quiescence. Just because many types of so-called SSRI anti-
depressants exist, “it doesn’t mean that they are all identical,” observes
Roland Griffiths, a Johns Hopkins University researcher who conducts
trials with psilocybin. In any case, on the 40th anniversary of the Wood-
stock music festival, psychoactive substances that represented the apo-
theosis of the counterculture lifestyle are no longer just hippie elixirs.

Note: This article was originally printed

with the title, “Return of a Problem Child.”
 The history of ergot of rye (Claviceps purpurea) II:
1900-1940
[156]

Journal Of The Royal College Of Physicians Edinburg • December 2009

By M.R. Lee

University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK

Ergot, in 1900, was a ‘chemical mess’. Henry Wellcome, the pharmaceuti-

cal manufacturer, invited Henry Hallett Dale, a physiologist, to join his
research department and solve this problem. Dale, in turn, recruited an
outstanding group of scientists, including George Barger, Arthur Ewins
and Harold Dudley, who would make distinguished contributions not
only to the chemistry of ergot but also to the identification of acetylcho-
line, histamine and tyramine and to studies on their physiological effects.
Initially Barger and Dale isolated the compound ergotoxine, but this
proved to be a false lead; it was later shown to be a mixture of three dif-
ferent ergot alkaloids. The major success of the Wellcome group was the
discovery and isolation of ergometrine, which would prove to be life-sav-
ing in postpartum haemorrhage. In 1917 Arthur Stoll and his colleagues
started work on ergot at Sandoz Pharmaceuticals in Basel. A series of
important results emerged over the next 30 years, including the isola-
tion of ergotamine in 1918, an effective treatment for migraine with aura.
 The history of ergot of rye (Claviceps purpurea) III:
1940-1980

Journal Of The Royal College Of Physicians Edinburg • March 2010

By M.R. Lee

University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK

The period 1940-80 in the history of ergot was dominated by two investiga-
tors, Arthur Stoll and Albert Hofmann. There was great excitement when
their group isolated from ergot preparations the powerful psychotropic
agent lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD). It was thought that this substance
would help to find the cause of schizophrenia and other psychotic disor-
ders, but it would prove to be a great disappointment and Hofmann would
say later, in private, that he regretted having spent so much time on the
compound. By contrast, bromocriptine, derived from ergocriptine, would
prove a pivotal substance in our knowledge of dopamine receptors in the
central nervous system. It is widely used for the suppression of lactation, the
treatment of prolactinomas and the management of Parkinson’s disease.

PMID: 20503690

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.ololo.sci-hub.bz/pubmed/20503690
 A case of persistent visual hallucinations of faces
following LSD abuse:
A functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging study:

Face Hallucinations and Neural Mechanisms {545}

Neurocase • 2010

Giuseppe Iaria,1,2 Christopher J. Fox,2 Michael Scheel,2

Robert M. Stowe,3 and Jason J. S. Barton2

1Department of Psychology, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada

2Human Vision and Eye Movement Laboratory
Departments of Medicine (Neurology) and Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences
University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
3Departments of Psychiatry and Neurology
University of British Columbia, Vancouver,, British Columbia, Canada

In this study, we report the case of a patient experiencing hallucinations of

faces that could be reliably precipitated by looking at trees. Using functional
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI), we found that face hallucinations were
associated with increased and decreased neural activity in a number of cor-
tical regions. Within the same fusiform face area, however, we found signifi-
cant decreased and increased neural activity according to whether the patient
was experiencing hallucinations or veridical perception of faces, respectively.
These findings may indicate key differences in how hallucinatory and veridical
perceptions lead to the same phenomenological experience of seeing faces.
 Hallucinogens as hard science:
the adrenochrome hypothesis
for the biogenesis of schizophrenia
Historical Psychology • May 2010

By J.A. Mills

University of Saskatchewan
millsj@telus.net

Working in a psychiatrically innovative environment

created by the Government of Saskatchewan, Cana-
da, Abram Hoffer and Humphry F. Osmond enunci-
ated the adrenochrome hypothesis for the biogene-
sis of schizophrenia in 1952, slightly later proposing
and, apparently, demonstrating, in a double-blind
study, that the symptoms of the illness could be re-
versed by administering large doses of niacin. After
placing the hypothesis within its ideological frame-
work, the author describes its emergence and elabo-
ration and discusses the empirical evidence brought
against it. Hoffer’s idiosyncratic diagnostic proce-
dures, especially his creation and use of a supposed
biochemical marker for schizophrenia, are examined.
The author argues that Hoffer’s conceptualization of
schizophrenia, as well as his treatment approach,
depended on a tautology. Following David Healy,
the author treats the adrenochrome hypothesis as
a version of a transmethylation theory, thus incor-
porating it into mainstream psychopharmacology.

PMID: 20533770

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20533770
 Drug Dreams in Mescaline and LSD Addiction [544]
American Academy of Addiction Psychiatry • 2010

Claudio Colace, PhD

U.O.C. Psychology, ASL Viterbo, Italy

Drug-addicted patients frequently report dreams, the contents of which are re-
lated to their craving for drugs. Drug dreams (ie, dreams about using or seeking
drugs) have shown their usefulness as clinical and prognostic tools, and have been
investigated in several forms of addiction (eg, heroin, cocaine, or alcohol). How-
ever, there is no description of drug dreams in hallucinogenic drug addiction in
the literature. Here, I briefly report an example of drug dreaming in the case of a
mescaline/LSD-addicted patient—

Ms. C., a 23-year-old woman, had been using mescaline and LSD frequently for
3 years when she was admitted, with a diagnosis of drug dependence, to a psy-
chological support program. She also used other drugs such as ecstasy/MDMA,
benzodiazepine, and amphetamines. Although she showed a strong drug craving,
during the first days of treatment she was able to cease using drugs. In the same
period, she recalled a vivid dream in which she used LSD:

“I was with friends at a rave party, the people offered various drugs and they gave me
LSD and I used it. It was a pleasant dream.”

On awakening from this dream, she felt very disappointed because she realized
that she actually could not have the drug and she wanted it. During the day after
this dream, the patient had a relapse (she used benzodiazepine) and, in the fol-
lowing days, she abandoned the support program. This case report is largely com-
patible with previous literature on drug dreams in other forms of addiction. Par-
ticularly, it is confirmed that these drug dreams are the result of abstinence from
drugs that provoke a drug-craving frustration. Drug dreams have been frequently
considered as predictive of continued abstinence and as a good prognostic sign,
but some authors have also underlined that some types of these dreams might
precede a drug-craving increase in post-dream reality and a possible relapse (ie,
using a drug). This case report suggests that the drug dreams which predict a pos-
sible relapse could be specifically those from which the dreamer awakens feeling
anger and disappointment upon realizing that he/she actually could not have the
drug; that is, dreams in which the dreamer failed to use drug or its use was clearly
not satisfactory enough. This case report shows that drug dreams may be a pre-
cious tool for clinicians in the observation of the drug-craving processes during the
treatment of addicted patients. Drug dreams may signal a recurrence of drug crav-
ing in the patient that the clinician has to manage before they provoke a relapse.
 CHAPTER SIX
2000 - 2008 Peer Review
 Seeking God in the Brain —
Efforts to Localize Higher Brain Functions [21]
The New England Journal Of Medicine • January 2008

Solomon H. Snyder, M.D., D.Sc.

Dr. Snyder is a professor of neuroscience at

the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore

Neuroscientists have long eschewed global questions about brain function,

and books reviewing the current state of neuroscience usually allocate only
a small section to “higher functions.” But with the advent of novel imaging
techniques such as positron-emission tomographic scanning and function-
al magnetic resonance imaging, attitudes have begun to change. It is now
feasible to visualize functions of discrete brain regions while subjects are
engaged in diverse activities — doing arithmetic, composing songs, writ-
ing poetry, or watching pornographic movies. Information about which
parts of the brain are activated during various mental activities has supple-
mented and, in general, confirmed previous insights derived from observa-
tions of alterations of thinking and feeling associated with brain lesions,
epilepsy, and the use of diverse drugs.

Efforts to elucidate higher brain functions have intersected with a burgeoning

literature on the neural underpinnings of not only language and art but also re-
ligion. At one extreme, some scientists, such as Francis Collins, in The Language
of God, have even used what we know of molecular biology and brain function
to argue for the existence of a personal God.1 Collins reviews anthropologic
data emphasizing the universality of the search for God among a diverse group
of primitive and advanced cultures over many thousands of years; he interprets
this universality as implying that some basic structure in the brain “needs God.”
Similarly, noting that humans have an intuitive sense of right and wrong, Col-
lins suggests that this characteristic, too, originates in an intrinsic structure of
the brain. He goes so far as to conclude that the moral law was implanted in
our brains by God, but many scientists have argued, from the same universality,
that moral, altruistic behavior is programmed into the brain because it facili-
tates social behavior that leads to the preservation of the species. Others have
used similar data to argue that all of religion is an artifact of evolu-
tion. Neuroscientist David Linden, for instance, has recently suggested
specific mechanisms whereby evolutionary alterations in the structure
of the brain might account for
the development of religion
as well as love, memory, and
dreams.2 As the brain evolved,
he explains, the overgrown
cerebral cortex came to over-
lie the more primitive, emo-
tion-regulating limbic struc-
tures, which in turn surmount
the most primitive brain-stem
structures and the associated
hypothalamus. Linden argues
that the accidental linking of
these portions of the brain ac-
counts for many of the tribula-
tions of humankind — anxiety
and other emotional distur-
bances arise in substantial part
from the ongoing war between
the “rational” higher centers
and the emotion-laden limbic
system. Linden argues that if
an “intelligent designer” had
assembled the brain, it would
surely have done an elegant,
impeccable job, but the more
we learn about the brain, the
more clearly we see that it is an
ad hoc concatenation of struc-
tures designed for unrelated
functions — a sort of Rube
Goldberg contraption. Though
the brain somehow manages to
function rather elegantly, break-
downs manifested in emotional
and other disturbances are all
too frequent. Linden speculates
about the neural mechanisms
that may underlie religious im-
pulses. He regards religious ide-
ation as reflecting beliefs — such as the concept of a virgin birth or the notion of a God who knows the brain — and psychedelic drugs are known to act as agonists of one subtype of serotonin recep-
every thought of every human being — that violate our everyday perception of reality. He likens tors.4 Since serotonin neurons arise from a discrete set of raphe nuclei in the brain, it may be possible
such conceptualizations to the confabulations that persons with split brains arrive at in order to to narrow the search for the biologic cause of at least one type of religiosity to these few cells. But
make sense of the incompatible data encountered by the two separated hemispheres. In his recent given the variability of what we mean by “religion” and “poetry,” attempts to localize such purported
book The Soul in the Brain, British neurologist Michael Trimble looks to his area of expertise, epilepsy, functions within the brain are always fraught with hazards. With his focus on epileptic causes of both
to explore a possible relationship between the human brain and religion: religiosity, he notes, is of- religious and creative impulses, Trimble enumerates several candidate regions, most of them in the
ten brought to the fore by seizures.3 Trimble points out that some of the greatest religious figures temporal lobe — an area that receives a substantial input from serotonin neurons — which is con-
in history had what were probably complex par- sistent with what we know of sites of action of psy-
tial seizures, which are known to be associated chedelic drugs. In this issue of the Journal, Sanai
with religious ideation. For instance, during Saint and colleagues (pages 18–27) report on a study
Paul’s conversion on the road to Damascus, he is in which they mapped sites involved in diverse
said not only to have suffered 3 days of blindness modes of language use in patients with gliomas
but also to have fallen to the ground frequently who were undergoing debulking of their tumors.
and experienced ecstatic visions. Muhammad de- They found a far wider dispersal than might have
scribed falling episodes accompanied by visual been expected, with parietal and temporal as well
and auditory hallucinations. Joseph Smith, who as frontal regions providing important contribu-
founded Mormonism, reported lapses of con- tions. However, any extrapolation from a map-
sciousness and speech arrest, noting that “When I ping of brain areas that mediate language use to
came to . . . I found myself lying on my back looking likely cerebral contributions to religious or cre-
up at heaven.” Joan of Arc reported, “I heard this ative dispositions would be highly speculative.
voice [of an angel] . . . accompanied also by a great So where do all these brain explorations lead us?
light.”3 Trimble recalls that in The Varieties of Re- In seeking a general relationship between reli-
ligious Experience, the 19th-century psycholo- gious states, poetry, and music, Trimble ascribes
gist William James also highlighted the trances, all three to the right, nondominant side of the
visions, and auditory hallucinations associated brain. He assumes that integration of the activ-
with religion, emphasizing the ineffable, altered ity of the right-sided emotional brain with that
Actual samples (above) of Orange Sunshine LSD likely provided to the Manson family through a
state of consciousness of most religious mystics. tangled web of CIA agents, unwitting dupes, Timothy (songbird) Leary or any other number of of the left-sided analytic brain gives rise to the
Such mystical states, encountered in most reli- players in the 60s counterculture movement. Tavistock, the CIA and primary operative Huxley also greatest intellectual achievements in the arts. I
gions, remarks Trimble, are extraordinarily similar very likely participated in creating or “moving along” the Manson Family as another aspect of main- suspect that major advances in science, too, are
to the mental states elicited by psychedelic drugs taining sociopolitical tension and stress across the country. This is a well-worn method of maintain- the product of more than pure reason — in the
such as LSD and mescaline. Almost 50 years ago, ing effective, population-wide control through propaganda on issues other than just the Manson finest scientists I have encountered, I have always
event which was, in all actuality, the sideshow—while behind closed doors new legislation was
the psychiatrist Walter Pahnke came to this con- passed. It would be interesting to investigate, collect and chronologically order all of the US legisla- detected a notable creative, artistic flair.5 Artis-
clusion on the basis of experiments in which the tion passed from Manson’s arrest and for several years after the trial. (See the section on Huxley for tic, intuitive approaches are evident even in the
psychedelic drug psilocybin was administered to more on maintaining population-wide stress and anxiety as it relates to effective propaganda.) most abstract intellectual achievements, such as
students at the Harvard Divinity School. More re- Einstein’s theories. Needless to say, a simple di-
cently, Roland Griffiths and colleagues have replicated these studies in a more rigorous fashion and chotomy of right and left brains is a gross oversimplification. Nonetheless, as imaging technology
found that subjects receiving psilocybin reported long-lasting changes in a religious sense of self.4 and associated cognitive testing become ever more sophisticated, we may be able to discriminate
Drugs whose mechanism of action is understood can be powerful tools for elucidating the molecular ways in which religious and creative sensibilities relate to one another and to brain areas that medi-
basis of mental states — we know much more about the neurotransmitters that mediate emotions, ate emotions that are deranged in psychiatric illness. Whether any of these advances will provide the
for instance, from studying the actions of antidepressant drugs than from direct manipulations of answer to the cerebral basis of religion, if one exists, is anybody’s guess.
 REFERENCES

1. Collins FS. The language of God: a scientist

presents evidence for belief. New York: Free
Press, 2007.
2. Linden DJ. The accidental mind: how brain
evolution has given us love, memory, dreams,
and God. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press,
2007.
3. Trimble MR. The soul in the brain: the cere-
bral basis of language, art, and belief. Balti-
more: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007.
4. Griffiths RR, Richards WA, McCann U, Jesse
R. Psilocybin can occasion mystical-type ex-
periences having substantial and sustained
personal meaning and spiritual significance.
Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2006;187:268-
283
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5. Snyder SH. The audacity principle in science.
Proc Am Philos Soc 2005;149:141-158
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1. Seyed Jameie. . (2012) Neuroethics; Neu-

roscience for Ethics and/or Ethics for Neuro-
science New Challenge for Third Millennium.
Thrita Journal of Medical Sciences 1. CrossRef
2. Alin Ciobica, Raducu Popescu, Ion Haulica,
Walther Bild. . (2011) Aspects Regarding the
Neurobiology of Psycho-Affective Functions.
Journal of Medical Biochemistry 1, 1-5. Cross-
Ref
3. Paolo Nencini, Kathleen A. Grant. . (2010)
Psychobiology of Drug-Induced Religious Ex-
perience: From the Brain “Locus of Religion” to
Cognitive Unbinding. Substance Use & Misuse
45, 2130-2151. CrossRef
4. Jordi Alonso, Andrea Buron, Sonia Rojas-
Farreras, Ron de Graaf, Josep Mª Haro, Giovan-
ni de Girolamo, Ronny Bruffaerts, Viviane
Kovess, Herbert Matschinger, Gemma Vilagut.
. (2009) Perceived stigma among individuals
with common mental disorders. Journal of Af-
fective Disorders 118, 180-186. CrossRef
5. Daniel A. Drubach, Daniel O. Claassen. .
(2008) Perception and the Awareness of God:
The Importance of Neuronal Habituation in
the Context of the Jewish and Christian Faiths.
Journal of Religion and Health 47, 541-548.
CrossRef
6. Lydia Mary Furman. . (2008) Attention-Defi-
cit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): Does New
Research Support Old Concepts?. Journal of
Child Neurology 23:7, 775-784. CrossRef
 Multivariate modeling
of club drug use initiation
among gay and bisexual men [308]
Substance Use & Misuse • 2008

Halkitis PN1, Palamar JJ.

1Center for Health, Identity, Behavior & Prevention Studies

Department of Applied Psychology, The Steinhardt School of Culture
Education, and Human Development, New York University, NY
pnh1@nyu.edu

This paper documents patterns and sequence of initiation

of club drug use in a sample of 450 gay and bisexual men
in New York City. Quantitative and qualitative baseline data
from a year-long longitudinal investigation conducted be-
tween 2001 and 2005 were analyzed. The study focused
on the use of five club drugs-cocaine, GHB, ketamine, ec-
stasy, and methamphetamine-using self-reported indica-
tions of use for a period of 4 months prior to assessment.
Patterns of club drug use among gay and bisexual demon-
strated that poly-club-drug use is common, and that pat-
terns of use can be differentiated along the lines of age,
race/ethnicity, and sexual orientation, with those who are
older, Black, and bisexual, reporting less club drug use.
The majority of the men initiated use of the five club drugs
as follows: (a) cocaine, (b) ecstasy, (c) ketamine, (d) meth-
amphetamine, and (e) GHB. Variations in patterns were
related to both age and level of poly-club-drug use. The
sequencing and/or patterns of club drug use may be bet-
ter explained by socialization processes in the gay com-
munity than by Gateway Theory, which has been tradition-
ally used to explain patterns of drug use in the population.
Future research should more closely examine the synergy
of drug use combinations with an emphasis on measuring
the extent to which the drugs are taken in synchronicity.
Trust Amply Recompensed: Psychological Research at Weyburn, Saskatchewan, 1957 - 1961 [295]
Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences • Summer 2008

By John A. Mills & Erika Dyck

During the 1950s and 1960s professionals intensely debated the prospect of
changes in the mental health system, largely as a result of the introduction of new
therapies, revised theories of mental disorder, and shifting policies governing men-
tal health accommodation. As well as giving rise to
new subspecialties within medicine, psychiatrists in
some jurisdictions at this time worked closely with
psychologists in an attempt to offer a more com-
prehensive set of options that merged theory with
practice. In Saskatchewan, mental health profes-
sionals worked closely with government officials
and bureaucrats and produced a variety of innova-
tive strategies that addressed changing priorities in
this system. This article examines the role played by
psychologists in Saskatchewan during this period
as they worked cooperatively with psychiatrists and
bureaucrats to merge medical, psychological, and
political perspectives in a system aimed at accom-
modating mental illness in the wake of new theories
and treatments that questioned the efficacy of care
in institutionalized settings in the wake of growing
suggestions for care in the community.
 Lysergic acid amide-induced
posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome
with status epilepticus [37]
Neurocritical Care • 2008

Legriel S1, Bruneel F, Spreux-Varoquaux O, Birenbaum A

Chadenat ML, Mignon F, Abbosh N, Henry-Lagarrigue M
Revault D’Allonnes L, Guezennec P, Troche G, Bedos JP.

1Service de Réanimation Polyvalente, Hôpital André Mignot

78157, Le Chesnay, France
stlegriel@invivo.edu

osterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome (PRES) is known to occur in

association with several Psubstances. However, lysergic acid amide (LSA)
is not among the previously reported causes of PRES. We report on a pa-
tient with PRES presenting as convulsive status epilepticus associated with
hypertensive encephalopathy after LSA ingestion. Magnetic resonance
imaging was performed and catecholamine metabolites assayed. The pa-
tient achieved a full recovery after aggressive antihypertensive therapy
and intravenous anticonvulsivant therapy. The clinical history, blood and
urinary catecholamine levels, and response to treatment strongly suggest
that PRES was induced by LSA. LSA, a hallucinogenic agent chiefly used
for recreational purposes, should be added to the list of causes of PRES.
 D-Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD) [725]
Investigator’s Brochure • January 2008

By Lisa Jerome

Table of Contents TEST

KIT
Drug Substance and Formulation 2
Pharmacological and toxicological effects 2
LSD Actions on Neurotransmitter Systems 2
Overview 2
LSD and Serotonin 5HT2A and 5HT2C receptors 3
LSD and 5HT1 Family Receptors 4
LSD and Other Receptor Systems 5
LSD and Gene Expression 6
Psychological (Subjective) and Physiological Effects 6
LSD Effects in Nonhuman Animals 6
LSD Effects in Humans 7
Physiological Effects 7
Psychological and Subjective Effects 7
Factors Influencing Psychological and Subjective Reactions to LSD 9
Pharmacokinetics and biological disposition 11
Safety and effectiveness in humans 14
History of Research 14
LSD in Psychotherapy and in Advanced Stage Illness 15
LSD as Potential Treatment for Cluster Headache 15
Possible risks and side effects 16
Overview and History 16
Fatalities 16
Common Adverse and Side Effects 16
Reckless Behavior 17
Anxiety and Panic Reactions 17
Transient and Prolonged Psychotic Reactions 17
Post-Hallucinogen Perception Disorder (HPPD 18
Long-Term Personality Changes 18
Abuse Liability 19
Reproductive Toxicity 19
Research trial data 19
Acknowledgements 19
 Overview

LSD possesses a complex pharmacological profile that includes direct

activation of serotonin, dopamine and norepinephrine receptors. In ad-
dition, one of its chief sites of action is that of compound-specific (“al-
losteric”) alterations in secondary messengers associated with 5HT2A
and 5HT2C receptor activation and changes in gene expression. The
hallucinogenic effects of LSD are likely due to agonism at 5HT2A and
5HT2C receptors (Aghajanian and Marek 1999; Nichols 2004), with at
least one drug discrimination study in rats finding that a 5HT2A recep-
tor antagonist (ritanserin) was more successful than a 5HT2C antago-
nist (SB 46349B) at eliminating LSD stimulus cues (Appel, West et al.
2004). However, LSD is also an agonist at the majority of known se-
rotonin receptors, including 5HT1A, 5HT1B, 5HT1D, 5HT5A, 5HT6 and
5HT7 receptors (Boess and Martin 1994; Eglen, Jasper et al. 1997; Hirst,
Abrahamsen et al. 2003; Nichols and Sanders-Bush 2002). The only sero-
tonin receptor for which LSD fails to show significant affinity is the 5HT3
receptor, the only serotonin receptor that is a ligandgated ion chan-
nel rather than a G-protein coupled receptor. LSD also has affinity for
dopamine D1 and D2 receptors (Creese et al. 1975; Nichols et al. 2002).
Drug discrimination studies in rodents suggest that dopamine recep-
tors may play a role in producing effects appearing after and in addi-
tion to changes associated with 5HT2A activation (Marona-Lewicka and
Nichols 2007; Marona-Lewicka et al. 2005), and behavioral observations
suggest that LSD may produce some effects through the dopamine sys-
tem (Burt, Creese et al. 1976; Chiu and Mishra 1980; Watts, Lawler et al.
1995). There is some evidence that LSD has affinity for alpha adrenergic
receptors (Marona-Lewicka and Nichols 1995; U’Prichard et al. 1977).
Clonidine potentiated the LSD stimulus in rats trained to recognize LSD,
an effect that suggests at least indirect action on these receptors (Ma-
rona-Lewicka and Nichols 1995). By contrast, LSD appears to have little
to no affinity for histamine receptors (Green, Weinstein et al. 1978; Nich-
ols, Frescas et al. 2002), and the only evidence of action at acetylcholine
sites is indirect. A more systematic presentation of LSD receptor affinity
is provided in the table below (table adapted from and with permission
from M Baggott). An in vitro study also suggests that LSD is an agonist
at trace amine receptors (TAR) (Bunzow, Sonders et al. 2001). The func-
tional significance of activity at trace amine receptors remains unclear,
given that stimulants and entactogens (MDMA-like drugs) also activate
these receptors (Bunzow, Sonders et al. 2001; Miller, Verrico et al. 2005).
 “What a Long, Strange Trip It’s Been”:

The Uses and Abuses

of Psychedelics in Psychotherapy
From 1949 to the Present [182]
By Alicia Farrell

February 2008

This article reviews the litera-

ture on the lysergic acid dieth-
ylamide (LSD) published since
its first synthesis in 1938 to the
present. First recognized as a
miracle drug for treating dis-
orders ranging from alcohol-
ism to anxiety, LSD became the
“poster drug” of the 1960’s and
1970’s. A movement within the
government to de-­legalize and,
in fact, criminalise LSD soon
followed. With criminalization
came a halt in legitimate re-
search on the potential ben-
efits of LSD, and scientific litera-
ture from that period is scant.
This review therefore seeks to
determine the extent to which
scientific research is controlled
by social factors and the po-
tential loss the halt in LSD re-
search has meant for thera-
pists, psychiatrists, medical
practitioners and their patients.
 Gaddum and LSD:
the birth and growth
of experimental and clinical
neuropharmacology research
on 5-HT in the UK [501]
British Journal Of Pharmacology • August 2008

By A.R. Green

Institute of Neuroscience, School of Biomedical Sciences

Queen’s Medical Centre, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
richard.green@nottingham.ac.uk

The vasoconstrictor substance named serotonin was

identified as 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) by Mau-
rice Rapport in 1949. In 1951, Rapport gave Gaddum
samples of 5-HT substance allowing him to develop a
bioassay to both detect and measure the amine. Gad-
dum and colleagues rapidly identified 5-HT in brain
and showed that lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD)
antagonized its action in peripheral tissues. Gaddum
accordingly postulated that 5-HT might have a role in
mood regulation. This review examines the role of UK
scientists in the first 20 years following these major
discoveries, discussing their role in developing assays
for 5-HT in the CNS, identifying the enzymes involved
in the synthesis and metabolism of 5-HT and inves-
tigating the effect of drugs on brain 5-HT. It reviews
studies on the effects of LSD in humans, including
Gaddum’s self-administration experiments. It outlines
investigations on the role of 5-HT in psychiatric disor- Figure 1 at left:
ders, including studies on the effect of antidepressant Montage of pictures of (a) Sir John Gaddum, (b) Marthe Vogt, (c) Hugh Blaschko,
drugs on the 5-HT concentration in rodent and human (d) Gerald Curzon, (e) David Grahame-Smith, (f ) Phillip Bradley, (g) Alec Coppen
brain, and the attempts to examine 5-HT biochemis- and (h) Merton Sandler. (a–c) Copyright of Godfrey Argent; The Royal Society,
try in the brains of patients with depressive illness. (d–e) author’s collection and (f–h) from the British Association for Psychophar-
It is clear that a rather small group of both preclini- macology.
cal scientists and psychiatrists in the UK made major
Figure 2 above:
advances in our understanding of the role of 5-HT in Letter from John Gaddum to Maurice Rapport. Collection of the author, now de-
the brain, paving the way for much of the knowledge posited in the archives of the Royal Society.
now taken for granted when discussing ways that 5-
HT might be involved in the control of mood and the Figure 3 at top of page:
idea that therapeutic drugs used to alleviate psychi- From the laboratory notebook of JH Gaddum written during self-administration
atric illness might alter the function of cerebral 5-HT. of LSD and held in the archives of the Royal Society.
 The Pharmacology of Lysergic Acid Diethylamide: A Review [1]
CNS Neuroscience & Therapeutics • 2008
Torsten Passie1, John H. Halpern2,3, Dirk O. Stichtenoth4,
Hinderk M. Emrich1 & Annelie Hintzen1
1 Department of Clinical Psychiatry and Psychotherapy,
Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
2 Laboratory for Integrative Psychiatry, Addictions Division,
McLean Hospital, Belmont, MA, USA
3 Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
4 Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) was synthesized in 1938
and its psychoactive effects discovered in 1943. It was used
during the 1950s and 1960s as an experimental drug in
psychiatric research for producing so-called “experimental
psychosis” by altering neurotransmitter system and in psy-
chotherapeutic procedures (“psycholytic” and “psychedel-
ic” therapy). From the mid 1960s, it became an illegal drug
of abuse with widespread use that continues today. With
the entry of new methods of research and better study
oversight, scientific interest in LSD has resumed for brain
research and experimental treatments. Due to the lack of
any comprehensive review since the 1950s and the widely
dispersed experimental literature, the present review fo-
cuses on all aspects of the pharmacology and psychophar-
macology of LSD. A thorough search of the experimental
literature regarding the pharmacology of LSD was per-
formed and the extracted results are given in this review.
(Psycho-) pharmacological research on LSD was extensive
and produced nearly 10,000 scientific papers. The pharma-
cology of LSD is complex and its mechanisms of action are
still not completely understood. LSD is physiologically well
tolerated and psychological reactions can be controlled in
a medically supervised setting, but complications may eas-
ily result from uncontrolled use by layman. Actually there
is new interest in LSD as an experimental tool for elucidat-
ing neural mechanisms of (states of ) consciousness and
there are recently discovered treatment options with LSD
in cluster headache and with the terminally ill.
Albert Hofmann, the Father of LSD (1906–2008) [48]
Neuropsychobiology • September 2008
Paolo Fusar-Poli Stefan Borgwardt
Neuroimaging Section, Department of Psychological Medicine
Institute of Psychiatry, London , UK
Dr. Albert Hofmann, the brilliant Swiss synthetic chemist, was best known for fathering the com-
pound lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), one of the most powerful psychotropic substances known,
on April 16, 1943. Hofmann’s discovery of the effect of LSD in Basel came 5 years after his original
synthesis of the molecule in 1938, LSD-25, which was set aside as he continued with other deriva-
tives. Four years later, he resynthesized LSD- 25 because he
felt he might have missed something the first time around.
That day, he became the first human to experience ‘an ex-
tremely stimulated imagination’ caused by an accidental
ingestion of LSD. Three days later, on April 19, 1943, he de-
cided to verify his results by intentionally ingesting LSD. This
day has become known as ‘Bicycle Day’ as Hofmann experi-
enced an incredible bicycle ride on his way home from the
lab. LSD was initially hailed as a wonder drug for use in psy-
choanalysis, particularly for gaining insights into schizophre-
nia; but in the 1960s, it came to be seen by Harvard’s Timothy
Leary and others as a pathway to spiritual enlightenment,
and then as a major recreational drug. Thus, LSD suddenly
became Hofmann’s ‘problem child’ and in 1966, the United
States banned its use, followed by most other countries. In
addition to his discovery of LSD, he succeeded in synthesiz-
ing the active compounds used by the Mazatec shamans in
the Psilocybe mexicana sacred ‘magic mushrooms’ (psilocy-
bin) and in morning glory seeds (lysergic acid monoamide
and lysergic acid hydroxyethylamide) plus other amides that
became drugs: Methergine, used to treat postpartum hem-
orrhaging, Hydergine and Dihydergot used to stabilize cir-
culation and blood pressure. He wrote more than 100 scien-
tific articles and was the author or co-author of a number of
books. Albert Hofmann, known as the ‘father of LSD’, stayed
with Sandoz as Director of the Pharmaceutical-Chemical Re-
search Laboratories Basel until his retirement in 1971. Then
he continued to write, lecture, and play a leading role as an
elder in the psychedelic community until his death at the
age of 102 near Basel, Switzerland.
 Letters To The Editor:
Problem Child Is No Headache [41]
We very much enjoyed Drs. Baron andTepper’s review of the history of ergot derivatives in the
treatment of headache, 1 but are puzzled that they mentioned lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD)
without describing its role in headache treatment. With patient groups such as Clusterbusters
(http://www.clusterbusters.com) actively promoting its use for the purpose,and LSD treatment
of migraines depicted in popular media such as HouseMD,2 patients are increasingly query-
ing their neurologists about the utility of this drug. Ling and Buckman treated intractable mi-
graineurs with LSD beginning in 1959, observing complete remissions lasting 9 months to 2
years in 4 of their 6 patients.3 In 1963, Frederigo Sicuteri also documented the beneficial ef-
fects ofLSDon both migraine and cluster headache.4 Noting that almost all ergotderived mi-
graine medications such as ergotamine or methysergide cause hallucinations at high doses,5,6
Ethan Russo proposed in 1997 that LSD should retain therapeutic effect for headache at sub-
hallucinogenic doses also,7 and this effect was later described anecdotally for migraine8 and
clinically in case series of both LSD9 and its natural analog, lysergic acid amide (LSA)10 for
treatment of cluster headache.While there are no randomized controlled trials demonstrating
efficacy of either LSD or LSA for migraine or cluster headache, neither are there for ergotamine.
LSD’s classification in Schedule I currently precludes its prescription for headache, but its utility
should not be overlooked, as a matter of both scientific and clinical interest.
R. Andrew Sewell, MD
Clinical Instructor in Psychiatry,Yale University
School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
Christopher H. Gottschalk, MD
Clinical Instructor in Neurology,Yale University
School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
REFERENCES
1. Baron EP, Tepper SJ. Revisiting the role of ergots in the treatment of migraine and headache. Head-
ache. 2010;50:1353-1361.
2. Kaplow L. Distractions. In: Heel and Toe Films, ed. House MD. NBC Universal Television; 2006.
3. Ling T, Buckman J.Lysergic Acid (LSD 25) & Ritalin in the Treatment of Neurosis. London: Lambarde
Press; 1963.
4. Sicuteri F, Franchi G, Anselmi B. Atti delle Giornate internazionali sui farmachi psicostimulanti selet-
tivi con particulare riguardo alla centrofenoxina: Roma, 25–26 gennaro 1963/sotto gli auspici dell Cli-
nica delle malattie nervose e mental. Milano Bracco industria clinica; 1963:1-8.
5. Abramson H, Rolo A. Comparison of LSD with methysergide and psilocybin on test subjects. 2nd Inter-
national Conference on the Use of LSD in Psychotherapy and Alcoholism; 1967:53-73.
6. Bender L. Children’s reactions to psychotomimetic drugs. In: Efron D, ed. Psychotomimetic Drugs.
NewYork: Raven Press; 1970:265-273.
7. Russo E, Medora R, Parker K, Thompson C. Schedule 1 research protocol: An investigation of psy-
chedelic plants and compounds for activity in serotonin receptor assays for headache treatment and
prophylaxis. Bull Multidisc Assoc Psychedel Stud. 1997;7:4-8.
8. Snow O. LSD. Spring Hill, FL: Thoth Press; 2003.
9. Sewell RA, Halpern JH, Pope HG Jr. Response of cluster headache to psilocybin and LSD. Neurology.
2006;66:1920-1922.
10. Sewell RA, Reed K, Cunningham M. Response of cluster headache to self-administration of seeds
containing Lysergic Acid Amide (LSA). Poster F11 in Program Abstracts, 50th Annual Scientific Meeting,
American Headache Society 2008. Headache. 48(suppl. 1):16. Responsehead_1808 306.
Response To: Problem Child Is No Headache
We thank Drs. Sewell and Gottschalk for their insightful comments. The use of psychedelics
such as lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) and psilocybin is clearly an interesting (and controver-
sial) avenue to pursue for the treatment of headache. We agree that this area warrants further
study not only for scientific interest, but also for potential clinical benefit. In our paper1 we in-
dicated that LSD is a derivative of the therapeutic ergots, and their similarity in chemical struc-
ture conceivably could result in a similar therapeutic effect. In addition to the citations that you
provide in your letter, a related coupling of structure and function, has been demonstrated for
2-bromo-LSD (BOL-148), a close derivative of LSD.2-4 This derivative appears to produce the
same receptor activity involved in headache benefit (primarily cluster) as the psychedelics,
while eliminating the receptor activity which causes hallucinations (suspected to occur at 5-
HT-1A and 5-HT-2A sites).2,5 This area of research is definitely interesting and may be promis-
ing. We omitted from our discussion headache treatments involving psychedelics simply for
the sake of brevity and so as to focus on the currently available ergot derivatives. We felt that
the issue of psychedelics in headache management would be more appropriately discussed
in an article dedicated to that specific topic. These medications and their congeners should be
investigated further in order to build upon the limited research currently available.
Sincerely,
Eric P. Baron, DO
Cleveland Clinic Neurological Institute, Department of Neurology
Center for Headache and Pain, Center for Regional Neurology, Cleveland, OH, USA
Stewart J. Tepper, MD
Cleveland Clinic Neurological Institute, Department of Neurology
Center for Headache and Pain, Cleveland, OH, USA
REFERENCES
1. Baron EP, Tepper SJ. Revisiting the role of ergots in the treatment of migraine and headache. Head-
ache. 2010;50: 1353-1361.
2. Karst M, Halpern JH, Bernateck M, Passie T. The nonhallucinogen 2-bromo-lysergic acid diethylam-
ide as preventative treatment for cluster headache: An open, nonrandomized case series. Cephalalgia.
2010;30:1140-1144.
3. Bertino JR, Klee GD, Weintraub W. Cholinesterase, d-lysergic acid diethylamide, and 2-bromolysergic
acid diethylamide. J Clin Exp Psychopathol. 1959;20:218-222.
4. Sicuteri F. Prophylactic treatment of migraine by means of lysergic acid derivatives. Triangle.
1963;6:116-125.
 The pharmacology of lysergic acid diethylamide: A review [90]
CNS Neuroscience Therapy • 2008

5. Passie T, Halpern JH, Stichtenoth DO,Emrich HM,Hintzen A.

Peer Tfelt-Hansen, MD, DMS Danish Headache Center

University of Copenhagen, Glostrup Hospital, Glostrup, Denmark

Effective Symptomatic Medication Should Be Available

in Prophylactic Trials in Cluster Headache
In the recently published paper reporting an unsuccessful double-blind, placebo-con-
trolled, randomized, controlled trial (RCT) of frovatriptan for short-term prophylaxis, only
11 patients with episodic cluster headache were recruited during 13 months from the head-
ache outpatient centers of 6 supraregional specialized headache clinics.1 Additionally, most
of the subjects (6/11) violated the prohibition of other triptan use.We are told that there
are lessons for future trial design; and it is suggested that International Headache Society
Guidelines for Controlled Trials of Drugs in Cluster Headache2 should be revised. I concur
that the Guidelines, which date back to 1995 require updating. It is stated that the RCT re-
ported by Pageler et al was designed according to the Guidelines for Controlled Trials of
Drugs in Cluster Headache.1 The big problem with investigating the triptan frovatriptan for
cluster headache prophylaxis was that the most effective symptomatic treatment of the at-
tack, subcutaneous sumatriptan 6 mg,3 was prohibited in this RCT.1 I think it is unrealistic
to ask cluster headache patients to abstain from sumatriptan during a placebo-controlled,
prophylactic trial in cluster headache. I can fully understand why the patients did not want
to participate in this RCT.1 As recommended in the Guidelines: “During prophylactic treat-
ment trials, acute therapy should be permitted. Abortive therapies cannot be withheld when
pain is excruciating.”2 That a prophylactic drug is effective in cluster headache was shown for
verapamil in a multicenter RCT in 20004 and this RCT was performed according to the Guide-
lines2 with no restrictions on symptomatic medications such as subcutaneous sumatriptan.4

REFERENCES

1. Pageler L, Katsavara Z, Lampl C, et al. Frovatriptan for prophylactic treatment of cluster headache:
Lessons for future trial design. Headache. 2011;51:129-134.
2. Lipton RB, Micieli G, Russell D, Solomon S, Tfelt-Hansen P, Waldenlind E. International Headache So-
ciety Committee on Clinical Trials in Cluster Headache. First Edition. Guidelines for controlled trials of
drugs in cluster headache. Cephalalgia. 1995;15:452-462.
3. The Sumatriptan Cluster Headache Study Group. Treatment for acute cluster headache with sumat-
riptan. N Engl J Med. 1991;325:322-326.
4. Leone M, D’Amico F, Frediani F, et al. Verapamil in the prophylaxis of episodic cluster headache: A
double-blind study versus placebo. Neurology. 2000;54:1382-1385.
 The behavioral pharmacology
of hallucinogens [52]
Biochemical Pharmacology • 2008

William E. Fantegrossi a,*, Kevin S. Murnane a, Chad J. Reissig b

a Division of Neuroscience, Yerkes National Primate Research Center

Emory University, 954 Gatewood Road NE, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
b Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences
Behavioral Biology Research Center
Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA

Until very recently, comparatively few scientists were studying hal-

lucinogenic drugs. Nevertheless, selective antagonists are avail-
able for relevant serotonergic receptors, the majority of which
have now been cloned, allowing for reasonably thorough pharma-
cological investigation. Animal models sensitive to the behavioral
effects of the hallucinogens have been established and exploited.
Sophisticated genetic techniques have enabled the development
of mutant mice, which have proven useful in the study of halluci-
nogens. The capacity to study post-receptor signaling events has
lead to the proposal of a plausible mechanism of action for these
compounds. The tools currently available to study the hallucino-
gens are thus more plentiful and scientifically advanced than were
those accessible to earlier researchers studying the opioids, ben-
zodiazepines, cholinergics, or other centrally active compounds.
The behavioral pharmacology of phenethylamine, tryptamine,
and ergoline hallucinogens are described in this review, paying
particular attention to important structure activity relationships
which have emerged, receptors involved in their various actions,
effects on conditioned and unconditioned behaviors, and in some
cases, human psychopharmacology. As clinical interest in the
therapeutic potential of these compounds is once again begin-
ning to emerge, it is important to recognize the wealth of data
derived from controlled preclinical studies on these compounds.
 Indolealkylamines:
Biotransformations and
Potential Drug–Drug Interactions [207]
By Yu Ai-Ming

March 2008

Indolealkylamine (IAA) drugs are 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT or sero-

tonin) analogs that mainly act on the serotonin system. Some IAAs are
clinically utilized for antimigraine therapy, whereas other substances
are notable as drugs of abuse. In the clinical evaluation of antimi-
graine triptan drugs, studies on their biotransformations and pharma-
cokinetics would facilitate the understanding and prevention of un-
wanted drug–drug interactions (DDIs). A stable, principal metabolite
of an IAA drug of abuse could serve as a useful biomarker in assessing
intoxication of the IAA substance. Studies on the metabolism of IAA
drugs of abuse including lysergic acid amides, tryptamine derivatives
and β- carbolines are therefore emerging. An important role for poly-
morphic cytochrome P450 2D6 (CYP2D6) in the metabolism of IAA
drugs of abuse has been revealed by recent studies, suggesting that
variations in IAA metabolism, pharmaco- or toxicokinetics and dy-
namics can arise from distinct CYP2D6 status, and CYP2D6 polymor-
phism may represent an additional risk factor in the use of these IAA
drugs. Furthermore, DDIs with IAA agents could occur additively at
the pharmaco/toxicokinetic and dynamic levels, leading to severe or
even fatal serotonin toxicity. In this review, the metabolism and po-
tential DDIs of these therapeutic and abused IAA drugs are described.
 Human Hallucinogen Research:
Guidelines for Safety [80]
The Journal Of Psychopharmacology • 2008 August

Matthew W. Johnson1
William A. Richards2, and
Roland R. Griffiths1,3

1Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences

Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine
2Johns Hopkins Bayview Medical Center
3Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine

There has recently been a renewal of human research with classical hal-
lucinogens (psychedelics). This paper first briefly discusses the unique
history of human hallucinogen research, and then reviews the risks of
hallucinogen administration and safeguards for minimizing these risks.
Although hallucinogens are relatively safe physiologically and are not
considered drugs of dependence, their administration involves unique
psychological risks. The most likely risk is overwhelming distress dur-
ing drug action (“bad trip”), which could lead to potentially dangerous
behavior such as leaving the study site. Less common are prolonged
psychoses triggered by hallucinogens. Safeguards against these risks
include the exclusion of volunteers with personal or family history of
psychotic disorders or other severe psychiatric disorders, establishing
trust and rapport between session monitors and volunteer before the
session, careful volunteer preparation, a safe physical session environ-
ment, and interpersonal support from at least two study monitors during
the session. Investigators should probe for the relatively rare hallucino-
gen persisting perception disorder in follow up contact. Persisting ad-
verse reactions are rare when research is conducted along these guide-
lines. Incautious research may jeopardize participant safety and future
research. However, carefully conducted research may inform the treat-
ment of psychiatric disorders, and may lead to advances in basic science.
 The pleasure in context [407]
International Journal Of Drug Policy • 2008

By C. Duff

Department of Health Care and Epidemiology

University of British Columbia, 320-1290 Hornby Street
Vancouver, BC V6Z1W2, Canada
cameron.duff@vch.ca

The pleasures associated with the use of illicit

drugs are rarely acknowledged in contempo-
rary drug policy debates. Where they are, these
pleasures are almost always attributed to the
specific physiological and/or sensory effects
of individual substances. Drawing on qualita-
tive research recently completed in Melbourne,
Australia, this paper argues that the pleasures
associated with illicit drug use extend well be-
yond the purely physiological to include a host
of properly contextual elements as well. These
“contextual” pleasures include the corporeal ex-
perience of space, such as the “feeling” of elec-
tronic music in a large night-club space, or the
engagement with natural and wilderness envi-
ronments. Also important are a range of corpo-
real and performative practices, such as danc-
ing and interacting with strangers, which were
reportedly facilitated with the use of different
drugs. This emphasis on the dynamics of space,
embodiment and practice as they impact the
contextual experience of pleasure, has the po-
tential to open up new ways of thinking about
pleasure and its place in the mediation of all
drug related behaviours. Greater understand-
ing of these relationships should also facilitate
the emergence of new, context specific, drug
prevention and harm reduction initiatives.
 Is it time to revisit
the role of psychedelic drugs
in enhancing human creativity? [476]
Journal Of Psychopharmacology • November 2008

By B. Sessa

Human creativity is difficult to define and measure, but

it is undoubtedly an important cognitive process. This
makes it an interesting challenge for modern neurosci-
entific exploration - especially given the current interest
in developing cognitive enhancers for commercial and
clinical uses. There are similarities between the typical
traits of creative people and the subjective psycholog-
ical characteristics of the psychedelic (hallucinogenic)
drug experience. This phenomenon was studied in a
number of small trials and case studies in the 1960s. Re-
sults were inconclusive, and the quality of these studies
- by modern research standards - was merely anecdotal.
Nevertheless, with today’s current renaissance in psy-
chedelic drug research and the growing interest in cog-
nitive enhancing drugs, now may be the time to re-visit
these studies with contemporary research methods.
 The pharmacology of
lysergic acid diethylamide:
a review [118]
CNS Neuroscience & Therapeutics • Winter 2008

Passie T1, Halpern JH, Stichtenoth DO, Emrich HM, Hintzen A.

1Department of Clinical Psychiatry and Psychotherapy

Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
dr.passie@gmx.de

Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) was synthesized in 1938 and its psycho-
active effects discovered in 1943. It was used during the 1950s and 1960s
as an experimental drug in psychiatric research for producing so-called
“experimental psychosis” by altering neurotransmitter system and in psy-
chotherapeutic procedures (“psycholytic” and “psychedelic” therapy).
From the mid 1960s, it became an illegal drug of abuse with widespread
use that continues today. With the entry of new methods of research and
better study oversight, scientific interest in LSD has resumed for brain re-
search and experimental treatments. Due to the lack of any comprehen-
sive review since the 1950s and the widely dispersed experimental litera-
ture, the present review focuses on all aspects of the pharmacology and
psychopharmacology of LSD. A thorough search of the experimental lit-
erature regarding the pharmacology of LSD was performed and the ex-
tracted results are given in this review. (Psycho-) pharmacological research
on LSD was extensive and produced nearly 10,000 scientific papers. The
pharmacology of LSD is complex and its mechanisms of action are still not
completely understood. LSD is physiologically well tolerated and psycho-
logical reactions can be controlled in a medically supervised setting, but
complications may easily result from uncontrolled use by layman. Actually
there is new interest in LSD as an experimental tool for elucidating neural
mechanisms of (states of ) consciousness and there are recently discovered
treatment options with LSD in cluster headache and with the terminally ill.
 Mystical-type experiences
occasioned by psilocybin
mediate the attribution of personal meaning
and spiritual significance 14 months later [174]
The Journal Of Psychopharmacology • August 2008

Griffiths R1, Richards W, Johnson M, McCann U, Jesse R.

1Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences and Department of Neuroscience

Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
rgriff@jhmi.edu

Psilocybin has been used for centuries for religious purposes; however, little
is known scientifically about its long-term effects. We previously reported the
effects of a double-blind study evaluating the psychological effects of a high
psilocybin dose. This report presents the 14-month follow-up and examines the
relationship of the follow-up results to data obtained at screening and on drug
session days. Participants were 36 hallucinogen-naïve adults reporting regu-
lar participation in religious/ spiritual activities. Oral psilocybin (30 mg/70 kg)
was administered on one of two or three sessions, with methylphenidate (40
mg/70 kg) administered on the other session(s). During sessions, volunteers
were encouraged to close their eyes and direct their attention inward. At the
14-month follow-up, 58% and 67%, respectively, of volunteers rated the psilocy-
bin-occasioned experience as being among the five most personally meaningful
and among the five most spiritually significant experiences of their lives; 64%
indicated that the experience increased well-being or life satisfaction; 58% met
criteria for having had a ‘complete’ mystical experience. Correlation and regres-
sion analyses indicated a central role of the mystical experience assessed on the
session day in the high ratings of personal meaning and spiritual significance at
follow-up. Of the measures of personality, affect, quality of life and spirituality
assessed across the study, only a scale measuring mystical experience showed
a difference from screening. When administered under supportive conditions,
psilocybin occasioned experiences similar to spontaneously occurring mystical
experiences that, at 14-month follow-up, were considered by volunteers to be
among the most personally meaningful and spiritually significant of their lives.
 Factors associated with choice of psychotropic drugs used for intentional drug overdose [356]
European Archives Of Psychiatry & Clinical Neuroscience • September 2008

M. Tournier, MD, PhD Æ A. Grolleau, MSc Æ A. Cougnard, PhD

M. Molimard, MD, PhD Æ H. Verdoux, MD, PhD
Unite´ INSERM U657, Universite´ Victor Segalen, 146 rue Le´o Saignat, 33076 Bordeaux Cedex, France

Knowledge of the factors influencing the choice of drugs used for intention-
al drug overdose (IDO) may allow the reduction of IDO lethality. Objectives
[were] to assess with which frequency subjects with intentional overdose
of psychotropic drugs ingest their own psychotropic drug treatment, and
whether prescription of a drug may be a factor influencing the choice of
drugs used for the IDO. Demographic characteristics, psychiatric history,
and currently prescribed psychotropic drug treatment were collected for all
the patients (n = 1,654) admitted to an emergency department (ED) for IDO
with psychotropic drugs (anxiolytics, hypnotics, antidepressants, neurolep-
tics and mood stabilizers) over a period of 18 months. Drugs ingested for the
IDO were compared in subjects who had ingested at least one psychotropic
drug that was prescribed for them and subjects who had ingested psycho-
tropic drugs not prescribed for them using multivariate logistic regression.
Results Two-thirds of the patients ingested during the IDO at least one of
their own prescribed psychotropic drugs. Compared with the subjects who
had ingested psychotropic drugs not prescribed for them, they were more
likely to have a history of psychiatric hospitalization (OR 4.2; 95%CI 3.1–5.5),
of being a psychiatric outpatient (OR 3.9; 95%CI 3.0–5.1), of parasuicide (OR
2.5;95%CI 1.9–3.3) and a serious IDO (OR 2; 95%CI 1.4–2.9). Independently
from age and psychiatric hospitalization history, they ingested during the
IDO more often antidepressants (OR 4.4; 95%CI 3.0–6.4), antipsychotics (OR
2.9; 95%CI 1.7–4.8) and mood stabilizers (OR 4.1; 95%CI 1.6–10.7). No asso-
ciation was found with prescription for overdose of hypnotic (OR 1.1; 95%CI
0.8–1.5), anxiolytic (OR 1.2; 95%CI 0.9–1.7) or paracetamol (OR 1.0; 95%CI
0.5–2.1). Prescription of the psychotropic drugs plays an important role in
the choice of the drugs ingested for the IDO. It might make potentially ‘‘dan-
gerous’’ drugs available for the patient. Physicians have always to balance
the benefit of the treatment against the risk of drug overdose.
 Erasing pleasure from public discourse on illicit drugs:
on the creation and reproduction of an absence [408]
International Journal Of Drug Policy • October 2008

By D. Moore

National Drug Research Institute, Curtin University of Technology

GPO Box U1987, Perth WA 6845, Australia
D.Moore@curtin.edu.au

In 1988, sociologist Stephen Mugford argued that the dominant framework in the
drugs field was the ‘pathology paradigm’ and that, as a consequence, considerations
of ‘pleasure’ in relation to drug use were marginalised. As Mugford noted, an under-
standing of the subjective motives for drug use, including pleasure, is an essential
part of any coherent response. Twenty years on, it appears that little has changed.
In this paper, I consider some of the processes that may have contributed to the
ongoing absence of discourses of pleasure in the drugs field. The paper is divided
into three sections. In the first, following Bourdieu, I focus on drug research as a ‘so-
cial field’, arguing that power relations between research disciplines work against
considerations of pleasure, and that researching pleasure does not generate useful
forms of research capital. Second, I argue that harm reduction policy and practice, in
its construction of a neo-liberal drug-using subject, limits opportunities for consid-
ering the role of pleasure in drug use. The final section explores the broader histori-
cal and contemporary context for drug research, policy and practice by considering
the discursive formations that contribute to the legitimacy granted to particular
forms of pleasure in the privileging of a ‘civilised’ body over a ‘grotesque’ body.
 Flashback to the 1960s:
LSD
in the treatment of
Autism
Developments In Neurorehabilitation
January 2007
Sigafoos J1, Green VA
Edrisinha C, Lancioni GE
1School of Education
University of Tasmania, Australia
Jeff.Sigafoos@utas.edu.au
Between 1959 and 1974, several groups of re-
searchers issued reports on the use of d-Lyser-
gic Acid Diethylamide (LSD) in the treatment
of children with autism. This paper reviews
that literature to consider how the authors
justified these studies, as well as their meth-
ods, results, and conclusions. The justification
for using LSD was often based on the default
logic that other treatment efforts had failed.
Several positive outcomes were reported
with the use of LSD, but most of these stud-
ies lacked proper experimental controls and
presented largely narrative/descriptive data.
Today there is renewed interest in the use of
psychedelic drugs for therapeutic purposes.
While this resurgence of research has not yet
included children with autism, this review of
the LSD studies from the 1960s and 1970s of-
fers important lessons for future efforts to
evaluate new or controversial treatments for
children with autism.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pubmed/17608329
The creativity of Crumb:
research on the effects
of psychedelic drugs
on the comic art of
Robert Crumb [157]
Journal Of Psychoactive Drugs
September 2007
By MT Jones
1Temple University, Philadelphia, PA
matjones@temple.edu
This article investigates the
influence of perception that is
altered by psychedelic drugs
on processes of creativity
through a case study of the
work of well-known comic art-
ist Robert Crumb. Samples of
Crumb’s work before, during,
and after the period of his use
of psychedelic drugs are con-
tent analyzed and compared
according to the categoriza-
tion offered by Janiger and
Dobkin de Rios (1989). The re-
sults of the comparison indi-
cate that Robert Crumb’s drug
use significantly altered the
stylistic approach of his art-
work not only during the pe-
riod of his drug use, but long
after he had stopped using
drugs (see the next 5 pages for
several samples of some of Art
Crumbs most memorable 60s
counterculture artwork).
 Cluster Busters [44]
Nature Medicine • Volume 13 • Number 1 • January 2007 Like May, many individuals who suffer from cluster headaches have found that the illegal drugs
are their only choice. Neglected by the scientific community and forced underground by the
Arran Frood • Natures Web Editor law, they have turned to the Internet to secretly find, research, promote and even sell the treat-
ments that work. In a classic example of ‘citizen science’, they have even roped in scientists
Ignored by mainstream medicine, people who suffer bizarrely painful headaches to validate what their experiences have shown and plan clinical trials and other research to
are helping to test hallucinogenic drugs as a cure. take the treatments forward. “I don’t believe that even any of the big pharma companies would
Arran Frood talks to these citizen scientists. have got any further in the same period of time,” says May. Periodic pain often misdiagnosed as
migraines, cluster headaches were noted as early as 1745 by Gerhard van Swieten, personal
It began the same way every day at 3 p.m. First came the dull ache, then a sharp pain behind physician to the Austrian Empress Maria Theresa. The doctor observed that a healthy, robust
the right eye followed by debilitating agony. The only difference was how long it would last— man of middle age suffered from a “troublesome pain which came on every day at the same hour
anywhere from 45 minutes to three hours on a at the same spot above the orbit of the left eye.” The
bad day. “It’s a hundred times worse than the worst man, the doctor said, “felt as if his eye was slowly
pain you’ve ever felt, but pulsating and persistent, forced out of its orbit with so much pain that he
like someone is trying to pull your eye out,” says nearly went mad.”
Peter May, who has suffered from cluster head-
aches since 1999. More than 250 years on, doctors know little more
about the condition, if they have heard of it at
The headaches are so horrible that each year all. Cluster headaches are a type of neurovas-
people who endure them take their own lives, cular headache affecting about 1 in every 1,000
earning the condition the gruesome moniker of people. Their hallmark is the curious periodicity
‘suicide headaches’. “Really, you wouldn’t wish it of attacks, which occur at the same time each
on your worst enemy,” May says. “Once I was look- day and in the same spot, usually in otherwise
ing at a pneumatic drill… wondering if drilling into healthy middle-aged men. Only one in five suf-
my head would relieve the pain. That’s when I re- ferers is a woman.
alized that things weren’t right and I had to get it
sorted somehow.” The episodic forms of the headache, which ac-
count for about 90% of the cases, are nothing
On the Internet, where many like May had be- short of bizarre: one month of headaches in the
gun to congregate, news had gained momen- spring and one in the fall is typical. This semian-
tum that hallucinogenic drugs such as LSD nual regularity based around the equinoxes defies
and psilocybin, the active ingredient in ‘magic’ explanation, but at least provides some respite
mushrooms, could provide sweet relief from from the pain. The remaining 10% of sufferers live
the headaches. May, a respectable middle-aged with the chronic form and are subjected to up to
man with young children, had never even con- eight attacks a day, each of which can last three
sidered taking mind-expanding drugs. But after hours if untreated or if the medication fails. The
trying a veritable medicine chest of legal remedies, none of which are designed to treat clus- intense pain derives from stimulation of the trigeminal nerve, which is responsible for sensation
ter headaches and none of which worked, May was desperate for relief. in the face. But the problem is not local to the nerve, eye or face—it lies within the brain.
Brain-imaging studies indicate the
hypothalamus as the area of patho-
genesis, unlike migraines where the
brain stem is activated. Still, most pre-
scribed medicines are those given for
migraines, antidepressants or calcium
channel blockers designed to reduce
blood pressure. There are no drugs
specifically for cluster headaches.
Some migraine drugs such as sumat-
riptan (Imigran, Imitrex) are effective
when inhaled or injected, but May be-
gan to notice a worrying increase in
the frequency of his daily attacks after
taking sumatriptan. The best abortive
treatment isn’t even a drug. Inhaling
pure oxygen works for about 80% of
cluster headache sufferers, although
the attack must be caught within five
minutes. Access to the bulky cylinder
also isn’t always possible. Frustrated
with the poor functionality of existing
equipment, lifelong chronic sufferer
Ben Khan invented the ‘Clustermasx’
which, Khan says, uses less oxygen, is
more effective and can abort an at-
tack in five minutes. One reviewer of
his method raved that “a layer of pain is
shaved off with every inhalation.”
About one in five sufferers is resis-
tant to all approved treatments, in-
cluding oxygen. May, who had tran-
sitioned to chronic attacks in 2002,
feared he’d soon be one of them.
Then he stumbled on to a flurry of
excited activity on the popular web-
site: www.clusterheadaches.com
Magic Mushrooms
Typical posts on the website raved
aboutmushrooms of the genus Psi-
locybe, which have been used for
centuries by traditional healers and
shamans to commune with the spirit
world. Wary of experimenting with
illegal drugs, May researched them
for six months before yielding in late
2002. The results were everything he’d
hoped for. “It worked immediately. I had
ten pain-free days and I thought, ‘I’m
cured’,” he says.
Through trial and error, May discov-
ered that a small dose—too small to
cause hallucinations—of the dried
mushrooms taken every one or two
months was enough to keep his daily
attacks at bay. If a headache did force
its way through, small doses of mush-
room tucked under the tongue could
sometimes abort an attack in just 15
minutes. As the clusterheads collated
their experiences, chronic sufferer Bob
Wold set up a new site, www.cluster-
busters.com, specifically to spread the
message about the psychedelic drugs.
“The first order of business is to let peo-
ple know this life-changing treatment is
out there,” says Wold. “The second is to
do what needs to be done to get clinical
trials underway.”
Anecdotal evidence is all very well, but
only a few were brave enough to try
the hallucinogens. Most others were
sceptical, or scared of breaking the
law. One group, the evocatively named OUCH, for Organisation for the Under-
standing of Cluster Headaches, banned discussion of the alternative treatments
from their message boards. The highly charged arguments quickly devolved into
personal attacks, eventually forcing the resignations of many of the group’s mem-
bers. It was clear that the community needed real scientists to give their results
some credibility. Most scientists they approached balked at the tricky legal situa-
tion. Then they found John Halpern, assistant professor of psychiatry at Harvard
Medical School, who had experienced the bureaucratic quagmire of trying to
work with hallucinogenic drugs.

“It’s unbelievable that they came to me. It shows the power of the Internet that
people with rare disorders can band together to become a more cohesive force to
advocate for themselves,” says Halpern, who knows of two people at his institu-
tion who have committed suicide because of cluster headaches. “I feel like we
have a moral obligation to pursue this because treatment-resistant people are kill-
ing themselves,” he says.

Citizen Science

Halpern and his colleague Andrew Sewell began collecting the medical re-
cords of those who were using hallucinogens to relieve cluster headaches,
and set up interviews and online surveys for a retrospective analysis. Their
results show that psilocybin is better at aborting acute attacks than either
oxygen or sumatriptan, and LSD and psilocybin are both better at triggering
and extending remission than are standard drugs (Neurology 66, 1920–1922;
2006). The researchers are planning clinical trials using LSD and psilocybin.
The hallucinogens may be effective because they are similar in structure to
the neurotransmitter serotonin and each affects a different suite of sero-
tonin receptors in the brain. LSD and psilocybin, for example, both bind to
the same receptors as sumatriptan, but also bind to serotonin receptors that
may be involved in the circadian response to light, which suggests an effect
on the biological clock to break the cluster cycle. Although these drugs can
be dangerous, there are models in place for their distribution. For instance,
the infamous drug thalidomide is prescribed for treatment-resistant stom-
ach ulcers and for leprosy, but its makers have patented a system to ensure
it never reaches a pregnant woman. Xyrem, a drug prescribed for narcolepsy,
contains as its active ingredient gamma-hydroxybutyrate or GHB, a date-rape
drug that appeared in the 1990s. A national registry to monitor the drugs’ use
and distribution could minimize the risk of misuse, Halpern says. “If we can
do that for GHB and thalidomide, then I believe we can for LSD and psilocybin.”
 The Last Resort

Choosing a treatment can often come down to the best of the worst. Psy-
chosis aside, LSD is known to affect the expression of at least seven genes.
And almost nothing is known about the long-term effects in humans of
ingesting psilocybin, especially in small doses. A controversial procedure
called deep-brain stimulation, used to treat Parkinson disease, is another
option. In that technique, doctors implant electrodes in the hypothala-
mus to stimulate an area associated with the attacks. The exact mecha-
nism of action is unknown and may be complex, but the high-frequency
stimulation may inhibit or modulate the nerve cells that initiate the pain.

Massimo Leone of Milan-based Istituto Nazionale Neurologico Carlo

Besta and his team have treated 19 chronic, treatment-resistant pa-
tients. “About 70% show a very good clinical response and are mainly pain
free,” says Leone, adding that some individuals seem to respond better
to conventional medicines after the procedure. Unfortunately, some in-
dividuals appear to become tolerant to the treatment. The technique is
not without risk, either. Of six cases at a different institution, one indi-
vidual died of a brain hemorrhage after the operation. “At this stage the
surgery is the last resort,” says Leone. In another technique, doctors im-
plant electrodes under the scalp to stimulate the occipital nerve, which
runs from deep inside the brain to the spine, to override the pain. “Oc-
cipital nerve stimulation is going to open up a whole new chapter in treat-
ing medically intractable headache,” says Peter Goadsby, an expert in clus-
ter headaches at the Institute of Neurology, University College London.

His results, due to be published in The Lancet, suggest that the technique
does not work for everyone but the benefits accrue over time. Goadsby says
a controlled study of hallucinogens is needed, as are follow-ups of people al-
ready using them. “Only with that data could you make a sensible comparison
between intervention methods,” he says. In the meantime, the clusterheads
are continuing with their attempts at citizen science. May and others be-
gan using seeds that contain lysergic acid amide, a less potent precursor to
LSD, when the UK banned the sale of magic mushrooms in 2005. The seeds
seem to work too, but data on correct dosage are sparse, so users are saving
batches of seeds from different plant species for a rigorous chemical analy-
sis. May says despite the legal risks his self-medication poses, it is less scary
than brain surgery, and he is determined to get the treatment validated by
scientists. He also has more reason than some others to find a treatment that
works—he is worried because the headaches are thought to have a genetic
component. “My biggest fear is that I might pass on the condition to my chil-
dren,” he says. “There’s no way you could give them the alternative treatment.”
The Medical History Of Psychedelic Drugs [175]
University Of Cambridge • April 2007

By The Department Of History & Philosophy Of Science

The aim of this dissertation is to describe the way in which psy-

chedelics have interacted with medicine over the years whilst an-
alysing the historical interplay between science, law and society.
It will question how psychedelics came to be used in medicine
and the initial role they filled.

By looking at the reception to psychedelic treatments and submitting

the literature to historiographic scrutiny, the extent that psychedelics
were accepted as legitimate medicines will be considered. The his-
torical context surrounding psychedelic research will be examined
and there will be an analysis of their experimental use on humans.
There will be particular reference to methodological issues surround-
ing legitimacy of psychedelic claims as well as the extent of scientif-
ic rigour in demonising the drugs both within history of medicine.

This dissertation will include discussion of how psychedelics should

be regarded and, by analysing of how their reception changed
with time, whether they can be compared to traditional medicine.
Particular attention will be paid to a historical account of psyche-
delics’ position in the medical community, the public eye and the
law. Because the legal status of psychedelic research progressed
from being completely uncontrolled by law to near outright pro-
hibition on an international scale, the evolution of psychedel-
ic legislation will be discussed whilst looking at factors affect-
ing law and researchers’ interactions with the legal restrictions.
 Cancer and the Constitution —
Choice at Life’s End [23]
The New England Journal Of Medicine • July 2007

George J. Annas, J.D., M.P.H.

Department of Health Law, Bioethics, and Human Rights

Boston University School of Public Health, Boston, MA

The Abigail Alliance for Better Access to Developmental Drugs sued the FDA,
objecting to its policy prohibiting the sale of unapproved drugs and argu-
ing that terminally ill patients with cancer should have access to experi-
mental treatments after phase 1 studies. The author discusses this case and
explains why he thinks a ruling in favor of the Abigail Alliance is unlikely.

No potential conflict of interest

relevant to this article was reported
 Further evidence that the delayed temporal dopaminergic effects of LSD are mediated
by a mechanism different than the first temporal phase of action [359]
Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior • 2007

Danuta Marona-Lewicka, David E. Nichols

Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology

School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, RHPH
575 Stadium Mall Dr. Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN

Activation of 5-HT2A receptors is thought to mediate the hallucinogenic effects of LSD.

Nevertheless, in a previous report we provided evidence that a delayed temporal phase
of the behavioral pharmacology of LSD is mediated by D2-like dopamine receptor stimu-
lation. In this study rats were trained to discriminate LSD with either a 30 min preinjec-
tion time (LSD-30, N=12) or a 90 min preinjection time (LSD-90,N=13) from saline, using
a two-lever, food-reinforced operant conditioning task. We then tested a large number of
agonists and antagonists belonging to distinct pharmacological classes in these animals.
As anticipated, classical hallucinogens such as psilocin and mescaline substituted only in
LSD-30 rats, and not in LSD-90 rats. The dopamine receptor agonists ABT-724, aripiprazole,
dihydrexidine, WAY 100635, and SKF 38393, fully or partially mimicked LSD-90, but not
LSD-30. The results reported here support and extend our previous conclusion that the
delayed temporal effects of LSD are mediated by activation of a dopaminergic system.
 LSD – assisted psychotherapy
in persons suffering from anxiety
associated with advanced-stage life threatening diseases.
A phase-II, double-blind, placebo-controlled
dose-response pilot study [170]
MAPS • January 2007
PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR:
Dr. Peter Gasser
MEDICAL MONITOR
Rick Doblin, PhD
STUDY MONITOR
Valerie Mojeiko
Facharzt FMH Psychiatrie + Psychotherapie, Hauptbahnhofstrasse 5, 4500 Solothurn / Switzerland
rick@maps.org;
Office: (1) 617-484-8711
Valerie@maps.org;
Office (1) 831-336-4325
Mobile (1) 941-726-3672
Fax (1) 831-336-3665
This protocol is for a randomized, active placebo controlled double-blind dose-response, phase-
II pilot study of Lysergic Acid Diethylamide-25 (LSD) - assisted psychotherapy in twelve subjects
with anxiety related to advanced-stage illness (e.g. cancer, metabolic or autoimmune diseases).
Subjects will have a shortened estimated life expectancy due to disease severity, and will either
not have adequately responded to anxiolytic treatments, such as medication or psychotherapy,
or who will have refused to take anxiolytic medications.
LSD is a semi-synthetic compound that was developed from ergot alkaloids. LSD was first synthe-
sized in 1938 by the Swiss chemist Albert Hofmann at Sandoz pharmaceutical laboratories in Basel,
Switzerland. Hofmann was investigating the therapeutic potential of ergot, a fungus that parasites
cereal grains (Hofmann 1979), and was mainly searching for vasoactive compounds. LSD’s highly
specific actions on the brain and human consciousness were discovered by chance by Hofmann in
1943 (Hofmann 1979). Psychiatrists soon saw that there could be a therapeutic potential for this sub-
stance. The first therapeutic study was conducted at the Swiss Psychiatric University Hospital in Zurich
(Burghoelzli) in 1946 (Stoll 1947; Stoll et al. 1949). At that time, the substance was administered like
any other medication and the concept that there must be guidance and constant care of the patient
throughout the duration of drug action (i.e. 10 hours, sometimes up to 12 hours) only developed ap-
proximately 10 years later when Stanislav Grof (Grof 1983) first in Prague (Czech Republic) and later in
the USA, Hanscarl Leuner (Leuner 1981) in Goettingen (Germany) and other psychotherapeutically-
oriented psychiatrists began their work. Researchers used LSD in basic psychiatric research and in
psychotherapy (Grinspoon and Bakalar 1979; Grof 2000; 1980; Nichols 2004).
Psychiatric researchers examined LSD-assisted psychotherapy in the treatment of alcoholism,
“neurotic disorders” and anxiety arising from terminal illness (Grinspoon and Bakalar 1979; Grof
2000; 1980; Jemsen 1962; Kast 1967; Kurland et al. 1971; Ling and Buckman 1963; Martin 1957;
Nichols 2004; Pahnke 1973; Strassmann 1995). LSD appeared to reduce anxiety and depression
in people with advanced stage cancer (Grof et al. 1973) and to produce long-lasting analgesia
in people with advanced-stage cancer (Kast and Collins 1964). At least two-thirds of people
with advanced stage cancer enrolled in psychotherapy using doses of 200 μg or more exhibited
improved quality of life (Grof et al. 1973; Kurland et al. 1973; Pahnke et al. 1969). At the same
time, other investigators treated LSD as representing a means of reproducing symptoms of
psychosis in healthy individuals (Nichols 2004; Strassman 1995).
There is considerable previous human experience with the use of LSD in the context of psycho-
therapy. Psychiatrists, psychotherapists and researchers have administered LSD to thousands
of people (Nichols 2004; Strassman 1994, see also “Previous Human Experience”). After a period
of rich scientific activity in the 1950s and 1960s investigating the therapeutic potential of LSD,
including its use in the treatment of dying people (Grinspoon and Bakalar 1986; Grof et al. 1973;
Nichols 2004), this research came to a halt, chiefly as a result of political concerns and in re-
sponse to large-scale use and abuse in subcultures at that time. Though some past research re-
ported promising results, researchers did not conduct studies using optimal procedures (Nich-
ols 2004). There has not been any prospective, double-blind, placebo-controlled LSD-assisted
psychotherapy research completed since the early 1970s.
The last time LSD-assisted psychotherapy was legally possible in Switzerland was from 1988 to
1993. Within those five years, 170 patients with a wide range of clinical conditions were treated
and the results of the treatments were summarized in a follow-up case series study (Gasser,
1996). However, the psychiatrists did not employ a control group and did not document the
investigation or the process itself, because the treatments were understood as therapeutic and
not part of a controlled study. The follow-up study suggested that the treatment may have
been safe and efficacious, as more than 80% of patients who responded to the follow-up were
satisfied with the result of the treatment, with no reported occurrence of severe persisting
adverse effects. However, no information was obtained from non-responders to the follow-up,
who might have had less positive results than the responders.
We will conduct this randomized, active-placebo controlled investigation in order to redevelop a
treatment method of LSD-assisted therapy for people confronting anxiety relating to advanced-
stage illnesses and to gather preliminary evidence on the safety and efficacy of this treatment in
this population using current scientific standards. Eight of twelve participants will be assigned to
the experimental intervention dose condition (called verum
(“true”) dose, 200 μg LSD), and four of twelve will be assigned
to the low dose condition (called active placebo dose, 20 μg
LSD). Participants enrolled in the study will receive two ses-
sions of LSD-assisted psychotherapy separated by a two to
four week interval. These experimental sessions will be em-
bedded within a course of six to eight individual non-drug
psychotherapy sessions that will first prepare participants for
LSD-assisted therapy and then help participants integrate
material from the LSD-assisted sessions.

An independent rater will assess anxiety levels, quality of life,

and pain throughout the study and until two months after the
second experimental session. The use of anxiety and pain med-
ications will be assessed throughout the duration of the study
via diaries kept by participants. The proposed pilot study is
part of a comprehensive plan by the sponsor, MAPS (Multidis-
ciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies, www.maps.org)
to reevaluate the therapeutic potential of LSD-assisted psycho-
therapy and to develop a method that is safe and efficacious
for patients with defined disturbances, with the goal of obtain-
ing the prescription use of LSD-assisted psychotherapy by spe-
cially-trained and licensed psychiatrists and psychotherapists
in specially regulated clinics (Doblin, 2001) Similar studies with
patients suffering from anxiety related to advanced-stage can-
cer are being conducted in the USA. One study at Harbor-UCLA
Medical Center is being sponsored by the Heffter Research In-
stitute and is utilizing psilocybin-assisted therapy (Grob 2005).

Psilocybin is the active compound in psychedelic mushrooms.

It was first isolated by Hofmann in 1957 and it shares a similar
pharmacological profile to LSD (Grob 2005). Another study at
McLean Hospital, Harvard Medical School, with the design, ap-
proval process and funding coordinated by MAPS, is using the
entactogen MDMA, to evaluate MDMA-assisted psychother-
apy in subjects with anxiety associated with advanced-stage
cancer (Halpern, 2006). We will be able to gather information
about the safety and efficacy of each of the three substances in
people with anxiety related to diagnosis with advanced-stage
illnesses and short life expectancy.
 Neuropsychedelia, The Revival of Hallucinogen Research since the Decade of the Brain [363]

by Nicolas David Langlitz • Fall 2007

Magister (Free University of Berlin, 2004)

Arzt (Free University of Berlin, 2004)
Doktor (Free University of Berlin, 2004)

A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of Joint Doctor of Philosophy with the University of California, San Franscisco
in Medical Anthropology in the Graduate Division of the University of California, Berkeley

This thesis examines the re-articulation of the drug-induced “psychedelic experience” in the age of cognitive neuroscience. It provides a historical
and social scientific analysis of the social and cultural conditions of the most recent transformation of this historically singular form of limit experi-
ence along three axes: types of understanding, forms of normativity, and modes of relation to oneself and to others (Foucault). The implication of
these social conditions in subjective experience takes a particular form in the case of hallucinogen ingestion: The psychopharmacological effects of
these drugs are thought to be highly dependent on a subject’s internal state and expectations and the environment, in which the drugs are taken.
The environment ethnographically described in this study is the meticulously regulated space of two neuropsychopharmacology laboratories in
Zurich and San Diego that have played central roles in the so-called revival of hallucinogen research since around 1990. The thesis examines the “ex-
ternal conditions” (Weber) of this renaissance in the “Decade of the Brain” after political, regulatory, and scientific developments had led to the termi-
nation of most research on psychedelics in the course of the 1960s. The use of hallucinogen action as a model of psychosis is analyzed. With respect
to hallucinogen-based animal models of schizophrenia the thesis discusses how humanness is dissolved and demarcated in biological psychiatry.
In the Zurich lab, neuroscientists also attempted to “operationalize” and solve certain problems drawn from debates over the nature of conscious-
ness in the philosophy of mind by turning them into experiments. Studying the transplantation of philosophy into the lab from a social scientific
viewpoint raises a number of interesting questions concerning the social life of philosophical ideas and the neuroscientific suffusion of a problem
space previously occupied by the humanities. Finally, this study investigates the “internal conditions” (Weber) of hallucinogen research today: the
scientific ethos underlying the work of a new generation of researchers fascinated by the psychedelic experience and their highly original strategies
of integrating these experiences into their conduct of life. The inquiry uniquely highlights a number of anthropological implications of psychophar-
macology, especially the connection between the human brain and subjective experience.
 Club drug use
among youths in treatment
for substance abuse [306]
American Journal Of Addiction
January 2006

Hopfer C1, Mendelson B

Van Leeuwen JM, Kelly S, Hooks S.

1Department of Psychiatry
University of Colorado Health Sciences Center
Denver, Colorado 80262, USA
Christian.Hopfer@UCHSC.edu

We describe lifetime rates of club drug use

among 782 youths in treatment for substance
abuse. Rates (%) for youths under eighteen
(N = 486) were methylenedioxymethamphet-
amine (MDMA), 32.3; gamma-hydroxybutyr-
ate (GHB), 7.0; lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD),
48.6; ketamine, 18.3; and methamphetamine,
30.2. For youths 18-32 (N = 289) rates (%) were
MDMA, 37.0; GHB, 13.1; LSD, 42.9; ketamine,
17.0; and methamphetamine, 31.5. Older
youths reported significantly more use of GHB
than younger youths (p < .01). Youths report-
ed using club drugs frequently outside of rave
settings. Club drug use is common among
youths in treatment for substance abuse and
has spread beyond the rave culture.
Impurity profiling of ecstasy tablets seized in Hong Kong
by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry [331]
Forensic Science International • February 2006

Jack Yuk Ki Cheng *, Man Fai Chan, Tai Wai Chan, Mei Yuen Hung

Forensic Science Division, Hong Kong Government Laboratory

Ho Man Tin Government Offices, 88 Chung Hau Street, Hong Kong, China

In Hong Kong, ecstasy tablets are more commonly known as ‘‘Fing Tau Yuen’’, literally
meaning ‘‘Shake Head Pills’’. The tablets contain mainly amphetamine-type stimu-
lants (ATS) including 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), 3,4-methyl-
enedioxyamphetamine (MDA), methamphetamine (MA) and/or ketamine. Adulter-
ant such as caffeine was also detected in the tablets. This paper reports a study on
the impurity profiles of ecstasy tablets from 89 seizures in Hong Kong from 2002 to
early 2004. Tablet samples were extracted by diethyl ether under alkaline condition
and then analyzed by gas GC–MS. The chromatograms obtained were compared.
A total of 19 identified impurities were selected as markers for impurity profiling.
They are different precursors, intermediates and by-products. The data matrices
were examined by hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA), and then the ecstasy tablets
were classified into different groups. Cluster analysis of ecstasy tablets is shown to
be capable of providing intelligence on clandestine laboratory networks.
The role of serendipity in drug discovery [810]
Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience • Volume 8 • No. 3 • 2006

By T.A. Ban

1Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA

fmcp@allstream.net

Serendipity is one of the many factors that may contribute to drug

discovery. It has played a role in the discovery of prototype psycho-
tropic drugs that led to modern pharmacological treatment in psy-
chiatry. It has also played a role in the discovery of several drugs that
have had an impact on the development of psychiatry. “Serendipity”
in drug discovery implies the finding of one thing while looking for
something else. This was the case in six of the twelve serendipitous
discoveries reviewed in this paper, i.e., aniline purple, penicillin, ly-
sergic acid diethylamide, meprobamate, chlorpromazine, and imip-
ramine. In the case of three drugs, i.e., potassium bromide, chloral hy-
drate, and lithium, the discovery was serendipitous because an utterly
false rationale led to correct empirical results; and in case of two oth-
ers, i.e., iproniazid and sildenafil, because valuable indications were
found for these drugs which were not initially those sought The dis-
covery of one of the twelve drugs, chlordiazepoxide, was sheer luck.
 Combined Treatment
with Neurotrophin-3 and LSD
Facilitates Behavioral Recovery
from Double-Hemisection Spinal Injury
in Neonatal Rats [53]
Journal Of Neurotrauma • 2006

Victor L. Arvanian,2 Honeyleen Manuzon,1,2 Michael Davenport,1

Georgia Bushell,1 Lorne M. Mendell,2 and John K. Robinson1

Departments of 1Psychology and 2Neurobiology & Behavior

Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York

We explored functional recovery in two spinal cord injury models

following a novel combination treatment (NT-3 LSD). One group
of rats received a staggered double hemisection (DH) at postnatal
day 2 (P2) of the left hemicord at T11 and the right hemicord at
T12. Another group received complete transection (CT) at T11 on
P2. A third group was sham operated. Each of these groups was
also treated with the drug combination. Drugs were administered
intrathecally above the lesion during surgery, and again s.c. at P4,
P6, P8, and P10. Intracellular recording in an in vitro spinal cord
preparation at P10–P12 in DH rats revealed weak polysynaptic
connections to lumbar motoneurons through the injury region,
but only in those receiving NT-3 LSD; NT-3 or LSD alone had no
effect. In behavioral experiments, the frequency of rearing in an
open field and hindlimb kicks during swimming was assessed
every 3–4 days from P9 to P58. Both CT and DH injury severely
impaired rearing and hindlimb kicking during swimming. DH rats
treated with NT-3 LSD showed significantly more kicks during
swimming than untreated DH or CT rats and treated CT rats be-
ginning as early as P9 and lasting through the duration of testing.
Rearing behavior was also improved by treatment but beginning
only in the 3rd postnatal week, the time at which it normally devel-
ops. Rearing frequency reached sham control levels by P40. Our re-
sults suggest this combination treatment may be a promising new
strategy for facilitating recovery from moderate spinal cord injury.
 Ergot: Biology and Control [180]
USDA-ARS National Forage Seed Production Research Center • February 2006

By Stephen Alderman • Plant Pathologist

When we look at the tens of thousands of known species of fungi, few have had a greater
impact on society than ergot. Over a thousand compounds have been extracted or derived
from ergot, and no other natural product has been of greater value to the pharmaceutical in-
dustry. Drugs in obstetrics, neurology, and psychology, for example, are derived from ergot.
One of the best known of these derivatives is LSD. However, consumption of raw ergot can
result in ergot poisoning, often referred to as ergotism. Some of the symptoms of ergotism
include hallucinations, severe pain, convulsions, gangrenous limbs and death. In the middle
ages, ergotism resulting from consumption of bread made from ergot contaminated flour
was referred to as St. Anthony’s fire. Ergot has a long and interesting history. And in recent
years, ergotism has even been linked to the erratic behavior of some individuals in 1692,
as described in the Salem witchcraft trials, although this association has been disputed.

The earliest mention of ergot is in a German herbal from 1582, where we find the first record-
ed medical use of ergot, as an aid in childbirth. The first illustration of ergot appears in 1658.
Although the medicinal uses of ergot were known in the middle ages, the risk of ingestion of
bread made from ergot contaminated rye flour was somehow not recognized. This was es-
pecially unfortunate for the impoverished peasants, who relied on the highly susceptible rye
as their primary source for bread. Reports of ergot poisonings in humans extend from the
Middle Ages into modern times, including a report from Manchester in 1929 and Ethiopia in
1979. Reports of ergotism in animals appear annually in the veterinary literature. Despite the
long history of ergot, it was not until 1853 that ergot was recognized as a disease, caused by
a fungus, and not simply a malformation of the plant. And despite over 150 years of research
on ergot, the disease continues to plague growers of cereal grains and grasses. As recently
as 2005, we find reports of widespread occurrence of ergot in barley in the Midwest. Ergot
continues to be problematic in Kentucky bluegrass seed production in the Pacific Northwest.
 Salvia divinorum—
representation of a new drug in the Internet
[305]
[Article in German]

Gesundheitswesen • May 2006

Siemann H1, Specka M, Schifano F, Deluca P, Scherbaum N.

1Klinik für abhängiges Verhalten und Suchtmedizin, Rheinische Kliniken Essen

Kliniken der Universität Duisburg-Essen (Direktor: Prof. Dr. N. Scherbaum)

The German pages of the Internet were searched for the pres-
ence of the hallucinogenic herbal drug Salvia divinorum, which
is not dealt with in current addiction medicine or psychiatric
text books. The investigation is part of the EU sponsored project
“Psychonaut” as preparatory work for the development of an In-
ternet-based early warning system. The first 100 websites of the
search using “Salvia divinorum” were compared with the search
results for “cannabis” and “LSD”. The following aspects of the sites
were especially analyzed: the originator, marketing of drugs, and
the attitude towards drug use. Salvia was offered for sale on ap-
proximately a third of the sites (29%); cannabis and LSD were not
marketed on any sites. Official websites such as those from gov-
ernmental organizations or universities were seldom found when
searching for “Salvia divinorum”, and then only under the last hits.
The percentage of institutional sites (e. g. public organizations)
were 12% with Salvia, 21% with cannabis, and 38% with LSD. A
drug-friendly attitude was found at 64 % of the sites with regard
to Salvia, 58% for cannabis, and 24% for LSD. The drug help sys-
tem must be aware of that the Internet is a source of drug-related
information, and of drug trade. As this investigation shows, sites
often have a drug-friendly attitude. The low availability of official
information on Salvia divinorum (also outside the Internet) rela-
tive to the presence of drug-friendly or drug trading sites is an
indication that new trends of drug consumption can be tracked
in the Internet before they will be found in official literature.
 Neural correlates
of imagined and synaesthetic colours [494]
Neuropsychologia • August 2006

Rich AN1, Williams MA, Puce A, Syngeniotis A

Howard MA, McGlone F, Mattingley JB

1Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory, School of Behavioural Science

University of Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia
rich@search.bwh.harvard.edu

The experience of colour is a core element of human vision. Colours pro-

vide important symbolic and contextual information not conveyed by
form alone. Moreover, the experience of colour can arise without external
stimulation. For many people, visual memories are rich with colour imag-
ery. In the unusual phenomenon of grapheme-colour synaesthesia, ach-
romatic forms such as letters, words and numbers elicit vivid experiences
of colour. Few studies, however, have examined the neural correlates of
such internally generated colour experiences. We used functional mag-
netic resonance imaging (fMRI) to compare patterns of cortical activity for
the perception of external coloured stimuli and internally generated co-
lours in a group of grapheme-colour synaesthetes and matched non-syn-
aesthetic controls. In a voluntary colour imagery task, both synaesthetes
and non-synaesthetes made colour judgements on objects presented as
grey scale photographs. In a synaesthetic colour task, we presented let-
ters that elicited synaesthetic colours, and asked participants to perform
a localisation task. We assessed the neural activity underpinning these
two different forms of colour experience that occur in the absence of
chromatic sensory input. In both synaesthetes and non-synaesthetes,
voluntary colour imagery activated the colour-selective area, V4, in the
right hemisphere. In contrast, the synaesthetic colour task resulted in
unique activity for synaesthetes in the left medial lingual gyrus, an area
previously implicated in tasks involving colour knowledge. Our data sug-
gest that internally generated colour experiences recruit brain regions
specialised for colour perception, with striking differences between vol-
untary colour imagery and synaesthetically induced colours.
 Psilocybin can occasion mystical-type experiences
having substantial and sustained personal meaning
and spiritual significance [175]
Psychopharmacology • August 2006

Griffiths RR1, Richards WA, McCann U, Jesse R.

Although psilocybin has been used for centuries for religious purposes, little
is known scientifically about its acute and persisting effects. This double-
blind study evaluated the acute and longer-term psychological effects of a
high dose of psilocybin relative to a comparison compound administered
under comfortable, supportive conditions. The participants were hallucino-
gen-naïve adults reporting regular participation in religious or spiritual ac-
tivities. Two or three sessions were conducted at 2-month intervals. Thirty
volunteers received orally administered psilocybin (30 mg/70 kg) and meth-
ylphenidate hydrochloride (40 mg/70 kg) in counterbalanced order. To ob-
scure the study design, six additional volunteers received methylphenidate
in the first two sessions and unblinded psilocybin in a third session. The 8-h
sessions were conducted individually. Volunteers were encouraged to close
their eyes and direct their attention inward. Study monitors rated volunteers’
behavior during sessions. Volunteers completed questionnaires assessing
drug effects and mystical experience immediately after and 2 months after
sessions. Community observers rated changes in the volunteer’s attitudes
and behavior. Psilocybin produced a range of acute perceptual changes,
subjective experiences, and labile moods including anxiety. Psilocybin also
increased measures of mystical experience. At 2 months, the volunteers rat-
ed the psilocybin experience as having substantial personal meaning and
spiritual significance and attributed to the experience sustained positive
changes in attitudes and behavior consistent with changes rated by com-
munity observers. When administered under supportive conditions, psilo-
cybin occasioned experiences similar to spontaneously occurring mystical
experiences. The ability to occasion such experiences prospectively will al-
low rigorous scientific investigations of their causes and consequences.
 Francis Crick:
Discoverer of the Genetic Code [611]
New England Journal Of Medicine • August 2006

Book Review By Guido Barbujani

Università di Ferrara, 44100 Ferrara, Italy

g.barbujani@unife.it

(Eminent Lives) By Matt Ridley - 213 pages

New York, HarperCollins, 2006. $19.95
ISBN: 0-06-082333-X

As a child, Francis Crick was afraid that there would be noth-

ing left for him to discover when he was an adult. In his book,
Francis Crick, Matt Ridley shows us how wrong Crick was. We
read of Crick’s years at the Admiralty Research Laboratory
during World War II; of his “high-pitch laugh, more like a bray”;
of his experiences with LSD in the 1970s; and of his belief that
differences in IQ between blacks and whites have a genetic,
not social, basis. We read less about Crick’s late interest in the
possibility of an extraterrestrial origin of life but, understand-
ably, find many pages about his association with James Wat-
son. In 213 dense pages, Ridley gives us a portrait of the man
who is credited with one of the crucial discoveries of 20th-
century science — the structure of DNA, with its implication,
the semiconservative mode of replication. Watson, Crick, and
Maurice Wilkins were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology
or Medicine in 1962. Rosalind Franklin, who pioneered the
x-ray diffraction study of macromolecules and played a cru-
cial role in those discoveries in many ways, had died in 1958.

The story of the discovery of the structure of DNA has been

told many times. Readers familiar with Watson’s famous
book, The Double Helix: A Personal Account of the Discovery
of the Structure of DNA (New York: Touchstone, 1968; reis-
sued in 2001) — which Crick heartily disliked — may not find
Ridley’s story equally entertaining. In fact, the two books
could hardly be more different. Watson’s book starts with a
line that has become famous — “I have never seen Francis Crick in a modest mood” — and proceeds accordingly. Ridley chooses a different
key, focusing more on scientific issues than on personality conflicts. His lack of sympathy for anyone who got in Crick’s way is apparent,
but the emphasis is on the not-so-linear path that led to the double-helix model and on the causes, rather than the manifestations, of
the sore conflict between Watson and Crick in the late 1960s. The writing is punctuated by vivid, typically Crickian quotations, such as:

“This may be true, but there

does not appear to be any evidence for it.”

If the reader is not looking for sophisticated

literary pleasures, this well-documented book
does its job. The slow process through which
scientific ideas take shape — how they are test-
ed, rejected, and refined — is well described,
and technical terms are clearly explained, so
that even nonexperts can easily go through
these pages. I see two problems with the book,
though. One is the wording of the title. Three
chapters describe how Crick, after his main dis-
covery, participated in the effort to understand
the rules whereby the information contained in
DNA is translated into protein. He was so fasci-
nated by this new challenge that he chose the
genetic code as the subject of his Nobel Prize
lecture. However, it was H. Gobind Khorana,
Marshall W. Nirenberg, and Robert W. Holley
who earned the Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Medicine in 1968 for discovering the genetic
code and elucidating its function. Calling Crick
the “discoverer of the double helix” would have
made for a more appropriate title and done no
harm to his reputation.

The second problem I found with this book, aptly published in a series on eminent lives, is that a biography is probably the most difficult
way to tell the story of such a complex, multilayered, and controversial process as the quest for the code of life. There is little in this book
about other scientists — such as Franklin, Khorana, and Nirenberg — who, from a broad perspective, would be all but secondary char-
acters in the play. Alas, biography is a tricky literary genre, barely less so than autobiography. With just a few laudable exceptions, biog-
raphies tend to be one-sided, and this one is no exception. At the end of the book, we are left with the idea that Francis Crick’s life was
essentially a linear process: there are hesitations and even failures at the beginning, he does not find the right wife or the right job right
away, but there is a turning point after which success becomes inevitable, and then the previous vagaries prove minor episodes in a tra-
jectory that goes straight to the final glorious outcome. Personally, I doubt that any life — even Francis Crick’s life — is so uncomplicated.
 Response of cluster headache
to psilocybin and LSD [301]
Neurology • 2006

R. Andrew Sewell, John H. Halpern and Harrison G. Pope, Jr

The authors interviewed 53 cluster headache patients who had used psilocybin or lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) to treat their condition. Twenty-two of 26
psilocybin users reported that psilocybin aborted attacks; 25 of 48 psilocybin users and 7 of 8 LSD users reported cluster period termination; 18 of 19 psilocy-
bin users and 4 of 5 LSD users reported remission period extension. Research on the effects of psilocybin and LSD on cluster headache may be warranted.
 Animal Models
of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder:
Rationale to Understanding
Psychobiology and Pharmacology [366]
Psychiatric Clinics Of North America • 2006

Schaun Korff, MSc, Brian H. Harvey, BPharm, PhD*

Division of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy

North-West University, Potchefstroom 2520, South Africa

Animal models have proved extremely useful in assisting re-

searchers to better understand a given clinical disorder. The
difficulty in developing a suitable animal model lies in wheth-
er it can be assumed that an animal is truly exhibiting the be-
havioral and other manifestations of the human disorder it is
designed to model. An animal model can never reflect fully
the human situation that it is modeling, nor is there a model
that is isomorphic with the symptomology in question (ie, the
animal symptoms are similar but the cause of the symptoms
differ between human and model). Consequently, the devel-
opment of an animal model requires parallel development of
measures that will allow meaningful comparisons. Difficulties
in setting up and identifying suitable animal models include
the intrinsic problems in defining patient profiles and diag-
nostic criteria, variations between patients even when these
are pathologically defined, and the possibility that the level of
the disorder that the animal exhibits may not be equivalent in
the human disorder. Even when it can be certain that the be-
haviors or signs are the same, humans are unusual in that they
are verbal and so similar behaviors, signals, or signs may have
different meanings. Furthermore, the observable changes in
behavior that occur in animals, primarily rodents, are treated
as secondary symptoms in humans [2], and little effort is made
to characterize either human or animal behaviors in a manner
that would allow assessment of analogy or homology. For ex-
ample, hiding is normal behavior in many rodents but is con-
sidered pathologic in humans; therefore the usefulness of the
animal model in mimicking the human condition is limited.
 Concurrent Use of
Methamphetamine, MDMA, LSD,
Ketamine, GHB, and Flunitrazepam
among American Youths [383]
Drug & Alcohol Dependency • September 2006

Li-Tzy Wu, Sc. D.a,*, William E. Schlenger, Ph.D.a,b,

and Deborah M. Galvin, Ph.D.c

a Duke University School of Medicine

Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, DUMC
P.O. Box 17969, Durham, NC 27715, USA
b RTI International, Behavioral Health Research Division
3040 Cornwallis Road, RTP, NC 27709
c Center for Substance Abuse Prevention
Division of Workplace Programs, Substance Abuse and
Mental Health Services Administration, DHHS, ROOM # 2-1035
1 Choke Cherry Road Rockville, MD 20850

The magnitude and the characteristics of the use of methamphetamine,

MDMA (Ecstasy), LSD (d-lysergic acid diethylamide), ketamine, GHB
(gamma-hydroxybutyrate), and flunitrazepam (Rohypnol) were exam-
ined in a probability sample of the U.S. civilian population that included
multiethnic urban, suburban, and rural youths aged 16 to 23 (N = 19,084).
Data were drawn from the National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NS-
DUH). Logistic regression analyses were conducted to identify the char-
acteristics associated with the use of each of these drugs and of multiple
drugs. Approximately 20% of youths aged 16 to 23 reported having ever
used one or more of these drugs. Less than 1% of club drug users used
club drugs only, and 82% of them had ever used three or more drug
classes. Females were more likely than males to report using multiple
club drugs. Recent users of methamphetamine were most likely to be fe-
males and adolescents aged 16 or 17. Recent users of MDMA tended to
be young adults aged 18 to 21 and residents of metropolitan areas. Most
recent users of LSD were adolescents aged 16 to 19 and those in low-in-
come families. Ketamine users were primarily employed youths. Staying
in school and getting married were associated with decreased odds of
club drug use. Club drug use was highly associated with the presence
of criminal behaviors and recent alcohol abuse or dependence. Adoles-
cents are more likely than young adults to use multiple drugs. The clus-
tering of multidrug use and alcohol use disorder is a cause of concern.
 Substance use, suicidality,
and adolescent-onset schizophrenia:
an Israeli 10-year retrospective study [302]
Journal Of Children, Adolescents & Psychopharmacology • December 2006

Shoval G1, Sever J, Sher L, Diller R, Apter A, Weizman A, Zalsman G.

1Adolescent Inpatient Unit, Geha Mental Health Center

Petah Tiqva, Israel - shovgal@post.tau.ac.il

The aim of this study was to investigate the link between the use of specific
types of substances and suicidality in adolescent inpatients with schizophre-
nia and schizoaffective disorder. We performed a 10-year naturalistic retro-
spective study of 178 adolescent inpatients diagnosed as suffering from either
schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder. A comparison was made between
the suicide-attempting adolescent inpatients and the non-attempting sub-
jects, by the use of specific types of substances, measurements of psychotic,
depressive, and aggressive symptoms, and clinical data reported during their
hospitalization. The suicide attempters reported considerably greater usage
of inhalants and lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD). Alcohol and methylene-di-
oxy-methylamphetamine (MDMA) were also used significantly more by this
group. However, no differences were found in the usage of cannabis, amphet-
amines, cocaine, and opiates. The suicide-attempting patients were found to
have had more previous psychiatric admissions, a greater level of deliberate
self-harm behavior, and a higher level of suicide ideation, but a decreased se-
verity of psychotic symptoms. This study is the first report of the association
between specific types of substances and suicidality in the high-risk popula-
tion of adolescent psychotic inpatients. The strong association between in-
halants, LSD, alcohol, and MDMA with suicidality is relevant to suicide preven-
tion and intervention programs in adolescent-onset schizophrenia.
 Differences in club drug use
between heterosexual and lesbian/bisexual females [307]

Addiction Behavior • December 2006

Parsons JT1, Kelly BC, Wells BE.

1Department of Psychology
Hunter College of the City University of New York
jeffrey.parsons@hunter.cuny.edu

Although there has been much empirical re-

search documenting current trends in club
drug use among gay and bisexual men, little
research has addressed the variance among les-
bian, bisexual, or heterosexual women. Using
data collected through time—space sampling
from dance clubs in New York City during 2005
(N=1104), this study explored sexual identity
variance among women in the reported use of six
club drugs: methamphetamine, cocaine, MDMA,
ketamine, GHB, and LSD. Significant differences
were found in that younger women were more
likely to be active club drug users. Lesbian and
bisexual women reported significantly higher
lifetime rates of ecstasy, cocaine, methamphet-
amine, and LSD use compared to heterosexual
women. These data suggest a need to better un-
derstand the influence of sexual orientation and
sexual culture in relation to club drug use and to
tailor health promotion efforts to meet the needs
of various groups of club drug using women.
 Distinct temporal phases
in the behavioral pharmacology of LSD:
dopamine D2 receptor-mediated effects in the rat
and implications for psychosis [358]
Psychopharmacology • January 2005

D. Marona-Lewicka . D. E. Nichols

Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular

Pharmacology, Purdue University
Heine Pharmacy Building, 575 Stadium Mall Dr
West Lafayette, IN, 47907-2091, USA
e-mail: drdave@pharmacy.purdue.edu

The effect of LSD in humans has been described as occurring in two tempo-
ral phases. The behavioral effects in rats also occur in two temporal phases:
an initial suppression of exploration followed by increased locomotor activ-
ity. Objectives: We decided to investigate this phenomenon from the per-
spective that the pharmacology might have relevance to the neurochemical
mechanisms underlying psychosis. Methods: Twenty-five male Sprague–
Dawley rats were trained to discriminate LSD (186 nmol/kg, 0.08 mg/kg, i.p.)
with a 30-min preinjection time (LSD-30, N=12) and LSD (372 nmol/kg, 0.16
mg/kg, i.p.) with a 90-min preinjection time (LSD-90, N=13) from saline, us-
ing a two-lever, food-reinforced operant conditioning task. Results: LSD (186
or 372 nmol/kg, 0.08 or 0.16 mg/kg) given 30 min prior to training produced
a cue that was completely antagonized by 5-HT2A antagonists and lasted no
longer than 1 h. LSD (372 nmol/kg, 0.16 mg/kg) injected 90 min before train-
ing produced a cue that was not fully blocked by 5-HT2A antagonists, but
instead was significantly inhibited by haloperidol. In these rats, substitution
no longer occurred with the 5-HT2 agonists DOI or LSD (30 min preinjection),
but full substitution was obtained with the D2 agonists apomorphine, N-
propyldihydrexidine, and quinelorane. Conclusion: The discriminative stimu-
lus effect of LSD in rats occurs in two phases, and these studies provide evi-
dence that the later temporal phase is mediated by D2 dopamine receptor
stimulation. A second temporal phase that involves dopaminergic pathways
would be consistent with the widespread belief that excessive dopaminergic
activity may be an underlying cause of paranoid psychosis.
 From
“Candy Kids”
to
“Chemi-Kids”:

A Typology of Young Adults

Who Attend Raves in the
Midwestern United States [297]
Substance Use & Misuse • 2005

By Jill A. McCaughan, Robert G. Carlson

Russel S. Falck and Harvey A Siegal

Wright State University, Dayton, Ohio, USA

Although young people attending raves have been most visibly associ-
ated with the use of ecstasy and other “club drugs” in the United States,
there is reason to believe that they are not a homogenous group in terms
of their drug use practices. The purpose of this article is to begin develop-
ing a typology of young adult ecstasy users involved in the rave subcul-
ture–known as Ravers or Party Kids. The study is based on focus groups
and qualitative interviews conducted between November 2001 and Sep-
tember 2003 with 36 current and former ecstasy users, aged 19–31, in cen-
tral Ohio, as well as participant observation conducted in raves, clubs, and
bars where “club drugs” are often used. Findings suggest the existence of
five main subgroups in attendance at raves–Chemi-Kids, Candy Kids, non-
affiliated Party Kids, Junglists, and Old School Ravers. These groups differ
in regard to musical taste, philosophy, style of clothing worn, amount of
time in the rave subculture, and most importantly, patterns of drug use.
For example, while the use of ecstasy appears most common among
Candy Kids, Junglists tend to be more involved with the use of ketamine
and methamphetamine. The use of alcohol, cocaine, marijuana, and hal-
lucinogens is also widespread in the rave subculture. The typology can
aid in the development of communication strategies necessary for suc-
cessful prevention activities among some categories of ecstasy users.
[325]
 Club Drug Use in Germany [299]
Club Drugs • 2005

By Renate Soellner

FU Berlin, Evaluation, Qualit¨atssicherung und Qualit¨atsmanagement in

Erziehungswissenschaft und Psychologie, Berlin, Germany

In this paper the epidemiology of club drug use in Germa-

ny, including the use of 3,4-methylendioxy-N-metham-
phetamine (MDMA) known as ‘ecstasy’ and related sub-
stances such as speed, amphetamines, hallucinogens,
and cannabis is described on the basis of five different
surveys. Two of them are representative household sur-
veys to monitor the licit and illicit drug use behavior of
the German population. The third one is a longitudinal
study aimed at exploring comorbidity and posited risk
and protective factors in adolescents and young adults
with specific emphasis on substance use-related disor-
ders. Since ecstasy seemed to be associated with a new
music culture of the ’90s called “techno,” two studies in-
vestigating the relationship of using ecstasy and related
substances in the techno party scene are additionally
presented. The question of the clinical impact of us-
ing ecstasy and related substances is raised in terms of
substance use-related and mental disorders associated
with the use of ecstasy. Finally, the motivation for using
and stopping the use of ecstasy is addressed. It is shown
that ecstasy has reached the second place (after canna-
bis) in illegal drug preferences of adolescents and young
adults in Germany. Evidence is found that ecstasy use as
well as ecstasy user-related disorders such as “abuse” and
“dependence” are of a transient, “youth-limited” nature.
 Can psychedelics have a role
in psychiatry once again? [54]
British Journal Of Psychiatry • 2005

by Dr. Ben Sessa

Psychedelic or hallucinogenic drugs such

as lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), 3,4,5-
trimethoxy-b-phenethylamine (mescaline),
psilocybin, 3,4-methylenedioxymetham-
phetamine (MDMA), N,N-dimethyltrypt-
amine (DMT) and their relations occur in
abundance throughout the natural world,
and have been used by humankind for
thousands of years. In some cultures they
are important tools for spiritual experi-
ences, whereas in others they are la-
belled as dangerous drugs of misuse.
What is less well known about these sub-
stances is the role they played in psychia-
try for a brief historical interval. This ar-
ticle offers a short overview of this period
and questions whether interest in these
compounds might be emerging again.
 Prognostic impact of psychoactive substances use during hospitalization for intentional drug overdose
[355]
Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavia • 2005

Tournier M, Molimard M, Abouelfath A, Cougnard A

Begaud B, Gbikpi-Benissan G, Verdoux H.

1EA 3676, IFR99 of Public Health, 33076 and 2INSERM U

356, University Segalen-Bordeaux Bordeaux and
3Department of Intensive Care
Hospital Pellegrin, Bordeaux, France

Objective: To assess whether current use of psychoactive substance(s) is a prognostic factor during hospital-
ization for intentional drug overdose (IDO). Current intoxication with psychoactive substance(s) [cannabis,
opiate, buprenorphine, amphetamine/ecstasy, cocaine, lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD)] was identified using
toxicological urinalysis in 671 patients with IDO. An IDO was a priori defined as serious if associated with one
of the following events: death, hospitalization in intensive care unit longer than 48 hours, respiratory support,
use of vasopressive drugs, cardiac massage or dialysis. Subjects positive for toxicological assays were twice as
likely to present with serious IDO (OR ¼ 1.9, 95% CI: 1.3–2.8, P ¼ 0.001), independently from a large range of
confounding factors. The risk of serious IDO was especially marked in subjects using LSD, buprenorphine or
opiates. Systematic investigation of substance use could be important to adapt medical management of sub-
jects with IDO in general hospital, but also in primary care and psychiatric settings.
 Informed Consent and Ethical Issues
in Military Medical Research [321]
Academic Emergency Medicine • May 2005

John McManus, MD, Sumeru G. Mehta, MD, Annette R. McClinton, RN, MA,
Robert A. De Lorenzo, MD, Toney W. Baskin, MD

Informed consent in military research shares many of the

same fundamental principles and regulations that govern
civilian biomedical research. In fact, much of modern re-
search ethics is grounded in events that occurred in the
context of war or government-sponsored research. De-
spite these similarities and common origins, research in
the military has additional requirements designed to pre-
serve service members’ informed consent rights. The spe-
cial nature of the superior–subordinate relationship in the
military necessitates careful protections to avoid percep-
tions of coercion or undue influence on a military subject.
Additionally, current legal and regulatory requirements for
advanced informed consent significantly restrict the flex-
ibility of the military to conduct research using waiver of
consent. This has implications on the ability of the nation
to develop effective medical treatments for the global war
on terrorism. Nevertheless, work is under way to realign
defense research policy with the norms of civilian bio-
medical practice. Future directions include the adoption of
waivers for military emergency research, and the cautious
introduction of human subject studies on the battlefield.
This paper discusses historical background, regulatory dif-
ferences, and concerns and challenges of some of these
regulatory differences for research personnel that apply
to informed consent and waiver of said informed consent
for emergency research conducted by the U.S. military.
 Flashback:
psychiatric experimentation with LSD
in historical perspective [498]
Canadian Journal Of Psychiatry • June 2005

By E. Dyck

1Department of History, McMaster University

Hamilton, Ontario. dycke@mcmaster.ca

In the popular mind, d-lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) research in psychi-

atry has long been associated with the CIA-funded experiments conducted
by Ewen Cameron at the Allen Memorial Institute in Montreal, Quebec. De-
spite this reputation, a host of medical researchers in the post World War
II era explored LSD for its potential therapeutic value. Some of the most
widespread trials in the Western world occurred in Saskatchewan, under
the direction of psychiatrists Humphry Osmond (in Weyburn) and Abram
Hoffer (in Saskatoon). These medical researchers were first drawn to LSD
because of its ability to produce a “model psychosis.” Their experiments
with the drug that Osmond was to famously describe as a “psychedelic”
led them to hypothesize and promote the biochemical nature of schizo-
phrenia. This brief paper examines the early trials in Saskatchewan, draw-
ing on hospital records, interviews with former research subjects, and the
private papers of Hoffer and Osmond. It demonstrates that, far from being
fringe medical research, these LSD trials represented a fruitful, and indeed
encouraging, branch of psychiatric research occurring alongside more fa-
mous and successful trials of the first generation of psychopharmacologi-
cal agents, such as chlropromazine and imipramine. Ultimately, these LSD
experiments failed for 2 reasons, one scientific and the other cultural. First,
in the 1950s and early 1960s, the scientific parameters of clinical trials shift-
ed to necessitate randomized controlled trials, which the Saskatchewan
researchers had failed to construct. Second, as LSD became increasingly
associated with student riots, antiwar demonstrations, and the countercul-
ture, governments intervened to criminalize the drug, restricting and then
terminating formal medical research into its potential therapeutic effects.
 Hallucinogenic mushrooms [218]
Medicina (Kaunas) • 2005

Dagmara Reingardienė, Jolita Vilčinskaitė1, Robertas Lažauskas2

Clinic of Intensive Therapy, Kaunas University of Medicine,
1Department of Intensive Care, Kaunas University of Medicine Hospital,
2Department of Physiology, Kaunas University of Medicine, Lithuania
Correspondence to D. Reingardienė, Clinic of Intensive Therapy
Kaunas University of Medicine, Eivenių 2, 50009 Kaunas, Lithuania

The group of hallucinogenic mushrooms (species of the genera Conocybe, Gymnopilus, Pan-
aeolus, Pluteus, Psilocybe, and Stropharia) is psilocybin-containing mushrooms. These “magic”,
psychoactive fungi have the serotonergic hallucinogen psilocybin. Toxicity of these mushrooms
is substantial because of the popularity of hallucinogens. Psilocybin and its active metabolite
psilocin are similar to lysergic acid diethylamide. These hallucinogens affect the central ner-
vous system rapidly (within 0.5–1 hour after ingestion), producing ataxia, hyperkinesis, and
hallucinations. In this review article there are discussed about history of use of hallucinogenic
mushrooms and epidemiology; pharmacology, pharmacodynamics, somatic effects and phar-
macokinetics of psilocybin, the clinical effects of psilocybin and psilocin, signs and symptoms
of ingestion of hallucinogenic mushrooms, treatment and prognosis.

LSD Sales • Alpha Bay Market • 2015

Total Sales
B2B Sales
Vendor: Gogzgod
Vendor: Lyceric
Vendor: TopSecUK
 Behavioral tolerance to lysergic acid diethylamide is associated with reduced serotonin-2A receptor signaling in rat cortex [220]

Neuropsychopharmacology • September 2005

Gresch PJ1, Smith RL, Barrett RJ, Sanders-Bush E.

1Department of Pharmacology
Vanderbilt University School of Medicine
Nashville, TN 37232, USA

Tolerance is defined as a decrease in responsiveness to a drug after repeated

administration. Tolerance to the behavioral effects of hallucinogens occurs in
humans and animals. In this study, we used drug discrimination to establish
a behavioral model of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) tolerance and exam-
ined whether tolerance to the stimulus properties of LSD is related to altered
serotonin receptor signaling. Rats were trained to discriminate 60 microg/kg
LSD from saline in a two-lever drug discrimination paradigm. Two groups of
animals were assigned to either chronic saline treatment or chronic LSD treat-
ment. For chronic treatment, rats from each group were injected once per day
with either 130 microg/kg LSD or saline for 5 days. Rats were tested for their
ability to discriminate either saline or 60 microg/kg LSD, 24 h after the last
chronic injection. Rats receiving chronic LSD showed a 44% reduction in LSD
lever selection, while rats receiving chronic vehicle showed no change in per-
cent choice on the LSD lever. In another group of rats receiving the identical
chronic LSD treatment, LSD-stimulated [35S]GTPgammaS binding, an index
of G-protein coupling, was measured in the rat brain by autoradiography. Af-
ter chronic LSD, a significant reduction in LSD-stimulated [35S]GTPgammaS
binding was observed in the medial prefrontal cortex and anterior cingulate
cortex. Furthermore, chronic LSD produced a significant reduction in 2,5-di-
methoxy-4-iodoamphetamine-stimulated [35S]GTPgammaS binding in me-
dial prefrontal cortex and anterior cingulate cortex, which was blocked by
MDL 100907, a selective 5-HT2A receptor antagonist, but not SB206553, a 5-
HT2C receptor antagonist, indicating a reduction in 5-HT2A receptor signal-
ing. 125I-LSD binding to 5-HT2A receptors was reduced in cortical regions,
demonstrating a reduction in 5-HT2A receptor density. Taken together, these
results indicate that adaptive changes in LSD-stimulated serotonin receptor
signaling may mediate tolerance to the discriminative stimulus effects of LSD.
 A role for psychedelics in psychiatry? [309]
British Journal Psychiatry • November 2005

By R. Sandison

I read with interest the editorial ‘Can psychedelics have a role in psychia-
try once again?’ (Sessa, 2005). Aside from overcoming current legislative
barriers, attention needs to be given to education about known research
into this field, a function which this editorial usefully starts to fulfil. The
concern remains that the image of psychedelics was not shaped by the
already existing extensive professional literature, but by the mass media
sensationalising the accidents of unsupervised selfexperimentation (Grof,
2001). It could therefore be surmised that decisive influences will be a va-
riety of political, legal, economic and mass–psychological factors, rather
than the results of current and ongoing scientific research. Interest from
the psychiatric community will be paramount if this research information
is to be critically reviewed with a view to clinical application. The difference
between psychedelics (entheogens) and other psychotropic drugs is that
entheogens work as ‘non-specific amplifiers of the psyche’, inducing an
altered or non-ordinary state of consciousness (Grof, 2000). The content
and nature of the experiences are not thought to be artificial products of
their pharmacological interaction with the brain (‘toxic psychoses’) but
authentic expressions of the psyche revealing its functioning on levels
not ordinarily available for observation and study. In order to conceptu-
alise this, a vastly extended cartography of the psyche (Grof, 2000), one
which challenges our biomedical psychiatric model, is required. Within
psychiatry, entheogenic substances (one of several methods of inducing
a non-ordinary state of consciousness) could contribute to a powerful
form of experiential psychotherapy; an important addition to a psychi-
atric armamentarium, working with domains of the psyche traditionally
ignored in our ethnocentric Western model (Schlitz et al, 2005). Potential
credence for this field depends upon whether we view all non-ordinary
states of consciousness as pathological or whether in some cases, some
‘psychotic’ experiences can be seen to have potential value as well as be-
ing potentially damaging. There is ongoing interest among mental health
professionals in the concept of spiritual emergence as well as the thera-
peutic power of altered states of consciousness, the subject of a recent 1
day meeting held jointly with the Royal College of Psychiatrists and the
Royal Society of Medicine.
 LSD, 5-HT (serotonin),
and the evolution of
a behavioral assay [513]
Neuroscience Biobehavioral Reviews • January 2004

Appel JB1, West WB, Buggy J.

1Department of Psychology
University of South Carolina
1512 Pendleton Street, Columbia, SC 29208
appel@sc.edu

Research in our laboratory, supported by NIDA and facilitat-

ed by Roger Brown, has indicated that serotonergic neuronal
systems are involved in the discriminative stimulus effects of
LSD. However, the only compounds that fully antagonize the
LSD cue act at both serotonin (5-HT) and dopamine (DA) re-
ceptors. In addition, substitution for LSD in standard drug vs.
no-drug (DND) discriminations does not necessarily predict
either similar mechanisms of action or hallucinogenic po-
tency because ‘false positives’ occur when animals are given
drugs such as lisuride (LHM), quipazine, or, possibly, yohim-
bine. These effects can be greatly reduced by using drug vs.
drug (D-D), drug vs. drug vs. no drug (D-ND), or drug vs. ‘ oth-
er’ drug (saline, cocaine, pentobarbital) training procedures.
Additional studies, in which drugs were administered direct-
ly into the cerebral ventricles or specific brain areas, suggest
that structures containing terminal fields of serotonergic
neurons might be involved in the stimulus effects of LSD.
 Hallucinogens [221]
Pharmacology & Therapeutics • 2004

David E. Nichols*
Associate editor: B.L. Roth

Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology

School of Pharmacy and Pharmacal Sciences
Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN

Hallucinogens (psychedelics) are psychoactive substances that

powerfully alter perception, mood, and a host of cognitive process-
es. They are considered physiologically safe and do not produce
dependence or addiction. Their origin predates written history,
and they were employed by early cultures in a variety of sociocul-
tural and ritual contexts. In the 1950s, after the virtually contem-
poraneous discovery of both serotonin (5-HT) and lysergic acid
diethylamide (LSD-25), early brain research focused intensely on
the possibility that LSD or other hallucinogens had a serotonergic
basis of action and reinforced the idea that 5-HT was an important
neurotransmitter in brain. These ideas were eventually proven, and
today it is believed that hallucinogens stimulate 5-HT2A receptors,
especially those expressed on neocortical pyramidal cells. Activa-
tion of 5-HT2A receptors also leads to increased cortical glutamate
levels presumably by a presynaptic receptor-mediated release
from thalamic afferents. These findings have led to comparisons of
the effects of classical hallucinogens with certain aspects of acute
psychosis and to a focus on thalamocortical interactions as key to
understanding both the action of these substances and the neuro-
anatomical sites involved in altered states of consciousness (ASC).
In vivo brain imaging in humans using [18F]fluorodeoxyglucose has
shown that hallucinogens increase prefrontal cortical metabolism,
and correlations have been developed between activity in specific
brain areas and psychological elements of the ASC produced by
hallucinogens. The 5-HT2A receptor clearly plays an essential role
in cognitive processing, including working memory, and ligands
for this receptor may be extremely useful tools for future cogni-
tive neuroscience research. In addition, it appears entirely possible
that utility may still emerge for the use of hallucinogens in treat-
ing alcoholism, substance abuse, and certain psychiatric disorders.
[277]

2004
The ups and downs of ecstasy [360]
Nature • May 2004

By Erika Check
Nature’s Washington biomedical correspondent

The clubbers’ drug is now being

studied as a treatment for anxiety
and post-traumatic stress disorder.
Erika Check charts its rocky road
from the psychedelic underground
to the psychiatric clinic. On 16
April, a patient suffering from post-
traumatic stress disorder visited a
psychiatrist’s office in Charleston,
South Carolina, to try a new experi-
mental treatment. She is the first of
20 people who have signed up for
the trial. Like the others, she suffers
from flashbacks, nightmares and
years of painful memories, despite
receiving counselling and antide-
pressant drugs. Each of the volun-
teers will undergo further counsel-
ling, this time in combination with
doses of 3,4-methylenedioxymeth-
amphetamine, or MDMA — the ac-
tive ingredient in the recreational
drug ecstasy.
 Use of MDA, the “Love Drug,”
and methamphetamine in Toronto
by unsuspecting users of ecstasy
(MDMA)
The Journal Of Forensic Scence • September 2004

Kalasinsky KS1, Hugel J, Kish SJ.

1Division of Forensic Toxicology

Office of the Armed Forces Medical Examiner
Washington, D.C

It has recently been reported that purity of illicit tab-

lets of ecstasy (MDMA) is now high. Our objective was
to confirm whether hair of drug users, who request
only ecstasy from their supplier, contains MDMA in
the absence of other drugs. GC-MS analysis of scalp
hair segments disclosed the presence of MDMA in
19 of 21 subjects and amphetamine/methamphet-
amine in eight subjects. Surprisingly, seven subjects
had hair levels of the MDMA metabolite, MDA, equal
to or greater than those of MDMA, suggesting use
of MDA in addition to that of MDMA. These amphet-
amine derivatives might be included by clandestine
laboratories to enhance effects of the drug cock-
tail or because of a perception that MDA synthesis
might be simpler than that of MDMA. Drug users
and investigators examining possible brain neuro-
toxic effects of MDMA need to consider that “ecsta-
sy” tablets can contain MDA and methamphetamine
despite no demand for the drugs.

PMID: 15461119
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15461119
Hallucinogen persisting perception disorder:
what do we know after 50 years? [121]
Drug & Alcohol Dependence • March 2003
Halpern JH1, Pope HG Jr.
1Harvard Medical School, Biological Psychiatry Laboratory
Alcohol and Drug Abuse Research Center, McLean Hospital
115 Mill Street, Belmont, MA 02478-9106, USA
john_halpern@hms.harvard.edu
Flashbacks’ following use of hallucinogenic drugs have been reported for decades; they are recognized in DSM-IV as ‘Hallucinogen Per-
sisting Perception Disorder (Flashbacks)’, or HPPD. We located and analyzed 20 quantitative studies between 1955 and 2001 examining
this phenomenon. However, many of these studies were performed before operational criteria for HPPD were published in DSM-III-R, so
they are difficult to interpret in the light of current diagnostic criteria. Overall, current knowledge of HPPD remains very limited. In par-
ticular (1) the term ‘flashbacks’ is defined in so many ways that it is essentially valueless; (2) most studies provide too little information
to judge how many cases could meet DSM-IV criteria for HPPD; and consequently (3) information about risk factors for HPPD, possible
etiologic mechanisms, and potential treatment modalities must be interpreted with great caution. At present, HPPD appears to be a
genuine but uncommon disorder, sometimes persisting for months or years after hallucinogen use and causing substantial morbidity.
It is reported most commonly after illicit LSD use, but less commonly with LSD administered in research or treatment settings, or with
use of other types of hallucinogens. There are case reports, but no randomized controlled trials, of successful treatment with neurolep-
tics, anticonvulsants, benzodiazepines, and clonidine. Although it may be difficult to collect large samples of HPPD cases, further stud-
ies are critically needed to augment the meager data presently available regarding the prevalence, etiology, and treatment of HPPD.
 Levels of psilocybin and psilocin
in various types of mushrooms
Soud Lek • 2003

Stríbrný J1, Borovicka J, Sokol M.

Ustav leteckého zdravotnictví, Gen. Píky 1, Praha 6, 160 60

jan.stribrny@atlas.cz

Psilocin and psilocybin are psychoactive components of mushrooms of

the genus Psilocybe and many others (Panaeolus, Inocybe, Pluteus etc.).
In our republic, several species of Psilocybe with a high content of these
components can be found. In the present study, we give a semiquanti-
tative content of psilocin and psilocybin in some of our mushrooms in
dry substance (Psilocybe semilanceata, Psilocybe bohemica, Psilocybe
arcana, Psilocybe cyanescens, Panaeolus acuminatus sensu Ricken, Ino-
cybe haemacta and Pluteus salicinus). For quantification, the GC/MS in-
strumentation was applied. Psilocin and psilocybin were silylated by the
derivatization agent N-methyl-N-trimet-hylsilyltrifluoroacetamide. As
an internal standard, 5-methoxytryptamin was used. The results of this
study prove the presence of at least three species of Psilocybe with a high
content of psychoactive components growing in our republic: Psilocybe
semilanceata, Psilocybe bohemica and Psilocybe arcana.

PMID: 14631713
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14631713
Role of the serotonin 5-HT(2A) receptor
in learning [257]
Learning & Memory • 2003

By JA Harvey

1Department of Pharmacology and Physiology

Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA
john.harvey@drexel.edu

This study reviews the role of the serotonin 5-HT2A re-

ceptor in learning as measured by the acquisition of the
rabbit’s classically conditioning nictitating membrane re-
sponse, a component of the eyeblink response. Agonists at
the 5-HT2A receptor including LSD (d-lysergic acid dieth-
ylamide) enhanced associative learning at doses that pro-
duce cognitive effects in humans. Some antagonists such
as BOL (d-bromolysergic acid diethylamide), LY53,857,
and ketanserin acted as neutral antagonists in that they
had no effect on learning, whereas others (MDL11,939,
ritanserin, and mianserin) acted as inverse agonists in
that they retarded learning through an action at the 5-
HT2A receptor. These results were placed in the context
of what is known concerning the anatomical distribu-
tion and electrophysiological effects of 5-HT2A receptor
activation in frontal cortex and hippocampus, as well as
the role of cortical 5-HT2A receptors in schizophrenia. It
was concluded that the 5-HT2A receptor demonstrates
constitutive activity, and that variations in this activ-
ity can produce profound alterations in cognitive states.
 Enhancing action of LSD
on neuronal responsiveness to serotonin
in a brain structure involved in
obsessive-compulsive disorder [705]
International Journal Of Neuropsychopharmacology • March 2003

Zghoul T1, Blier P.

Potent serotonin (5-HT) reuptake inhibitors are the only drugs that
consistently exert a therapeutic action in obsessive-compulsive dis-
order (OCD). Given that some hallucinogens were reported to exert
an anti-OCD effect outlasting their psychotomimetic action, pos-
sible modifications of neuronal responsiveness to 5-HT by LSD were
examined in two rat brain structures: one associated with OCD, the
orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), and another linked to depression, the
hippocampus. The effects of concurrent microiontophoretic appli-
cation of LSD and 5-HT were examined on neuronal firing rate in
the rat OFC and hippocampus under chloral hydrate anaesthesia. In
order to determine whether LSD could also exert a modification of
5-HT neuronal responsiveness upon systemic administration, after
a delay when hallucinosis is presumably no longer present, it was
given once daily (100 microg/kg i.p.) for 4 d and the experiments
were carried out 24 h after the last dose. LSD attenuated the fir-
ing activity of OFC neurons, and enhanced the inhibitory effect of
5-HT when concomitantly ejected on the same neurons. In the hip-
pocampus, LSD also decreased firing rate by itself but decreased
the inhibitory action of 5-HT. The inhibitory action of 5-HT was sig-
nificantly greater in the OFC, but smaller in the hippocampus, when
examined after subacute systemic administration of LSD. It is pos-
tulated that some hallucinogens could have a beneficial action in
OCD by enhancing the responsiveness to 5-HT in the OFC, and not
necessarily in direct relation to hallucinosis. The latter observation
may have theoretical implications for the pharmacotherapy of OCD.
 Discovering risperidone:
the LSD model of psychopathology
[298]
National Review Of Drug Discoveries • April 2003

By F.C. Colpaert

1Centre de Recherche Pierre Fabre

17 avenue Jean Moulin, 81106 Castres Cédex, France
francis.colpaert@pierre-fabre.com

In the 1970s and 1980s, Janssen Pharmaceutica Re-

search, which had a broad interest in central ner-
vous system disorders and nurtured intellectual
freedom, developed original, and at times hereti-
cal, concepts. It took decades for the scientific com-
munity to endorse some of these concepts. Among
them were such notions as an elementary particle
of behaviour, the introduction of response quality
in receptor theory, and the idea that tolerance does
not develop to opioids. These concepts enabled the
discovery of the antipsychotic risperidone, a unique
full antagonist of the interoceptive effects of LSD.
 Altered states:
the clinical effects of Ecstasy [411]
Pharmacological Therapies • April 2003

Cole JC1, Sumnall HR.

1Psychology Department, Liverpool University

Liverpool L69 7ZA, UK
j.c.cole@liv.ac.uk

Ecstasy is the second most widely abused illegal

drug in Europe. Ecstasy is the colloquial name for 3,4-
methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), but
not all Ecstasy tablets contain MDMA. When taken
in hot, crowded environments, Ecstasy/MDMA us-
ers have developed acute complications that have
had fatal consequences. Epidemiological evidence
indicates that adverse reactions to Ecstasy/MDMA
intoxication are rare and idiosyncratic. Potential
mechanisms of action are reviewed. In animal stud-
ies, MDMA damages serotonergic fibres and reduc-
es the number of serotonin transporter sites within
the CNS. Demonstration of neurotoxicity in human
users of Ecstasy is hampered by a number of con-
founds that the majority of published studies have
failed to address. These confounds are reviewed
and their impact is discussed.
 Hallucinogens: an update
Current Psychiatry Reports • October 2003
By J.H. Halpern
Biological Psychiatry Laboratory
Alcohol and Drug Abuse Research Center, McLean Hospital
115 Mill Street, Belmont, MA 02478, USA
PMID: 13678554
Research of hallucinogen abuse rarely extends beyond epidemiology and observed pathology. Even less research has been completed on the spe-
cial circumstances surrounding the religious use of hallucinogens or on potential therapeutic applications. Rather than offer another basic review on
the well-known hazards of illicit hallucinogen use, this paper provides an overview and practice recommendations on compounds the clinician may
be less familiar with, such as the botanical plant Salvia divinorum, the drug 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (“ecstasy”) and synthetic hal-
lucinogen analogs. The often-warned, but rarely occurring, hazard of hallucinogen persisting perception disorder (“flashbacks”) is also reviewed with
treatment recommendations provided. The current status of clinical research with the hallucinogens is presented, with case vignettes suggest-
ing hallucinogens may have anti-addictive applications. The special circumstances surrounding the religious, nondrug use of hallucinogens as sacred
sacraments in the US and elsewhere are also presented. It is hoped that the reader will gain a more nuanced understanding of how these physio-
logically nonaddictive drugs may offer legitimate benefits in modern society. By appreciating that such benefits may one day be borne out by care-
ful, methodologically sound research, clinicians should be better armed in raising the topic of hallucinogen use and abuse with their patients.
 Short-Term Stability of Lysergic Acid Diethylamide
(LSD), N-Desmethyl-LSD, and 2-Oxo-3-hydroxy-LSD
in Urine, Assessed by Liquid Chromatography–
Tandem Mass Spectrometry [229]
Clinical Chemistry 48 - No. 9 • 2002

Gisela Skopp,1* Lucia Po¨tsch,2 Rainer

Mattern,1 and Rolf Aderjan1
1 Institut fu¨ r Rechtsmedizin und Verkehrsmedizin der Universita¨t Heidelberg
Vossstrasse 2, D-69115 Heidelberg, Germany
2 Institut fu¨ r Rechtsmedizin der Universita¨t Mainz, Am Pulverturm 3, D-55131 Mainz, Germany
* address correspondence to this author at: Institute of Legal Medicine
Vossstrasse 2, 69115 Heidelberg, Germany; fax 49-6221-565252
e-mail • gisela_skopp@med.uni-heidelberg.de

Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) is one of the most potent hallucinogenic agents
known. Recently, data on emergency department episodes related to the use of
drugs commonly thought as “club drugs” have also included LSD (1 ). Confirma-
tion of LSD use by testing biological fluids is still an analytical challenge because
of its extensive, rapid metabolism and its instability (2–4). After ingestion of a typi-
cal street dose (40–120 g), the concentration of LSD in urine falls to 1 g/L within a
few hours (2, 5, 6). Recently, N-desmethyl-LSD (nor-LSD) and 2-oxo-3-hydroxy-LSD
(O-H-LSD) have been identified as LSD metabolites in human urine (7, 8). Measured
nor-LSD concentrations were reported to be in the same concentration range as
LSD, whereas the measured concentrations of O-H-LSD were severalfold higher
(0.02–21.4 g/L) (7, 9–11). The application of liquid chromatography–tandem mass
spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) improved the detection of LSD use (9, 10, 12–15); the
method is also less susceptible to interferences when used for drug screening (16,
17). In a few studies, O-H-LSD and nor-LSD have also been measured (6–8, 10,
12–15). LSD has been shown to rapidly decompose in urine samples exposed to
an increased temperature or to sunlight or ultraviolet light (18–21), but stability
data on major LSD metabolites are not yet available. This study was undertaken to
determine the stability of LSD, O-H-LSD, and nor-LSD in urine under different stor-
age conditions by LC-MS/MS. Data on the reaction order type and major influenc-
ing factors may be useful in planning transport and storage of urine samples.
The effects of psychotomimetics and psychomotor stimulants
on two schedules promoting response switching in the rat
[318]
Psychopharmacology • January 2002

By John Evenden

Department of Neuroscience, CNS Discovery,

AstraZeneca R&D Wilmington, 1800 Concord Pike, Wilmington,
DE 19850, USA
e-mail: john.evenden@astrazeneca.com

Psychosis and psychotomimetic drugs result in a disorganisation of the structure of

thought and behaviour. Normalising these is one of the objects of antipsychotic therapy,
and methods for predicting such a therapeutic effect would be of value. The effects of a
number of psychotomimetic agents were examined on the way in which rats distributed
responding over two response levers using two different procedures, to assay their effects
on behavioural organisation. Previously, amphetamine has been found to increase re-
sponse switching using these schedules. In the first, the random reinforcement procedure,
one of the two levers was selected at random as “correct”, and responses on this lever were
reinforced with food under a random ratio schedule. No signal was given to distinguish
the levers. Responding could also result in the food tray being illuminated, but no food
pellet was delivered (“no-food” event). Responses on the second lever (“incorrect”) had no
programmed consequences. After each food delivery or “no-food” event the levers desig-
nated as “correct” and “incorrect” were reassigned at random, and the rat had to open the
food tray to restart the schedule. In the second procedure, the rats were required to make
21 responses before a switch between the two levers resulted in food delivery [Fixed Ratio
(FR) 21-switch]. The responses making up the FR could be distributed freely between the
two levers. Phencyclidine (PCP), scopolamine, caffeine and ethanol increased switching
under the random reinforcement procedure, but (€)-2,5-dimethoxy-4-iodoamphetamine
hydrochloride (DOI) and atropine did not. PCP, caffeine, lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD)
and atropine increased switching under the FR21-switch procedure, but ethanol did not.
The increases in switching produced by PCP, LSD and the anticholinergics were accompa-
nied by marked reductions in response rate, whereas those produced by amphetamine
and caffeine were not. The effects of amphetamine, and PCP were strongly dependent on
the baseline probability of switching, those of atropine and caffeine moderately so, and
those of LSD and ethanol only weakly so. Of the agents tested, psychomotor stimulants
appear to produce the most selective increases in switching. The procedures described
here may be useful for assaying the disorganisation of behaviour produced by other psy-
chotomimetics and may have value in the detection of novel antipsychotic drugs.
 Effect of comorbid substance use
on neuropsychological performance
in subjects with psychotic or mood disorders
Encephale • March 2002
Liraud F1, Verdoux H.
1Département de Psychiatrie, Université Victor Ségalen Bordeaux 2
Hôpital Charles Perrens, 121, rue de la Béchade, 33076 Bordeaux, France
Patients presenting with psychotic or mood disorders pres-
ent with neuropsychological deficits such as executive and
memory disturbance. Deficits of these functions have also
been reported in patients presenting with alcohol use or
substance use disorders. A large percentage of patients
with non-affective psychotic or mood disorders present
with a comorbid substance use disorder. These subjects
are often a priori excluded from most neuropsychological
studies. However, using such an exclusion criterion may in-
duce a selection bias linked to the high prevalence of this
dual diagnosis. It is therefore necessary to further explore
the impact of substance abuse on neuropsychological per-
formance in subjects with psychotic or mood disorders.
Method - Patients consecutively hospitalized for a non-af-
fective psychotic disorder or a mood disorder were includ-
ed. A standardised method was used to collect information
on addictive behaviour, clinical and social characteristics.
DSM IV diagnoses, including those of substance use, were
made using a structured diagnostic interview and all other
available clinical and historical information collected dur-
ing the hospital stay. Memory performance was tested us-
ing the Batterie d’Efficience Mnésique 84 (Battery of mem-
ory efficiency 84 items, BEM 84). Executive abilities were
explored using the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) and
the Stroop test. ANCOVAs with cannabis use disorder or al-
cohol use disorder as main factor were used to examine
associations with neuropsychological test scores. Results -
We have included 77 patients fulfilling the diagnostic crite-
ria for non-affective psychotic disorders (schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder, delusional dis-
order, other psychotic disorder, n=35) or mood disorders (n=42). Among these patients, 27.3%
presented with a lifetime history of alcohol abuse/dependence (current prevalence: 14.3%) and
23.4% presented with a lifetime history of cannabis abuse/dependence (current prevalence:
11.7%). We have assessed the specific impact of alcohol and cannabis use on neuropsychologi-
cal performance. No significant differences on memory and executive performance were found
between patients presenting with and without a lifetime history of alcohol abuse/dependence.
These results were not modified after adjustement for potential confounding factors (age, gen-
der, educational level, age at onset, diagnosis, current versus past addictive behaviour). Patients
with a lifetime history of cannabis abuse/dependence had significantly higher (i.e. better per-
formance) general BEM 84 score (F=3.89, df=1, p=0.05), higher complex figure delayed recall
scores (F=6.62, df=1, p=0.01) and higher recognition scores (F=3.9, df=1, p=0.05) than patients
presenting without a lifetime history of cannabis use. After adjustment on covariables (age,
gender, educational level, age at onset, diagnosis, current versus past addictive behaviour), the
differences on memory performance between the two groups were no longer significant, the
differences found before adjustment were mainly explained
by the confounding effect of age. Patients presenting with
a lifetime history of cannabis abuse/dependence had sig-
nificantly lower interference scores on the Stroop test than
subjects without cannabis use (F=5.67, df=1, p=0.02). This
finding was not modified after adjustment for confound-
ing factors. Information on substance use was collected by
interviewing the patient and was completed by using all
other available source of information, but no urine testing
was performed. Thus, substance use could have been un-
derestimated or unrecognized in some patients. We did not
distinguish patients who presented with substance abuse
from those who presented with dependence because there
were few of the latter. Distinguishing these two popula-
tions would be of interest because dependence may have
a more deleterious effect than abuse in neuropsychological
performances. Finally, we did not included normal control
subjects so we can not assess if our cohort present with
memory and executive deficits compared to normal sub-
jects. Conclusion - Comorbid alcohol or cannabis abuse/
dependence has limited effects on memory and executive
abilities in subjects with psychotic or mood disorder. The
only significant difference between subjects with and with-
out a dual diagnosis was that subjects with cannabis use
disorder performed poorly on the Stroop test. No other sig-
nificant difference in executive and memory performance
was found after adjustment for confounding factors. Since
there is a high prevalence of a comorbid substance use
disorder in subjects with psychotic or mood disorder, the
exclusion of these patients in neuropsychological studies may not be systematically justified.
PMID: 11972143
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11972143
 NHS settles claim
of patients treated with LSD [816]
The British Medical Journal (BMJ) • March 2002

By C. Dyer • BMJ Legal Correspondent

The NHS has agreed to pay a total of £195,000 ($279,000;

Û319,000) in an out of court settlement to 43 former psy-
chiatric patients who were treated with the hallucino-
genic drug lysergide (LSD) between 1950 and 1970. The
patients were treated for illnesses including severe de-
pression, schizophrenia, and postnatal depression at a few
hospitals where the drug was thought at the time to be
of therapeutic value. The main centre at which this treat-
ment took place was Powick Hospital in Worcester. The
claims, which were funded by legal aid, have been settled
for a fraction of the value put on them by the claimants’
lawyers. David Harris of the personal injury law firm Alex-
ander Harris, who acted for more than 90% of the claim-
ants, said that the two main hurdles for claimants were the
legal requirements to sue within certain time limits and
the fact that the standard of care expected of doctors was
lower 40 or 50 years ago than it is now. The NHS Litiga-
tion Authority has also agreed to pay £400,000 towards
the claimants’ legal costs. Mr Harris said that the full costs
were about £750,000 but that the firm would absorb the
loss and none of his clients would have any costs subtract-
ed from their damages to make up the shortfall. “I know
that some of the clients were very disappointed with what
they got, but some have been delighted,” he said. “We will
take the hit ourselves, and every client who was in the settle-
ment will receive all the damages they have been awarded.”
A spokesman for the authority said: “The legal costs of pro-
ceeding to trial in these 43 cases alone could have exceeded
£3m, with a trial continuing for around six months. No ad-
missions of liability have been made, and the settlement
was motivated by a desire on behalf of this authority to limit
the continuing accrual of legal costs on both sides, which
have become disproportionate to the damages involved.”
 Hallucinogens and Redemption
[706]
The Journal Of Psychoactive Drugs • July 2002

Highly Recommended Report

de Rios MD1, Grob CS, Baker JR.

1Associate Clinical Professor of Psychiatry and Human Behavior

University of Califomia, Irvine, USA

This article examines drug substitution with regard to

hallucinogens (ayahuasca, ibogaine, peyote and LSD)
set within the concept of redemption. The model ex-
amines both religious and secular approaches to the
contemporary use of hallucinogens in drug substitu-
tion, both by scientists and in religious settings world-
wide. The redemptive model posits that the proper
use of one psychoactive substance within a spiritual
or clinical context helps to free an individual from the
adverse effects of their addiction to another substance
and thus restores them as functioning members of
their community or group. Data is drawn from the
U.S., Brazil, Peru, and West Africa. Two principle mech-
anisms for this are proposed: the psychological mech-
anism of suggestibility is examined in terms of the
individual reaching abstinence goals from addictive
substances such as alcohol and opiates. Neurophysi-
ological and neurochemical mechanisms to under-
stand the efficacy of such substitution are highlighted
from ongoing research on hallucinogens. Research by
two of the authors with the Uñaio do Vegetal (UDV)
Church in Brazil is examined in terms of the model.
 LSD Therapy in Dutch Psychiatry:
Changing Socio-Political Settings
and Medical Sets [83]
Medical History • 2002

Stephen Snelders and Charles Kaplan

Dr Stephen Snelders: Rustenburgerstraat 141-II,, 1073 EX Amsterdam, The Netherlands • email: ss-
nelders@rem.nl • Prof. Dr Charles D Kaplan, Department of Psychiatry and Neuropsychology, Maas-
tricht University, PO Box 214, 6200 AE Maastricht, The Netherlands • email: ch.kaplan@sp.unimaas.nl

LSD and similar hallucinogenic drugs have at present acquired a cultural

connotation as dangerous drugs that can lead to mental disorders and
anti-social behaviour.’ At one time, however, these drugs showed prom-
ise for medical use in psychotherapy and neuropharmacology, and in re-
search into psychosis. Use of LSD was enthusiastically advocated by nu-
merous psychiatrists from diverse cultural backgrounds and socio-political
contexts ranging across the ideological divide between capitalism and
communism.’ In recent years, pleas have been made for a reintroduction of
these drugs in mainstream psychiatry.3 Despite this persistent interest, the
history of hallucinogenic drug use in western psychiatry has hardly been
systematically investigated. Published historical overviews of psychiatrists
have been mainly concerned with the medical advantages and disadvan-
tages of the drugs.4 Other historical studies that mention the psychiatric
use of LSD have treated the subject on the whole as a footnote of the psy-
chedelic movement of the 1960s.5 In this article we aim to bring together
these two lines of historical research in a case study of LSD therapy in Dutch
psychiatry from the mid-1950s until the beginning of the 1990s.

Why focus on the Dutch case? It is well known that drug policy in the Neth-
erlands has been relatively more liberal during the past quarter century
than in other countries.6 Has the particular social and political climate in
the country affected the possibilities of hallucinogenic drug use in psychi-
atry? It has been maintained that the process of criminalization of LSD has
placed significant practical constraints on the opportunities and motiva-
tions of both clinicians and basic researchers to work with the drug.7 Has
this criminalization process also affected the work of medical science in the
case of the Netherlands? An answer to this question will help to shed light
on the general problematic of the position of medicine within the condi-
tions of broader cultural and socio-political contexts.
 Jekyll and Hyde revisited:
paradoxes in the appreciation of drug experiences
and their effects on creativity [707]

Journal Of Psychoactive Drugs • July 2002

By J. Berge

Faculteit der Letteren, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, The Netherlands

Historically, states of intoxication--like dreams and madness--are seen

in either one of two opposed ways. The intoxicated are either “pos-
sessed” or “under the influence” of an external agency, or revealing hid-
den feelings or truths (in vino veritas). Along the same lines, artists who
worked during LSD, mescalin or psilocybin intoxication often refer to
feelings of either being “possessed” or “liberated,” a difference that can
be explained partly by their expectations and partly by their evalua-
tions, which both tend to conform to the cultural dichotomy in inter-
preting the irrational. Both interpretations, however, tend to obscure
not only the other, but also-it is posited-the paradoxical nature of the
drug experience itself. Analysis of a protocol shows that intoxication
might comprise feelings of “possession” as well as “liberation” almost
simultaneously, and mediumistic and some psychedelic art shows sty-
listic traits that can be seen as the visual expressions of both these feel-
ings. It seems that the “demoniacal” and “psychedelic” mode come to-
gether in experiential reality, only to be divided in the cultural sphere.
Persisting Visual Hallucinations and Illusions
In Previously Drug-Addicted Patients [296]
Klin Monatsbl Augenheilkd • 2002

By Marie-Claire Gaillard and Francois-Xavier Borruat

Remembrances of LSD therapy past [347]
By Betty Grover Eisner, Ph.D.

200 Pages • August 2002

 Poisoning in children 5:
Rare and dangerous poisons [313]
Archives Of Disabled Children • November 2002

M Riordan, G Rylance, K Berry

Management of children who have ingested

beta blockers, digoxin, oral hypoglycaemics,
organophosphates, carbon monoxide, cyanide,
isopropanol, ethylene glycol, methanol,
Ecstasy, LSD, cocaine, nicotine, and isoniazid.

Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), a 5-HT agonist,

is a potent hallucinogen. It is rapidly absorbed
and has a short duration of action. Symptomatic
children should be reassured. Gastric decontami-
nation is not indicated. Sedation with phenothi-
azines should be avoided as they decrease the
threshold for convulsions. In very rare instances,
LSD can be associated with malignant hyperther-
mia. LSD is poorly absorbed through the skin;
“LSD laced” transfer tattoos are an urban myth.
 RNA Editing
of the Human Serotonin 5-HT2C Receptor:
Alterations in Suicide and Implications
for Serotonergic Pharmacotherapy [282]
Neuropsychopharmacology • 2001

Colleen M. Niswender, Ph.D., Katherine Herrick-Davis, Ph.D., Ginney E. Dilley, B.S.,

Herbert Y. Meltzer, M.D., James C. Overholser, Ph.D., Craig A. Stockmeier, Ph.D.,
Ronald B. Emeson, Ph.D., and Elaine Sanders-Bush, Ph.D.

From the Department of Pharmacology (CMN, HYM, RBE, ES-B), Department of Psychiatry (HYM, ES-B)
Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics (RBE)
and the Center for Molecular Neuroscience (CMN, HYM, RBE, ES-B)
Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN; Departments of Pharmacology and Neuroscience,
Albany Medical College, Albany, NY (KH-D), Department of Psychiatry and Psychology
Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH (GED, JCO, CAS)

RNA encoding the human serotonin 5-HT2C receptor (5-HT2CR) undergoes ade-
nosine-to-inosine RNA editing events at five positions, resulting in an alteration
of amino acids in the second intracellular loop. Several edited 5-HT 2C Rs possess
a reduced G-protein coupling efficiency compared to the completely non-edited
isoform. The current studies show that the efficacy of the hallucinogenic drug
lysergic acid diethylamide and of antipsychotic drugs is regulated by RNA edit-
ing, suggesting that alterations in editing efficiencies or patterns might result in
the generation of a 5-HT 2C R population differentially responsive to serotoner-
gic drugs. An examination of the efficiencies of RNA editing of the 5-HT 2C R in
prefrontal cortex of control individuals vs. subjects diagnosed with schizophre-
nia or major depressive disorder revealed no significant differences in RNA edit-
ing among the three populations. However, subjects who had committed suicide
(regardless of diagnosis) exhibited a statistically significant elevation of editing at
the A-site, which is predicted to change the amino acid sequence in the second
intracellular loop of the 5-HT 2C R. These findings suggest that alterations in RNA
editing may contribute to or complicate therapy in certain psychiatric disorders.
LSD PDF #193 March 2001
 Sex and Boundaries: Getting it On, On Drugs
December 2001

The setting feels familiar. A young Most people who do recreational

woman (or man) goes out with two drugs also have sex. Some of us
friends to a club and they all drink a understand that some kinds of
little. One of them has just enough drug experiences, particular highs,
‘e’ for them all to get high, so they may greatly increase the pleasures
do. Three hours later, the woman of sex, which most of us find pret-
realizes she’s making out with both ty incredible already. (Of course,
friends in the back of a cab, headed some drugs greatly decrease the
for more than she bargained for. pleasures of sex, which is another
She’s not scared, but never wanted issue altogether.) But there is a
things to go this far. She enjoys the steep learning curve when we start
attention and it feels good and also playing with these two power-
feels obliged to finish what she very ful allies. The combination can be
willingly started. Does this sound overwhelming, and it helps to have
like date rape to you? It doesn’t to given the possibilities a thought
me, and I do not intend to write a before they slap you in the face. If
polemic against the evil people who you’re like me, you get out into the
take advantage of helpless people world. You meet people. You go out
on recreational drugs. with them to interesting places.
Some places and people are more
Rather, I believe this person’s bound- likely to get sexual than others, and
aries got pushed. It might not be so I prepare for that. I bring condoms,
confusing if they had prepared men- I bring lube, and I USE THEM.
tally before the date. By illuminating
the issue through this situation, I At some of these interesting places
want to help us understand and bet- I go, I take psychoactive drugs. If I
ter manage our own boundaries. We think I might get high, I prepare for
can choose to have a strong person- it. I bring rolling papers and lighters,
al sexual ethic or we can choose to I bring pill testing kits and water to
let psychoactive drugs or other peo- drink, and I make a point of letting
ple make our decisions for us. I do my friends know I expect the stuff
not see this as much of a choice, so to get used.
I might sound like a worried mother.
Forgive me. My desire often leads me into the
boudoir when I’ve gotten high.
Now, allow me this honest arrogance: I know that some of my friends want to sleep with me. I want and healthy for you and which are not. Your sexual drives need not be your enemy; get to know them
to sleep with some of them, too. I also know that when I take certain drugs, I feel less nervous about and understand what methods of fulfilling them feel comfortable to you.
planting my lips on one or more of my friends with a ‘come hither’ grin--I am more likely to act on my
desires, and, yes, it does get me into some difficult situations. Boundaries Are Fuzzy

As with anything you embark upon, you prepare yourself physically for the possibility of sex when What do I mean when I refer to sexual boundaries? You might think that you are free from the bounds of
you go out. You wash your bod, shave the stubble, smear on deodorant, don clean undies. But you societal judgements and rules over your body. You may well be, but that doesn’t mean you don’t need
also have to prepare yourself mentally. Do your boundaries--in fact, the most sexually evolved
homework. Get smart. Be pro-active. Ask yourself people I know have very clear boundaries. They
questions before you take the drugs-you should know what they want from sex, they know whom
do this anyhow, to establish your personal mind they want, and they know how to say no when
state around the drug. Do you want to take this something else is offered. Most importantly, they
drug? Why? Do you feel comfortable taking the know they are worth the effort it takes to make
drug with the people you are with? Would you these boundaries clear to their partners (and oth-
feel comfortable asking them for help if you er interested parties). Similarly, the most daring
needed it later? Have you done this drug before? psychonauts I know have very strong boundaries
How did it affect you? What circumstances might about mind-altering drug use. They employ harm
have altered that experience from the present reduction’s ‘set and setting’ guideline stringently,
one? Apply the rules of harm reduction even checking the situation and themselves carefully
more stringently to yourself when you add sex before deciding on imbibing anything.
to the mix. Would you welcome sexual advances
from any of these people? Do you have sexual A boundary is just a personal set of morals and
or emotional history with or feelings for any of ethics about your body. If we set them too rigidly,
the people? Are you comfortable with those feel- we may never experience the joys we imagine are
ings? Is the other person? Could you say no (if out there for us, emotionally and physically. We
you wanted to) to these people if sex came up? can defend our personal space so well that noth-
If things began to get sexual, how far would you ing can get in. And if we set our personal bound-
feel comfortable going? Is intercourse too far? aries too slack, we might as well not have them.
Is undressing? Let’s say you meet someone at Our ethics have to be strong enough to protect
a party, red eye meets dilated pupil and you go us from our most reckless impulses.
out to your car to make out. You’re really enjoy- To discover yours, or to set yours, you need to do
ing it. Do you want to fuck, here, now? You might some soul-searching. Some people just get into
want to fuck. Your body might tell you that it new situations until they discover something
wants to fuck. Do you really want to fuck? If you that makes them uncomfortable. That works, but
give each other hand jobs instead, would you it might be painful to make all the mistakes you
feel better about yourself tomorrow? Before you will necessarily make. There is an easier way. And
start playing the potentially high-stakes game of this is the message of the day: think about how
“Sex ‘n’ Rx”, you should become as familiar as pos- you would feel in various situations, and then
sible with your own sexuality while sober. Get to think about why. Remember your feelings and
know which expressions of this are acceptable thoughts and let these inform your personal code
of ethics. Boundaries might be about your body and what you will allow it to do; they might
be about your mind and what you think about yourself and your partner; they might be about
your emotions and how you feel about yourself sexually, and your relationship to your partner.
The following sets of questions might help you get a feel for your own boundaries:

• Physical: What feels okay normally might not feel okay when you’re high. Likewise, you may
feel like going farther when you’re high. Are you willing to let yourself get sexual with this per-
son? What if it goes farther than you were expecting? Will you be ready and able to stop things
if you want to? How has your body reacted to sexual advances on this drug? Some drugs pres-
ent difficulties due to their particular action. For instance, marijuana can produce wetness in
some women, but others tend to dry out.

• Emotional: How do you feel when you think about having sex with this person? Have you
ever rejected this person’s sexual advances? Could you do it high? What if someone you love
doesn’t want you, or if you don’t want someone that you normally want? Have you talked
about it? How does it feel to have sex when you aren’t ready for it? Do you have a lover whom
you would like to remain faithful to? Will it be hard to do that in this situation?

• Mental: Can you discuss sexuality openly? Have you discussed it with this partner? What do
you know about your own sexuality? What do you know about your partner’s sexuality? What
do you know about the drug? Can you talk about your desires openly with your partner? Can
you negotiate safer sex to meet your standards with this person, or in this drug state? And what
if you don’t want to stop? That’s perfectly fine. Let yourself have fun--I usually do. And it usually
feels great and I feel sexy and the next day I want to tell my friends. But I have gotten myself
into situations, as a consenting, intelligent, and sane adult, that I didn’t expect, and that I didn’t
stop when I knew I should have. Maybe I wanted it. Maybe I just wasn’t sure what I wanted.
Maybe I didn’t know how to communicate my sexual needs while I was in that particular drug-
induced state.

As you can see, this gets really tricky when you add consciousness-altering substances
to the sexual mix. Because of brain-state-specific thinking, some sober thoughts, such as
deciding to use safer sex practices or placing a limit on how far you want to go this time,
may not be accessible or clear when you are in another brain state, i.e., high. And con-
versely, decisions you make while on a drug, may be difficult to understand later, when
you’re sober.

Talk to your partner. There could only be positive benefits from sharing your intentions of the
date with your friends. If you are scared that your friends will take sexual advantage of you,
they might not be the friends to take drugs with...
CHAPTER SEVEN
1980 - 1999 Peer Review
 Agonist-Directed Signaling
of Serotonin 5-HT2C Receptors:
Differences Between
Serotonin and Lysergic Acid
Diethylamide (LSD) [202]
American College of Neuropsychopharmacology
January 1999

Jon R. Backstrom, Ph.D., Mike S. Chang

Hsin Chu, M.D., Ph.D., Colleen M. Niswender, Ph.D.,
and Elaine Sanders-Bush, Ph.D.

From the Department of Pharmacology and Center for Molecular

Neuroscience, 432 Medical Research Building I, Vanderbilt University
School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee
Address correspondence to: Dr. J. R. Backstrom
Department of Pharmacology and Center for Molecular Neuroscience
432 Medical Research Building I, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine
Nashville, TN 37232-6600

For more than 40 years the hallucinogen lysergic acid di-

ethylamide (LSD) has been known to modify serotonin neu-
rotransmission. With the advent of molecular and cellular
techniques, we are beginning to understand the complexity
of LSD’s actions at the serotonin 5-HT2 family of receptors.
Here, we discuss evidence that signaling of LSD at 5-HT2C
receptors differs from the endogenous agonist serotonin. In
addition, RNA editing of the 5-HT2C receptor dramatically
alters the ability of LSD to stimulate phosphatidylinositol
signaling. These findings provide a unique opportunity to
understand the mechanism(s) of partial agonism.
 Do hallucinogens cause
residual neuropsychological toxicity?
Drug & Alcohol Dependency • February 1999

By J.H. Halpern1 and H.G. Pope Jr.

1Alcohol and Drug Abuse Research Center

McLean Hospital, Belmont, MA 02478, USA
jhalpern@warren.med.harvard.edu

We collected and reviewed studies in which neuro-

psychological tests were administered to users of
LSD or other hallucinogens. Interpretation of the
studies is limited by various confounding variables,
such as subjects’ premorbid cognitive and person-
ality function and prior use of other substances. At
present, the literature tentatively suggests that there
are few, if any, long-term neuropsychological defi-
cits attributable to hallucinogen use. To better re-
solve this issue, however, it will be important to study
larger samples of chronic, frequent hallucinogen us-
ers who have not often used other types of drugs.

PMID: 10080051
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10080051
 Platelet [3H]paroxetine
and [3H]lysergic acid diethylamide
binding in seasonal affective disorder
and the effect of bright light therapy [198]
Society of Biological Psychiatry • February 1999

Smedh K1, Spigset O, Allard P, Mjörndal T, Adolfsson R.

Seasonal affective disorder (SAD) has been regarded as a

melatonin disorder, but the pathophysiological mecha-
nisms of SAD are to a large extent unclarified. Serotonergic
mechanisms have also been studied, but they have shown
inconsistent results. We have compared [3H]paroxetine and
[3H]lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) binding in platelets
from 23 SAD patients and 23 controls. Then SAD patients
had 4 weeks of light therapy. On the last treatment day new
blood samples were drawn. Symptoms before and after light
treatment were measured by SIGH-SAD. Bmax for paroxetine
binding before light treatment was higher in SAD patients
compared to controls and also higher in responders than in
nonresponders. Bmax decreased significantly during light
treatment. We also found a negative correlation between
the two Bmax values before but not after light treatment.
There was a negative correlation between Bmax for parox-
etine binding before treatment and clinical status after
treatment. Patients with reduced Bmax for LSD bind-
ing after treatment had a better clinical treat-
ment response. The present study indicates
that serotonin receptor parameters might
be suitable in the prediction of clini-
cal response to light treatment.
 LSD use
and flashbacks in alcoholic patients [158]
Journal Of Addiction & Disease • 1999

Batzer W1, Ditzler T, Brown C.

1Department of Psychiatry, Tripler Army Medical Center

University of Hawaii at Manoa, 96859, USA

Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD) is a hallucinogenic drug that received considerable attention
in the 1960’s and early 1970’s. It produced a wide variety of psychological phenomena, includ-
ing a variety of perceptual disturbances which would manifest among some users long after
the drug had left the system. These phenomena were commonly referred to as “flashbacks” and
may have been largely responsible for the drug falling out of favor among recreational drug
users. This report describes histories of LSD use among alcoholism treatment facility inpatients
and reports specific characteristics of flashbacks and the degree of subjective distress experi-
enced during flashbacks. Findings indicate a statistically significant relationship between num-
ber of doses and incidence of flashbacks.

Do hallucinogens cause
residual neuropsychological toxicity? [159]
Drug & Alcohol Dependency • February 1999

Halpern JH1, Pope HG Jr.

1Alcohol and Drug Abuse Research Center

McLean Hospital, Belmont, MA 02478, USA
jhalpern@warren.med.harvard.edu

We collected and reviewed studies in which neuropsychological tests were administered to

users of LSD or other hallucinogens. Interpretation of the studies is limited by various con-
founding variables, such as subjects’ premorbid cognitive and personality function and prior
use of other substances. At present, the literature tentatively suggests that there are few, if any,
long-term neuropsychological deficits attributable to hallucinogen use. To better resolve this
issue, however, it will be important to study larger samples of chronic, frequent hallucinogen
users who have not often used other types of drugs.
 Determination of “Ecstasy” components
in alternative biological specimens
Journal Of Chromatography & Biomedical Science Applications • October 1999

Kintz P1, Samyn N.

1Institut de Médecine Légale, Strasbourg, France - pascal.kintz@wanadoo.fr

This paper reviews procedures for the determination of methylenedioxyamphet-

amine derivatives, MDA, MDMA, MDEA and MBDB in saliva, sweat and hair. For
this topic, the international literature appears very poor, particularly for saliva
and sweat. MDMA was first reported in hair in 1993. All but one of the reviewed
papers reported detection with GC-MS. No references seem to be available for
both meconium and vitreous humor. As it has been already reported in these
biological specimens, the parent drug is detected in higher concentrations than
its metabolites. The main data on sample preparation, work-up, GC column, de-
rivatization and analytical determination are listed. Several references, taken
from the forensic practice are used to document the cases. Some new findings,
based on the experience of the author, are also added. Some references, dealing
with amphetamine and methamphetamine in alternative specimens are listed
in the manuscript to give an overview on the stimulants detection.

PMID: 10572979
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10572979
 LSD:
An Overview on Drug Action
and Detection
Forensic Science Review • December 1999

Paul BD1, Smith ML1.

1Division of Forensic Toxicology,

Office of the Armed Forces Medical Examiner
Armed Forces Institute of Pathology, Rockville, MD, USA

LSD is a psychoactive semisynthetic ergot alkaloid.

It is so potent that a small dose (25 μg) may produce
a profound hallucinogenic effect. The compound is
a controlled substance under the US code of regu-
lations. One of the major adverse effects of LSD is
the “flashback” or spontaneous recurrences of hal-
lucinogenic effects that may occur months to years
after cessation of the drug. The major concern of
LSD abuse is the long duration of action and fatal
accidents and suicides during the state of intoxi-
cation. Because LSD metabolizes to a number of
compounds and detection methods for these com-
pounds in a large number of samples are not well es-
tablished, most of the methods are aimed at identi-
fying unchanged LSD in urine. After initial screening
by an immunoassay method, the presence of LSD in
urine is confirmed by a gas chromatographic-mass
spectrometric (GC-MS) method. The immunoassay
techniques are simple and cost-effective. In confir-
mation, selective extraction is preferred because it
allows detection of the compound at concentrations
as low as 50 pg/mL. Recent methods for detection
of an LSD metabolite, 2-oxo-3-hydroxy-LSD, by liq-
uid chromatography-mass spectrometry appeared
to be promising in some forensic investigations.

PMID: 26255904
 Hair analysis for abused and therapeutic drugs [727]
Journal of Chromatography • 1999

By Yuji Nakahara

National Institute of Health Sciences, 1-18-1, Kamiyoga, Setagaya-ku, Tokyo 158, Japan

This review focuses on basic aspects and recent studies of hair analysis for abused and therapeutic drugs and is discussed with 164 refer-
ences. Firstly, biology of hair and sampling of hair specimens have been commented for the sake of correct interpretation of the results
from hair analysis. Then the usual washing methods of hair samples and the extraction methods for drugs in hair have been shown and
commented on. Analytical methods for each drug have been discussed by the grouping of three analytical methods, namely immunoassay,
HPLC–CE and GC–MS. The outcomes of hair analysis studies have been reviewed by dividing into six groups; morphine and related, cocaine
and related, amphetamines, cannabinoids, the other abused drugs and therapeutic drugs. In addition, reports on stability of drugs in the
living hair and studies on drug incorporation into hair and dose–hair concentration relationships have been reviewed. Applications of hair
analysis to the estimation of drug history, discrimination between OTC drug use and illegal drug use, drug testing for acute poisoning, ges-
tational drug exposure and drug compliance have also been reviewed. Finally, the promising prospects of hair analysis have been described.
 Serotonin
and
hallucinogens [185]
Neuropsychopharmacology • August 1999

Aghajanian GK1, Marek GJ.

1Department of Psychiatry
Yale University School of Medicine
New Haven, Connecticut, USA

This brief review traces the serotonin (5-HT)

hypothesis of the action of hallucinogenic
drugs from the early 1950s to the present
day. There is now converging evidence from
biochemical, electrophysiological, and be-
havioral studies that the two major classes
of psychedelic hallucinogens, the indole-
amines (e.g., LSD) and the phenethylamines
(e.g., mescaline), have a common site of ac-
tion as partial agonists at 5-HT2A and other
5-HT2 receptors in the central nervous sys-
tem. The noradrenergic locus coeruleus and
the cerebral cortex are among the regions
where hallucinogens have prominent ef-
fects through their actions upon a 5-HT2A
receptors. Recently, we have observed a
novel effect of hallucinogens--a 5-HT2A re-
ceptor-mediated enhancement of nonsyn-
chronous, late components of glutamatergic
excitatory postsynaptic potentials at apical
dendrites of layer V cortical pyramidal cells.
We propose that an effect of hallucinogens
upon glutamatergic transmission in the
cerebral cortex may be responsible for the
higher-level cognitive, perceptual, and af-
fective distortions produced by these drugs.
 Psychotropic Drug Prescription
in a Psychiatric University Hospital [357]
Phannacopsychiatrica • 1999

P. Voirol’, P.-A. Robert7, P. Meister, 1. Oros, P. Baumann

Unite de biochimie et psychopharmacologie clinique

Departement universitaire de psychiatrie adulte. Site de Cery,
Prilly-Lausanne, Switzerland

A retrospective survey on drug prescription over a one-year period (1989) in 1083 patients
(48.3% of whom were male) hospitalized in a psychiatric university hospital in Switzerland
and a 35-day prospective study (1992) on the prescription of ‘as needed” (pm) medication in a
closed and an open ward were carried out. Their aim was to establish a basis for a monitoring
of prescription habits and for pharmacoeconomic considerations. In the retrospective study,
48.3% of the patients were male. The mean duration of hospltallzation of the patients was 47.0
f 68.1 days (mean 5 s.d.). Only 11 out of the 1083 patients (1 %) were without psychotropic
medication. The mean (4 SD) number of drugsjday the patients were prescribed was 4.6 + 2.8,
including 3.2 + 1.7 psychotropic drugs. Patients suffering from schizophrenia (67 d) or from un-
ipolar depression (67.4 d) were hospitalized for the longest periods. Antipsychotics (67.5% of
the patients) were the most frequently prescribed psychotropic drugs, followed by anxiolytics
(42.2%). antidepressants (28.3%). hypnotics (31.4%) and mood stabilizers (7.1 %). Antiparkin-
sonian agents accounted for 4.6% of all prescriptions. Levomepromazine, haloperidol (30.9%
of all patients) and clotiapine were the most often prescribed neuroleptics. and clozapine was
administered to only 6.4% of all patients. Among the antidepressants, maprotiline (11.9% of all
patients) was more frequently prescribed than the classical tricyclic antidepressant arnitripty-
line, while the onty available SSRI fluvoxamine and MA0 inhibitors were rarely used. The most
frequently prescribed anxiolytics were clorazepate (28.2% of all patients), lorazepam. bro-
mazeparn, and prazepam. Among the hypnotic drugs, chloral hydrate (11.5%) was more fre-
quently administered than the first-ranking benzodiazepine flunitrazepam (7.8%). In the pro-
spective study, 97% and 77% of the patients (n = 55) of the closed (n = 29) and of the open ward,
respectively, were prescribed “as needed” (prn) drugs. However, only 71 and 80%, respectively.
of these patients finally received the drug. The frequency of prescription was 34.9% for neuro-
leptics, 15.1 % for anxiolytic drugs, 8.2% for non-benzodiazepine hypnotics and only 2.1 % for
benzodiazepine hypnotics. The most frequently prescribed neuroleptic drug was clotiapine
(18% of all patients), but finally. only 29% of the prescribed doses were administered. Studies
of this type are biased by the fact that local habits of prescription do not allow generalisation
of the findings. Such surveys should be carried out more frequently and simultaneously in dif-
ferent centers. Critical comparisons could help to optimize treatment.
 Circannual variations in the binding of [3H]lysergic acid diethylamide
to serotonin2A receptors and of [3H]paroxetine to serotonin uptake sites in platelets from healthy volunteers [199]
Society of Biological Psychiatry • May 1998

Spigset O1, Allard P, Mjörndal T.

1Division of Clinical Pharmacology

Norrland University Hospital, Umeå, Sweden

Circannual variations occur in several serotonergic parameters,

including platelet serotonin uptake and platelet [3H]imipramine
binding. Binding of [3H]lysergic acid diethylamide ([3H]LSD) to
platelet serotonin (5-HT)2A receptors and bind-
ing of [3H]paroxetine to platelet serotonin uptake
sites were studied longitudinally for 1 year in 12
healthy volunteers. For [3H]LSD, the number of
binding sites (Bmax) showed no significant sea-
sonal variation (two-way analysis of variance), al-
though Bmax was significantly higher during the
months October through February than during
the months April through August (32.6 vs. 29.8
fmol/mg protein; p = .015). For [3H]paroxetine,
Bmax showed a significant seasonal variation (p
= .003) with maximum in August (1322 fmol/mg
protein) and minimum in February (1168 fmol/
mg protein). The affinity constant (Kd) showed a
significant seasonal variation for [3H]LSD bind-
ing (p = .046), but not for [3H]paroxetine binding.
The seasonal fluctuations in [3H]LSD binding and
in paroxetine binding tended to be inversely cor-
related for Bmax (r = -.70; p = .08) and were sig-
nificantly negatively correlated for Kd (r = -.88; p =
.009). The present study demonstrates a seasonal
effect on platelet serotonin uptake site binding
and indicates a possible seasonal effect on 5-HT2A
receptor binding. The results imply that circannu-
al fluctuations should be taken into account when
these platelet serotonin markers are studied.
 The Alchemy of Culture:
Intoxicants in Society [730]
BMJ Volume 317 • November 1998

By Richard Rudgley

Senior Lecturer On Psychiatry Of Addictive Behavior

St. Georges Hospital Medical Schoool, London, UK

A recent resurgence in the debate over legalisation of illicit drugs, notably cannabis,
has tended to generate more heat than light. At one extreme, protagonists argue
in favour of libertarian values and eschew the interference of the “nanny state.” At
the other extreme, a prohi­bitionist lobby espouses the evils of intoxica­tion and the
virtues of abstinence from psychoactive substances. The reasons for a resurgence
in this debate are doubtless many and complex. Not least is the apparent power-
lessness of governments, law enforcement agencies, customs, and the caring pro-
fessions to stem the rising tide of drug misuse sweeping Western societies. The de-
bate is unfortu­nately more influenced by political dogma and media hype than by
sound reasoning and scientific evidence. The Alchemy of Culture contains elements
likely to appeal to both sides of this debate as well as contribut­ing to scientific un-
derstanding. Richard Rudgley applies data from archaeology, ethnology, and an-
thropology to take the reader on a fascinating journey from prehistory to the pres-
ent to explore the role of intoxicants in societies, ancient and modern. Speculation
about the use of hallucinogenic plants and opium by Stone Age cavemen and its
influence on their art gives way to more direct observations of early anthropologists
on psychoactive drug use in isolated tribal cultures. The academic research behind
this book is impressive. Two principal themes emerge. Firstly, since prehistory, hu-
mans have experi­mented with naturally occurring substances for their psychoactive
effects. Secondly, psychoactive drugs acquire a cultural importance that extends
beyond the drugs’ pharmacological effects and that influences the subjective ex-
perience. Rudgley’s thesis seems to be that modern Western cultures arbitrarily con­
done some drugs (such as alcohol and tobacco) while outlawing others (cannabis,
LSD, opium). His view is that the control of drugs by Western politicians is akin to
the social control and conferment of social privilege exerted by tribal shamans (or
priests) to maintain their elite social status. This comparison seems rather far fetched.
Nevertheless, the fact that many of these psychoactive substances are highly
poison­ous or addictive is acknowledged. At the outset readers are warned that “the
book is not intended as a practical manual for the use of intoxicating substances.
Details of certain plant preparations have been omitted to prevent its use as such.
 Treatment of alcoholism using psychedelic drugs:
a review of the program of research [708]
Journal Of Psychoactive Drugs • December 1998

Mangini M1.

1University of California at San Francisco, USA

Following Albert Hofmann’s discovery of LSD’s psychoactive properties

in 1943, and previous to their scheduling as controlled substances, the
psychedelic drugs were widely studied--six international conferences and
hundreds of papers discussed their potential therapeutic usefulness. The
observation that the frightening experience of delirium tremens some-
times led alcoholics to moderate their alcohol intake suggested to early
psychedelic researchers that the “psychotomimetic” experience thought
to be produced by LSD could be used to treat alcoholism. A number of
hypothesis-generating studies employing a variety of research designs to
examine this premise were completed, but relatively few controlled trials
attempted hypothesis testing. After twenty-five years of study, a combina-
tion of flawed methodology, uneven results and social reprehension led
to the abandonment of research on the therapeutic use of psychedelic
drugs, leaving many avenues of inquiry unexplored and many questions
unanswered. Today, after a thirty-year hiatus, this research is gradually be-
ing resumed, and there is renewed interest in the findings of previous stud-
ies. This article explores the history of one branch of psychedelic research,
the therapeutic use of LSD in the treatment of alcoholism, and of the
events that led to the relabeling of the “hallucinogens” as drugs of abuse.
 Hallucinogens, serotonin and
obsessive-compulsive disorder [184]
The Journal Of Psychoactive Drugs • October 1998

Delgado PL1, Moreno FA.

1University of Arizona College of Medicine

Tucson 85724, USA
delgado@u.arizona.edu

The serotonin (5-HT) neurotransmitter system has

been implicated in the pathophysiology of several
neuropsychiatric disorders, especially obsessive-com-
pulsive disorder (OCD). Blockade of 5-HT reuptake ap-
pears to be an important initial neurobiological event
in the therapeutic mechanism of action of antiobses-
sional drugs. However, for reasons that continue to be
poorly understood, clinical improvement following
initiation of treatment with 5-HT reuptake inhibitors
can take up to eight to 12 weeks, and most patients
do not fully improve. Recent data suggest that activa-
tion of 5-HT2A and/or 5-HT2C receptors may be im-
portant for the improvement of OCD symptoms. Most
psychedelic drugs are potent agonists at 5-HT2A and
5-HT2C receptors and their binding potency to these
receptors is strongly correlated with their human po-
tency as hallucinogens. This article will briefly review
the relevant clinical and preclinical studies relating to
the effects of hallucinogens on OCD. These data sug-
gest that activation of 5-HT2 receptors by hallucino-
gens may lead to acute reduction of, as well as possible
longer-lasting beneficial effects on, the symptoms of
OCD. Evidence for and against involvement of 5-HT2A
and/or 5-HT2C receptors in the therapeutic effects of
drug therapies for OCD are reviewed. Issues related
to the pharmacological properties and safety of psy-
chedelic drugs, when considered as potential treat-
ments for patients with OCD, are summarized. The
authors suggest that controlled trials of potent 5-HT2
agonists in people suffering from OCD are warranted.
 Second thoughts
on psychedelic drugs [542]
Endeavor • 1998

By Steven J. Novak

Obtained his PhD in history from the University of California, Berkeley.

He is currently director of professional education and scientific reports at
City of Hope National Medical Center/Beckman Research Institute
Duarte, CA. His major research interests are higher education, public policy,
and the social history of medicine.

Psychedelic drugs are making a comeback. Proponents

of psychedelics point to the widespread medical experi-
mentation with mescaline and lysergic acid diethylam-
ide-125 (LSD) in the 1950s as proof of their safety and
efficacy. However, a review of the private and published
writings of Sidney Cohen, MD, who conducted the first
study of the safety of psychedelics, reveals that serious
medical concerns about psychedelics arose before the
public backlash against the drugs in the 1960s. The story of
psychedelic research is a reminder of the inevitable com-
plications involved in testing drugs on human subjects.
 LSD before Leary:
Sidney Cohen’s critique
of 1950s psychedelic drug research [160]
Isis • March 1997
bEAR the only man
that Ever madE
By S.J. Novak 100% pure
UCLA Oral History Program 90095-1575, USA
Lsd
In 1962 Sidney Cohen presented the medical community with its first warn-
ing about the dangers of the drug LSD. LSD had arrived in the United States
and who
in 1949 and was originally perceived as a psychotomimetic capable of pro-
ducing a model psychosis. But in the mid 1950s intellectuals in Southern
prayed over
California redefined LSD as a psychedelic capable of producing mystical en- every batch for our
health and safety
lightenment. Though LSD was an investigational drug, authorized only for
experimental use, by the late 1950s psychiatrists and psychologists were
administering it to cure neuroses and alcoholism and to enhance creativ-
ity. Cohen’s 1960 study of LSD effects concluded that the drug was safe
if given in a supervised medical setting, but by 1962 his concern about
~ In Memory Of The Greatest Underground Chemist In Human History ~
popularization, nonmedical use, black market LSD, and patients harmed
by the drug led him to warn that the spread of LSD was dangerous. The Augustus Owsley Stanley III
subsequent government crackdown and regulation of LSD preceded the
1960s drug movement and was prompted by medical, not social, concerns.
 Rise of Hallucinogen Use [183]
U.S. Department of Justice • Office of Justice Programs
National Institute of Justice • October 1997

by Dana Hunt

Discussed in this Brief:

The history of hallucinogen use in the United States, a comparison of past and present user groups, and the impact of today’s use and distribution patterns on law enforcement and public health and safety.
Psychedelic drugs figured prominently in the hippie culture of the 1960s and 1970s, but their popularity declined during the 1980s. Recent studies reveal that hallucinogen use is on the rise in the 1990s, par-
ticularly among young adults of the same socioeconomic class as those who embraced these substances in previous decades. While current hallucinogen users seem to have little involvement in criminal activi-

••
ties, their drug-taking behavior places them at risk of harming themselves or others. Five sources were used to study the resurgence of hallucinogen use in this country. Data from these sources indicate that:
Hallucinogens are relatively inexpensive, domestically produced, and not part of a network of distributors battling over markets or territory.

• Between 1991 and 1996, the percentage of Americans who had used psychedelics at least once in their lives grew from 6 to 14 percent.
The percentage of high school seniors who believe that trying LSD or using it regularly is a “great risk” has declined significantly. Between 1991 and 1996, the percent-
age of seniors who said they disapproved of LSD

•
use even once or twice fell from 90 to 80 percent.
Thirty-four percent of college and university offi-
cials reported that hallucinogen use, particularly of
LSD and psilocybin, is increasing on their campuses.
Campus sources identified hallucinogen users to-
day as mainstream students, not the more marginal
or “hippie” students of the 1960s. Private and pub-
lic campuses are equally likely to report hallucino-
gen use; religious schools are most likely to report
little or no use. Larger campuses and institutions in

•
urban areas report the widest range of drug use.
The rise in hallucinogen use coincided with
the growth of “raves,” underground dance parties

•
that cater to those under age 21.
Systemic violence associated with the traffick-
ing of heroin and cocaine has not been found
with hallucinogen trafficking. The Drug Enforce-
ment Administration reports that a relatively
small number of producers and distributors lo-
cated in Northern California have controlled the

•
LSD market for a number of years.
Repeated doses of hallucinogens or ingestion of
multiple substances can produce highly adverse ef-
fects, including death. In addition, the auditory and
visual distortion resulting from hallucinogen inges-
tion can last for 10 to 12 hours, thus endangering
a user who drives, his or her passengers, pedestri-
ans, and the occupants of other cars in proximity.
 Dihydrobenzofuran Analogues of Hallucinogens
Mescaline Derivatives [203]
Journal Of Medicine & Chemistry • March 1997

Aaron P. Monte,† Steve R. Waldman

Danuta Marona-Lewicka, David B. Wainscott
‡ David L. Nelson,‡ Elaine Sanders-Bush,§ and David E. Nichols*

Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology

School of Pharmacy and Pharmacal Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907
Lilly Research Laboratories Eli Lilly and Company,Indianapolis, Indiana 46285, and Department of Pharmacology
School of Medicine, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee 37232

Dihydrobenzofuran and tetrahydrobenzodifuran functionalities were employed as conforma-

tionally restricted bioisosteres of the aromatic methoxy groups in the prototypical hallucino-
gen, mescaline (1). Thus, 4-(2-aminoethyl)-6,7-dimethoxy-2,3-dihydrobenzofuran hydrochloride
(8) and 1-(8-methoxy-2,3,5,6-tetrahydrobenzo [1,2-b:5,4-b¢]difuran-4-yl)-2-aminoethane hy-
drochloride(9) were prepared and evaluated along with 1 for activity in the two-lever drudis-
crimination (DD) paradigm in rats trained to discriminate saline from LSD tartrate (0.08 mg/kg).
Also, 1, 8, and 9 were assayed for their ability to displace [3H]ketanserin from rat cort cal ho-
mogenate 5-HT2A receptors and [3H]8-OH-DPAT from rat hippocampal homogenate 5-HT1A
receptors. In addition, these compounds were evaluated for their ability to compete for ago-
nist and antagonist binding to cells expressing cloned human 5-HT2A, 5-HT2B, and 5-HT2C
receptors. Finally, agonist efficacy was assessed by measurement of phosphoinositide hydro-
lysis in NIH 3T3 cells expressing the rat 5-HT2A or 5-HT2C receptors. Although 1 fully substi-
tuted for LSD in the DD assays (ED50 ) 33.5 ímol/kg), neither 8 nor 9 substituted for LSD, with
just 50% of the rats administered 8 selecting the drug lever, and only 29% of the rats admin-
istered 9 selecting the drug lever. All of the test compounds had micromolar affinity for the 5-
HT1A and 5-HT2A receptors in rat brain homogenate. Curiously, the rank order of affinities of
the compounds at 5-HT2A sites was opposite their order of potency in the behavioral assay.

An evaluation for ability to stimulate phosphoinositide turnover as a measure of functional ef-

ficacy revealed that all the compounds were of approximately equal efficacy to serotonin in 5-
HT2C receptors. At 5-HT2A receptors, however, 8 and 9 were significantly less efficacious, elicit-
ing only 61 and 45%, respectively, of the maximal response. These results are consistent with the
proposed mechanism of action for phenethylamine hallucinogens, that such compounds must
be full agonists at the 5-HT2A receptor subtype. In contrast to the 2,5-dimethoxysubstituted
phenethylamines, where rigidification of the methoxy groups had no deleterious effect on ac-
tivity, the loss of activity in the 3,4,5-trioxygenated mescaline analogues may suggest that the
3 and 5 methoxy groups must remain conformationally mobile to enable receptor activation.
 Emergencies associated with the consumption
of designer drugs, hallucinogens and amphetamines
treated at 15 Spanish hospitals in 1994.
Work Group on the Study of Emergencies
due to Psychostimulants
Reviews In Clinical Especialties • December 1997
[Article in Spanish]

Rodríguez Arenas MA1, Barrio Anta G, de la Fuente de Hoz L, Royuela L.

1Delegación del Gobierno para el Plan Nacional sobre Drogas, Madrid

The clinical records of patients attended at emergency hospitals in fifteen

hospitals in Madrid, Valencia and Gran Canaria during 1994 were retrospec-
tively analyzed. Seventy-three emergencies related to the consumption of
design drugs, hallucinogens or amphetamines (100 times lower than be-
cause of opiates or cocaine) were recorded. Apart from the responsible drug
for the emergency visit, in most cases the usual consumption of other sub-
stances was mentioned. Acute psychopathological reactions predominated.
Three patients were admitted and five were derived to other hospitals; the
remaining patients improved and were discharged. The number of emer-
gencies on account of these drugs is relatively low, with a proportion of less
than one in 10,000 emergencies attended in these areas and might not radi-
cally change if the current predominant consumption pattern is maintained.

PMID: 9477670
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9477670
Entactogenic drugs “ecstasy” (MDMA),
“eve” (MDE) and other ring-substituted
methamphetamine derivatives.
A new class of substances among
illegal designer drugs?
Nervenarzt • May 1996
[Article in German]

Gouzoulis-Mayfrank E1, Hermle L, Kovar KA, Sass H.

1Psychiatrische Klinik
Medizinische Einrichtungen der RWTH, Aachen

The widely used recreational drugs 3,4-methylenedioxy-

methamphetamine (MDMA, Ecstasy) and 3,4-methylene-
dioxyethamphetamine (MDE, Eve) occupy an interme-
diate position between stimulants and hallucinogens.
Besides stimulation similar to that caused by amphet-
amines, they usually induce a pleasant, easily control-
lable emotional state with relaxation, fearlessness and
feelings of happiness, but they sometimes also have
stronger, hallucinogenic, effects. A number of pharmaco-
logical studies support the hypothesis that these drugs
make up a distinct class of psychoactive substances,
which have been designated “entactogens.” On the drug
scene, MDMA and MDE are considered “safe.” However,
this view must be corrected. Complications are rare, but
potentially devastating ([long-lasting anxiety and depres-
sive syndromes in chronic users, fatalities with hyperpy-
rexia, rhabdomyolysis and DIC syndrome (disseminated
instravascular coagulation), possible hepatotoxicity].
Moreover, the clinical relevance of animal studies show-
ing neurotoxic effects of MDMA on central serotonergic
pathways is still not clear.
 Stable quantitative EEG difference in
post-LSD visual disorder by split-half analysis:
evidence for disinhibition [161]
Psychiatry Research • October 1996

Abraham HD1, Duffy FH.

1Department of Psychiatry, Tufts University School of Medicine

New England Medical Center, Boston, MA 02111, USA
habraham@opal.tufts.edu

Hallucinogen persisting perceptual disorder (HPPD) may follow

the ingestion of LSD or other hallucinogens in a subset of users.
It is characterized by chronic, intermittent or constant visual hal-
lucinations of many sorts persisting beyond the period of acute
drug effects. We studied 44 LSD-induced HPPD subjects and 88
matched controls to search for spectral and evoked potential
differences using quantitative EEG (qEEG). HPPD subjects dem-
onstrated faster alpha frequency and shorter VER (visual evoked
response) latency, consistent with prior animal and human data
on response to acute LSD administration which suggest LSD-
induced cortical disinhibition. AER (auditory evoked response)
latency was prolonged consistent with a differential LSD effect
upon visual and auditory systems. The exploratory T-statistic sig-
nificance probability mapping (T-SPM) technique demonstrated
HPPD-control differences mostly involving temporal and left pa-
rietal scalp regions, confirmed by a split-half analysis. Significant
variables were all derived from the long latency flash VER and click
AER. None were derived from spectral analyzed EEG data. Canoni-
cal correlation between SPM-derived measures and variables re-
flecting disease severity was highly significant. A between-group
stepwise discriminant analysis based upon a full set of qEEG
measures demonstrated 87% prospective classification success
by jackknifing and 88% success in a separate split-half analysis.
 The Use of Hallucinogens
in the Treatment of Addiction [165]
Addiction Research • 1996

By J. H. Halpern

Research into treating drug dependence with hal-

lucinogens, although promising, ended with ques-
tions still unanswered because of varying, in some
cases skeptical, methodology and insufficient ad-
herence to a double-blind, placebo-controlled de-
sign. Interest is again emerging, especially with the
recent patenting in the United States of ibogaine for
its apparent anti-craving properties. A review of the
literature shows that these properties may be pres-
ent across the entire family of hallucinogens. Poten-
tial efficacy may be tied to their agonism and antag-
onism at specific serotonin receptor sites. After the
administration of a hallucinogen, there is a positive
“afterglow” lasting weeks to months which might be
extended through repeated dosing. Ibogaine and
LSD both have lengthy periods of action, making
their application unwieldy. However, tryptamines,
such as N,N-Dimethyltryptamine (DMT), are so short-
acting that they could easily be administered in an
office setting. With numerous hallucinogens yet to
be tested, a hallucinogen might well be discovered
with superior anti-craving properties and non-del-
eterious side-effect profile.
 Hallucinogenic drugs
in psychiatric research and treatment:
Perspectives and prospects
Journal Of Nervous & Mental Disease • March 1995

By R.J. Strassman

Department of Psychiatry, University of New Mexico School of Medicine

Albuquerque 87131-5326

Clinical research with hallucinogens has resumed after a generation’s

hiatus. To place these new studies in context, this article reviews the
history of hallucinogens’ use and abuse, discusses their pharmaco-
logical properties, and highlights previous human studies. Research
with lysergic acid diethylamide and related hallucinogens with thou-
sands of patients and control subjects was associated with accept-
able safety when subjects were carefully screened, supervised, and
followed up. Data were generated regarding hallucinogens’ psycho-
pharmacology, overlap with endogenous psychoses, and psycho-
therapeutic efficacy. Current American and European studies empha-
size systematic psychopharmacology, in addition to psychotherapy
protocols. Human hallucinogen research will help define unique
mind-brain interfaces, and provide mechanistic hypotheses and
treatment options for psychiatric disorders. It is critical that human
hallucinogen research in the 1990s make use of state of the art meth-
odologies, or consensually define when modifications are required.
Training and supervisory issues also must be explicitly addressed.

PMID: 7891058

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7891058
 U.S. Drug Laws — An Introduction [51]
The New England Journal Of Medicine • February 1994 • By Rachel Hart

“ …abuse and no accepted medical use -- being the most strictly controlled.
Examples of schedule I drugs include heroin, lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), and “designer drugs”
(unnamed chemical substances designed to mimic the pharmacologic effects of scheduled drugs). Schedule II drugs, which include… “

This article has no abstract; the first 100 readers, Rachel Hart, research assistant
words appear below at the Journal, prepared the following
summary. Drug-control laws, which are
The two Sounding Board articles that established by both federal and state
follow address substance abuse. The statutes, generally regulate three ac-
first, by Lester Grinspoon and James tivities: the manufacture, distribution,
Bakalar, argues for relaxing the laws and possession of drugs. Other illegal
against drug use; the second, by Her- drug-related activities, such as pos-
bert Kleber, favors retaining them. Be- sessing drug-related paraphernalia,
cause these laws are confusing and laundering money, and driving while
may not be widely understood by our intoxicated, are regulated by a . . .
 Our Current Approach to Drug Abuse
Progress, Problems, Proposals [608]
The New England Journal Of Medicine • February 1994

Herbert D. Kleber, M.D.

Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse, Columbia University, New York, NY

This article has no abstract

the first 100 words appear below

Most drug-abuse experts and historians agree that we

are in the declining phase of a drug epidemic that be-
gan about 30 years ago. Still, drug abuse remains one of
the nation’s critical domestic problems, linked to crime,
neglect of children, family violence, incomplete educa-
tion, homelessness, AIDS, high health care costs, urban
decay, and diminished economic competitiveness. Until
we reduce the current level of addiction and the experi-
mentation that leads many people to that end, individual
tragedies and profound social problems will continue to
undermine the quality of our lives. Most people are poor
judges of their own susceptibility to addiction. . . .
 Ecstasy—the status in French-speaking Switzerland
Composition of seized drugs, analysis of biological specimens and short review of its pharmacological action and toxicity
Praxis Bern • March 1994
[Article in French]

Giroud C1, Augsburger M, Sadeghipour F

Varesio E, Veuthey JL, Rivier L.

1Laboratoire de toxicologie analytique, Institut Universitaire de Médecine Légale, Lausanne

Methylenedioxy-N-methylamphetamine (MDMA, “Ecstasy”) and other related phenylethylamines are nowadays used extensively in Western Switzerland at dance clubs and raves. There is a widely held
belief among teenagers and misusers that ecstasy is safe. In the last years however, an increasing number of reports
of MDMA-related deaths has been reported. Acute clinical toxicity problems following MDMA ingestion include
hyperthermia, convulsions and arrhythmias. There is also growing concern that these phenylethylamines are neu-
rotoxic and cause long-term damage to serotonineric nerve terminals in animal brains. Qualitative analyses by
GC-MS of street samples of ecstasy showed that only a part of them contain MDMA or
related phenylethylamines (MDA, MDEA, MBDB and 2C-B). Most of them were mixed
with caffeine and an excipient (sugars or polyols [e.g. mannitol]). Amphetamine cut
with caffeine and other drugs (e.g. testosterone), stimulants (e.g. pseudoephedrine)
and other drugs unrelated to stimulants and phenylethylamines (e.g. LSD, chloro-
quine, vasodilators) were also detected. Quantitative determinations performed by
HPLC-DAD or EC-DAD reveal huge fluctuations in the amount of active substance(s)
per tablet. MDMA and related compounds display unique psychoactive properties,
acting as a stimulant and inducing feelings of empathy. The effects of MDMA intake
are very likely the results of the large release of serotonin (5-HT) in the synaptic
cleft, of the inhibition of the re-uptake inactivation of 5-HT and of the inhibition of a
key-enzyme involved in the biosynthesis of 5-HT. Forensic investigations performed
at our institute showed significant blood levels of MDMA, MDEA and MDA in sam-
ples drawn from people suspected of driving under the influence of psychoactive
drugs. Up to now, no death could be attributed to MDMA intoxication only because
our analyses always revealed the additional presence of toxic amounts of other psy-
choactive drugs (e.g. opiates, cocaine). Our study shows that because of the variable
composition of ecstasy tablets, unpredictable types and amounts of drugs may be taken by MDMA misusers.
Moreover, there is considerable concern that traffic accidents may be caused by MDMA-abusers. MDMA intake
could result in severe intoxication and even death, especially when combined with other types of drugs.

PMID: 9157497
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9157497
 Hallucinogens: An Update [164]
U.S. Department Of Health And Human Services • 1994

By Geraline C. Lin, Ph.D.

National Institute on Drug Abuse

And Richard A. Glennon, Ph.D.

Virginia Commonwealth University

Public Health Service

National Institutes of Health
National Institute on Drug Abuse
5600 Fishers Lane, Rockville, MD 20857

Despite a general trend of declining substance abuse by high school se-

niors and college students in the United States from 1985 to 1991, the most
recent (1992) National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) National High School
Senior Survey (currently known as Monitoring the Future) has found that an-
nual prevalence of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) use has risen for a third
consecutive year from 1989 to 1992 among college students and young
adults aged 19 to 28. Moreover, from 1991 to 1992, an increase in LSD use
by high school seniors comparable to the increase by college students and
a trend of increasing annual prevalence of LSD use by 10th and 8th graders
(although at a lower rate for the latter) were also observed.

Prompted by these observations and other independent sources indi-

cating an increase in LSD use, the fact that the last comprehensive, in-
depth review of research in this area by NIDA was conducted well over
10 years ago, and the impressive advances made in and the tremen-
dous research opportunities afforded by molecular biology and other
neuroscience disciplines during the past decade, NIDA undertook the
present technical review to examine current know edge on hallucino-
gen research and to identify research priorities in this area. The techni-
cal review meeting entitled “Hallucinogens: An Update” was held July
13 and 14, 1992, in Bethesda, MD. The objectives of the meeting were:
(1) to update current knowledge on hallucinogen research; (2) to iden-
tify future preclinical and clinical research needs; (3) to discuss problems
and possible solutions associated with hallucinogen research, especially
relating to human studies; (4) to explore the potential therapeutic util-
ity, if any, of classical hallucinogens; and (5) to address issues related
to substance abuse such as how hallucinogen research can contrib-
ute, directly and indirectly, to drug abuse research and help prevent,
ameliorate, and resolve problems associated with hallucinogen abuse.
317 Pages • [368] • 1994

~ Continued on the next page ~

101 Pages • [818] • 1994
 50 Years Of LSD • [176] • 242 Pages
The Swiss Academy Of Medical Sciences • October 1993

By A. Pletscher and D. Ladewig

 Adverse consequences
of lysergic acid diethylamide [731]
Addiction • October 1993

Abraham HD1, Aldridge AM.

1Department of Psychiatry, New England Medical Center, Boston, MA 02111

The continued endemic use of hallucinogenic drugs, and

of LSD in particular, raises concern regarding their short and
long term adverse consequences. The epidemiology of LSD
abuse is reviewed suggesting an increase in LSD use among
the young as the prevalence rates for other substances con-
tinues to fall. Evidence supports the association of LSD use
with panic reactions, prolonged schizoaffective psychoses
and post-hallucinogen perceptual disorder, the latter be-
ing present continually for as long as 5 years. Evidence does
not support claims of genetic disorders arising from hallu-
cinogens. In light of the foregoing, current data confirm ear-
lier findings of long lasting psychopathology arising in vul-
nerable individuals from the use of LSD. A hypothetical long
term molecular mechanism of adverse effects is proposed.

Comment in:

LSD and post-hallucinogen

perceptual disorder [310]
Addiction • 1994 • Continued On Next Page
 The Nazi Doctors and the Nuremberg Code:
Human Rights in Human Experimentation [613]
August 1947
New England Journal Of Medicine • May 1993

Edited by George J. Annas and Michael A. Grodin 371 pages

New York, Oxford University Press, 1992 - $29.95
ISBN: 0-19-507042-9

Nazi physicians were convicted by one of the Nuremberg tribunals of im-

mersing concentration-camp inmates in freezing solutions, exploding them
in low-pressure chambers, infecting them with typhus, forcing them to drink
sea water, and killing them in order to study their defleshed skeletons, all in
the name of science. In deciding the case, the tribunal enunciated a set of
ethical principles for experimentation with human subjects that came to be
known as the Nuremberg Code.

The first and central principle of the code states, “The voluntary consent of
the human subject is absolutely essential.” But Jay Katz, perhaps the most
insightful contributor to this unusual collection of essays and documenta-
tion on the code, points out that the tribunal erroneously assumed that the
principle of voluntary consent had been firmly embodied in medical ethics
up to that time (which it had not) and that it was the gravamen of the doc-
tors’ offenses. On the contrary, as is excruciatingly evident from the detailed
accounts of the “experiments,” the doctors committed these crimes against
humanity because they were able to deny the humanity of their subjects and
even, at some level, must have been satisfying bizarrely sadistic impulses.

Another essayist, Leonard Glantz, observes: “These matters [informed consent]

were of no concern to the Nazi doctors. From their perspective [it] was more akin
to animal research . . . [although it] would violate current animal research regula-
tions.” Consent was not even an issue.

Other contributors suggest the inadequacy of the Nuremberg Code’s provisions

to address issues such as those in the Nancy Cruzan case and those in the con-
troversy over the use of fetal tissue for research. Indeed, the code is not helpful
in drawing distinctions between clinical research and therapy. What seems to me
too sharp a focus in the book on the informed-consent principle results in an in-
adequate treatment of the recent court case on the propriety of a Food and Drug
Administration waiver of the informed-consent requirement for use of an investi-
gational new drug; in that case the drugs covered by the waiver
might have been needed to protect troops in combat against the
effects of Iraqi-dispensed poison gas.

Yet an examination of the post-Nuremberg record by still other

contributors suggests that the informed-consent issue is still
alive. The medicolegal community in the United States has not
been without sin. Examples cited include the Tuskegee syphilis
experiment, continued until 1972; experiments conducted at the
Jewish Chronic Disease Hospital in which live cancer cells were in-
jected into chronically ill and debilitated patients in 1963; the ad-
ministration by the Central Intelligence Agency of mind-altering
drugs to unwitting subjects beginning in 1953; and the Supreme
Court-sanctioned exposure by the Army of a serviceman to lyser-
gic acid diethylamide (LSD) while telling him he was testing the
effectiveness of protective clothing against chemical warfare.

The book is rich in data both on the Nazi doctors’ trial and
on the subsequent history of the informed-consent doctrine
in clinical research. It contains the full documentation on
the Nuremberg tribunal, including the impressive opening
statement of Brigadier General Telford Taylor, chief coun-
sel for the prosecution; the 1931 Reich Circular on human
experimentation (as well as the 1933 law against cruelty to
animals); and the text of the World Medical Association dec-
larations on clinical research adopted in 1964, 1975, 1983,
and 1989 (Helsinki I, II, III, and IV). It also contains full doc-
umentation on the FDA waiver of informed consent in the
Gulf War situation described above.

For anyone interested in the problems of clinical research on

human subjects, this compendium should be a valuable refer-
ence work and a source of insights as well as relevant facts.
Because it addresses a complex problem from the perspec-
tive of what may be the most extreme cases imaginable, it
casts deep shadows, even while illuminating parts of its sub-
ject. But at the same time it serves to remind the reader of the
temptations to which even the most scrupulous physicians,
operating on the frontiers of clinical research, are exposed.
Changing the Consent Rules for Desert Storm [50]
The New England Journal Of Medicine • March 1992

George J. Annas, J.D., M.P.H.

This article has no abstract; the first 100 words appear below

SHORTLY before the beginning of Operation Desert Storm, during Des-

ert Shield, the U.S. military sought a waiver of requirements for informed
consent for the use of investigational drugs and vaccines on our troops in
the Persian Gulf. The danger of chemical and biologic warfare was seen
as demanding this waiver, although the Nuremberg Code, other codes
of medical ethics, and respect for the human rights of American soldiers
seemed to caution against it. One year later it seems reasonable to re-
view this decision. The legal maneuvering to revise consent regulations
for wartime conditions provides a case study that highlights three . . .
 Treatment of acute, adverse psychedelic reactions:
“I’ve Tripped And I Can’t Get Down” [551]

Journal of Psychoactive Drugs • July - September 1992

Penny L. Miller, R.N., B.S.N.*; George R. Gay, M.D.••;

Kathy C. Ferris, R.N., B.S.N. ••• & Steven Anderson, B.A. •••

•Haight Ashbury Free Medical Oinics, Rock Medicine

Event Medicine Program, San Francisco; University of California Davis
Medical Center, Sacramento, California
••Haight Ashbury Free Medical Clinics, Rock Medicine
Event Medicine Program, San Francisco; Chief of Staff
California Medical Facility, Vacaville, California
•••Haight Ashbury Free Medical Clinics, Rock Medicine Event
Medicine Program, San Francisco

The use oflysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) is practically synonymous

with the flower children and hippies of the 1960s. Nevertheless, it re-
mains a significant street drug in the 1990s, and it has been suggested
that American high-school students are passing over cocaine in favor of
LSD (Unsigned 1991; Kulig 1990; Schwartz, Comerci & Meeks 1987). At
a recent rock concert in Northern California, the Rock Medicine/Event
Medicine Program of the Haight Ashbury Free Medical Clinics treated
14 patients with a primary diagnosis of LSD intoxication. While the ma-
jority of these patients were treated effectively with a “talkdown” tech-
nique, two patients experienced adverse psychedelic reactions requir-
ing pharmacological intervention. The following case reports describe
the use of intramuscular lorazepam (Ativan) and haloperidol (Haldol) to
successfully treat severe, acute, adverse psychedelic reactions.

CASE REPORTS
Case 1

An 18-year-old Japanese male was brought to the medical area in four-point

leather restraints, screaming hysterically in Japanese. He was accompanied
by a bilingual male friend who indicated that the patient was seeing “bad
demons.”The friend stated that the patient had ingested two “hits” of LSD ap-
proximately two hours earlier. The dose (number of micrograms) per hit was
unknown. This was the patient’s first experience with LSD. Initial attempts
to establish rapport and provide talk-down were unsuccessful. Physical ex-
amination revealed an apparently healthy young male without evidence of
“I’ve Tripped And I Can’t Get Down!”
trauma. Height and weight were estimated at 65 inches and 140 pounds,
respectively. Pupils were dilated
to 7 mm, equal and minimally
responsive. Blood pressure was
175/90, heart rate 150/min, and
respirations were 28/min. Skin
was diaphoretic. Neurologic
examination was grossly intact
and non focal. The patient was
medicated with 2 mg lorazepam
and 2 mg haloperidol intramus-
cularly. Thirty minutes later the
leather restraints were removed.
Two members of the medical
team were then able to gently
restrain the patient. using physi-
cal contact to help calm him. He
was still speaking Japanese, but
was no longer hysterical. The
patient’s friend stated that the
patient believed himself to be
a baseball player. Over the next
hour the patient improved and
was able to converse in Japanese
with his friend. He gradually be-
came more oriented. Blood pres-
sure was 130/85, heart rate was
100/min, and respirations were
20/min. The patient’s skin was
warm and dry. Two and one-half
hours after admission the patient
was discharged to the care of his
friend. He was alert, oriented,
spoke English, and apologized
sheepishly to the medical staff
for “causing a scene.” The patient
reported no further medical
problems the next day at a fol-
low-up visit [There are two more
case reports in this articles full 9-
page PDF].
 Irrationality in psychiatry - I:
Irrationality in analytical psychology
[Article in Czech]

Ceskosl Ovenska Psychiatrie • February 1991

By J. Vacek

Ministerstvo spravedlnosti
Spolkové zemĕ Baden, Württemberg, Stuttgart

In the author’s opinion the contemporary western world is expe-

riencing an offensive of irrationality which affects also psychiatry.
When psychiatry got rid of irrational illusions of preceding centuries,
analytical psychology contributed to the introduction of irrational-
ity into psychiatry. In the first part of his paper he maintains that
Freud’s share was not substantial in this respect and that in particu-
lar Jung contributed towards the development of irrational trends
in psychiatry by this concept of collective unconscious. In the sec-
ond part of his paper the author deals with so-called transpersonal,
psychology, in particular the contribution made by the Czech psy-
chiatrist Grof who, based on his experiments with LSD, created the
theory of three levels of experience from unconscious (psychody-
namic, perinatal, and transpersonal). His interpretation is a relapse
of neoplatonism and represents antirational agnostic spiritualism
with utopic antipsychiatric elements. In the third part of his paper
the author deals with Capro’s ideology of the New Age Movement
to the establishment of which Ghof contributed in an important
way. The New Age ideology is an irrational conglomeration of anti-
civilization trends which negate modern thinking. The chances of
manking are fallaciously seen in alienation from science and an ap-
proach to mysticism and irrational Asian traditions. Contemporary
popularity of irrational trends, incl. transpersonal psychology, is
a reaction of the overationalized society. Consequential enforce-
ment of transpersonal psychology would imply a negation of the
entire arsenal of thinking in psychiatry as a medial discipline.

PMID: 1913937
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1913937
 Do classical hallucinogens
act as 5-HT2 agonists or antagonists?
Neuropsychopharmacology • October 1990

By R. A. Glennon

Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy

Medical College of Virginia, Virginia Commonwealth University
Richmond 23298-0581

There has long been controversy over whether the classical hallucinogens behave as
serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine [5-HT]) agonists or antagonists. Now that there is evi-
dence that many of the effects produced by these agents involve a 5-HT2 mechanism, a
new controversy has arisen: do they behave as 5-HT2 agonists or as 5-HT2 antagonists?
A review of the existing literature suggests that where a 5-HT2 mechanism has been
implicated (such as in phosphoinositide turnover, contraction of certain smooth mus-
cle, rat-paw edema, head-twitch behavior, discriminative stimulus effects, hyperther-
mia, platelet aggregation, and in various other effects), the classical hallucinogens are
most likely acting via an agonist, or at least via a partial agonist, mechanism. A partial
agonist mechanism would explain why classical hallucinogens occasionally appear to
act as antagonists. Furthermore, in certain instances, and due to their nonselective na-
ture, indolealkylamine hallucinogens may be able to modulate their own 5-HT2-medi-
ated effects by simultaneous costimulation of 5-HT1 receptors. These agents can also
modulate the agonist effects of other, more selective 5-HT2 agonists. Nevertheless, it
is very unlikely that the classical hallucinogens are acting as pure 5-HT2 antagonists.

PMID: 2078284
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2078284
 Hallucinogenic drugs
are partial agonists of the
human platelet shape change response:
a physiological model of the 5-HT2 receptor
Biological Psychiatry • July 1989

McClue SJ1, Brazell C, Stahl SM.

1Merck Sharp and Dohme Research Laboratories

Neuroscience Research Centre, Harlow, Essex, England

We have assayed several phenylalkylamine and indolealkylamine

hallucinogens, as well as structurally similar nonhallucinogens,
for their effect on human platelet shape change, a physiological
model for the central serotonergic 5-HT2 receptor. The halluci-
nogenic drugs lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD-25), N,N-dimeth-
yltryptamine (N,N-DMT), 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine
(5-MeODMT), 4-iodo-2,5-dimethoxyphenyl isopropylamine
(DOI), bufotenine, and mescaline all showed a characteristic 5-
HT2 partial agonist effect on platelet shape change. Nonhalluci-
nogens with structural similarity to hallucinogens did not share
this profile. Lisuride, methysergide, and lysergic acid showed an-
tagonism of 5-HT-induced shape change, but none were shape
change agonists. Other “psychoactive” or mood-altering drugs
(cocaine, amphetamine, phencyclidine) showed poor antago-
nism of 5-HT-induced platelet shape change. This work refines
recent ideas that some of the behavioral effects of LSD-type hal-
lucinogens in humans are due to their actions at 5-HT2 receptors
and suggests that these hallucinogens are partial 5-HT2 agonists.

PMID: 2742945

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2742945
 Storming Heaven
LSD & The American Dream [381]
Perennial Library • 1988 • 306 Pages

By Jay Stevens

An Afternoon In The Sixties

During the night the rain and fog moved inland; by morning the
air was sharp and clear. From the top of Nob Hill you could see
the houseboats of Sausalito; Marin, in the distance, was a hazy
shimmer. It was going to be hot, going to be one of those fine
winter days when the mercury suddenly climbs and for a few
hours San Francisco becomes tropical, the golf links jammed
with hackers, the Bay crowded with boats; the perfect sort of
day to load the kids into the car and drive to San Simeon, to
finally visit Randolph Hearst’s baronial whim; the perfect sort of
day to dig out last summer’s bathing suit and catch a few rays,
which was what the students at San Francisco State were doing.
It was January 14, 1967, a Saturday, and in parts of the Bay area
elements from another, less integrated America, were also mak-
ing plans: there was going to be a party in the park today, a curi-
ous affair with an extravagant name, A Gathering of the Tribes
for the First Human Be-In. The park was Golden Gate Park, one
of those imperial parks built in the closing decades of the last
century, with something for everyone, museums, lakes, bicycle
paths, fly casting pools, a buffalo paddock with a herd of sleepy
bison, a Japanese garden. On a sparkling Saturday like this, the
Golden Gate should have resembled a twentieth-century ver-
sion of George Seurat’s epic painting, La Grande Jatte, but some-
thing had happened in the past few months to alter the ambi-
ance. Just up the street, a short stroll away, was Haight- Ashbury,
the home of the hippies, and the hippies, unencumbered by the
Protestant work ethic, were treating the park as though it was
their own special backyard. They were everywhere, panhan-
dling, singing, performing little existential playlets that were
incomprehensible to everyone but themselves. They’d turned a
nondescript slope near the tennis court into a perpetual love-in,
although in these innocent days
the form still lacked a name: what
you saw, between serve and vol-
ley, was a shifting accumulation
of—what? A European, register-
ing the carnival costumes and
the cheerful, almost dignified
self-absorption of their wearers,
might have credited the hippies
with being another branch of the
gypsy tribes of Romany. And in
many of the externals they would
have been correct. But in actual
fact the bodies lolling on the
grass next to the Golden Gate’s
tennis courts belonged to the
educated sons and daughters of
white middle-class America. They
had, to use their own terminolo-
gy, dropped out. In the stubborn
fashion of children, they wanted
nothing to do with the adult cul-
ture. That’s what the Gathering of
the Tribes was all about: it was a
celebration of this rejection, and
a partial first step toward build-
ing an alternative. Although the
possibility of the Be-In had been
floating around the Haight-Ash-
bury for months, it was only in
the last couple of weeks that the
concept had jelled and notices
had been sent to the local press
announcing that an epochal mo-
ment was about to occur. “Would
you believe Timothy Leary and Ma-
rio Savio?” enthused the hippies’
favorite newspaper, the San Fran-
cisco Oracle ... [download the PDF]
 Who Goes First?

The story of
self-experimentation in medicine [614]
New England Journal Of Medicine • April 1988

This article has no abstract

the first 100 words appear below

Fascinated in medical school by the account of Carrion’s self-inoculation

with bartonella, the author, senior medical correspondent for The New York
Times, has written the history of the men (and a few women) who chose
to test a new drug, procedure, or infectious agent by using themselves as
the first experimental subject. We read of Stapp’s riding of rocket sleds,
of Forssmann’s cardiac catheterization, of Simpson’s self-administration of
chloroform, of Prescott and d-tubocurarine, of the self-experimental ser-
endipitous discoveries of the effects of disulfiram and LSD, of Kaprows-
ki and Kaplan and rabies vaccine, of Reed and yellow fever research, . . .
 The LSD Blotter Index [336]
Drug Enforcement Agency (DEA) Microgram
Volume XX • Number 7 • July 1987

By Dr. E.S. Sykes, Charles W. Harper and James H. Crockett

 Taking birth trauma seriously
Medical Hypotheses • January 1986

Riedlinger T, Riedlinger J.

Virtually all mainstream schools of psychology, including biological psychol-

ogy, reject the idea that people sustain psychological trauma at birth. Their
objections are basically those raised by Freud more than 50 years ago: (1) lack
of solid evidence that difficult births are related to mental disturbances and
(2) a general conviction that the neonatal brain is not sufficiently developed to
experience birth psychologically. But recent empirical evidence gathered by
Stanislav Grof in over 3500 psychotherapy sessions using psychedelic drugs
as a facilitator seems to show that a link does exist between birth trauma
memory “matrices” in the unconscious and various mental conditions. And
separate research on psychedelic drug effects, subcortical learning mecha-
nisms and the nature of emotional response suggest that birth trauma mem-
ories might be explained in a way that circumvents without refuting Freud’s
basic objections. The following briefly reviews these developments, conclud-
ing that birth trauma theories—especially Grof’s—deserve more serious
consideration by mainstream psychologists and medical researchers.

PMID: 3634902

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=Stanilav+Grof%2C+LSD
 Comparative effects of LSD and lisuride:
clues to specific hallucinogenic drug actions
Pharmacology, Biochemistry & Behavior • February 1986

By F.J. White

This review compares the effects of LSD and its nonhallucinogenic congener lisuride hy-
drogen maleate (LHM) on various biochemical, behavioral and electrophysiological indi-
ces of neuronal function. The underlying rationale is that any differences between the ef-
fects of LSD and LHM might be relevant to neuronal actions which are unique and specific
to hallucinogenic drugs and thereby provide clues to the neurobiological substrates of
hallucinogenesis. In biochemical studies, LHM appears to be very similar to LSD with re-
spect to its actions on monoaminergic (5-HT, DA, NE) systems. The major difference be-
tween the two ergots appears quantitative in nature since LHM is more potent than LSD,
especially on DA neurochemistry. Needed at the present time are additional comparative
studies of LSD and LHM with respect to other biochemical measures, for example on the
release of 5-HT and DA and comparisons at more molecular levels such as subcellular com-
partmentation. Also necessary are more intensive regional analyses on specific subpopu-
lations of 5-HT and DA systems (mesolimbic, mesostriatal and mesocortical). Behavioral
studies are relatively uniform in their characterization of the greater DA-ergic activity of
LHM as compared to LSD. In particular, the drug discrimination (DD) procedure has in-
dicated a more specific interaction of LSD with 5-HT neuronal systems as compared to
LHM and has successfully differentiated the relative roles of 5-HT and DA systems in the
behavioral effects of LSD and LHM. Electrophysiological studies have been consistent with
both biochemical and behavioral findings with respect to the much greater effect of LHM
on DA receptors. In fact, the effects of LSD on DA-containing neurons are both weak and
heterogeneous, again indicating a need for more detailed analyses of specific DA pro-
jection systems. The greater potency of LHM than LSD on 5-HT containing dorsal raphe
neurons has lessened the attractiveness of the once popular theory that hallucinogenic
efficacy is related to diminution of impulse flow in 5-HT systems but has also spawned
greater interest in the possible role of postsynaptic 5-HT receptors in hallucinogenic drug
action. Thus far, the most interesting finding is the ability of LSD and other hallucino-
gens, but not LHM, to potentiate an excitomodulatory effect of 5-HT in the facial motor
nucleus. If such a phenomenon occurs more generally in the CNS, the importance of this
finding will be greatly enhanced. Preliminary data is presented which suggests that LSD
may also induce such an effect in a limbic forebrain structure, the nucleus accumbens.

PMID: 3952127
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3952127
 LSD and Psychotherapy [552]
Journal Of Psychoactive Drugs • October 1985

By R. Yensen

A review of the historical trends in LSD research clearly indicates that LSD
and similar drugs are too powerful and unique in their psychological ef-
fects to be mistaken for and studied as just another group of psychotropic
compounds. The importance of the theoretical understanding and expec-
tations of the researchers in determining the subjective effects and results
of LSD treatment is undeniable. In addition, double-blind controlled studies
have been demonstrated to be an inappropriate methodology for studying
LSD, because it is not feasible to create an effective blind for LSD with ei-
ther an active or inactive placebo. It must be realized that when attempting
to scientifically study such ephemeral and easily influenced processes as
those involving human consciousness, methods of study may influence the
process and outcome of the research. In 1937 Werner Heisenberg demon-
strated the uncertainty principle in relation to any attempt to measure with
accuracy the minute processes of electrons in the atom. One must consider
the possibility that current tools and methods for studying the effects of
LSD are presently so crude as to demonstrate a similar uncertainty principle
in LSD research: The methods of measuring actually influence the process
under study to such a degree that the results that are garnered are primarily
the effects of attempts at measurement. The continuing crisis in psychiatric
and psychological treatment demands that the most powerful of the psy-
choactive drugs cannot simply be shelved and forgotten. The need is too
strong to advance knowledge of the role and function of the human mind
in health and disease. LSD and similar drugs hold a tremendous promise for
humankind if only ways can be found to further understanding of how to
use them responsibly and appropriately. Perhaps other societies that have
integrated these substances into the very fabric of their social order may
offer models. As Silberman (1970) has written: “No approach is more im-
practical than one which takes the present arrangements and practices as
given, asking only ‘How can we do what we are doing more effectively?’
or ‘How can we bring the worst institutions up to the level of the best?’
These questions need to be asked to be sure; but one must also realize that
best may not be good enough and may, in any case, already be changing.”
 [615}

Hallucinogens:
Neurochemical, behavioral,
and clinical perspectives [615]
New England Journal Of Medicine • May 1985

By Henry David Abraham, M.D.

St. Elizabeth’s Hospital, Brighton, MA 02135

This article has no abstract

the first 100 words appear below

Since the epidemic of hallucinogenic drug abuse swept

the United States 20 years ago, scientists have per-
sisted in examining the psychobiology of these pow-
erful agents. This book is a compilation of that work,
a review of nearly 1000 original papers in behavioral
pharmacology, neurochemistry, and neurophysiology.
Interest in hallucinogens, which have barely been ex-
amined as therapeutic tools and are now abused only
by a fraction of the number of people who used them
in the 1960s, arises because of several lines of scientific
inquiry. Some workers approach the study of LSD and
related compounds as keys to the nature of . . .

THE LD50
[Note: LSD, according to the peer review and interest-
ingly enough, has an LD50 that is exactly opposite most
every pharmaceutical that exists. The LD or “Lethal Dose”
provides for the number of live animals (all animals in-
cluding humans, insects, etc.) that would die in 50% of
sample cases. The LD50 is used as a reference point for
toxicity. The LSD LD50 for an elephant is infinitely small
while the LSD LD50 for humans is magnitudes higher—
lions, pigs, rabbits, mice and even insects have been
used in peer review to test this theory and it’s been
proven a factual aspect of d-lysergic acid diethyl am-
ide. The reasoning is as yet unknown although theories
have been hypothesized and expounded upon in the
peer review. The LD50 is expressed in body weight as
milligrams per kilogram of body weight or mg/kg]
 Recreational Uses of LSD [250]
Journal of Psychoactive Drugs • December 1985

By Peter Stafford

Right from the beginning, lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) was ingested
for nonmedical reasons and produced an experience that was re-creation-
al in nature. Since that day of April 19, 1943, when Albert Hofmann “de-
termined to probe the situation,” this molecule was confined to research
labs at Sandoz Pharmaceuticals in Basel, Switzerland, until the late 1940’s.
There it was given to six schizophrenics on 20 occasions (which might be
viewed as medical use) and to 16 normal subjects on 29 occasions (more
likely, re-creational use). Although investigative dosages of only 20 to 30
micrograms (pg) were used after Hofmann’s trip, these 23 people consti-
tuted the entire first sampling of impressions on how this new substance
might be applied.

In 1947, Werner Stoll, the son of Hofmann’s lab partner, communicated

the first account of LSD’s effects-based on this collective experience-in
the pages of the Swiss Archives of Neurology. Then in 1949, he reported
further about this drug in the same journal in an article titled “A New Hal-
lucinatory Agent, Active in Very Small Amounts.” Before the year was out,
two more studies were published and the drug made its way across the
Atlantic to the United States.

It came to the West Coast in a definitely nonmedical fashion via the Los
Angeles psychiatrist Nick Bercel, a Hungarian. Bercel had been visiting
Stoll in Switzerland, who, before they parted, told him something to the
effect that “I think there are a few things we have developed you ought to
try.” As Bercel recalls it, Stoll reached into his waistcoat pocket and handed
him a couple of vials without much more ado. Bercel did try it once he
returned home, thereby probably becoming the first person in the U.S.
ever to take LSD. Bercel played an important part in the spread of this sub-
stance in the Los Angeles area in the early 1950’s and was among the first
to publish his findings. At about the same time as this casual encounter
between Stoll and Bercel, Otto Kauders from Vienna spoke at Boston Psy-
chiatric Hospital-a mental health center affiliated with Harvard Medical
School-and described how LSD had temporarily made Hofmann crazy. This
caught the attention of those present and, plications of this drug, and by 1966, when
as the research director has commented, such usage was dramatically curtailed, it
“We were very interested in anything that had been tried by well over 40,000 men-
could make someone schizophrenic.” Soon tally ill patients. Yet, so-called recreational
Max Rinkel, a neuropsychiatrist, contacted users have since predominated and they
Sandoz and received a supply. The first to now constitute the vast majority of users.
test out this batch was Robert Hyde, of
Boston Hospital’s Psychopathic staff, who Adoption of the adjective “recreational”
swallowed 100 pg in water. The observing by the government generally has about it
group had hoped that through the produc- a connotation that such experiences are
tion of a temporary mental breakdown they rather trivial, frivolous and/or of a vulgar
might come to understand more about and lower-order nature. In fact, however,
disorders of the mind. But Hyde felt little the impressions conveyed by most indi-
in the way of effects and actually insisted viduals engaged in such activities with
on making his ordinary hospital rounds. LSD seems to have been to the effect that
the consequences have been of a high-
Hyde’s experience, even though it pro- er order. The bulk of those responding
duced little in the way of medical results, have repeatedly indicated that they have
nonetheless has a kind of delicious irony thought that their use of LSD had been
about it, because, as Rinkel later remarked, among the most important experiences
he became quite paranoid and insisted of their lives and that the drug’s effects
that they had not given him anything had been re-creational. Because the use
and also that Sandoz had cheated them of appropriate language often falls short
by sending plain water. “That was not Dr. in the area of consciousness studies, it is
Hyde’s normal behavior,” was how Rinkel instructive to refer to that first contrived,
described this session, which must have nonmedical experience with LSD by Hof-
been reminiscent to many of those pres- mann. Hofmann claimed to have expe-
ent of an outstanding Robert Louis Steven- rienced out-of-body sensations, much
son theme, because “he is a very pleasant fright, much religious feeling, much con-
man.” Hyde, it might be noted, later be- cern for his family’s future, much sense
came a consultant about LSD for the CIA. about how ironic it seemed that he might
die by experimenting further with a family
In current governmental jargon, the of drugs that he had initially synthesized,
phrases “recreational usage” and/or “rec- and much feeling that he was going crazy.
reational drugs” usually refer to use other At that time, psychiatry could have easily
than utilization of a mind-altering substance for described this as a dissociative experience-a use
an established medical reason. As previously indicated, the history of LSD up until the second of language that may lead to an easy dismissal of any significance of the psychedelic experience.
half of this century was almost entirely of this sort. In the three and a half intervening decades
since then, little has changed. Much can be-and has been-said for and about the medical ap- ~ Please download PDF #250 to read the remaining 10 pages of this fascinating report ~
 Ethics and LSD [113]
The Journal Of Psychoactive Drugs • October 1985

By W.H. Clark

There are two basic sources from which to that only ignorance can bring-insists that
derive ethical standards for the use of ly- LSD and other similar drugs are dangerous
sergic acid diethylamide (LSD) and other narcotics with no therapeutic medical uses.
psychedelic drugs. First, there are consider- As a matter of fact, systematic studies dat-
ations arising from normal social consensus, ing back to the early 1940’s have shown that,
which demand that any tool or process be particularly in responsible hands, risks with
designed and used in such a way that society LSD are minimal. Sidney Cohen (1960) sum-
will benefit and will not be harmed. LSD can marized reports from 44 investigators cover-
be seen as a tool to be used in some man- ing results from about 5,000 persons, both
ner or other to achieve social benefit, such mentally ill patients and healthy individuals
as pleasure, religious experience or psycho- who had been given LSD a total of 25,000
therapy. A typical statement related to ethi- times. In the latter group, there were no re-
cal procedures in general and also to the use ported suicides and the incidence of psy-
of drugs in particular may be found in Ethical choses lasting longer than 48 hours was 0.8
Standards of Psychologists (American Psy- per thousand. Among mentally ill patients,
chological Association 1979). If harm results suicides were reported at the rate of 0.4 per
from the use of LSD, as has occasionally been thousand and psychoses lasting longer than
the case, then it should be demonstrated 48 hours were reported in 1.8 per thousand
that the drug’s benefits outweigh its dan- administrations. In another study (Clark &
gers. The second and more radical source of Funkhouser 1970) carried out among phy-
ethics is an extension of the first and will be sicians and psychotherapists showed that
examined in the second part of this article. the closer the practitioners had come to sys-
tematic experimentation with LSD, the safer
At first glance these principles would seem they thought it was although most recom-
to put a forthright veto on any use of LSD or mended careful supervision. Of the 617 re-
its near relatives. The general public has been searchers and professionals who answered
frightened by a medley of accounts of LSD-re- a questionnaire only four reported suicides,
lated disasters pouring from media and cau- which were all by mentally ill patients. At
tionary lectures delivered to young and old the same time, 25 respondents stated that
alike. As a result, most people are horrified by they had observed alleviation of suicidal
even a suggestion that LSD has wholesome urges. From these data one could conclude
and promising aspects. Furthermore, con- that on balance LSD, properly used, appears
ventional thinking-secure in the conviction to actually reduce the danger of suicide.
 LSD in the supportive care of the terminally ill cancer patient [114]
The Journal Of Psychoactive Drugs • October 1985

By Albert A. Kurland

Supportive care of the cancer patient fre- rather than a diminished, communication
quentlv presents formidable challenges to between the patient and other people as
the physician’s capacity to provide relief. well as the barriers to this process are dra-
The limited effectiveness of the available matically and sensitively portrayed in the
supportive measures has led to an intensi- play The Shadow Box by Michael Christofer
fied search to obtain more effective means. (1977). The playwright depicts the com-
In this pursuit, considerable criticism has ing deaths of three persons who are ter-
been directed toward medical person- minally ill: a young intellectual. a middle-
nel, particularly physicians, for neglecting aged man and an old woman. Attention is
psychological intervention and tending to centered on two themes. The first is that
make insufficient use of active medical as dying is not a problem but a human con-
well as other resources (Krant 1972). Nev- dition. and that no miraculous therapy
ertheless, despite the justifications for this can be anticipated-an understanding that
criticism, there are often major obstacles to underscores the necessity of living the
using psychological intervention. Frequent- last days honestly. The second theme is
ly, persistent pain preempts the patient’s the importance of allowing the families of
complete attention, leading to an extensive those who are dying to have an opportu-
use of narcotic analgesics and sedatives. nity to participate in such a relationship, a
This results in a growing restriction of the course largely determined by the patient’s
patient’s sense of awareness, confounding sense of awareness. The growing recogni-
the efforts designed to offer psychologi- tion of the need to maintain the patient’s
cal assistance. Thus, an additional impetus state of awareness, while relief from pain
is given to the withdrawal and separation and dysphoria are provided, has resulted
taking place between the patient, relatives in a clearer outline of the requirements
andstaff, resulting in further attenuation for measures designed to add to the ef-
of the meaningfulness of the patient’s ex- fectiveness of supportive care. The criteria
istence. The importance of an expanded, include easing pain without impairment
of the sensorium, enhancing and assisting the individual’s capacity to maintain an interest
in life, the lack of unpleasant side effects, the relatively long-lasting nature of the relief and
its effectiveness in a high percentage of cases. Although this objective is still some dis-
tance away, a step toward this goal may have been taken by the investigations focused
on the use of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) in the supportive care of the cancer
patient. An unplanned event led to the initiation of such a study by this author
and his associates as they sought to evaluate the usefulness of LSD in a context
of brief intensive psychotherapy for the treatment of alcoholics (Kurland et al.
1967). As the investigation was in progress, a member of the research staff
became aware that she had cancer. Its distressing impact on her physical and
mental state, and the concern of her associates, prompted discussion con-
cerning the possibility of helping her overcome her despair with the experi-
mental treatment. This led to her request to be treated. The dramatic relief she
experienced led to the initiation of a study designed to investigate the possible
usefulness of LSD in the supportive care of cancer patients (Pahnke et al. 1970).

Considerable impetus for undertaking the experimental treatment of the staff

member was given by the work of Kast (1966, 1964, 1963) and Kast and Collins
(1964), who had administered LSD as an analgesic to cancer patients experiencing
severe pain. Kast found that some of the patients experienced considerable relief,
and some attained a surprising sense of detachment regarding the presence of their
malignancy.

The writings of Aldous Huxley (1968, 1962) directed attention to the possibility of using a
drug for this purpose. In 1955, as his first wife was dying of cancer, Huxley sought to lessen
her suffering during her final hours by resorting to a hypnotic technique to bring her in
touch with memories of the ecstatic experiences that had occurred spontaneously on sev-
eral occasions during her life. The therapeutic goal was to facilitate the experience of dying
by guiding her toward these mystical states of consciousness as death approached.

Sometime later, Humphry Osmond, a pioneer in psychedelic research, introduced

Huxley to the effects of LSD and mescaline. These experiences found expression in his
writings as the “soma” in Brave New World (1968) and the “moksha medicine” in Island
(1962) taken by the character Lakshmi as she lay dying under similar circumstances.
Grof and Halifax (1977) stated that, according to Huxley’s second wife, Laura, Aldous
mentioned on several occasions that “the last rites should make one more conscious
rather than less conscious, more human rather than less human. ” When Huxley was
suffering from terminal cancer in 1963, he asked Laura to give him LSD to facilitate his
dying. This was later described in her book This Timeless Moment (1968).
Adverse reactions to psychedelic drugs:
A review of the literature
The Journal Of Nervous & Mental Disorders • October 1984

By R.J. Strassman

The use of naturally occurring and synthetically derived

compounds for their “psychedelic” effects has been a
part of human culture for thousands of years. The basic
pharmacology of the major synthetic psychedelic com-
pounds (primarily lysergic acid diethylamide [LSD]-25) is
described and reference is made to their potentially ben-
eficial psychological effects. Adverse reactions, defined as
dysphoric and/or maladaptive/dysfunctional responses
to the use of these drugs, sometimes require careful clini-
cal judgment in order to diagnose. These reactions can be
effectively classified along a temporal continuum. Acute,
short-lived reactions are often fairly benign, whereas
chronic, unremitting courses carry a poor prognosis. De-
layed, intermittent phenomena (“flashbacks”) and LSD-
precipitated functional disorders that usually respond
to treatment appropriate for the non-psychedelic-pre-
cipitated illnesses they resemble, round out this tempo-
ral means of classification. The question of organic brain
damage as well as permanent changes in personality, at-
titudes, and creativity in patients and normals who have
repeatedly ingested psychedelic drugs is controversial,
but tends to point to subtle or nonsignificant changes.
Future areas for study of the psychedelics’ pharmacologi-
cal, psychological, and therapeutic effects are suggested.

PMID: 6384428
[See chapter 11 for numerous
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6384428 excerpts from “Conversations
With Ken Kesey”.]
 Ethnopharmacological Conservation:
A Key To Progress In Medicine
By Richard Evans Schultes

The perspicacity with which man in primitive societies takes ad-

vantage of his ambient vegetation has long been a source of ad-
miration. Most of his knowledge of plant uses, of course, must be
the result of trial and error. Some of his discoveries of plant prop-
erties, however, are so complex that it seems to be almost impos-
sible to explain how they could have been accomplished. This
complexity is nowhere more obvious than in the intricate recipes
for the preparation of arrow poisons. There have long been two
strongly divergent poles in our evaluation of ethnobotany. Some
students are carried away in an enthusiastic assumption that na-
tive peoples everywhere have a special intuition in unlocking
the secrets of the Plant Kingdom. Others cast aside or at least
denigrate all aboriginal folk lore as not worthy of serious scien-
tific consideration. Both viewpoints, of course, are unwarranted.
The accomplishments of native peoples in understanding plant
properties so thoroughly must be simply a result of a long and
intimate association with their floras and their utter dependence
on them. Consequently—and especially since so much aborigi-
nal knowledge is based on experimentation—it warrants careful
and critical attention on the part of modern scientific efforts. It
behooves us to take advantage now of this extensive knowledge
that still exists in many parts of the world, lest it be lost with the
inexorable onrush of civilization and the resulting extinction of
one primitive culture after another. This experimentally acquired
knowledge may not much longer be avaílable. The denigration
of aboriginal knowledge of the biodynamism of plants has even
led certain specialists recently to assert that there is little or no
correlation between native uses of medicinal plants and the
chemistry of these species. This viewpoint is not borne out by
the history of some of the most recently discovered drugs that
have come originally from the Plant Kingdom—the so—called
“Wonder Drugs” of the past half century.
 The
Nontherapeutic Use
of Psychoactive Drugs —
A Modern Epidemic [601]
The New England Journal Of Medicine • April 1983

Armand M. Nicholi, Jr., M.D.

From the Department of Psychiatry

Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston

The current widespread nontherapeutic use of psy-

choactive drugs began among a small group of col-
lege students in the early 1960s. It spread with ex-
plosive force into an epidemic of extraordinary scope
involving all regions of the country, all socioeconom-
ic classes, and all age groups. This article reviews the
drugs currently used and identifies those who use
them. It discusses the complex, rapidly changing
patterns of use and the consequences of this epi-
demic for both the individual and the society. The
inhalants, phencyclidine, cocaine, heroin, the psy-
chotherapeutics (methaqualone and amphetamine),
and marijuana are the most widely used drugs. Re-
cent clinical and laboratory research indicates that
these drugs pose serious hazards to physical and
mental health. Marijuana is the most widely used il-
licit drug; one quarter of the entire U.S. population
have used the drug, and 20 million people use it
daily. The short-term and long-term adverse effects
of marijuana have important social implications. Re-
cent data suggest that drug users possess limited in-
ner resources to cope with psychological stress and
that they take drugs to fill a moral and spiritual void
and to meet intense emotional needs. It is proposed
that these character traits and emotional conflicts of
drug users may reflect recent changes in child rear-
ing and family stability. I am indebted to Dr. Thomas
Hackett for his critical reading of the manuscript.
 Neurotransmitter basis
of the behavioral effects of hallucinogens
Euroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews • Winter 1982

Rech RH, Commissaris RL.

Indole and phenethylamine-type hallucinogenic drugs were studied in an

FR-40 operant behavioral procedure programmed to quantify “pausing,”-
a behavioral disruption somewhat specific to hallucinatory drug effects.
LSD, DOM, DMT and mescaline showed a potency ratio to produce pausing
that is well correlated with the hallucinatory potencies of these agents in
man. Furthermore, combinations of the hallucinogens interact with poten-
tiation to cause FR-40 pausing, whereas a variety of non-hallucinogenic
psychoactive drugs failed to shift the dose-response patterns of pausing
for DOM or LSD. Depletion of brain catecholamines by pretreatment with
intraventricular 6-OHDA reduced baseline FR-40 rates and attenuated the
disruptive effects of d-amphetamine, but failed to modify the dose-re-
sponse patterns of indole and phenethylamine hallucinogens. On the oth-
er hand, pretreatment with intraventricular 5,7-DHT to deplete brain 5-HT
potentiated the pause-producing effects of the hallucinogens, although
the disruptive effects of phenobarbital were not altered by this pretreat-
ment. Injection of 5,7-DHT into the medial forebrain bundle at the hypo-
thalamic level slightly potentiated LSD, attenuated DOM, and did not af-
fect the pausing produced by mescaline. Metergoline pretreatment shifted
the LSD and DMT dose-response curves for pausing to the right by a factor
of 2--3, but shifted the DOM and mescaline dose-response patterns to a
much greater extent. Metergoline alone slightly increased FR-40 response
rates and decreased pausing from baseline levels. The patterns of imparied
FR-40 performance induced by d-amphetamine and phenobarbital were
unaltered by pretreatment with metergoline. The indole and phenethyl-
amine classes of hallucinogens appear to disrupt this behavior by an ago-
nistic effect at central 5-HT receptors. However, the two classes of drugs
may interact with brain 5-HT systems by somewhat different mechanisms.

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6817241
 Indolealkylamine and
phenalkylamine hallucinogens:
a brief overview [519]
Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews
Winter 1982

By R.A. Glennon & J.A. Rosecrans

Various indolealkylamine and phenalkylamine de-

rivatives are hallucinogenic in man and/or are behav-
iorally active in animals. This overview is divided into
two parts. The first part attempts to bring together
information concerning the activity of indolealkyl-
amines (i.e., tryptamines, alpha-methyltryptamines,
N,N-dimethyltryptamines, N-alkyltryptamines, ly-
sergic acid derivatives and beta-carbolines) and
phenalkylamines (i.e., phenethylamines, phenyl-
isopropylamines) along with major key references,
and with emphasis on those agents not recently
reviewed. The latter portion of this overview de-
scribes some of the work being conducted in our
laboratories in an effort to elucidate the role of the
neurotransmitter serotonin in the mechanism of
action of various indolealkylamine and phenalkyl-
amine hallucinogens.
 Neurophysiological effects of hallucinogens
on serotonergic neuronal systems
Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews • Winter 1982

By R.B. McCall

Low intravenous doses of the hallucinogen d-lysergic acid diethylamide

(LSD) markedly suppress the discharge of serotonin (5-HT)-containing neu-
rons in the dorsal raphe nucleus of the rat. Microiontophoretically applied
LSD also inhibits the firing of 5-HT neurons, indicating that the inhibitory
effect is mediated directing on 5-HT neurons. Forebrain neurons receiving a
major serotonergic input are relatively insensitive to LSD. Other indole hal-
lucinogens (i.e., psilocin, dimethyltryptamine, and 5-methoxydimethyltrypt-
amine) also preferentially inhibit raphe firing as compared to postsynaptic
forebrain neurons. These observations led to the hypothesis that hallucino-
gens produce their psychoactive effects by acting preferentially upon 5-HT
autoreceptors in the dorsal raphe allowing postsynaptic neurons to escape
from the tonic inhibitory action of 5-HT neurons. However, problems exist
with the concept that hallucinogens produce their psychoactive effects by
disinhibiting postsynaptic neurons. First, the time course of the behavior-
al and neuronal effects of LSD do not correlate. Second, 5-HT neurons do
not become tolerant to the inhibitory actions of LSD. Third, the hallucino-
gen mescaline fails to directly inhibit 5-HT neurons. Finally, the nonhalluci-
nogen lisuride markedly suppresses the discharges of 5-HT neurons. These
observations suggest that postsynaptic actions of hallucinogens may be of
prime importance in producing their psychedelic effects. Evidence is pre-
sented to suggest that the hallucinogens may act postsynaptically to sen-
sitize both serotonergic and noradrenergic receptors. It is suggested that a
mechanism of receptor sensitization, in distinction to disinhibition, might
account for the altered perceptual reactivity produced by these drugs.

PMID: 7177511
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7177511
 Psychedelic Chemistry [173]
Port Townsend, Washington • 1981

By Michael Valentine Smith

215 Pages

To Albert Hofmann and Ludwig Wittgenstein, who opened the doors of perception.

“This is not a manual for the compleat (sic) idiot. The procedures referred to and described in this
work assume a thorough knowledge of advanced lab techniques in organic chemistry, and should
not be undertaken lightly by amateurs. Inexpert procedures can, among other things, asphyxiate
you, blow you up, set you (or your house) on fire, and if the end product is imperfectly prepared,
poison you and your friends. If you don’t know what you are doing, take this book to someone who
does. We would rather that we both made a new friend than that we lost you as an old one.”
~ The Publisher

“I shuddered as I took note of the strange things that were going on inside me. An exquisite plea-
sure had invaded me... Immediately it had made the vicissitudes of life indifferent, its disasters in-
offensive, its brevity illusory, — in much the same way as love operates, filling me with a precious
essence: or rather this essence was not in me, it was me. I had ceased to feel mediocre, contingent,
or mortal.”
~ Marcel Proust

“Them that dies is the lucky ones.”

~ Long John Silver

“A little poison now and then: That makes for agreeable dreams. And much poison in the end, for
an agreeable death.”
~ Friedrich Nietzsche

“They are made for life, not for thought. Yes, and he who thinks, what’s more, he who makes thought
his business, he may go far in it, but he has bartered the solid earth for the water all the same, and
one day he will drown.”
~ Herman Hesse

“No one’s mouth is big enough to utter the whole thing.”

~ Alan Watts continued on the following page
 Preface To The First Edition

The whole field of psychedelics, including areas

of botany, chemistry, and pharmacology, is still
in a primitive state. Thousands of potential psy-
chedelics have been synthesized which have not
been tested on man, some of the more promis-
ing of which are indicated in these pages. Also,
anyone conversant with contemporary advances
in synthetic methods could devise better ways
to synthesize most psychedelics. 1 have endeav-
ored to gather here all the more useful informa-
tion on the synthesis and structure activity rela-
tionships of the compounds loosely referred to
as psychedelics, of which LSD, mescaline, and the
active constituents of Cannabis are the most no-
torious prototypes. In each section, the simplest
methods, or those giving the highest yields, are
given first. The many synthetic routes contained
in the literature, but omitted here, will usually
be found to involve greater difficulty, or lower
yield. Each synthesis is an abbreviated, reword-
ed, and often translated extract from a longer
paper. While I have tried to make them accurate
and coherent, a fuller understanding as well as
a correction of the inevitable blunders may be
achieved by consulting the original papers cit-
ed. Occasionally, material will be found which is
not contained in the cited work, and which is
my attempt to supplement the description.

Though possessing little knowledge of chem-

istry, I have undertaken this task because the
only previous efforts of which I am aware are so
dismally inadequate. It is my fondest hope that
some highly skilled chemist will use the present
effort as an outline in producing a thoroughly
competent work on psychedelic chemistry. Such
a document should significantly accelerate the
psychedelic revolution ...
 Speculations on
the Mechanism of Action
of Hallucinogenic
Indolealkylamines [204]
Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews
Vol. 5 • pp. 197-207 • 1981

Richard A. Glennon1
and John A. Rosecrans

Departments of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Pharmacology

Medical College of Virginia, Virginia Commonwealth University
Richmond, VA 23298

In this review we attempt to develop a fluid theo-

retical model which is being used as a strategy-
base for future experimentation. The first two sec-
tions (A and B) describe how wehave conducted
our research, and present the perspective value
of each. This is important because the research
strategies developed in these laboratories over
the last 5 years combine in vitro and in vivo phar-
macological technqiues as a means of under-
standing mechanisms of drug action. Sections
C and D attempt to describe how we interpret
our data and how we have utilized these data to
formulate hypotheses concerning drug mecha-
nisms. The last section of this review sets forth
our own ideas on how we believe hallucinogenic
agents produce their effects and presents some
original data, which we feel, allows us to develop
the overall hypotheses presented.
 Medical Intelligence

Drug Therapy:
Drugs to Decrease Alcohol Consumption [43]
The New England Journal Of Medicine • November 1981

Edward M. Sellers, M.D., Claudio A. Naranjo, M.D.,

and John E. Peachey, M.D.

From the Clinical Pharmacology Program

Addiction Research Foundation, Clinical Institute
and the departments of Pharmacology, Medicine, and Psychiatry
University of Toronto

This article has no abstract; the first 100 words appear below

MANY drugs have been used with the expectation of reducing

alcohol consumption. A few seem to be associated with a reduc-
tion in alcohol use for up to three to six months in some patients,
but none is associated with a reduction in alcohol consumption
for longer periods.1 , 2 In spite of uncertainty about efficacy, over
90 per cent of physicians in private practice prescribe drugs for
the treatment of alcoholism.3 The effectiveness of drug therapies
for alcohol-related problems is seriously compromised by the dif-
ficulty of characterizing patients according to the cause of their
alcohol problems, by the large number of nonpharmacologic ...
 This could be the end but it’s just the beginning ...

The Summer Of Love

Haight-Ashbury At Its Highest [57]
142 Pages • Published In Last Gasp Of San Francisco • 1980
By Gene Anthony

Spiritual Occasions

What is a spiritual occasion? Jackson Pollock swinging loops of paint

making a splashing image in which appear the face and eyes of a
perfect woman? No, not only Pollock but the whole spiral galaxy of
abstract expressionists are a spiritual occasion. Rothko with his vi-
brant and mystical fields of red, orange, and blue; Clyfford Still cre-
ating erotic Blake-like wars of forces inherent in matter itself; Franz
Kline slashing out calligrams for old feelings reborn in the skyscrap-
er and on tenement walls. That large moment in the history of art
was a spiritual occasion giving depth to consciousness. It showed
new combinations of sensation to senses that were weary with the
old representations and the newer modernism alike. Those painters
were heroes of a battle of liberation. They showed they could por-
tray their spirits and the mammal movements of their bodies in the
pain and joy and paint of consciousness that flowed from them.
Our lives seem like a thread on which we string births and deaths
and marriages and sexual acts and feasts and all spiritual occasions.
Our lives are strings of pearls that we look at and feel with the fin-
gers of experience and remembrance. We are hungry for experience.

Stimulated by rock and roll, the poetry of the Beats, and a changed ex-
perience of Nature (felt directly with eyes and the soles of the feet) and
through new drugs, a great hunger was created in the youth of America.
To fill it they created their own spiritual occasion. For them it wasn’t nec-
essary to have a paint brush in the hand and to leave an artifact in the
form of a painting or sculpture. The event itself became both an organ-
ism and an artifact and had a brief life—but with the drugs there was no
time, and to have any life, brief or long, was to exist forever in the uncarved
block of time. The Fillmore and the Avalon Ballroom were ongoing rebirth-
ing organisms. Each night a new creature came into existence. We were all
part of it—our clothes of Billy the Kid and Jean Harlow and Saint Francis
and Pied Piper and Tom O’ Bedlam and Buddha and Daniel Boone and Robin
Hood and Outlaw Cyclist were all ripples in the organism of the event, as
well as expressions we’d longed for but feared to make. The costumes were
not masks but were expressions—as were the stamping or light touch of
the foot in the dancing—or the cry or moan of joy. A new tribe was coming
into being. Anyone could scoff—could say it wouldn’t last long, but those
who believed in the Tribe knew in some secret place in their awareness that
it didn’t matter whether it lasted or not; a spiritual occasion has a set of laws
other than the ones that extend the life of the one-dimensional society of
car deals, factories, real estate, life insurance, and staging bases for bombs
and napalm used to kill Asians in fishing villages. Exuberance and intellectual
and spiritual excitement cause love structures to come into being. More and
more complicated associations of events and persons and organizations of
matter join together. There were bigger dances, greater and greater joinings
of hands reaching farther and farther until at last a Human Be-In was neces-
sary to express the complication of feelings. The complex arrangements of
sensations that created new experiences and a new belief in the body itself
were the basis of it. Those parts and expressions of the body that were previ-
ously kept secret were there in public—the natural voice, the genitals, and
the real aspirations that flesh consciousness makes, such as Hope. Hope was
there and also the desire to define love. Love was an abstraction to the Seek-
ers. The Be-In was a spiritual occasion culminating from the countless pre-
ceding events, dances, thoughts, breaths, lovemakings, illuminations. The
Be-In was a blossom. It was a flower. It was out in the weather. It didn’t have
all its petals. There were worms in the rose. It was perfect in its imperfec-
tions. It was what it was—and there had never been anything like it before.

~ Michael McClure

The Summer Of Love: Haight-Ashbury At Its Highest, is 142 wonderfully

enlightening pages penned by Gene Anthony­—PDF #57 in the collection.
 Plant hallucinogens,
shamanism and Nazca ceramics

Journal Of Ethnopharmacology • September1980

Dobkin de Rios M, Cardenas M.

The ceramics of the ancient Nazca, an extinct peo-

ple that lived on the south coast of Peru from 100
to 800 AD, are examined. It is suggested that plant
hallucinogens and stimulants including Trichocer-
eus pachanoi, Erythroxylon coca, Datura spp., and
Anadenanthera peregrina were utilized in religious
ritualism connected with shamanism, stressing
personal ecstasy as a means of contact with the su-
pernatural on the part of regional religious-politi-
cal leaders. Shamanic themes linked to world-wide
plant hallucinogenic ingestion are identified and
summarized, and their representation in Nazca ce-
ramic art delineated.
 [276]

531 Pages
CHAPTER EIGHT
1960 - 1979 Peer Review
 Richard Alpert Interviews Sidney Cohen [419]
77 Pages • 1979 • Approximate
There can come a time, in the field of journalism, when a story becomes more than just a story,
when it becomes a part of your life and even takes on a life of its own. It’s like seeing what you
think is a small puddle of water and discovering, on coming closer and looking in, that the
puddle is actually a well that goes far deeper than you could have imagined. You realize that
you have to probe further, to find out all you possibly can about it.

This time came for me at 2:45 one morning when I arrived at a small apartment near “Capsule
Corner.” On Fairfax Avenue, just on the boundary between Hollywood and Beverly Hills, Cali-
fornia, Capsule Corner is but one block away from a well-known delicatessen called Canter’s,
where, between two and six A.M., conversations are more about LSD, usually called acid, and
marijuana than pastrami and pickles. Four kids sat in this little two-room apartment, all under
twenty-one, all acidheads: a student, an insurance trainee, a member of a rock and roll band,
and a seller of LSD. They were playing Monopoly. But this was no ordinary game. The money
they were tossing around so nonchalantly was the real thing—$35,000 of hard cash. They were
all waiting for the distributor. When he eventually arrived, close to 40,000 doses were bought
by these four middlemen. At the going West Coast prices, the LSD would gross $120,000 all
within a few weeks, sold at local universities, high schools, teen-age night clubs, and street
corners. This happening, this one moment, was enough to really open my eyes to the issue.

I was in the process of investigating the use of psychedelic drugs, particularly LSD (lysergic acid
diethylamide) a derivative of lysergic acid, obtained from ergot, a parasitic fungus that grows
on rye heads. It is so potent that the average black-market dose is one-three hundred thou-
sandth of an ounce. Such incredibly small amounts mean that an eyedropper full is enough
for 5,000 doses. Lysergic acid, purchased from a pharmaceutical firm, sells for about $20 to
$40 a gram. On the black market in England, Canada, Mexico, or Czechoslovakia, a gram costs
$500 and in the United States, $1,700. One gram of synthesized lysergic acid diethylamide,
LSD-25, when sold at black-market retail prices, is worth approximately $25,000, or $3 to $5 a
dose. LSD can be purchased in many forms; the most common are a saturated sugar cube, a
capsule containing baking soda mixed with LSD, and a do-it-yourself vial of liquid. In the old
days, I learned, suppliers usually had to cross international or state boundaries to obtain LSD.
Now, a knowledgeable college or high school chemist, with a fair yield, can make enough for
himself—or even enough to supply his whole state. All he needs is a small lab and a vacuum
pump. Further, LSD is a colorless, odorless drug.

One contact told me about the time he was returning to the United States after picking up
some six grams of LSD. Just before entering Customs at the Gulf of Mexico, he emptied his hair
tonic bottle and filled it with the acid. He cleared Customs with his toilet articles, even though
a Customs official looked closely at the bottle before he approved closing the bag. Up the ramp
his bag went and, when the suitcase was opened at home, he discovered that the bottle had
broken. One of his suits had been saturated with the acid. He thought, “Do we cut the suit into
small pieces and sell them? Do we wash the suit and sell the water?” No. The suit, now worth
thousands of dollars, was hung up and thereafter was the center of focus at many an LSD par-
ty. It was literally chewed on for months
to come and sent more people on trips
than any tourist office could hope for.

I (Sidney Cohen) have taken LSD seven

times over the past thirteen years. The
first occasion was with a dose of 75 mcg.
I had been looking for a reliable deliriant
to use in a study in order to understand
the array of mental alterations seen in
a delirium. Knowing these, perhaps an
improvement in its treatment would re-
sult. I had read Stoll’s and Rinkel’s reports
that LSD produced illusions and hallu-
cinations, so I tried it. The psychologist
who was going to do the study with me
was there. After a few hours I told him
that this was no delirium, but that this
was the drug we were going to study. My report of that event can be read elsewhere (12, p.
106). Since then I have taken 25 mcg, a just perceptible amount, 50 mcg, 100 mcg, 125 mcg
and 150 mcg, the latter twice. The second time I took 150 mcg was in our sensory-deprivation
chamber under conditions of complete darkness and almost complete silence with someone
standing by outside. I have also had 400 mg of mescaline once. This amount is equivalent to
about 100 mcg of LSD. All have been interesting experiences and LSD has taught me a good
deal about mental functioning. It has altered the course of my research efforts, although I have
also worked with tranquilizers, antidepressants, and other psychochemicals during the last
dozen years. It has involved me in too much writing and speaking. Enhanced creativity? I doubt
it; the capacity for hard work rather than creative inspiration is more descriptive of me. Empa-
thy into the emotional and thought disturbances of others? I think so. Increased awareness
of self? Intensified esthetic appreciation? A better construct of the nature of the universe? A
better person? I cannot say—these are difficult things to know. Certainly, no drastic changes
can be described, but then, subtle ones are important, too. May I sum up my impressions in a
single sentence? The people I have met because of LSD have been at least as valuable as the
LSD experiences themselves.
D-lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD)
Preparatory Arrangements [733]
Science • 1979

Starting material may be any lysergic acid deriva-

tive, from ergot on rye grain or from culture, or
from synthetic sources. Preparation #1 uses any
amide, or lysergic acid as starting material. Prepa-
rations #2 and #3 must start with lysergic acid only,
prepared from the amides as follows: 10 g of any
lysergic acid amide from various natural sources
dissolved in 200 ml of methanolic KOH solution
and the methanol removed immediately in vacuo.
The residue is treated with 200 ml of an 8% aque-
ous solution of KOH and the mixture heated on
a steam bath for one hour. A stream of nitrogen
gas is passed through the flask during heating
and the evolved NH3 gas may be titrated is HCl to
follow the reaction. The alkaline solution is made
neutral to congo red with tartaric acid, filtered,
cleaned by extraction with ether, the aqueous so-
lution filtered and evaporated. Digest with MeOH
to remove some of the coloured material from the
crystals of lysergic acid. Arrange the lighting in
the lab similarly to that of a dark room. Use pho-
tographic red and yellow safety lights, as lysergic
acid derivatives are decomposed when light is
present. Rubber gloves must be worn due to the
highly poisonous nature of ergot alkaloids. A hair
drier, or, better, a flash evaporator, is necessary to
speed up steps where evaporation is necessary.
353 Pages • [422] • 1979
 1978 Description of LSD
from the Encyclopedia and Dictionary of Medicine
Nursing, and Allied Health
The following text is both very good and very bad for 1978. It does a decent job of edging around some
of the issues and makes a snide referral to “semiscientific investigators”. There are several errors, includ-
ing the statement that the FDA regulated LSD, which it did not after it became illegal to possess without
authorization from the law enforcement agencies, with the DEA taking supreme control in 1971 with the
passage of the Controlled Substances Act. Also, the section ends with the completely wrong suggestion
that chromosomal damage was still a scientifically valid concern for users of LSD. By 1978, that question
had flatly been resolved as a moral panic in the medical literature with no serious investigator believing
it after it was debunked in the early 1970s.

LSD - a hallucinogenic compound (lysergic acid diethylamide), derived from lysergic acid, a constituent
of ergot alkaloids; called also lysergide. LSD has consciousness-expanding effects and is capable of pro-
ducing a state of mind in which there is false sense perception (hallucination). (See also HALLUCINOGEN.)
The perceptual changes brought about by LSD in normal persons are extremely variable and depend on
factors such as age, personality, education, physical make-up, and state of health. The danger of the drug
lies in the fact that it loosens control over impulsive behavior and may lead to a full-blown psychosis
or less serious mental disorder in persons with latent mental illness. LSD is an experimental drug to be
used only under the direct supervision of reliable, authorized scientists. Its distribution is regulated by
the Food and Drug Administration of the federal government. LSD was first developed in 1938 and was
believed to be potentially useful in the treatment of mental illness. This theory was based on the belief
that the drug could produce a schizophrenic syndrome and that psychiatrists and other persons con-
cerned with mental illness could observe the manifestations of a psychosis under controlled conditions.
However, competent investigators have shown that the effect of LSD is more closely related to a toxic
psychosis such as that produced by fever, stress, or drugs of many kinds and is of doubtful use in under-
standing the mechanism of a true psychosis resulting from severe personality disorder. Authorities are
hopeful that LSD may eventually prove useful in the investigation of brain function and the mechanism
of mental disease but are not in agreement as to how this will come about.

Abuse of LSD by semiscientific investigators and lay persons has led to much publicity, with the result
that a black market now operates to make the drug available to those who wish to “increase their aware-
ness” or attain a state of euphoria. Although LSD is not addictive, the greatest number of persons abus-
ing the drug also have been found to be users of marijuana, amphetamines, and barbiturates, and are
extremely likely to develop a drug dependence. They apparently use the drug to escape reality than for
the purpose of helping themselves cope with reality.

The controversy concerning chromosomal damage caused by LSD is yet to be resolved.

 The effects of lysergic acid diethylamide
and mescaline-derived hallucinogens
on sensory-integrative function: tactile startle
Journal Of Pharmacology & Experimental Therapy • December 1978

Geyer MA, Petersen LR, Rose GJ, Horwitt DD

Light RK, Adams LM, Zook JA, Hawkins RL, Mandell AJ

Tactile startle responding by male Sprague-Dawley rats given 60

presentations of air-puff stimuli (37.5 psi) was measured after the in-
traperitoneal administration of graded doses of hallucinogens and
other psychoactive drugs. Among the drugs tested were the indole-
amine-derived compounds, lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), N,N-di-
methyltryptamine and psilocin, and the phenylethylamine-derived
compounds, mescaline, 2,5-dimethoxy-4-methylamphetamine and
a series of active and inactive congeners of 2,5-dimethoxy-4-meth-
ylamphetamine. All of the active phenylethylamines increased star-
tle response magnitudes throughout the test session. This pattern
of augmented startle suggests that these drugs increase reactivity.
However, none of the indoleamine hallucinogens increased startle re-
sponding. Of the nonhallucinogenic drugs tested, only apomorphine
increased startle responding, while clonidine significantly decreased
it, and amphetamine, chlorimipramine, scopolamine and methyser-
gide had no effect. In additional studies with LSD, it was found that LSD
increased the response to only the first stimulus when more intense
air-puffs were used (50 psi). Furthermore, when the number of stimuli
was increased from 60 to 240 (1 hr) so that appreciable habituation
was evident in controls, LSD impaired this habituation. Whereas the
response magnitudes of the control group decreased by 70% across
the session, the responses of LSD-treated rats decreased by only 32%.
These results suggest that LSD and phenylethylamine-derived hallu-
cinogens may differ in their effects on tactile startle responding.

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/731434
 Antagonism of histamine-activated
adenylate cyclase in brain by
D-lysergic acid diethylamide [200]
Proceedings Of The National Academies Of Sciences USA
Vol.74, No. 12, pp. 5697-5701

Medical Sciences • December 1977

Jack Peter Green, Carl Lynn Johnson

Harel Weinstein & Saul Maayani

Department of Pharmacology
Mount Sinai School of Medicine of the City University of New York
100th Street and Fifth Avenue, New York, New- York 10029
Communicated by Vincent P. Dole, August 19, 1977

D-Lysergic acid diethylamide and D-2-bromolysergic acid diethylamide

are competitive antagonists of the histamine activation of adenylate
cyclase [ATP pyrophosphate-lyase (cyclizing); E.C. 4.6.1.11 in broken cell
preparations of the hippocampus and cortex of guinea pig brain. The
adenylate cyclase is linked to the histamine H2-receptor. Both Dlysergic
acid diethylamide and D-2-bromolysergic acid diethylamide show to-
pological congruency with potent H2-antagonists. D-2-Bromolysergic
acid diethylamide is 10 times more potent as an H2-antagonist than
cimetidine, which has been the most potent H2-antagonist reported,
and D-lysergic acid diethylamide is about equipotent to cimetidine.
Blockade of H2-receptors could contribute to the behavioral effects of
D-2- bromolysergic acid diethylamide and D-lysergic acid diethylamide.
 Genetic toxicology of
lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD-25) [529]
Mutation Research • 1977

Cohen MM, Shiloh Y.

Department of Human Genetics

Hadassah-Hebrew University Medical Center
Jerusalem, Palestine

The acute and the chronic psychotomimetic potentials of the

hallucinogen lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD-25) have been
recognized for almost 40 years. That additional types of the bio-
logical effects should have come under scrutiny was directly at-
tributable to widespread use and abuse of this drug on a world-
wide basis. Although “genetic toxicology” encompasses a broad
spectrum of disciplines, including many areas of highly special-
ized research, perhaps the most germane, and those on which
this review has concentrated, are Clastogenicity, Mutagenicity,
Teratogenicity and Oncogenicity. Based on our current under-
standing and interpretation of the available data, the genetic
toxicology of LSD provides an excellent example of Newton’s
“third law of motion”, e.g., to every force there is an equal and
opposite reaction force. From the published material it is impos-
sible to draw clear cut conclusions regarding any of the above
“problem areas” in spite of the considerable scientific effort in-
vested. Most of the in vitro studies performed on the clastoge-
nicity of LSD indicate either suppression of mitosis or enhanced
chromosome damage. However, extrapolation of such results to
the in vivo situation is very difficult. With regard to in vivo human
use of the drug, no concensus is attainable as to chromosome
breakage and the inconsistencies within and between studies
remain inexplicable. However, several of the “controlled” investi-
gations assessing the in vivo effect of chemically pure LSD sug-
gest a transient increase in lymphocyte chromosome breakage.
On the other hand, the results of cytogenetic studies on experi-
mental animals are contradictory. Although human studies are
nonexistent, in those experimental organisms tested, using ac-
cepted techniques, LSD proved to be, at best, a weak mutagen, if
mutagenic at all. Teratogenicity studies in animals are confusing
due to the multitude of organisms and plethora of discriminant
parameters studied. However, with regard to man there has been
ample opportunity and one can conclude that LSD is not terato-
genic. As to the drug’s oncogenic potential, the 3 reported cases
of leukemia in LSD users are most likely the result of coincidence.
 Drug flashbacks. II. Some additional findings [162]
International Journal Of Addictions • 1976

Stanton MD, Mintz J, Franklin RM.

A subsample was drawn from an earlier collection of data in order to an-

swer a number of questions related to “acid” (LSD, STP) flashbacks. Acid us-
ers who reported flashbacks also reported significantly more marijuana use
than those who did not; the two groups did not differ on use of other drugs,
including acid. Simple correlations and multiple regression analyses both
showed extent of marijuana use to be the only drug variable significantly
related to acid flashbacks. No optimal combination of marijuana and acid
improved flashback prediction. Among acid users, correlations between
amounts of use for various drugs were high and significant, excepting only
the marijuana-acid correlation.

Prolonged LSD flashbacks as conversion reactions

Journal Of Nervous & Mental Disorders • November 1976

Saidel DR, Babineau R.

This paper presents a case study of the background and treatment of a pa-
tient with prolonged LSD flashbacks. The hypothesis that flashbacks can be
psychologically determined symptoms is supported by the dynamics of the
case and the course of treatment. A second focus is a partial explanation for
the often made observation that obessive-compulsive personalities are at
increased risk for LSD flashbacks.

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/978191
 Side effects
on fetus and infant
of psychotropic drug use
during pregnancy
International Pharmacopsychiatry • 1976

Ananth J.

Psychotropic drugs are used frequently

for the treatment of emotional as well as
other disorders. With usage so widespread,
many pregnant women receive psychotro-
pic drugs. Maternal ingestion of these drugs
may produce, in the fetus, side effects in-
cluding withdrawal symptoms. Withdrawal
signs in the fetus as a result of maternal in-
take of opiates, hypnotics, analgesics, and
tricyclic antidepressant drugs have been
reported. Fetal side effects can occur by
maternal ingestion of nuroleptic medica-
tions, lithium, antidepressants, anxiolytic
sedatives, anticonvulsants, and bromides.
The author feels that even though these
drugs are generally safe, they must only be
administered to pregnant women when ab-
solutely needed, and then under vigilance.

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/13047
 Huntington’s Chorea —
Changes in Neurotransmitter Receptors
in the Brain [38]
The New England Journal Of Medicine • June 1976

Salvatore J. Enna, M.D., Edward D. Bird, M.D.

James P. Bennett, Jr., M.D., David B. Bylund, Ph.D., Henry I. Yamamura, Ph.D.
Leslie L. Iversen, Ph.D., and Solomon H. Snyder, M.D.

From the departments of Pharmacology and Psychiatry

Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD
the Department of Neurological Surgery and Neurology, Addenbrooke’s Hospital,
and the MRC Neurochemical Pharmacology Unit, Department of Pharmacology
Medical School, Cambridge, England

Neurotransmitter-receptor binding sites for apparent muscarinic cholin-

ergic, β-adrenergic, γ-aminobutyric acid and serotonin receptors were
measured in the caudate nucleus and frontal cerebral cortex from post-
mortem brains of 16 patients with Huntington’s chorea and 16 controls.
In addition, the samples were assayed for the γ-aminobutyric-acid-syn-
thesizing enzyme, glutamic acid decarboxylase, and for the acetylcholine-
synthesizing enzyme, choline acetyltransferase. In the caudate nucleus of
choreic brain, both enzyme activities were markedly lower, with signifi-
cant decreases in muscarinic cholinergic and serotonin receptor binding,
whereas enzyme activities and receptor binding were unchanged in the
cerebral cortex. By contrast, γ-aminobutyric acid and β-adrenergic recep-
tor binding were not significantly different in choreic and control caudate
nucleus or cortex, suggesting that, despite the loss of γ-aminobutyric-acid-
synthesizing ability in the corpus striatum, γ-aminobutyric acid mimetic
drugs might alleviate the movement disorders in Huntington’s chorea.

Supported by a grant (MH-18501) from the U.S. Public Health Ser-

vice (Dr. Snyder is the recipient of a research-science development
award [MH-33128], Dr. Enna the recipient of a fellowship [MH-01598],
Dr. Yamamura the recipient of a fellowship [MH-54777], Dr. Bylund
the recipient of a fellowship [MH-05036], and Dr. Bennett the recipi-
ent of a fellowship [GM-0062414], all from the U.S. Public Health Ser-
vice, and Dr. Bird the recipient of support by National Fund for Re-
search into Crippling Disease [U.K.]). Presented in part at a meeting
of the Society for Neuroscience, New York, NY, November 2, 1975.
 MDA-assisted psychotherapy
with neurotic outpatients: a pilot study
The Journal Of Nervous & Mental Disorders • October 1976

Yensen R, Di Leo FB, Rhead JC, Richards WA, Soskin RA, Turek B, Kurland AA.

Ten neurotic patients (five males and five females) were treated over a period
of 2 to 6 months (mean, 4.1) as outpatients. The study allowed for a maximum
of 75 hours of psychotherapy (mean, 51.55 hours). During the course of treat-
ment, two to four (mean, 3.5) administrations of MDA (3,4-methylenedioxy-
amphetamine) were employed as adjunctive aids in an effort to enhance the
psychotherapeutic process. The mean duration of the drug sessions was 8
hours (range, 6 to 14 hours). The first administration of MDA took place when,
in the therapist’s judgment, sufficient rapport had been established with the
patient. All patients received an initial dose of 75 mg of MDA; subsequent
dosage was allowed to range up to 200 mg. On these occasions, the drug
appeared to be well tolerated with no serious side effects or complications
observed. Psychometric assessments were obtained pre- and post-treat-
ment, employing the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI),
Wittenborn Psychiatric Rating Scales (WPRS), and Brief Psychiatric Rating
Scale (BPRS). In addition, follow-up evaluations were obtained 6 months after
the termination of therapy by the use of the MMPI, WPRS, BPRS, and a Social
History Questionnaire (SHQ) which had also been administered before treat-
ment was initiated. Clinically, the impression was obtained that psychother-
apy and the adjunctive use of MDA appeared to facilitate improvement in
these patients. This impression was substantiated by significant reductions in
scores on the psychometric assessments measuring depression, anxiety, and
obsessive-compulsive traits. The meaures evaluating the sense of well-being
and self-actualization also were encouraging. Although some of the patients
were not as responsive as others, there were no observations to suggest that
the condition of any of these patients had become worse.

PMID: 972325
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/972325
 Clinical Genetics: Some Neglected Facets [46]
The New England Journal Of Medicine • February 1975

Edmond A. Murphy, M.D.

From the Division of Medical Genetics, Department of Medicine

Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine and Johns Hopkins Hospital

“…a limited number of regional centers only. It is not always an easy matter to decide when to do such tests.
Insubstantial claims on the effects of LSD, narcotics or spray adhesives on chromosomal breaks may be ephemeral, but it is
a bold man who can withstand pressures to karyotype such cases while… “

Like general medicine, clinical genetics has re-

sponsibilities to research, to dissemination and
to service. Each exists at three broad levels. The
elemental comprises acquisition of fact and de-
velopment of technics. At the intermediate level
coherence becomes a major concern: the discern-
ment of relations among facts; the incorporation
of data into ideas and insights; organization of
clinical findings into a diagnosis; and the devel-
opment of the rational management. The sophis-
ticated level calls for theories and cosmologies
at the scientific level, and cultivation of scholar-
ship and of clinical wisdom. All nine compart-
ments should be mutually correcting. If any of
them is neglected or isolated from the rest, the
whole will be impoverished —the student will
suffocate in disconnected, empirical facts; fanci-
ful theories will be spun from tenuous evidence;
well established theory will be neglected by
the practitioner; the best-intentioned schemes
will have disastrous long-term consequences.

Supported by a grant (5PO1 GM 19489) from the

National Institutes of Health and by a grant from
the National Foundation.
The Book Of Acid [174]
Kistone Press • 1975

By Adam Gottlieb
The Book Of Acid [174]

The report is entitled “Changing Images of
Man,” Contract Number URH (489~215O,
Policy Research Report No. 414.74, (See: LSD
report #734 linked on Page 2) prepared by
the Stanford Research Institute Center for the
Study of Social Policy, Willis Harman, director.
The 268-page mimeographed report was
prepared by a team of fourteen researchers
and supervised by a panel of twenty-three
controllers, including anthropologist Mar-
garet Mead, psychologist B.F. Skinner, Ervin
Laszlo of the United Nations and Sir Geoffrey
Vickers of British intelligence, among others.
The aim of the study, the authors state, is to
change the image of mankind from that of
industrial progress to one of “spiritualism.” The
study asserts that in our present society, the
“image of industrial and technological man” is
obsolete and must be “discarded”: “Many of
our present images appear to have become dan-
gerously obsolete, however . . . Science, technol-
ogy, and economics have made possible really
significant strides toward achieving such basic
human goals as physical safety and security,
material comfort and better health. But many of
these successes have brought with them prob-
lems of being too successful — problems that
themselves seem insoluble within the set of soci-
etal value-premises that led to their emergence
Changing Images of Man [734]
Pergamon International Library Book Review • May 1974
By Joseph Cambell, Duane Elgin, Willis Harman, Arthur Hastings,
O. W. Markley, Floyd Matson, Brendan O’Regan and Leslie Schneider
The Center For The Study Of Social Policy • SRI International • 268 Pages
. . . Our highly developed system of technology
leads to higher vulnerability and breakdowns.
Indeed the range and interconnected impact
of societal problems that are now emerging
pose a serious threat to our civilization . . . If our
predictions of the future prove correct, we can
expect the association problems of the trend
to become more serious, more universal and to
occur more rapidly.” Therefore, SRI concludes,
we must change the industrial-technologi-
cal image of man fast: “Analysis of the nature
of contemporary societal problems leads to
the conclusion that . . . the images of man that
dominated the last two centuries will be inad-
equate for the post-industrial era.”
The counterculture, New Age of the
Aquarian Conspiracy was born. Who pro-
vided the drugs that swamped the anti-
war movement and the college campus-
es of the United States in the late 1960s?
The organized crime infrastructure which
had set up the Peking Connection for the
opium trade in 1928—provided the same
services in the 1960s and 1970s it had pro-
vided during Prohibition. This was also the
same opium network Huxley had estab-
lished contact with in Hollywood during
the 1930s. During the 1960s, the Tavistock
Clinic fostered the notion that no criteria
for sanity exist and that psychedelic “mind-expanding” drugs are valuable
tools of psychoanalysis. In 1967, Tavistock sponsored a Conference on the
“Dialectics of Liberation,” chaired by Tavistock psychoanalyst Dr. R.D. Laing,
a popularized author and advocate of drug use.

“I do not wish to seem overdramatic but I can only conclude from the infor-
mation that is available to me as Secretary-General that the Members of the
United Nations have perhaps ten years left in which to subordinate their an-
cient quarrels and launch a global partnership to curb the arms race, to im-
prove the human environment, to defuse the population explosion, and to
supply the required momentum to development efforts. If such a global part-
nership is not forged within the next decade, then I very much fear that the
problems I have mentioned will have reached such staggering proportions
that they will be beyond our capacity to control.”
~ V Thant • 1969

“Awareness of ideal values is the first step in the conscious creation of images of
the future and therefore the creation of culture, for a value is by definition that
which guides toward a “valued” future ... Any student of the rise and fall of cultures
cannot fail to be impressed by the role in this historical succession by the image of
the future. The rise and fall of images of the future precedes or accompanies the
rise and fall of cultures ... In the end, the future may well be decided by the image
which carries the greatest spiritual power.”
~ Fred Polak • 1973

“Much advance, both in biological evolution and in psychosocial evolution,

including advance in science, is of course obtained by adding minute par-
ticulars, but at intervals something like crystalization from a supersaturated
solution occurs, as when science arrives at an entirely new concept, which
then unifies an enormous amount of factual data and ideas, as with Newton
or Darwin. Major advances occur in a series of large steps, from one form of
organization to another. In our psychosocial evolution I believe we are now in
a position to make a new major advance.”
~ Sir Julian Huxley • 1968
 Acute Psychosis [602]
The New England Journal Of Medicine • July 1974

Gerald Adler, M.D.

From the New England Medical Center Hospital

171 Harrison Ave., Boston, Mass. 02111

This article has no abstract

the first 100 words appear below

AN acute psychotic episode can be a frightening

experience for the patient and his family as well
as for the physician. The physician is faced with
the responsibility for the careful assessment and
sometimes the treatment of a patient who may be
seriously suicidal, homicidal or otherwise out of
control. Thorough diagnostic assessment, which
is crucial in determining the nature of the acute
psychotic episode, involves identifying precipi-
tants and the underlying vulnerabilities, arriving
at a formulation, and then devising a treatment
plan based on the understanding derived from
these complex factors. The non-psychiatric phy-
sician is often in an excellent position . .
 The mutagenic effect of lysergic acid diethylamide III: Evaluation of the genetic risk of LSD in man [269]
Mutation Research • December 1974

Srám RJ, Goetz P.

Institute of Hygiene and Epidemiology and Research Institute of Child Development and Pediatrics, Prague, Czechoslovakia

In view of the necessity to determine the mutagenic activity of chemical substances in man, the genetic risk of LSD is discussed on the basis of our own experiments in relation to the findings of
other authors and the present way of interpretation. The genetic hazard of LSD is evaluated according to the Bridges scheme. After analysing the approaches to the evaluation of possible LSD
hazard, we conclude that LSD studied on various organisms is a mutagenic substance inducing gene mutations, chromosome breaks and non-disjunction. The genetic risk of LSD to the human
population is discussed. It is suggested how the risk might be diminished by using the drug only in specific psychiatric indications, and then contraception should be used by treated patients.
 D-Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD):
Effect on biogenic amines excretion in man [328]
Biochemical Pharmacology • Volume 22 • pp. 2352-2354 • March 1973

By FATHY S. MESSIHA and STANISLAV GROF

Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics,

School of Medicine, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas 19409, and
Maryland Psychiatric Res. Ctr., Baltimore, Md

SEVERAL LINES of experimental evidence have advanced the hypothesis that the central action of d-lysergic acid diethylamide
(LSD) may involve interaction with serotonergic neurons in the brain. Further, it has been shown that LSD may decrease 5-hy-
droxytryptamine (5-HT) turnover rate antagonize the action of neuronal 5-HT in the raphe nuclei,‘-” and block 5-HT release from
electrically stimulated brain slices. The potent pharmacologic effects evoked by microgram doses of LSD have stimulated interest
in its application in experimental psychiatry, e.g. as an adjunct for psychoanalyti-
cal therapy or as an “experimental model” analogous to naturally occurring
mental disorders. However, the relationship of the latter to schizophrenic
psychosis is controversial. Administration of LSD to man induces symptoms
indicative of stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system. This prompted
the quantitative determinations of urinary and plasma catecholamines by
several investigators. Further, it is likely that central and peripheral seroto-
nergic and/or catecholinergic mechanisms are associated with LSD-induced
psychotic-like syndrome in man. Accordingly, the determination of certain
biogenic amines which were not previously studied, i.e. 5-HT and dopamine
(DA), and their respective major acid metabolites might reflect biochemical
changes associated with behavioral manifestation. A group of seven male
psychoanalysts who were in a training program for the use of LSD in psycho-
therapy volunteered for this study. They provided excellent collaboration for
diet control and urine collections. LSD was given by mouth in 200-300 pg
at the beginning of psychoanalytical session. Twenty-four-hour urine col-
lections were made for each subject on the day prior to as well as the day
of LSD administration. Urine specimens were collected over acid, aliquoted
and kept frozen at -20 degrees until assayed. Urine samples were fraction-
ated as previously described. The quantitative determinations of urinary
DA, norepinephrine (NE), 5-HT, homovanillic acid (HVA), vanillylmandelic
acid (VMA), and 5-hydroxyindole-acetic acid (5HIAA) followed established
analytical procedures. Values for DA, NE and 5-HT are given for total (free
-l- conjugated) amounts excreted in urine. The effect of LSD administration
on urinary excretion of DA, NE and 5-HT (pg/24 hr) and their major acid me-
tabolites, HVA, VMA and 5-HIAA (mg/24 hr) is summarized in Table 1.
 Does LSD induce chromosomal
damage and malformations?
A review of the literature [266]
Teratology • August 1972

By S.Y. Long

Laboratory of Terntology, Knrolinska Institzrtet, and Department of Clinical

Genetics, Knrolinskn sjukhziset, S-104 01 Stockholm 60, Sweden

Although there are reports of five children with limb defects among
161 children from parents who took LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide)
this review of the literature indicates that LSD does not cause chro-
mosome breakage and that there is no strong evidence of teratoge-
nicity in animals. There has been concern during the past several
years that lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) might cause chromosomal
breakage and mutations and thus endanger future generations, and
that LSD taken during pregnancy might cause malformations. The
purpose of this review was to examine the possibility of direct or in-
direct effects on children, a topic that has not been thoroughly cov-
ered yet (Dishotsky et al., ‘71). This paper is a distillation of the exist-
ing reports concerning only the genetic and teratogenic effects of
LSD and represents an attempt to resolve much conflicting evidence.
Reports dealing with other effects of LSG are not considered here.

Does LSD Break Chromosomes?

The first indication that LSD might be genetically dangerous came from
reports that LSD caused chromosome breaks when added to cell cul-
tures (Cohen et al., ‘67b). Though the effects were inconsistent, most
authors reported a significant increase in the number of chromosome
breaks. A hallucinogenic dose of LSD (100 pg for a 70-kg man; 1.4 pg/
kg) produces a serum concentration of 0.001 pg/ml (Loughman et al.,
‘67). Even this low concentration of LSD caused breaks when added di-
rectly to the culture medium (Cohen et al., ‘67b). When it was increased
to 0.01-10.0 pgml breaks were found in lymphocytes from people (Cohen et
al., ‘67a,b; Jarvik and Kato, ‘68; Jarvik et al., ‘68; Corey et al., ‘70), rhesus mon-
keys (Egozcue and Irwin, ‘69), and rat kangaroos (Bick, ‘70). On the other hand,
there were reports of no increase in breaks after 0.4-45.0 pglml LSD added to
Syrian hamster embryo cells (DiPaolo et al., ‘68), Chinese hamster lung cells
(Sturelid and Kihlman, ‘69), and human lymphocytes (Sturelid and Kihlman, ‘69).

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

The postulated genetic and teratogenic hazards of LSD have prompted much
speculation and research. It is interesting to compare the wide range of inter-
pretations and conclusions drawn from more or less the same body of data.
Some foresee the possibility of genetic damage to future generations (Anony-
mous, ‘67c, ‘68b) and others see unquestionable evidence that LSD is dangerous
either as a chromosomebreaking or a teratogenic agent (Anonymous, 67a,b;
Houston, ‘69). Others call for more critical evaluation of the data, some suggest-
ing that the dire predictions are not justified and that there are no indications
so serious as to preclude the continued therapeutic use of LSD (Denson, ‘68;
Fitzgerald and Dobson, ‘68a,b; Malleson, ‘68; Friedel, ‘70; Hoey, ‘70; Dishotsky et
al., X ) , whereas others review the data but draw no conclusions (Anonymous,
‘68a, ‘69; Hoffer, ‘68; Smart and Bateman, ‘68; Blaine, ‘70; Greenblatt and Shader,
‘70). Most of the data reviewed in this paper can be summarized as follows.

LSD added to cells in vitro, even in doses estimated to correspond to plasma

levels, almost always resulted in increased chromosome breakage. Cultured
lymphocytes from LSD users, patients treated with LSD, and children exposed
to LSD in utero showed an increase in chromosome breakage in about half the
cases. However, longitudinal studies made before, during, and after LSD treat-
ment, showed either no effect, or only a transitory increase in chromosome
breaks. The in vitro system (in a test tube) is the farthest from ideal and re-
sulted in the highest proportion of breaks. As the techniques and methods ap-
proached the in vivo (in the body) situation the incidence of breaks decreased.
Studies on cultured lymphocytes from subjects who had taken LSD should
not be regarded as true in vivo studies because the lymphocytes divided at
least once in culture. Even if there was chromosome breakage in the cultured
cells this does not necessarily simulate the situation in the body. The only pres-
ently available in vivo approach would involve the use of fresh bone marrow
aspirates; and Amarose and Schuster (‘71) who examined bone marrow aspi-
rates and lymphocytes from illicit drug users found no increase in chromo-
some breaks in bone marrow even though there was a significant difference
in the lymphocytes between the drug users
and controls. It is unrealistic to ascribe to LSD
the chromosome breaks found in prior LSD
users since there was no correlation between
the percentage of breaks and the amount of
LSD, number of doses, or time between the
last dose and blood sampling, and consider-
ing that other plausible agents were present
and that only one sample was analyzed from
each subject. A transitory increase in breaks
was indicated in a few cases. This may ac-
count for some of the breakage seen in LSD
users and children exposed in utero, though
this cannot explain the high frequencies of
breaks seen after 2 years in some subjects.
In general, then, there does not appear to
be well-documented evidence that LSD can
cause chromosome breaks that may persist
for lengthy periods of time, the risk for future
generations seems small in light of the nega-
tive, albeit rather limited, meiotic data and
there is no strong evidence of teratogenic
action of LSD in animals or man, though the
five cases of limb deficiencies warrant con-
tinued surveillance. These conclusions do
not mean that LSD deserves a clean bill of
health or that it should be used by pregnant
women, but that the publicity given to the
possible adverse side effects of LSD is not
justified by the available evidence. Thus, if
LSD is to be considered for therapeutic ad-
ministration, one must weigh the strength of
the indications for its use against any possible
risks. The choice of whether it has therapeu-
tic benefit rests with those who would use
it in the clinics, and the risk of possible side
effects discussed in the present paper seems
small enough to give the clinicians the choice.
 LSD And CNS Transmission [292]
Annual Reviews In Pharmacology • January 1972

By George K. Aghajanian

Departments of Psychiatry and Pharmacology,

Yale University School of Medicine,
New Haven, Connecticut

The dominant assumption underlying much research on the cen-

tral actions of D-Iysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) is that it is in-
volved in the facilitation or inhibition of synaptic transmission. The
beginnings of this concept can be traced back to the early 1950s
when it was hypothesized that LSD may produce its effects by in-
terfering with the function of serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine) in
the brain (1-4). This speculation was initially based upon the fol-
lowing observations: (a) LSD was found to antagonize the excitant
effect of serotonin in smooth muscle preparations (e.g., isolated
rat uterus); (b) both LSD and serotonin were known to contain an
indole nucleus; and (c) serotonin was shown to be present in the
brain (5, 6). Serotonin came to be regarded as a possible neuro-
humoral or neurotransmitter substance in the CNS (3, 4, 6, 7) and
through this association it followed that LSD might also affect syn-
aptic transmission, at least where serotonin was involved. Thus, in
neurophysiological and even biochemical studies there tended to
be the implicit if not explicit assumption that the effects of LSD
could ultimately be traced to an alteration in synaptic transmission.

It has obviously been enormously difficult to study directly the ef-

fects of drugs on synaptic transmission in the CNS. There have been
two very different strategies employed to approach the problem
of where and in what manner LSD might affect CNS transmission.
LSD: no chromosomal breakage in mother
and embryos during rat pregnancy [267]
Teratology • August 1972

By I. Emerit, C. Roux and J. Feingold

Laboratoire de Cytogenktique, HBpital Broussais, and Laboratozre

d’Embryologie, Faculte de Medecine Stiint-Antoine, Paris, France

LSD (500 pg/kg/day ip) given to pregnant rats from the 7th-13th
days of pregnancy produced no in vivo chromosome damage,
either in maternal bone marrow or in the embryos. These nega-
tive cytogenetic results parallel the lack of teratogenicity ob-
served under these conditions. The lack of teratological effects
of LSD-25 in Wistar rats was recently described (Roux et al., ‘70).
We now report the results of studies of chromosomes of preg-
nant Wistar rats and their embryos treated with LSD-25. Lyser-
gic acid diethylamide was first reported to induce breakage in
human chromosomes in utero by Cohen et al. (‘67). Although
these results were confirmed by others (Abbo and Norris, ‘68;
Jarvik and Kato, ‘68) the effect of LSD on chromosomes in vivo
is still in question. An elevated frequency of chromosome
breaks in LSD-25 users (Irwin and Egozcue, ‘67; Hungerford et
al., ‘68) and in children exposed to LSD in utero was reported by
Cohen et al. (‘68) and Hsu et al. (‘70). Negative results, however,
were obtained by several others (Bender and Sankar, ‘68; Sat0
and Pergament, ‘68; Hecht et al., ‘68; Hulten et al., ‘68; Tjio et
al., ‘69; Aase et d., ‘70; Loughman et al., ‘67) found no structural
chromosome abnormalities even after intake of high doses of
LSD. Reports of’ chromosome studies in animal experiments
were also contradictory. Skakkebaek et al. (‘68) and Cohen
and Mukherjee (‘68) noted a high frequency of breaks as well
as chromosomal rearrangements in bone marrow and testicu-
lar tissue of mice. Jagiello and Polani (‘69), however, failed to
confirm these findings. Lack of chromosome damage was also
reported for meiotic chromosomes in monkeys (Egozcue and
Irwin, ‘69) and men (Hulten et al., ‘68). At present there is no
explanation for these inconsistent cytogenetic results. Wheth-
er LSD is a teratogen or not also remains an open question.
 Auto-Experimentation —
An Unappreciated Tradition
in Medical Science [47]
The New England Journal Of Medicine • February 1972

Lawrence K. Altman, M.D.

“ …infection could be acquired through the skin,

a finding of great epidemiologic importance. Hof-
mann’s laboratory notes describe his unintentional
LSD poisoning: ... I was forced to stop my laboratory
work in the middle of the afternoon and to go home,
as I was over-come by a peculiar restlessness… “

Auto-experimentation has received little attention in

the scientific literature and codes of ethics. When men-
tioned, it has been regarded sometimes as a foolhardy
method though it is one of the strongest and yet least
appreciated traditions in medical research. At least 185
investigators in four continents have served as subjects
in 137 experiments over the last four centuries. Con-
venience, reliability, curiosity, availability, self-interest,
a spirit of adventure, suicide and an ethical code were
among the factors that investigators considered in ex-
perimenting on themselves. Investigators cannot serve
as subjects in all scientific experiments. But the wide-
spread practice of auto-experimentation raises a funda-
mental question about the philosophy of research: Is it
ethical to subject another person to an experiment if the
researcher did not do the experiment on himself first?

Address reprint requests to Dr. Altman at the Sci-

ence News Department, New York Times, New York,
N.Y. 10036. I am indebted to Gerald J. Oppenheimer
and his staff of the Health Sciences Library, University
of Washington, for aid in verifying and obtaining sev-
eral of these references and to Roger J. Bulger, M.D.,
for guidance during the final stages of this project.
 LSD: Personality and experience [617]
New England Journal Of Medicine • September 1972

This article has no abstract; the first 100 words appear below

This work is part of a Wiley series on Personality Processes edited by Irving B. Wein-
er. The goal of the series is “a scholarly integration of theoretical formulations, empiri-
cal data and practical recommendations.” The authors accomplish this integration and
have produced an impressive systematic investigation of the psychologic effects of LSD. How-
ever, as they point out, there are limitations on interpretation of their work, and it is only a begin-
ning. Perhaps the most important limitation lies in their choice of subjects. These were 50 professional
actors who were above average intelligence but who did not have well integrated personalities. They ...
[246]
 LSD and genetic damage
Science • April 1971

Dishotsky NI, Loughman WD, Mogar RE, Lipscomb WR.

Of nine studies in vitro, six have indicated some degree of in-

duced chromosomal breakage after exposure to LSD; three
failed to confirm these results. The damage, when found, was
generally of the chromatid type, arising during or after DNA
synthesis. This damage, with one exception, was the result of
concentrations of drug and durations of exposure which could
not be achieved in humans with reasonable dosages. There did
not appear to be a dose-response relation. The magnitude of
damage, when found, was in the range encompassing the ef-
fects of many commonly used substances. The absence in vitro
of excretory and detoxifying systems present in vivo, as well as
several negative reports, cast doubt on the relevance of in vitro
results. In 21 chromosomal studies in vivo, 310 subjects were
examined. Of these, 126 were treated with pure LSD; the other
184 were exposed to illicit, “alleged” LSD. A maximum of only 18
of 126 (14.29 percent) of the subjects in the group exposed to
pure LSD showed higher frequency of chromosome aberration
than the controls. In contrast, a maximum of 90 of 184 (48.91
percent) of the subjects taking illicit LSD showed an increase
in frequency of aberrations. Of all the subjects reported to
have chromosome damage, only 18 of the 108 (16.67 percent)
were exposed to pure LSD. The frequency of individuals with
chromosomal damage reported among illicit drug users was
more than triple that associated with the use of pharmacologi-
cally pure LSD. We conclude that chromosome damage, when
found, was related to the effects of drug abuse in general and
not, as initially reported, to LSD alone. We believe that pure LSD
ingested in moderate dosages does not produce chromosome
damage detectable by available methods. No significant work
on carcinogenic potential of LSD has been reported so far. No
cause-and-effect relation and no increase in the incidence of
neoplasia among LSD users have been demonstrated. Case re-
ports (three in 4.0 years) of leukemia and other neoplasia in this
population are rare. The results of early chromosome studies
suggested that true genetic damage might be a consequence
of LSD exposure. The comprehensive evidence from studies on
drosophila indicates no mutagenic effect from 0.28 to 500 microg
of LSD per milliliter and a definite mutagenic effect from 2,000 to
10,000 microg/ml; this is consistent with a threshold response or a
sigmoid dose-effect relation. We believe that LSD is, in fact, a weak
mutagen, effective only in extremely high doses; it is unlikely to be
mutagenic in any concentration used by human subjects. Circular
dichroism experiments suggested that the specific mechanism of
action of LSD on DNA may be a direct interaction resulting in con-
formational changes in the DNA helix. These changes are unlikely to
result in a decrease of internal stability sufficient to cause breakage
of chromosomes, but they may be the physical basis of the weak
mutagenicity. Early chromosomal studies implicated LSD as a poten-
tial cause of congenital malformations, fetal wastage, and germinal
chromosome damage. First reports of a teratogenic effect in ham-
sters and rats have not been confirmed. A review of 15 rodent stud-
ies indicated a wide range of individual, strain, and species suscep-
tibility to the effects of LSD. The applicability of such investigations
to man is doubtful. In a study of human pregnancies, those exposed
to illicit LSD had an elevated rate of spontaneous abortions. There is
no reported instance of a malformed child born to a woman who in-
gested pure LSD; there are six cases of malformation associated with
exposure to illicit LSD, four of which have similar limb defects. Given,
however, the high frequency of unexplained “spontaneous” birth de-
fects, the rare occurrence of malformed infants born to women who
used illicit LSD may be coincidental. While there is no evidence that
pure LSD is teratogenic in man, the use of any drug during pregnan-
cy requires that its potential benefits significantly outweigh its po-
tential hazards. From our own work and from a review of the litera-
ture, we believe that pure LSD ingested in moderate doses does not
damage chromosomes in vivo, does not cause detectable genetic
damage, and is not a teratogen or a carcinogen in man. Within these
bounds, therefore, we suggest that, other than during pregnancy,
there is no present contraindication to the continued controlled ex-
perimental use of pure LSD. Note added in proof: A brief review has
been brought to our attention. Although based on a sample of only
15 studies the author reached conclusions similar to our own (92).

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4994465
 Analysis of Street Drugs [618]
New England Journal Of Medicine • April 1971

This article has no abstract

the first 100 words appear below

To the Editor: The use of illicit drugs is widespread

and new drugs or drug mixtures are continually
being offered to the buyer. Since it is generally
believed that many street-drug samples do not
contain their alleged contents, we have been
collecting street drugs in Philadelphia and at
various rock festivals over the last six months
and have been analyzing these samples. The
samples were analyzed by thin-layer chroma-
tography after pulverization and extraction with
methanol. After development, the plates were
subjected to various sprays. Identification and
quantitation of the compounds was obtained by
comparison of Rf values, color reactions and . . .
 Origins of Psychopharmacology:
From CPZ to LSD [620]
New England Journal Of Medicine • May 1971

This article has no abstract

the first 100 words appear below

Dr. Caldwell’s book addresses itself to the prob-

lem of the cause of the decisive breakthrough that
psychopharmacology has achieved in the field of
psychiatry. She ascribes the remarkable success of
the drug that achieved this breakthrough (name-
ly, chlorpromazine) not to the fact that the times
were ripe for it (the time was always ripe, but the
right drug was not available before), but to the
ingeniously selected qualities of the drug on the
part of its inventor, Dr. Henri Laborit, to whose
specifications the drug was synthesized and pro-
duced for the specific purpose of improving surgi-
cal anesthesia by eliminating stressful . . .
 The Experimental Use
of Psychedelic (LSD) Psychotherapy [237]
June 15, 1970

Walter N. Pahnke, MD, PhD; Albert A. Kurland, MD

Sanford Unger, PhD; et al., Charles Savage, MD; Stanislav Grof, MD

The history of research with psychedelic drugs has produced a variety

of methods for their use and conflicting claims about results. First came
the wave of excitement among experimentalists in the 1950s when
it was claimed that lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) could produce a
model psychosis which might be useful in understanding schizophre-
nia. While this promise was fading, enthusiastic reports about the pos-
sibility of LSD as an aid to psychotherapy in the treatment of alcoholism
and other psychiatric disorders appeared. All these approaches were
represented in 1959 at the first international conference devoted entire-
ly to LSD.1 Since then, there have been at least five more published pro-
ceedings of such conferences on various aspects of psychedelic drugs.
 Antagonism of 5-hydroxytryptamine
by LSD 25 in the central nervous system:
a possible neuronal basis for the actions
of LSD 25 [500]
British Journal Of Pharmacology • October 1970

Boakes RJ, Bradley PB, Briggs I, Dray A.

5-Hydroxytryptamine (5-HT), acetylcholine (ACh), noradrenaline (NA),

glutamate, D,L-homocysteic acid (DLH), glycine and gamma-amino-
butyric acid (GABA) were applied to single neurones in the brain stem
of decerebrate cats by microiontophoresis. The abilities of D-lysergic
acid diethylamide tartrate (LSD 25), methysergide maleate (UML 491)
and 2-bromo-lysergic acid diethylamide (BOL 148) to antagonize the
actions of these compounds were studied. LSD 25 antagonized 5-HT
excitation of single neurones when applied iontophoretically or admin-
istered intravenously. LSD 25 also antagonized glutamate excitation
of neurones which could be excited by 5-HT. Inhibitory effects of 5-HT,
the action of glutamate on neurones which could be inhibited by 5-HT
and the actions of all the other compounds tested were unaffected by
LSD 25. Iontophoretically applied UML 491 was also a specific antago-
nist to 5-HT and glutamate excitation but was less potent than LSD 25,
and BOL 148 rarely exhibited antagonism. It is suggested that antago-
nism to 5-HT and glutamate excitation of brain stem neurones may be
the basis of the psychotomimetic action of LSD 25. It is also suggested
that there may be similarities in the mechanisms by which 5-HT and
glutamate produce excitation where they act on the same neurone.
 Bizarre Deformities
in Offspring of User of Lysergic Acid Diethylamide
[39]
The New England Journal Of Medicine • August 1970

J. L. Eller, M.D., and J. M. Morton, M.D.

An infant with a rare combination of severe congenital deformities

was born to a woman with a history of using lysergic acid diethylam-
ide. Previously described patients bearing a similarity to this infant
were of Puerto Rican parents, most of consanguineous marriage, and
in none of these cases was use of this drug indicated. The current
state of knowledge of the effects of the compound is such that no
definite inference can be made about the current case. All reported
cases similar to this one appear to have been due to an unusual reces-
sive mode of inheritance or chromosomal aberration.

Chromosome Studies on Patients (in Vivo)

and Cells (in Vitro) Treated with
Lysergic Acid Diethylamide [42]
The New England Journal Of Medicine • April 1970

Margaret J. Corey, Ph.D., J. C. Andrews, B.Sc.

M.Josephine McLeod, B.Sc., J. Ross MacLean, M.D.,
and W. E. Wilby, M.A

In a prospective study of 10 patients given d-lysergic acid diethylamide 25,

there was no difference in frequency of chromosome breakage between
samples obtained immediately before and 24 hours after treatment. In 11
patients, treated over periods ranging from 24 hours to eight years before
sampling, the frequency of chromosomal breaks did not differ from that
found in untreated controls. In an in vitro study the frequency of chromo-
somal breaks was increased in replicate cultures from each of 10 subjects
when 1 μg per milliliter of d-lysergic acid diethylamide 25 was added dur-
ing the last 24 hours of culture. There is no cytogenetic evidence that d-ly-
sergic acid diethylamide 25 given therapeutically produces chromosomal
damage. The chromosomal aberrations found after illicit use of the drug
remain unexplained.
 Patterns of drug use
in the Haight-Ashbury neighborhood
[245]
Clinical Toxicology • March 1970

aShick JF, bSmith DE and cMeyers FH.

aM.D., Department of Pharmocology

University of California, San Francisco Medical Center, San Francisco, California
bAssistant Clinical Professor of Toxicology, San Francisco Medial Center
and Clinical Director of Haight-Ashbury Medical Clinic, San Francisco, California
cUniversity of California, San Francisco Medical Center, San Francisco, California

The character of the Haight-Ashbury district of San Francisco, originally a lower middle-class residential
and shopping area, was transformed prior to the summer of 1967 into the center of a new subculture.
This “new community,” as the hippie group referred to itself, was characterized by the ritual use of LSD
and a studied rejection of the values of the dominant culture. By September 1967, when the present sur-
vey was initiated, the well-publicized hippie population had been diluted by a large number of transient
youths who were exploring rather than committed to the hip philosophy, but to describe the people
of the neighborhood at that time as being “hippies“ is to deny the diversity of the people who came
to the Haight with differing backgrounds, motivations, expectations, and degree of drug experience.
Furthermore, the community subsequently changed to include a substantial proportion of compulsive
methamphetamine users, and the beginnings of that group were evident at the time of our survey. The
Haight-Ashbury Clinic was established in San Francisco in anticipation of the influx of persons into that
neighborhood during the summer of 1967, and beginning June 6, 1967 we began to provide free care
for acute medical problems as well as for problems related to drug use. By the time of this study the Clin-
ic and its volunteer staff had gained acceptance by the community and was providing care for as many
as 200 persons per day. The availability of a population with diverse habits of drug use and the status of
the Haight-Ashbury Clinic with that population encouraged us to believe that accurate data could be
collected to test our assumption that demographic and personal data could be correlated with patterns
of drug use. The subsequent evaluation of the neighborhood is discussed below, and it must be em-
phasized that the present data are not necessarily applicable to any subsequent period. This paper con-
centrates on the results of the first survey, conducted in September 1967, but we briefly mention some
results of the second survey, conducted in March 1968, when such will help to illustrate the evolution
of the community as the use of high-dosage, intravenous methamphetamine became more prominent.
 LSD:
no teratogenic action
in rats, mice, and hamsters [123]
Science • August 1970

Roux C, Dupuis R, Aubry M.

Lysergic acid diethylamide tartrate was given to 98 preg-

nant rats, 67 mice, and 22 hamsters as a single dose of 5 to
500 micrograms per kilogram of body weight per day either
at the beginning of gestation or during the period of organ-
ogenesis. Examination of the 1003 rat fetuses, 521 mouse
fetuses, and 189 hamster fetuses obtained failed to prove
any abortifacient, teratogenic, or growth-depressing effects.
164 Pages • [819] • 1970
Lexicon for Today — 2nd Edition [624]
New England Journal Of Medicine • March 1970

This article has no abstract

the first 100 words appear below

To the Editor: I should like to make the following ad-

ditions and corrections to the letter by Dr. Kenneth
C. Ullman, “Lexicon for Today,” that appeared earlier
this year in the N.E.J.M. on the argot current among
drug abusers. First the additions, which I hope will
be of value to physicians treating these patients: A
— amphetamine (any form) blow — to ingest by
smoking clean — (general) not possessing drugs or
works; (marijuana users) condition of marijuana with
all twigs and seeds removed DMT — dimethyltrypt-
amine, a psychedelic usually added to tobacco, mari-
juana or parsley, and smoked for its . . .
 Drug Dependence Among Physicians [94]
The New England Journal Of Medicine • February 12, 1970

Dana L. Farnsworth, M.D.

“ …use of the various mood-altering drugs among medical students? There is indisputable evidence that the use of
marijuana, sedatives, tranquilizers, LSD, the amphetamines and indeed almost all types of drugs is on the increase
among students at all levels of the educational ladder. Drug use among… “

This article has no abstract; the first 100 words appear below

THE article by Vaillant, Brighton and McArthur elsewhere in this issue corroborates numerous
other studies indicating that physicians are prone to drug addiction, in part at least because
of easy access to drugs. It raises
several questions of vital impor-
tance to the medical profession.
First of all, there is the problem
of how a physician who becomes
dependent upon drugs can get
competent help on a completely
confidential basis, and without be-
coming involved with law-enforce-
ment procedures (unless there is
criminal activity). The physician
who becomes addicted can with-
draw from practice and seek help
at a distant hospital, but this is . . .
 Inculpation of LSD Challenged [97]
The New England Journal Of Medicine • November 26, 1970

“…cytogenetic effect is more complex and controversial. Most published literature on LSD and human teratology
consists of case reports linking birth defects in neonates with a history of parental LSD usage.
Until more definitive studies are performed on both the animal and clinical levels,…”

This article has no abstract; the first 100 words appear below

To the Editor: I am appalled by the unsubstantiated implications in the title of the article
by Drs. Eller and Morton, “Bizarre Deformities in Offspring of User of Lysergic Acid Diethyl-
amide” (New Eng J Med 283:395–397, 1970).
Certain conditions are important in estab-
lishing a teratogenic effect of a drug. Tera-
togenic agents cause malformations only
at a certain dose range, below which de-
velopment is apparently undisturbed and
above which embryonic or maternal death
results. In this case, there is no mention of
the dosage taken, nor even any historical or
analytic evidence presented that the sub-
stance consumed only once was lysergic . . .
LSD PDF #172
November 1970
 A Clinical Study
of LSD Treatment in Alcoholism [517]
The American Journal of Psychiatry • July 1969

By ARNOLD LUDWIG, JEROME LEVINE

LOUIS STARK, and ROBERT LAZAR

One hundred seventy-six male alcoholic patients par-

ticipated in a controlled investigation of the differen-
tial efficacy of three LSD treatment procedures and a
“no therapy,” or milieu treatment, condition. Half of
each group was also assigned to disulfiram after dis-
charge from the hospital to determine whether any
of these techniques could be enhanced by its use. Al-
though significant improvement was shown within all
treatment groups as measured by a number of clinical
assessments in the post-treatment and follow-up peri-
ods, no one treatment condition proved to be superior.
The authors conclude that the dramatic claims for the
efficacy of LSD treatment in alcoholism are unjustified.
 The College Drug Scene [622]
New England Journal Of Medicine • April 1969

This article has no abstract

the first 100 words appear below

“The College Drug Scene” is misnamed. It is not

a comprehensive assessment of the current “drug
scene”; it is, instead, a descriptive analysis of a
group of approximately 80 drug users in Berkeley,
California, studied for the most part apparently in
1967. As a result, and through no fault of the au-
thor, the book in large part emerges as a carefully
drawn vignette of a particular drug enclave that
cannot be generalized to the college population
as a whole and does not necessarily apply to the
drug scene in 1969. In Mr. Carey’s study the indi-
vidual interview, rather than questionnaires . . .
 A Controlled Comparison
of Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD)
and Dextroamphetamine in Alcoholics [288]
American Journal Of Psychiatry • April 1969

By Leo E. Hollister, MD., Jack Shelton, MD

and George Krieger, MD

The authors are with the Veterans Administration Hospital, Palo Alto,
Calif. 94304, where Dr. Hollister is associate chief of staff, Dr. Shelton is
research psychiatrist, and Dr. Krieger is chief, psychiatry service. This
work was supported in part by Public Health Service grant MH-05 144
from the NationalInstitute of Mental Health. The drugs used in this study
were furnished by Mr. Harry Althouse, Sandoz Pharmaceuticals, Inc. Sta-
tistical analyses were provided by the Veterans Administration Western
Research Support Center, Edward F. Gocka, Ph.D., director. Dr. Joseph
Grismer performed the interviews on the Drinking Behavior Scale.

Seventy-two alcoholic patients were admitted to a controlled

comparison of LSD and dextroamphetamine as treatments. In
the context of little associated psychotherapeutic intervention,
LSD produced slightly better results early, but after six months
the results were alike for both treatment groups. Controlled
studies of such treatments are not only possible but manda-
tory, the authors conclude, if one is not to be misled into as-
cribing special therapeutic attributes to a specific treatment.
 Antagonism by LSD
to effects of 5-HT on single neurones [512]
Brain Research • October 1969

Boakes RJ, Bradley PB, Briggs I, Dray A.

In 1953 Gaddum 5 showed that LSD (D-lysergic acid diethylamide)

is a specific antagonist to 5-HT (5-hydroxytryptamine) at peripher-
al receptors and this led to the hypothesis 1° that a similar antago-
nism in the central nervous system would explain the psychoto-
mimetic action of LSD. The presence of 5-HT in the brain, together
with its localisation in nerve terminals as shown by histochemical
techniques, and its effects on neuronal activity when applied by
micro-iontophoresis, all point to a role ,for this substance as a cen-
tral synaptic transmitter (for review see ref. 1). Thus, a number of
attempts have been made to demonstrate a specific blockade of 5-
HT receptors in the central nervous system by LSD and to correlate
such an antagonism with the psychotomimetic effects of LSD.

Roberts and Straughan 9 found that LSD specifically antagonised

the effects of 5-HT on half the neurones in the cerebral cortex of
the cat enc6phale isol6 preparation which were excited by ionto-
phoretically applied 5-HT. However, this property was also shared
by 2’-(3-dimethylaminopropylthio)cinnamanilide hydrochloride
(SQ 10643), and to a lesser extent by 2-bromo-LSD and methyser-
gide, compounds which are potent antagonists to 5-HT peripher-
ally, but which lack psychotomimetic properties.

Investigations in this laboratory have indicated that a possible site of

action for LSD in the brain is at the level of the brain-stem reticular for-
mation 3,6-s. Since 5-HT, applied iontophoretically, has been shown to
modify the firing rates of spontaneously ,active neurones in the brain-
stem of unanaesthetised decerebrate cats 4 we decided to investigate
the possibility that LSD might antagonise these effects. Results were ob-
tained from 16 unanaesthetised decerebrate cats. All compounds were
applied iontophoretically from multibarrelled glass microelectrodes
to spontaneously firing neurones in the brain-stem, whilst recording
their activity extracellularly 2. Penetrations were made in the floor of
the IVth ventricle, between 2 mm and 6 mm rostral to the obex, and be-
tween 2 mm either side of the midline, avoiding the midline itself. The
effects of LSD were studied on neurones which showed clear and con-
sistent responses to 5-HT and to another excitant or depressant drug ...
 LSD: A Meaningful Approach to Drug Education [333] These questions may also be used as topics for research papers
What Is Known: Physical and Psychological Effects
The Journal Of School Health • 1968
The physiological effects of LSD on student users will seldom be observed by the teacher because
By Shirley Harmon teenagers generally will use LSD on the weekend. LSD produces an increased pulse and heart rate,
a rise in blood pressure, dilated pupils, fine tremors of the extremities, and cold, sweaty palms. Pal-
Director of Student Health Services lor, chills, nausea, and lack of appetite are common. LSD, however, is not physically addicting. The
Metropolitan State College, Denver, Colorado
pyschological effects of the drug are far more significant than the physical effects. Perceptual distor-
tions including hallucinations and illusions occur. Synesthesia, the translation of one type of sensory
Effective LSD education should be directed toward determining whether the possible benefits
experience into another, is common. For example, musical sounds may ...
of LSD use outweigh the potential risks. To enable the student to make a decision for himself
on LSD use, the following areas need to be thoroughly and objectively discussed in
the classroom: physiological effects of LSD, psychological effects, misconcep-
tion about LSD, research knowledge and gaps in knowledge, possible benefits
and risks, and legal implications of drug use. The actual method and approach
to LSD education in any classroom will depend upon many factors including
the maturity level, personalities, and previous drug knowledge of the group.
Examples of questions that might be used to stimulate and guide discussion
are as follows:

• What might be the real factors motivating someone to use LSD?

• Who says its fun?
• Everyone in the crowd is doing it?
• Because it shocks their parents?
• Is the drug society that the committed LSD user joins any better
than the one that he leaves behind?
• Does it have many of the same features?
• In “dropping out” of society, what does the drug user achieve?
• How does his new society benefit him?
• How can you handle a situation when someone
offers you an illegal drug?
• Should you go to parties where you know that drugs will be used?
• What would you do if you were at a party
where everyone was taking drugs?
• What methods other than drug use are available
to object to things that you don’t like about society in general?
• What are some other ways that one might
handle tension and pressure?
• What does a student risk when he takes LSD?
• How does LSD benefit the user?
• Who uses LSD?’
Current Concepts: Lysergic Acid Diethylamide [238]
Medical Intelligence • February 1968

Donald B. Louria, MD.

 Lysergic Acid Diethylamide [603]
The New England Journal Of Medicine • February 1968

Donald B. Louria, M.D.

Associate professor of medicine, Cornell University Medical College

director, Infectious Disease Laboratory, Second (Cornell) Medical Division
Bellevue Hospital, First Avenue and 26th Street, New York, NY 10016

This article has no abstract

the first 100 words appear below

NO drug used by man has stimulated greater public-de-

bate than lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD). This brief re-
view of the current status of the drug will summarize its
pharmacology, medical uses and dangers. No attempt
will be made to analyze in detail its alleged benefits
when taken indiscriminately or under uncontrolled cir-
cumstances; these include augmented aesthetic sensi-
tivity, enhanced creativity, increased capacity for love,
occurrence of transcendental experiences, acquisition
of new insights and aphrodisiac effects. Suffice it to say
that none of these claims are substantiated. Indeed, ob-
jective data now strongly suggest that claims of aug-
mented aesthetic sensitivity and creativity cannot be . . .
 The “Bad Trip”
The Etiology of the
Adverse LSD Reaction [516]
The American Journal of Psychiatry • May 1968

J. THOMAS UNGERLEIDER, DUKE D. FISHER

MARIELLE FULLER and ALEX CALDWELL

In an attempt to identify the factors responsible for ad-

verse reactions to LSD and to elucidate the rising inci-
dence of hospital admissions associated with use of the
drug, the authors compared 25 psychiatric inpatients
hospitalized following LSD ingestion with 25 members
of a group who took LSD together regularly without
reported difficulty. Although some differences were
found between the groups, there were no outstanding
historical or current clinical features which could be
used to predict an individual’s response to LSD with ac-
curacy. These findings support the hypothesis that LSD
interacts with schizoid trends, unsteady reality test-
ing, and related factors in a complex way that makes
accurate prediction of response virtually impossible.
 Medical Intelligence:
Law, Medicine and LSD [26]
The New England Journal Of Medicine • August 1967

Neil L. Chayet, LL.B.†

*From the Law-Medicine Institute of Boston University
Donald Hayes Russell, M.D., director
† Assistant professor of legal medicine
Law-Medicine Institute of Boston University

This article has no abstract;

the first 100 words appear below

THE sudden impact of hallucinogenic drugs on soci-

ety has precipitated many difficult questions for law
and medicine. Medicine is presently endeavoring to
assess the toxicity of these compounds, and explor-
ing their potential as therapeutic agents with dis-
eases such as alcoholism and schizophrenia. The law
is trying, with questionable success, to regulate and
control the illicit use of these drugs, and the urgen-
cy of the situation has resulted in patchwork legisla-
tion that has too often been the product of legisla-
tive expedience rather than careful consideration of
the many and complex issues involved. Uncertainty
due to lack of real knowledge pervades the . . .
Highly Recommended Report
634 Pages [188]
(continued on the following page)
 LSD for Research [98]
The New England Journal Of Medicine • April 27, 1967

“…encountering obstacles in obtaining LSD for research described by Dr. John Pollard (“Shrouds around LSD.” Science, November 18, 1966)
has become common as the national hysteria about psycheldelics increases.
The controversy about scientific research with LSD is currently under study by a committee…”
 Drugs of Addiction
— The Ciba Foundation —

A Century of Antisepsis [604]

The New England Journal Of Medicine • May 1967

John Lister, M.D.

This article has no abstract

the first 100 words appear below

THE extent of the problem of drug addiction in Great

Britain is difficult to assess, but it appears to have in-
creased in the last few years, particularly among the
young. A member of a panel in a radio discussion who
dismissed the problem by saying that after all when
he was young there were two drugs of addiction that
tempted him and his friends, nicotine and alcohol,
and both were being consumed by their elders in
large quantities, was probably too facetious since the
drugs now being taken by the young can have even
more serious social consequences than alcohol . . .
 LSD, Man & Society [735]
Wesleyan University Press Book Review • October 1967

Edited by Richard C. Debold and Russell C. Leaf

235 Pages
 Radiomimetic Properties of LSD [29]
The New England Journal Of Medicine • November 1967

This article has no abstract; the first 100 words appear below

During the past four decades of extensive exploration in the

field of cytogenetics, spontaneous and induced gene and
chromosome mutations have, invariably, been shown to
be detrimental to cell and organism. Because of the devel-
opment of atomic energy and the growing need for phar-
macologic testing, it became necessary to add mammalian
species and cell cultures (including human derivatives) to
the growing list of experimental models. Radiation and
drug safety limits, tests for teratogenic effects and other
precautions and regulations continue to be revised in the
overall effort to guard against hazards of overexposure to
potential mutagenic and carcinogenic agents. Currently, . . .
 In Vivo and in Vitro
Chromosomal Damage
Induced by LSD-25 [37]
The New England Journal Of Medicine
November 1967

Maimon M. Cohen, Ph.D.†, Kurt Hirschhorn, M.D.‡

and William A. Frosch, M.D.§

THE induction of chromosomal aberrations by exog-

enous agents, such as viruses, radiation and chemi-
cals, is an area of active cytogenetic investigation.1
Recently, the psychotomimetic hallucinogen, lyser-
gic acid diethylamide (LSD-25), has been added to
the list of chemicals capable of causing abnormali-
ties in the chromosomes of human leukocytes Such
preliminary studies report the in vitro and in vivo
chromosomal effects of LSD, and the present com-
munication extends these observations to include
additional in vitro findings and a significant sample
of patients. Materials and Methods In Vitro Studies
Peripheral leukocyte cultures were initiated from 6
normal, healthy persons (3 males and 3 . . .
 The Drug Wars [95]
The New England Journal Of Medicine • September 21, 1967

This article has no abstract

the first 100 words appear below

War this past summer, physically cool but emotionally torrid,

has meant the violent fevers of Vietnam, Newark and Detroit.
But there have been other conflicts as well, subacute and
not grossly bloody, but nonetheless intense. Of these few
are more meaningful to the physician and his patient than
a three-front war on drugs, of drugs, and about drugs. Like
the deeply concerned but innocent by-stander in Newark or
Detroit, moreover, the physician and his patient may end up
with more injuries than the active antagonists. On the first
front is the war on drug abuse. Once this was a routine . . .
Congenital malformations induced by mescaline, lysergic acid diethylamide, and bromolysergic acid in the hamster [122]
Science • October 1967

By W.F. Geber

Malformations of the brain, spinal cord, liver, and other viscera; body edema; and localized
hemorrhages were found in fetal hamsters from mothers injected subcutaneously with a
single dose of mescaline, lysergic acid diethylamide, or 2-bromo-D lysergic acid
diethylamide on the 8th day of pregnancy. In addition, all three drugs
produced an increase in the percentages of small fetuses
per litter, of resorptions, and of fetal mortality.
 Serotonin, Mental State
and Behavior [609]
The New England Journal Of Medicine • November 1967

James M. Faulkner, MD

This article has no abstract

the first 100 words appear below

In the concern and confusion surrounding the social

problems associated with lysergic acid diethylamide
(LSD), the contributions to basic research that may be
attributed to the discovery of that agent’s psychoto-
mimetic properties are apt to be overlooked. Yet these
properties, coupled with the antagonism displayed
by LSD against certain effects of serotonin on smooth
muscle, prompted Wooley, in this country, and Gad-
dum, in England, to speculate upon a possible role
for that newly discovered biogenic amine in the toxic
psychosis of LSD and even in endogenous psychoses.
Their hypotheses appeared to be reinforced when it
was demonstrated that reserpine and . . .
270 Pages • [171] • 1967
April 1967
 Pros and Con Regarding LSD [610]
The New England Journal Of Medicine • March 1966

This article has no abstract

the first 100 words appear below

To the Editor: To one who has watched The New England Journal of
Medicine develop into one of the great medical journals of our time it is
disturbing to read an editorial as emotionally biased as “LSD– a Danger-
ous Drug” (in the December 2, 1965 issue). It is no news that a powerful
pharmaceutical agent, if used unwisely, is dangerous, especially if its site
of action is the brain. The administration of such a drug is, of course, jus-
tified only in the presence of serious illness for which no other satisfac-
tory treatment is available. The extraordinary and unique feature of . . .
Modification of autistic behavior with LSD-25 [112]
American Journal Of Psychiatry • May 1966

Simmons JQ 3rd, Leiken SJ, Lovaas OI, Schaeffer B, Perloff B.

Effective modification of autistic behavior presents the clinician with

a formidable challenge as evidenced by reports of treatment results
and long-term followup in early infantile autism(7, 8) and in the more
inclusive area of childhood schizophrenia(3, 4). Characteristically, the
more regressed and retarded the autistic child, the more energetic
and prolonged is the effort required to modify the behavior, and in
extreme cases treatment efforts have been unsuccessful. The symp-
tom picture in this more retarded group generally centers around:

1) preoccupation with and stereotyped manipulation of objects (toys, etc.)

2) isolation of the self from contact with animate objects (including

minimal eye contact)

3) failure to acquire general social behaviors (including speech); and

4) bizarre rhythmic repetitive motor patterns (10, 11).

A wide range of approaches has been taken in an effort to alter the

symptom picture of this disorder. The efforts have included insulin
sub-coma, drugs (stimulants and tranquilizers), electric shock (2) ...
18 Pages+ • [821] • 1966

continued on the following page

 The Radicalization Of Timothy Leary
Label:
Counter Culture Chronicles 4
Format:
Cassette, Limited Edition, Unofficial Release, C90
Country:
Netherlands
Released:
Mar 2014
Genre:
Non-Music
Style:
Interview

Tracklist
A1
Millbrook Interview 1966

A2
Ram Das Reacts To The Levolutionary Letter Leary Send From His Exile In
Algeria After His Escape From Prison In 1970

B1
Communique To The Underground Press By Eldridge Cleaver, 1971

B2
Flashbacks Interview, 1983

Notes
These recordings, released on a C-90 cassette as Counter Culture Chronicles
#4, focus on the period following Leary’s escape from prison and flight to Al-
geria with the help of the Weather Underground in 1970. The cassette con-
tains a 1966 interview of Timothy Leary at the Millbrook estate, a reaction
to Leary’s escape from prison and exile into Algeria by Leary’s friend and
associate Ram Dass, a 1971 communique by Black Panther leader Eldridge
Cleaver in which he distances himself from fellow-exile Leary, plus a 1983 in-
terview of Leary following the publication of his autobiography ‘Flashbacks’.
Inserted in the cassette box are a couple of militant quotes by both Leary
and Cleaver from the Algeria period. Brains on fire and souls on ice.
 Chemical and Biologic Weapons — A Primer [49]
The New England Journal Of Medicine • January 1966

Victor W. Sidel, M.D.†, and Robert M. Goldwyn, M.D.‡

† Associate in preventive medicine, Harvard Medical School; assistant in medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital; fellow, Medical Foundation (Boston); faculty fellow, Milbank Memorial Fund
‡ Instructor in surgery, Harvard Medical School; junior associate in surgery, Peter Bent Brigham Hospital; associate in surgery, Beth Israel Hospital

“ …discussed is d-lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD-25). This compound is odorless, tasteless and colorless,
and effective in extremely small amounts. LSD may produce a wide spectrum of psychopathologic reactions and psychoses,
including an inability to concentrate, severe anxiety and manic states and… “

This article has no abstract;

the first 100 words appear below

THE increasing development and stockpiling of chemi-

cal and biologic weapons have been well documented,
and facts are available to all citizens.1 2 3 Because these
agents injure, incapacitate and kill, and because their
manufacture and possible use present grave ethical
considerations, physicians in particular not only must
be familiar with their existence and their properties but
also must stand firm in questioning the moral and even
practical justification of their use. History The origins
of modern chemical and biologic warfare can be found
in antiquity.4 Poisoned arrows, still used among some
aborigines, were commonly employed in ancient Asia
and Western Europe. Hannibal . . .

*From the Physicians for Social Responsibility

We are indebted to Drs. Daniel Deykin, Frank Ervin, Cavin

Leeman, Bernard Lown and Charles Magraw, and other
members of the Executive Committee of Physicians for
Social Responsibility, for criticisms and suggestions.
 A.M.A. House of Delegates [96]
The New England Journal Of Medicine • August 1966

“ …was approved. The abuse of LSD and other non-narcotic drugs was condemned.
It was pointed out that the illicit use of LSD is subverting and vitiating important and necessary valid experimental studies,
and it was recommended that the manufacture and distribution of LSD be continued as needed under… “

This article has no abstract; the first 100 words appear below:

The hundred and fifteenth annual convention of the American Medical Association was held in Chicago, June 26–30, 1966, on the eve of the implementation of Medicare, legisla-
tion the Association had opposed vigorously. The general tenor of the meeting of the policy-making body — the House of Delegates — was expressed by the Board of Trustees in
its report to the House. The report reads, in part as follows: During the past year many individuals have represented the American Medical Association and the physicians of the
United States by meeting frequently with officials of the Department of Health, Education and Welfare. . . .
 The Promised End —
Constitutional Aspects
of Physician-Assisted Suicide [607]
The New England Journal Of Medicine • August 1996

George J. Annas, J.D., M.P.H.

This article has no abstract

the first 100 words appear below

The debate over physician-assisted suicide has dramatically shifted to a discussion of constitutional issues. This spring, within a month of each other, U.S. Circuit Courts of Appeals on both coasts
ruled that state prohibitions of assisted suicide are unconstitutional when applied to physicians who prescribe lethal medication for terminally ill, competent adults who wish to end their lives.1,2
The Ninth Circuit includes Alaska, Arizona, California, Hawaii, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, Oregon, and Washington, and the Second Circuit includes New York, Connecticut, and Vermont. Both courts
reached the same conclusion but for different legal reasons. In the Ninth Circuit, four physicians . . .
 The D-State —
A Review and Discussion
of Studies on the Physiologic State
Concomitant with Dreaming [605]
The New England Journal Of Medicine • July 1965

Ernest L. Hartmann, M.D.

Director, Sleep and Dream Laboratory

Boston State Hospital; assistant clinical professor of psychiatry
Tufts University School of Medicine
Career investigator, National Institute of Mental Health
National Institutes of Health, United States Public Health Service

This article has no abstract

the first 100 words appear below

Pharmacology and the D-State A great many data, mostly from small
informal studies, are available concerning the effect of drugs on the D-
state, but as yet no definite pattern has emerged. A number of substanc-
es decrease the amount of time spent in the D-state. This is true in man
for phenobarbital and several other barbiturates studied so far.20 Phe-
nothiazines likewise tend to decrease D-time; trifluoperazine (Stelazine)
has some confusing early effects54 but probably actually decreases D-
time like the others.55 Alcohol has been shown to cause a decrease in D-
time,56 and in fact it has been suggested that delirium tremens may . . .
352 Pages • 1964 • [420]
 Untoward Reactions to Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD)
Resulting in Hospitalization [36]
The New England Journal Of Medicine • December 1965

William A. Frosch, M.D.†, Edwin S. Robbins, M.D.‡, and Marvin Stern, M.D.§

† Instructor, Department of Psychiatry, New York University School of Medicine

‡ Clinical instructor, Department of Psychiatry, New York University School of Medicine
§ Professor, Department of Psychiatry, New York University School of Medicine

This article has no abstract; the first 100 words appear below

MOST typically, medical research has proceeded from clinical observation to clinical in-
vestigation to laboratory experiment. Some of the striking exceptions to this pattern have
been studies of a variety of pharmacologic agents that are capable of producing changes
in psychic state. These drugs, first isolated or synthesized in the laboratory, occasionally
create a new clinical syndrome or a new etiology of an old syndrome as an undesirable
by-product of individual abuse or poor judgment by the physician. A sudden surge of
admissions to the Bellevue Psychiatric Division after ingestion of d-lysergic acid diethyl-
amide (LSD) prompted us to review the history . . .

Supported by a project grant (MH 08618) from the National Institute of Mental Health
65 Pages • June 1964 [343]
 •
A
Publication
of
the Institute
for
the Study of
Human Problems

Stanford University

~ 1964 ~

Nevitt Sanford
Director

ATHERTON PRESS
New York, New York
1964

Library
320 Pages • [167] • 1964 of
Congress

Catalog Card
Number
64-23746

320 Pages

Printed in
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•
 CONTENTS
THE ATHERTON PRESS
BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE SERIES
William E. Henry, General Editor
The University o f Chicago
ATTRACTION AND HOSTILITY
Albert Pepitone
CONTEMPORARY APPROACHES TO CREATIVE THINKING
Howard E. Gruber, Glenn Terrell, and
Michael Wertheimer, Editors
EGO AND MILIEU
John Cumming and Elaine Cumming
IMMIGRANTS ON THE THRESHOLD
Judith T. Shuval
PERSONALITY IN MIDDLE AND LATE LIFE
Bernice L. Neugarten and Associates
PROCESSES OF AGING
Richard H. Williams, Clark Tibbitts, and
Wilma Donahue, Editors
PSYCHIATRIC REHABILITATION
Denise Bystryn Kandel and Richard H. Williams
PSYCHOTHERAPY THROUGH THE GROUP PROCESS
Dorothy Stock Whitaker and Morton A. Lieberman
SCHIZOPHRENIC WOMEN
Harold Sampson, Sheldon L. Messinger, and
Robert D. Towne
THE STUDY OF LIVES
Robert W. White, Editor
TABOO TOPICS
Norman L. Farberow, Editor
UTOPIATES: THE USE AND USERS OF LSD-25
Richard Blum and Associates
281 Pages • [421] • 1964
 Review Of Psychodysleptics:
I. Classification Of Psychodysleptics
[400]
Canadian Medical Association Journal • August 1964
[Article in French]

By P. Rajotte

The discovery of new dysleptic drugs has prompt-

ed the present review of these substances which
influence neuropsychic activity. It is possible to di-
vide dysleptics into two categories: under the first
heading fall mescaline, LSD-25, psilocybine, adre-
nochrome, bufotenine and dimethyltryptamin; the
other group includes Ditran, Butoxamine, WH-4849,
and AHR-379. The place of Sernyl could not be ascer-
tained and it might well constitute a class by itself.
The mescaline type of reaction is mainly character-
ized by the induction of perceptual distortions with-
out alteration of the state of consciousness, whereas
the Ditran type reaction is one of confusion with
postexperimental amnesia. Electroencephalograph-
ic recordings support this classification: lowering of
amplitude, acceleration of rhythm and desynchroni-
zation were noted with the first group; and slowing
of rhythm and slow waves similar to those seen dur-
ing the onset of sleep, with the other group.
 Hallucinogenic Drugs
And Their
Psychotherapeutic Use
204 Pages • [736] • 1963
The Proceedings Of
The Royal Medico-Psychological Association

THE President of the Royal Medico-Psycho-

logical Association (Dr. Alexander Walk) in
opening the session, expressed the pleasure
which all members felt at this new develop-
ment in the scope of their quarterly meet-
ings, which had been brought about by the
enterprise of the Section of Psychotherapy
and Social Psychiatry joined later by the Clin-
ical Psychiatry Section. He welcomed par-
ticipants from European countries and from
America, and pointed out that this was the
first time that a conference on this interna-
tional scale had been held on this most fas-
cinating and rapidly developing topic. They
would know that the Association was this
year celebrating the 120th Anniversary of
its foundation, and it might be of interest
to mention that among the very earliest pa-
pers read at its meetings were some on the
effects of drugs on mental states. He would
like to recall, among the pioneers of research
into the subject, the name of Dr. Rouhier,
who published his monograph on peyotl in
1927. One could not fail to be impressed by
Rouhier’s foresight in realizing the potentiali-
ties inherent in the study of this and similar
drugs. Quoting from Hugo the saying, “Every
plant is a lamp” he expressed the hope that
this lamp might throw light on some of the
unknown territories of cerebral and psychic
functions. This conference would show how
far the ripples from this “stone thrown into
a pool” had spread up to the present time.
Hallucinogenic Drugs And Their Psychotherapeutic Use [736]
177 Pages • [423] • 1963
 [PDF 92]

September 1992
 Cross tolerance between LSD and psilocybin and three in Experiment II) than was the case with LSD. Patients chronically treated with psilocybin
were also “cross” tolerant to LSD on four (Experiment I) or three (Experiment II) measurements. The
Psychopharmacologia • May 1961 degree of “direct” tolerance to psilocybin was less than the degree of “direct” tolerance to LSD.

By Harris Isbell, A. B. Wolbach, A. Wikler, E. J. Miner The development of “cross” tolerance between LSD and psilocybin reinforces the idea that these two
drugs cause psychic disturbances by acting on some common mechanism, or on mechanisms acting
National Institute of Mental Health, Addiction Research Center through a common final pathway.
U.S. Public Health Service HospitalLexington

References
In two experiments, using a cross-over design, the
development of “direct” tolerance to LSD and psi- Balestrieri, A.: Studies on cross tolerance with LSD-25,
locybin was measured after 10 (Experiment I) or 9 UML-491 and JB-366. Psychopharmacologia 1, 257–259
(Experiment II) volunteers had taken LSD in doses (1960).Google Scholar
increasing to 1.5 meg/kg over the course of 6–7 days
(Experiment I) or 13 days (Experiment II). On anoth- Cerletti, A.: Étude pharmacologique de la psilocybine. Sec-
er occasion, the same patients received psilocybin tion 5, Chapter VII in R. Heim and R. G. Wasson, Les cham-
in doses increasing to 150 mcg/kg over the course pignons hallucinogènes du Mexique. Paris: Editions du
Muséum d’Histoire Naturelle 1958.Google Scholar
of 6–7 days (Experiment I) or 210 mcg/kg over the
course of 13 days (Experiment II). Delay, J., P. Pichot, T. Lemperière, P. J. Nicolas-Charles, et
A. M. Quétin: Étude psycho-physiologique et clinique de
The development of “cross” tolerance to psilocybin la psilocybine. Section 5, Chapter VII in R. Heim and R. G.
in patients “directly” tolerant to LSD was measured Wasson, Les champignons hallucinogènes du Mexique.
by “challenging” the patients, after they had received Paris: Editions du Muséum d’Histoire Naturelle 1958.
LSD chronically, with 150 mcg/kg (Experiment I) or Google Scholar
210 mcg/kg (Experiment II) of psilocybin. “Cross” tol-
Edwards, A. L.: Statistical analysis for students in psycholo-
erance to LSD was evaluated by “challenging” the pa- gy and education. New York. Rhinehart & Co. 1946.Google
tients, after they had received psilocybin chronically, Scholar
with 1.5 meg/kg of LSD.
Hofman, A. R., R. Heim, A. Brack and H. Kobel: Psilocybin,
A high degree of “direct” tolerance to LSD developed ein psychotroper Wirkstoff an dem Mexikanischen Raus-
in both experiments, as manifested by statistically chpilz. Psilocybe Mexicana Heim. Experientia (Basel) 14,
significant reductions in six of the seven parameters 107 (1958a).Google Scholar and P. Troxler: Konstitution-
saufklärung und Synthese von Psilocybin. Experientia (Ba-
of response. Patients “directly” tolerant to LSD were
sel) 14, 397 (1958b).Google Scholar
also “cross” tolerant to psilocybin on five (Experiment
I) or four (Experiment II) parameters. Isbell, H.: Comparison of the reactions induced by psilo-
cybin and LSD-25 in man. Psychopharmacologia 1, 29–38
Definite “direct” tolerance also developed after chron- (1959).Google Scholar
ic administration of psilocybin in both experiments,
but statistically significant reductions occurred in Isbell, H., R. E. Belleville, H. F. Fraser, A. Wikler and C. R. Lo-
gan: Studies on lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD-25). I. Ef-
fewer parameters of response (four in Experiment I
fects in former morphine addicts and development of
 References Continued

tolerance during chronic intoxication. Arch. Neurol. Psy-

chiat. (Chicago) 76, 468–478 (1956).Google Scholar and
E. J. Miner: Studies on lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD-
25). III. Attempts to attenuate the LSD-reaction in man
by pretreatment with neurohumoral blocking agents.
Arch. Neurol. Psychiat. (Chicago) 81, 20–27 (1959).

Wasson, V. P., and R. G. Wasson: Mushrooms, Russia and

history. New York: Pantheon Books 1957.

Wilcoxon, F.: Some rapid approximate statistical proce-

dures. New York: American Cyanamid Company 1949.

Winter, C. A., and L. Flataker: Studies on heptazone (6-

morpholino-4,4-diphenyl-3 heptanone hydrochloride)
in comparison with other analgesic agents. J. Pharma-
col. exp. Ther. 98, 305–317 (1950).

https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00407974

[606]
The New England Journal Of Medicine • February 1960
† Senior research associate, Massachusetts Mental Health Center
‡ Instructor in psychology, Harvard Medical School
principal psychologist, Massachusetts Mental Health Cente
§ Research associate, Boston University and
Massachusetts Mental Health Center
¶ Graduate student, Psychology Department
Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois
This article has no abstract
the first 100 words appear below
PSILOCYBINE (Fig. 1 below), the phosphoric ester
of 4-hydroxytryptamine, has been established by
Hofmann et al.1 2 3 4 as the active principle of the
Mexican mushroom family Psilocybe mexicana Heim.
The chemists emphasize the fact that this chemical
is the only phosphorylated indole compound that is
known to occur in nature and that it is remarkable in
that it is an indole substituted at the fourth position.
The pharmacology of psilocybine5 in animal experi-
ments has been summarized by Cerletti as follows:
In the intact animal, it produces pupillary dilatation,
pilo-erection, tachycardia, tachypnea, hyperthermia,
hyperglycemia, blood pressure increase, contraction
of nictitating membrane. The . . .
CHAPTER NINE
1952 - 1959 Peer Review
15 Pages • [820] • 1959
 Studies on Lysergic Acid Diethylamide
(LSD-25): Attempts to Attenuate the
LSD-Reaction in Man
by Pretreatment with
Neurohumoral Blocking Agents [511]
AMA Archives In Neurology & Psychiatry • January 1959

By HARRIS ISBELL, M.D.; C. R. LOGAN; E. J. MINER

Interest in possible chemical transmission of impuls-

es in the central nervous system has been increasing.
The neurohumors involved include acetylcholine,1,2
norepinephrine,2-4 and serotonin.4-6 These theo-
ries of central chemical synaptic transmission have
led, in turn, to hypotheses which ascribe the psycho-
sis induced by lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD-25)
and other psychotomimetic drugs to derangements
in central nervous system function because of com-
petition with one or another of the neurohumors
or, on the contrary, to accentuation of the effects of
the neurohumors by the psychotomimetic agents.
The greatest interest has centered on possible in-
teractions of serotonin and LSD. Woolley and Shaw5
and Gaddum6 independently evolved a hypothesis
which ascribes the LSD psychosis to competition be-
tween LSD and serotonin for receptor sites on or in
neurons. This hypothesis, which might be termed
the serotonin-deficiency theory, is based in part on
the following evidence: Serotonin is found in brain ...
 LSD-Like Delirium
Following Ingestion Of A Small Amount
Of Its Brom Analog (BOL-148) [275]
Case Reports • May 1958
 Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD-25):
Effect of Potassium Cyanide
and Other Oxidase and Respiratory
Inhibitors on the Siamese Fighting Fish
[510]
AMA Archives Of Neurology & Psychiatry
September 1958

B. WEISS, A.B.; H. A. ABRAMSON, M.D.; M. O. BARON, A.B.

Although it is known that lysergic acid diethylamide

(LSD-25) enters the brain, the mechanism by which
LSD-25 acts to produce the psychotic patterns in man
is unknown. Experiments which are designed to in-
vestigate the brain process in the intact animal might
lead to a concept that could be developed to study the
chemical process originating or connected with clini-
cally occurring schizophrenia. We have recently been
studying the effect of potassium cyanide, sodium azide,
hydrazine, and oxygen lack, among other respiration
inhibitors, on an intact animal, the Siamese fighting
fish. In addition, the action of oxidation-reduction indi-
cators, like methylene blue, Bindschedler’s green, and
other dye systems, has been explored. It has previously
been shown that the behavior of the Siamese fighting
fish changes markedly in the presence of small doses of
LSD-25 in the surrounding water. It may now be report-
ed that KCN and sodium azide act on the Siamese …
 Further Studies
in the Therapeutic Value of
Lysergic Acid Diethylamide
in Mental Illness [19]
The British Journal of Psychiatry • April 1957

R. A. Sandison, J. D. A. Whitelaw

This paper presents an extension of the studies

reported by the authors in 1954 which demon-
strated the value of lysergic acid diethylamide in
the treatment of mental illness. The 36 patients
have been followed up for a further 2 years and
the results are given. A further 64 patients have
been treated since 1954 making a total of 100 in
all. Of these 100 patients, 61 have recovered or
improved, 32 failed to derive appreciable ben-
efit and 7 were not assessed for reasons which
are given. A wide variety of neurotic conditions
were treated. The significance of these results
is discussed and the causes of failure are com-
mented upon. Special mention is made of the
results in psychopathic personalities and obses-
sional neurosis. A new technique for the treat-
ment of psychotic illness, mostly schizophrenia,
by means of an LSD-chlorpromazine combi-
nation is discussed. The results are given in 14
cases. This method shows encouraging results
in well-preserved schizophrenics of one to two
years’ duration that had not responded to ortho-
dox methods of treatment. The position occu-
pied by LSD in relation to therapeutics and bio-
chemical research in psychiatry is examined. The
opinion is expressed that LSD treatment contin-
ues to be of the utmost value in psychotherapy,
both in cases otherwise resistant to treatment
and as a method of avoiding the prolonged
time necessary for a full psychological analysis.
 A study of the effects of LSD:
physiologic and psychological changes
and their interrelations [16]
American Journal Of Psychiatry • October 1957

DIMASCIO A, GREENBLATT M, HYDE RW.

The physiological and psychological changes through-

out the day subsequent to the administration of Lysergic
Acid Diethyl-amide were recorded and analyses made
of their interrelations. The Harvard Polygraph was used
to simultaneously and continuously record heart rate,
respiration, skin temperature, blood pressure, and mus-
cle tension. Recordings were made under resting condi-
tions immediately before and 1½, 2½, 4½, and 7½ hours
subsequent to L. S. D. administration. Physiologically, a
general sympathetic excitation resulted, which reached
a peak of tension in 3 to 4 hours and then gradually re-
turned to the pre-L. S. D. level by the eighth hour. Heart
rate increased and became more stable, systolic and
diastolic blood pressures were elevated, pulse pressure
rose, muscle tension mounted, skin temperature tend-
ed to drop, breathing became faster and more variable,
the inspiration/respiration ratio decreased and became
more variable, and pupillary dilation occurred. No such
drastic changes were noted in the control (placebo) days.
Changes occurred psychologically that paralleled the
physiological changes. Deviation from “normality” both
behaviorally and subjectively was most pronounced,
in number of symptoms expressed and intensity of ex-
pression, about 3 to 4 hours after L. S. D. administration
and gradually diminished until the eighth hour. Some
of the implications of this study are mentioned and the
similarity between the sequences of events post-L. S.
D. with the changes pre-post lobotomy are discussed.
 The Therapeutic Value of
Lysergic Acid Diethylamide in Mental Illness [101]
The British Journal of Psychiatry • The Royal College of Psychiatrists
November 1953

By R. A. Sandison, B.Sc., M.B., B.S., D.P.M.

Deputy Medical Superintendent
A. M. Spencer, B.Sc., M.B., Ch.B., D.P.M.
Medical Superintendent
and
J. D. A. Whitelaw, M.B., B.S.
Assistant Medical Officer
Powick Mental Hospital, near Worcester

D-Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD 25) was first prepared in 1938 by Stoll
and Hofmann. It is the synthetic amide of d-lysergic acid with a second-
ary amine, diethylamine and belongs to the ergonovine group of ergot
alkaloids all of which have lysergic acid as a base. After its ingestion in
minute doses, it induces psychic states in which the subject becomes
aware of repressed memories and other unconscious material in a set-
ting of clear consciousness. This preliminary paper describes the results
obtained from the use of the drug in 36 psychoneurotic patients over a
period of one year. We consider that the drug will find a significant place
in the treatment of the psychoneuroses and allied mental illnesses.

THE LSD EXPERIENCE

We use the term “LSD Experience” to describe the combined objec-

tive and subjective changes induced by the administration of LSD 25.
Most previous authors have failed to relate the objective findings of
changes in consciousness, mental tension, emotional behaviour and
muscular activity to the subjective changes experienced by the pa-
tient. One of the objects of this paper is to stress the related nature
of all phenomena produced by LSD 25 and that the objective findings
and subjective experiences are not to be regarded separately. Before
the detailed objective and subjective changes are considered it may
be mentioned that the LSD experience usually lasts 4-8 hours but
may extend for as long as ten days. Typical experiences may also oc-
cur at intervals up to eight days after the administration of the drug.
 Psychological Aspects
Of The LSD Treatment
Of The Neuroses [102]
Consultant Psychiatrist • November 1953

By R. A. Sandison, B.Sc., M.B., B.S., D.P.M.

Powick Mental Hospital, Worcestershire

RECENT work by the author and his colleagues (Sandi-

son, Spencer and Whitelaw, 1954) has established that
lysergic acid diethylamide is of great value in the psy-
chotherapy of the neuroses. This paper attempts to ex-
amine in rather more detail the possible mechanism of
action of the drug in terms of dynamic psychology. It is
now generally accepted that the psychoneuroses are the
result of a faulty relationship between the conscious and
the unconscious, leading to a one-sided or prejudiced
conscious point of view. Any discussion which follows
this observation must be preceded by a definition of the
writer’s conception of the unconscious, and in this paper
the standpoint adopted by Jungian analytical psychol-
ogy will be preferred. It was noticed quite early in the
therapeutic experiments with LSD that many of the LSD
experiences were personal ones for each patient, and
that they were intimately connected with the patients’
psychic problems. Later, three types of LSD experiences
were recognized. First, generalized non-specific images
such as a sense of lightness of the body, changes in the
surroundings giving them plasticity and fluidity, the ap-
pearance of coloured patterns and other halluci natory
experiences of a non-personal kind. Second, the recall
and re-living of forgotten memories and experiences of
childhood. Third, the experiencing of archaic impersonal
images in terms of images or hallucinatory pictures ex-
actly similar in nature to those experiences of the col-
lective unconscious which patients undergoing deep
analysis experience in their dreams, visual impressions
and fantasies. All these images are, moreover, felt with
a degree of vividness and a sense of certainty concern-
ing their reality and personal importance which is remarkable and convincing. Furthermore, these
more primitive LSD experiences are accompanied by a sense of their agelessness and timeless
quality which is the hallmark of the great archetypes of the collective unconscious. It should be
noted that these experiences can occur independently of any previous analytical treatment. The
manner in which LSD can enable patients to re-live forgotten childhood memories has already
been described, and there is no doubt in the writer’s mind that in many cases great benefit can
be derived by helping the patient to come to terms with his repressed emotional life at this level.
There are, however, almost always other factors behind these traumatic episodes, and one need
hardly mention that the current emotional life of the patient must also receive careful examination.
But the factors which have originally conditioned the patient to neurosis and may have caused
him to relapse into neurosis again, even after abreaction to psychologically traumatic episodes,
are to be found in his conscious relationship to the more universal aspects of the psychic life.
 Lysergic Acid Diethylamide • LSD25
A Clinical Psychological Study [100]
United States Navy • 1952

From the Division of Psychiatry and Neurology

Naval Medical Research Institute, Bethesda, Md

By Charles Savage, Lieutenant, MC. USN, Bethesda, MD

A study has been made of the effect of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD-25
Sandoz or LSD) on the affect, cognition, and expression of “normal” control
subjects and of depressed patients. It has already been shown by Stoll( I, 2)
that LSD has a pronounced psychic effect, manifested by increased emo-
tional lability, dissociation, and imagery. Stoll described a euphoria that
LSD occasionally produces in mental patients. It is the purpose of this pres-
ent study to determine if such a euphoria might be of value in the treat-
ment of depression. Studies were done on 20 subjects, 5 “normal” controls
and 15 depressed patients. (The sole criterion of “normalcy” was that the
individual function adequately in his immediate life situation.) The “normal”
controls were each given a single oral dose of 20 micrograms before break-
fast. Psychological and physiological observations were carried out over a
period of 8 to 15 hours. The depressed patients were started on an oral
dose of 20 micrograms, which was increased daily to a point where a defi-
nite psychophysiological effect could be observed. This point varied in dif-
ferent patients from 20 to 100 micrograms. Psychological and physiological
studies were carried out before, during, and after the course of treatment
with LSD. Treatment covered a period of a month except where it had to be
interrupted for medical reasons.

Record

0600: R 18, P 60, BP 90/70 • Subject took 20 gamma orally

0630: R 17, P 61, BP 100/74.
0100: R 16, P 70, BP 104/74.
0730: R 16, P 70, BP 104/74
0800: R 11, P 68, BP 104/76. He reports numbness and tingling of legs.
Tendon reflexes are increased
0830: R 20, P 73, BP 104/84
0900: R 20, P 68, BP 108/100. He laughs incontinently, uses language
immoderately, and shows flight of ideas.
0930: R 24, P 66, BP 120/100. He complains of paresthesias and
distortions of vision; the contour of objects appears fluid.
1030: R 12, P 80, BP 104/76. He complains of “wolves howling,” and
reports hallucinations on closing eyelids.
1100: R 14, P 80, BP 104/76. He recites limericks and laughs at his
own humour.
1205: R 18, P 70, BP 130/94. Mydriasis is marked.
1300: R 19, P 68, BP 120/96. Pupils now 5 mm. and react slowly to
light and accommodation. He complains of sirens, tuning whistles
and Morse code, and compares their intensity with that of a mo-
tor audible in the vicinity. (There was then no motor running.) He
sees brightly coloured birds and hears them singing. He complains
that blood pressure cuff causes extreme pain. He then complained
that the drug had transformed him into a “television set,” because
the paresthesias in his face and extremities seemed identical with
the ripples and fade-out of the television screen. He believed that
through this drug one could control others by sending out impuls-
es that would be picked up by whoever took the drug. Subject was
unaware of the bizarre nature of this idea.
1540: Pupils still dilated. Subject complains that couch is moving
in time with his heart beat.
1700: Pupils 4 mm. Visions are decreased but bright figures on dark
background are still reported. He hears the “Three-Cornered Hat.”
1800: Sleeping.
2100: R 18, P 68, BP 120/84. Pupils 3 mm. Subject claims that he
feels fine and clear-headed and appears so objectively. On the
other control subjects: only 2 of 5 reported vivid hallucinations
and euphoria as described above. The others manifested extreme
tension and anxiety.
 The Appeal of Peyote
(Lophophora Williamsii)
as a Medicine [818]
American Anthropologist • December 1938

By Richard Evans Schultes

IN connection with a botanical and chemical inves-

tigation of the peyote plant (Lophophora Williamsii
(Lem.) Coult.), I have pursued ethnobotanical stud-
ies regarding its use among the Kiowa, Kickapoo,
Shawnee, and Wichita of Oklahoma. During these
studies, additional information was received from
individuals of neighboring tribes. The investigation
revealed that several erroneous ideas and misinter-
pretations regarding the use of peyote have become
widespread. For more than two centuries, the use of
the peyote-cactus as a religious sacrament has been
slowly diffusing northward among the southern
Plains tribes of the United States.2 For more than
fifty years, there has been a growing interest in the
peyote-cult among American anthropologists. An
extensive literature3 has appeared concerning the
ceremonial use of Lophophora Williamsii in the Unit-
ed States as well as in Mexico, where its use extends
back probably for more than twenty centuries.4 Until
recently,5 the anthropological information was in a
more or less chaotic state. Shonle, Wagner, and oth-
ers have dealt with the diffusion of peyote and con-
ditions making possible its rapid spread.” Although
occasional references to the “appeal” of peyote are
found, there does not seem to be any critical study
of what may be termed the appeal-phase of the
peyote problem. Petrullo, Wagner, and especially
Radin7 have devoted more attention to the appeal
of peyote than have other anthropologists, but a
consideration of this neglected subject from an eth-
nobotanical point of view should prove of value.
 CHAPTER TEN
LANGUAGES OTHER THAN ENGLISH
The peer review
 Synesthesieën in het kader van de
persisterende waarnemingsstoornis door
hallucinogenen na gebruik van lsd [382]
Tijdschrift Voor Psychiatrie • 2014

By A. Neven and J.D. Blom

SAMENVATTING De persisterende waarnemingsstoornis door hal-

lucinogenen (hallucinogen-induced persistent perception dis-
order, hppd) is een hinderlijke complicatie van hallucinogeenge-
bruik. Wij beschrijven een kunstenaar met visuele, akoestische
en olfactorische hallucinaties alsmede chromatisch-fonemische
synesthesieën die twee jaar voortduurden na het stoppen van
lysergeenzuurdiëthylamide(lsd)-gebruik. Deze casus laat zien dat
in het kader van hppd ook synesthesieën kunnen voorkomen, die
in fenomenologische zin bovendien kunnen afwijken van het bek-
ende ‘kleuren horen’ dat bekend is bij middelengebruik.
 Usage de psychostimulants
dans un contexte sexuel :
analyse des cas rapportés
au Réseau francais
descentres d’addictovigilance.
Évaluation des risquesliés
à la pratique du SLAM [391]
Use of psychostimulants in a sexual context:
Analysis of cases reported to
the French network of Addictovigilance Centers

Therapie • April 2016

Anne Batissea, Hélène Peyrièreb, Céline Eidenb

Marie-Anne Cournéd and Samira Djezzara

Réseaufranc¸ais des centres d’addictovigilance∗aCentr

e d’addictovigilance d’Île-de-France, Centre GHU Lari-
boisière-Fernand-Widal, 200,rue du Faubourg-Saint-De-
nis, 75010 Paris, FrancebCentre d’addictovigilance, hôpital
Lapeyronie, 34295 Montpellier, FrancecUMI 233/Inserm
U1175, 34294 Montpellier, FrancedAgence nationale de
sécurité du médicament et des produits de santé, 93285
Saint-Denis,France

Le « SLAM » est un phénomène émergeant en particu-

lier chez les hommes ayant desrapports sexuels avec
des hommes (HSH), caractérisé par trois éléments :
l’injection intravei-neuse de substances psychostimu-
lantes, dans un contexte de pratique sexuelle. La surveil-
lancede ce phénomène est une des missions du Réseau
d’addictovigilance qui a souhaité évaluerles risques liés
à la pratique du « SLAM » et plus largement à l’usage de
psychostimulants dansun contexte sexuel en France en-
tre janvier 2008 et décembre 2013. Le réseau des CEIP-A
acolligé 51 cas : exclusivement des hommes, d’âge moyen
40 ans, et majoritairement HSH. Laprévalence du virus de
l’immunodéficience humaine (VIH) s’élève à 82 % (n = 32)
avec une co-infection virus de
l’hépatite C (VHC) [50 % des
cas, n = 16]. Les substances
psychostimulantesles plus
rapportées sont les cathi-
nones synthétiques (89,5 %),
principalement dans un con-
textede polyconsommation
(62 %). Les principales com-
plications retrouvées sont des
troubles psy-chiatriques dans
50 % des cas (symptômes psy-
chotiques, agitation, anxiété,
idées suicidaires outentatives
de suicide), des intoxications
aiguës dans 25 % des cas
(dont 3 décès), dépendanceet
abus dans 17 % des cas et des
complications infectieuses
(séroconversions virales) dans
8 %des cas. Les professionnels
de santé ainsi que les usagers
doivent être conscients de la
toxi-cité physique (notam-
ment cardiovasculaire) et psy-
chique (psychose, syndrome
de dépendancerapide) tox-
icité des cathinones. Il semble
important de ne pas dissocier
les réseaux de santésexuelle
et d’addictologie pour la ré-
duction des risques.© 2016
Société franc¸aise de pharma-
cologie et de thérapeutique.
 Über die Rückkehr zu den
Rosen und der Natur-über ein LSD
[380]
Symposium in der Schweiz anlässlich des
100. Geburtstags von Albert Hofmann im Januar 2006

Psychoaktive Drogen, Psychedelika sind eines der

interessantesten, aber auch am stärksten dämonisi-
erten Phänomene in der Kulturgeschichte des 20.
Jahrhunderts und haben in der normal-bürgerlichen
Welt kein gutes Ansehen. Man hat Angst davor oder
man weiß von nichts. Und wenn überhaupt, dann
berichten die Konzerngesteuerten Massen -Medien
nicht über solche „wilden“ Themen oder nur gering-
schätzend. So auch als von Freitag, den 13. bis zum
Sonntag, den 15. Januar 2006 in Basel das weltweit
größte internationale Symposium zum Thema „LSD
– Sorgenkind und Wunderdroge“ stattfand.
 LSD – Sorgenkind und Wunderdroge [378]
Impressionen vom Internationalen Symposium • January 2006

Enno Logemann, Freiburg Brsg.

Am 11. Januar 2006 feierte der Schweizer Chemiker Dr. phil. Dr. h.c. mult.
Albert Hofmann seinen hundertsten Geburtstag (Abb. 1). Dieses Ereignis
fand in Presse, Funk und Fernsehen große Beachtung. Seit dem 19. April
1943, als Dr. Hofmann die psychoaktiven Wirkungen des LSD erkannte,
veränderten diese drei Buchstaben die Welt. Die Wochenzeitung DIE ZEIT
titelte: „Die Kernkraft der Seele“ [1], die SÜDDEUTSCHE ZEITUNG: „Atom-
bombe für den Geist“ [2].

Für sein wissenschaftliches Lebenswerk hatte Dr. Hofmann bereits vor

Jahren hohe Ehrungen erfahren, darunter Dr. pharm. h.c., Universität
Stockholm, Dr. sc. nat., ETH Zürich, Dr. rer. nat. h.c., Freie Universität Berlin,
Honorary Member of the American Society of Pharmacognosy. Außer-
dem wurde er in das Nobelpreiskomitee berufen [3]. Die Gesellschaft für
Arzneipflanzenforschung (GA) ernannte ihn im Jahre 1977 zum Ehrenmit-
glied. Im Jahre 1995 wurde er mit der höchsten Ehrung der GTFCh, dem
Jean-Servais-Stas-Preis ausgezeichnet. Der erste Präsident unserer Fach-
gesellschaft Dr. phil. James Bäumler hielt damals die Laudatio [4]. Gut 60
Jahre nach der folgenreichen Entdeckung veranstaltete nun die Gaia Me-
dia Stiftung, eine gemeinnützige Organisation zur Förderung und Verbrei-
tung des Wissens um die Entwicklung und Erweiterung des menschlichen
Bewusstseins, in der Zeit vom 13. – 15. Januar 2006 im Kongresszentrum
Basel ein internationales LSD-Symposium, zu dem etwa 2000 Teilnehmer
und 200 Journalisten aus 37 Ländern gekommen waren [5]. Das Thema
des Symposiums nahm Bezug auf das bekannteste Buch des Jubilars:
LSD – mein Sorgenkind; Die Entdeckung einer <<Wunderdroge>>, das
im Jahre 1979 im Verlag Klett-Cotta, Stuttgart, erschienen ist und im März
2004 bereits die 11. Auflage erreichte [6]. Der Tagungspräsident konnte
nicht nur Chemiker, Biologen, Pharmakologen, Pharmazeuten, Ärzte,
Psychiater, Therapeuten, Drogenexperten, Ethnologen, Maler, Musiker,
Politiker und Publizisten, sondern auch die ganze psychedelische Gemei-
nde, Alt- und Junghippies und die Leute vom Staatsschutz begrüßen. Es
waren alle Altersklassen vertreten. Selbst Säuglinge, die von ihren Müt-
tern zu diesem festlichen Ereignis geführt wurden, werden später einmal
berichten können, dabei gewesen zu sein.
 LSD – Sorgenkind und Wunderdroge:
tik u.a.m. und zum Schluß eine Zeittafel zur Geschichte des LSD.
Presseecho zum LSD-Symposium in Basel
mit Zeittafel zur Geschichte des LSD
Redaktion Webteam LSD-Symposium in Basel • February 2009
Auf einem Symposium zum 100. Geburtstag
von Albert Hofmann, bei dem der Entdecker
der Substanz mehrfach auf dem Podium be-
reitwillig und mit viel Humor Fragen beant-
wortete, suchte man den zukünftigen Platz
von LSD in der Gesellschaft. Etwa 80 Refer-
enten aus aller Welt diskutierten in Basel mit
einem gutend Dutzend ausstellenden Malern
und auftretenden Musikern, 200 Journalisten
und etwa 2.000 Besuchern drei Tage im Kon-
greßzentrum der Messe Basel die zentrale
Frage: Welchen Platz kann und soll LSD in
einer Gesellschaft einnehmen?
Der Titel der Veranstaltung »Sorgenkind und
Wunderdroge« konnte kaum besser gewählt
sein. Noch heute, fast sechs Jahrzehnte nach
der Synthese durch den Chemiker Albert
Hofmann im Jahre 1938, steht die Substanz
in einem zutieft ambivalenten Ruf. In allen
Ländern der Erde ist sie verboten, auf der an-
deren Seite gibt es genauso lange währende
Bemühungen, das potente Psychedelikum
als Medikament oder sakralen Bewußtseins-
fahrstuhl einsetzen zu dürfen.
Diese Pressmitteilung ist eine Art Presseecho
zum LSD-Symposium und ist im Wesentli-
chen aus Zitaten, die aus den am besten
recherchierten respektive treffendsten Zei-
tungsartikeln, die zum respektive nach dem
Symposium erschienen sind, zusammen-
gestellt. Anfangs sind zahlreiche Zitate von
Albert Hofmann wiedergegeben, dann folgen Informationen zu Medizin, Therapie, Kultur, Poli-
Druckerfreundliche Version (PDF-Format, 300 KB, 21 Seiten):
http://www.eve-rave.net/abfahrer/presse/presse06-02-27.pdf
Das detaillierte Programm des Symposiums ist
unter www.lsd.info zu finden.
Am 11. Januar 2006 wurde der Chemiker,
Forscher, Naturmystiker und Philosoph Albert
Hofmann 100 Jahre alt. Er entdeckte im April
1943 die psychotrope Wirkung von LSD, der
stärksten bewußtseinsverändernden Substanz,
die bis heute bekannt ist. Diese Substanz bes-
chäftigte und beeinflußte gleichermaßen die
Wissenschaft, Kultur, Politik und Gesellschaft in
der zweiten Hälfte des zwanzigsten Jahrhun-
dert vermutlich mehr als jede andere Substanz.
Der Jubilar, der bis zu seiner Pensionierung
1971 bei der Firma Sandoz in Basel arbeitete,
wurde in Basel mit einem Festakt und einem
Symposium geehrt. Zu den ersten Gratulanten
gehörte der schweizer Bundespräsident Moritz
Leuenberger, der Hofmann in einer schriftli-
chen Grußbotschaft als großen Erforscher des
menschlichen Bewußtseins würdigte. Hof-
mann habe in seinen Schriften immer wieder
die Fragen nach Wahrnehmung und Realität
thematisiert. Zu Recht habe er dafür plädiert,
das subjektive Erleben in die Wissenschaft mi-
teinzubeziehen, denn es gebe nicht nur eine
einzige Realität und eine einzige Sicht der
Dinge. In dankenswerter Weise habe der Jubilar
einen Beitrag geleistet, daß künstlerische, phil-
osophische und religiöse Fragen in der Wissen-
schfts - Diskussion lebendig geblieben seien.
Am LSD-Symposium beleuchteten namhafte Ex-
perten aus der ganzen Welt das LSD-Phänomen
aus allen Blickwinkeln im Bemühen, Fakten gegen Vorurteile zu setzen. Zum Symposium reiste die
Elite der internationalen Bewußtseinsforschung an: aus den USA unter anderen Prof. Charles Grob,
Dr. Alexander Shulgin, Dr. Ralph Metzner, aus Europa Dr. Günter Amendt, Dr. Christian Rätsch und Dr.
Franz Xaver Vollenweider. Auch prominente Künstler und Zeitzeugen wie Alex Grey und Barry Miles
kamen nach Basel, um über ihre persönlichen Erfahrungen mit LSD und dessen Einfluß auf Kunst und
Kultur zu berichten. Sehr großes Interesse fanden die Ausführungen des weltbekannten Chemikers
Dr. Alexander T. Shulgin, der von der New York Times als »Dr. Ecstasy« bezeichnet wurde, und der in
den letzten vierzig Jahren hunderte psychedelische Substanzen kreiert hat. Das Symposium stand
unter dem Patronat von Institutionen wie zum Beispiel »The Beckley Foundation« (UK), die die
britische Regierung und die UNO in Drogenfragen berät; die »Gesellschaft für Arzneipflanzen-
forschung« (AT); das »Europäische Collegium für Bewußtseinsstudien (ECBS)« (DE); die »Sch-
weizerische Ärztegesellschaft für Psycholytische Therapie (SÄPT)« (CH) und die »Multidisciplinary
Association for Psychedelic Studies (MAPS)« aus den USA. Der wissenschaftliche Bereich war ver-
treten durch das »Heffter Research Center« an der Psychiatrischen Universitätsklinik in Zürich
sowie das »Heffter Research Institute« aus Santa Fe. Die Resonanz in den Medien war beachtlich.
Viele Zeitungen publizierten gleich mehrere Artikel zum Symposium. Im Radio und im Fernseh-
en wurden ausführliche Sundungen zum Thema ausgestrahlt. Die aussagekräftigsten Zitate aus
den Printmedien sind in dieser Pressemitteilung zum Teil mit Kommentaren zusammengestellt.
Albert Hofmann zu LSD
Mehrere Zeitungen veröffentlichten Interviews mit Albert Hofmann respektive zitierten Aussa-
gen von ihm, die er am LSD-Symposium machte. So veröffentlichte die »Tageszeitung (TAZ)« aus
Berlin am 11. Januar 2006 ein Interview von Matthias Bröckers und Roger Liggenstorfer mit Al-
bert Hofmann, der »Tagesanzeiger« aus Zürich gleichentags ein solches von Jean-Martin Büttner,
»Telepolis (TP)« gleichentags ein solches von Mathias Bröckers und die »Deutsche Apotheker
Zeutung (DAZ)« ein solches von Wolfgang Caesar am 9. Febraur 2006. Die wesentlichen Fragen
der Journalisten und die Antworten von Albert Hofmann sind hier in Auszügen referiert:
Albert Hofmann zu LSD  (in Auszügen)
Frage: Wer die Wirkung von LSD erfahren hat,
weiß um die Schwierigkeit, davon zu erzählen.
Wie würden Sie die Erfahrung beschreiben?
Hofmann: Unter LSD gerät man in einen sehr tiefen Zustand. Das Ich entschwindet, man nimmt
sich als Bestandteil eines Ganzen wahr, ist im Himmel und auf der Erde heimisch, fühlt sich gebor-
gen im Universum, geht ein in ein allgemeines Bewußtsein. Das ist ein mystischer Zustand, der auch
durch Meditation angestrebt wird. Der Mensch unterscheidet sich von allen anderen Lebewesen da-
rin, daß er ein Bewußtsein hat – was erklärt, warum Tiere nicht auf LSD reagieren. Das Bewußtsein ist
das göttliche Geschenk an den Menschen. Er weiß, wer er ist und weiß, daß es einen Schöpfer gibt. Er
kann sich wundern und die Schönheit sehen. Dieses Bewußtsein nun, dieses Zugehörigkeitsgefühl,
wird unter LSD stark intensiviert.
Frage: Was auch starke Ängste auslösen kann?
Hofmann: Natürlich, darin liegt die Gefahr. Die Leute können Angst bekommen und das Gefühl
haben, sie seien verloren, wenn sie in einen solchen, völlig anderen Zustand geraten. LSD ist nahe
verwandt mit Meskalin und anderen uralten Kultdrogen, deren Wirkung schon die Indianervölker
kannten. Und weil diese Kultdrogen in ein anderes Bewußtsein führten, wurden sie von einem Pries-
ter oder einer Priesterin abgegeben. Zuvor mußte man fasten und beten, man mußte rein sein und
die Substanz in einer rituellen Zeremonie einnehmen. Tat man das nicht, tötete der Pilz oder machte
einen wahnsinnig.
Frage: Bis heute hoffen Therapeuten, mit Hilfe von LSD schwere psychische Leiden wie De-
pressionen, Süchte und selbst Kriegstraumen besser und auch schneller behandeln zu können.
Wie kann LSD dabei helfen?
Hofmann: Bevor das LSD auf die Straße gelangte, konnten wir eine Menge therapeutische Er-
fahrungen sammeln. Die Substanz wurde bei der Psychoanalyse von Patienten verwendet, die nicht
mehr ansprechbar, also blockiert waren. Gab man ihnen LSD, wurden sie stimuliert, sie sind gewisser-
maßen aufgewacht, und man konnte mit der eigentlichen Analyse beginnen. Was damals als Wun-
dermittel galt, wurde in der Folge zur Kultdroge der Jugend – und damit zu einer politischen Gefahr
für Amerika. Der Entscheid der USA, das LSD zu verbieten, war ein rein politischer Entscheid. Jeder
Arzt hatte kontrollierten Zugriff auf Heroin, Morphin, sogar Strychnin, sollte das nötig gewesen sein.
Aber für LSD galt ein Totalverbot. Es gilt im Prinzip bis heute – für Herstellung, Besitz und Anwend-
ung. Das muß sich ändern, und ich denke, daß der LSD-Kongreß in Basel dazu beitragen wird. Wenig-
stens die Ärzte sollten wieder die Möglichkeit bekommen, mit LSD therapeutisch zu arbeiten.
Frage: Der Schriftsteller Aldous Huxley ließ sich auf dem Totenbett von seiner Frau LSD geben; er
starb ganz friedlich, sein letztes Wort war »Yes«. Wie schätzen Sie die Bedeutung Ihrer Substanz für
die Sterbebegleitung ein?
Hofmann:  Ich denke, das sei etwas vom Wichtigsten, für das LSD Verwendung finden könnte.
Man gibt Sterbenden ja sehr oft Morphin. Wo das Morphin nicht mehr wirkt, bekommt man die
Schmerzen mit LSD weg. Und ermöglicht zugleich ein Erwachen der Patienten. Darauf deuten
zumindest die Versuche hin, die man bis zum Verbot der Substanz durchführen konnte. Ich ver-
stehe wirklich nicht, weshalb man diese Behandlungsmöglichkeit nicht weiter untersucht.
 Jean-Martin Büttner: LSD ermöglicht gewissermaßen ein Aufwachen Frage: Wie funktioniert das »Werkzeug« LSD?
Interview mit Albert Hofmann in: Tagesanzeiger vom 11. Januar 2006
http://www.tagesanzeiger.ch/dyn/leben/print/wissen/580679.html Hofmann: LSD stellt das Wissen und die Erfahrungen, die wir in unserem Hirn gespeichert haben,
neu zusammen und verschafft uns dadurch neue Einsichten.
Frage: In den ersten zehn Jahren nach seiner Entdeckung galt LSD, unter dem Arzneinamen
»Delysid«, als wahres Wundermittel in der Psychotherapie. Dann kam das Verbot, die Dämo- Frage: Sind die Versuche, durch LSD das Bewußtsein zu erweitern, nicht letztlich an der Realität
nisierung als Teufelsdroge – und jetzt scheint das Pendel wieder zurückzugehen, zu größerer gescheitert?
Akzeptanz. Selbst an der Harvard - Universität finden wieder LSD-Studien statt. (Was sagen Sie
dazu?) Hofmann: Leider haben viele Menschen das LSD mißbraucht. Richtig angewendet, führt LSD den
Menschen zu der Erkenntnis, was er werden
Hofmann: Ja, das habe ich verfolgt. Es und sein sollte, nämlich eher ein geistiges
ist sicher ein Wandel. Vor allem weil man als ein technisches Wesen. Noch nie in der
entdeckt hat, daß diese Pflanzen (und Pilze), Geschichte der Menschheit war eine Droge
die man schon vor 3.000 Jahren gekannt wie LSD so notwendig wie in der heutigen
und benutzt hat, Stoffe wie LSD oder Psi- westlichen Zivilisation.
locybin enthalten und mit den Substanzen
in unserem Gehirn, wie Serotonin, sehr eng Frage: Dies klingt nach einem politischen
verwandt sind. Die Pflanzen (und Pilze) ge- Bekenntnis...
ben uns Nahrung, sie geben uns Heilmit-
tel und sie geben uns auch Medikamente Hofmann: Genau das ist es, es geht mir
für das Bewußtsein. Die Pflanze produziert um Weltpolitik, um die Gestaltung der Zu-
aus dem Sonnenlicht unsere Nahrung und kunft der gesamten Menschheit. Wir müs-
unsere Atemluft. Und unser Bewußtsein ist sen uns wieder darauf besinnen, was wir
letztlich nichts anderes als die höchste Um- sind: ein Teil der Schöpfung und ein Teil
wandlung dieser Sonnenenergie. Wir sind alles Lebendigen. Und wir müssen lernen
Sonnenkinder! zu unterscheiden, was wichtig ist und was
weniger wichtig ist.
Bröckers, Matthias + Liggenstorfer, Roger:
Das LSD ist zu mir gekommen Frage: Wie vereinbaren Sie diese Vision
Interview mit Albert Hofmann, in: Die Tag- mit Ihrer Denkweise als Naturwissenschaft-
eszeitung (TAZ) vom 11. Januar 2006, S. 13 let?
http://www.taz.de/pt/2006/01/11/a0131.1/text
Hofmann: Bestens, für mich besteht
Frage: Wie würden Sie LSD kurz charak- da kein Widerspruch, sondern vielmehr
terisieren? ein inniger Zusammenhang. Wer die Natur
wirklich erforscht, wird dabei zum Mystiker.
Hofmann: LSD ist ein Werkzeug der Und wer dabei kein Mystiker wird, ist kein
Bewußtseinsforschung und der Be- echter Naturwissenschaftler. Im Übrigen hat
wußtseinserweiterung. LSD auch manchem Forscher zu wichtigen
Erkenntnissen verholfen: Der Nobelpreis-
träger Kary Mullis hat die Idee der Polymerase - Kettenreaktion unter der Wirkung von LSD entwick- Hofmann: Ja, man erschrickt. Man hat ein völlig anderes Bild und das kann einen furchtbar er-
elt. (Anm. der Red.: Kary Banks Mullis ist ein US-amerikanischer Biochemiker und Nobelpreisträger. schrecken. Deshalb sagen die Indianer ja: bevor ich den heiligen Pilz nehme, muß ich fasten, muß ich
Er erhielt 1992 den Robert-Koch-Preis und 1993 den Nobelpreis in Chemie für die Entdeckung der beten, muß ich rein sein – dann bringt mich der Pilz dem Göttlichen näher. Und wenn ich das nicht
Polymerase-Kettenreaktion (PCR) im Jahr 1983. ) mache, tötet er mich oder macht mich wahnsinnig. Das haben die Indianer, lange bevor LSD und
Psylocibin entdeckt wurden, gesagt – und die amerikanische Jugendbewegung, die es ja gut meinte,
Caesar, Wolfgang: Der Naturwissenschaftler als Mystiker, Interview mit Albert Hofmann, in: hat sich daran nicht gehalten, diese Jugendendlichen haben es zu oberflächlich genommen, sie ha-
Deutsche Apotheker Zeitung ben sich nicht vorbereitet...
vom 9. Februar 2006, Nr. 6 S. 555; 63
Bröckers, Matthias: Wenn man im Paradies
Frage: Sie haben das Bewußtsein in einem lebt, will man ja nicht so schnell weg
Sender-Empfänger-Modell beschrieben: der Interview mit Albert Hofmann, in Telepolis
ganze Planet als Sender und jedes einzelne (TP) vom 11. Januar 2006
Bewußtsein als Empfänger... http://poliwww.teles.de/r4/artikel/21/21746/1.html

Hofmann: Unsere Sinne sind die Anten- Frage: Sie sagten, Naturwissenschaft sei die
nen, darüber kommt alles herein, das Bewußt- absolute, die endgültige Wahrheit. Bis zum Ge-
sein ist der Empfänger. Alles was wir im Be- heimnisvollen – und weiter komme man nicht.
wußtsein haben, ist irgendwann einmal durch Und das soll einfach akzeptiert werden?
die Sinne hineingekommen – bei Geburt ist
es gleichsam ein leeres Bewußtsein und wird Hofmann: Das muß man akzeptieren! Ein-
dann durch all das gefüllt. stein sagte: Das Schönste und das Tiefste, was ein
Mensch im Leben erfahren kann, ist das Gefühl
Frage: Und ein paar Millionstel Gramm LSD des Geheimnisvollen. Genauso ist es. Auch wenn
verändern die Wahrnehmung dramatisch – es wir wahnsinnig viel wissen und sehr tief gehen
ist nicht nur einfach das bekannte Bild, ein – am Schluß stoßen wir immer auf das Geheim-
bisschen verzerrter oder bunter, es ist ein völ- nisvolle: Auf das Schönste und Tiefste, wie Ein-
lig anderes Programm... stein sagt. Zuerst spricht er von der Schönheit,
dann erst von der Tiefe! So ist es auch für mich.
Hofmann: Und das deshalb, weil LSD un- Weiter kommt man nicht. (...) Ich glaube an die
sere Sinne verändert, man sieht besser, man geheimnisvolle schöpferische Kraft, die hinter
hört besser, alles wird intensiviert. Insofern unserem Dasein und dem Universum steht. Der
hatte auch Timothy Leary recht, wenn er be- Begriff Gott ist mir zu persönlich. Ich sage lieber:
hauptet, es sei auch das größte Aphrodi- Gott spricht durch seine Schöpfung. Da kommt
siakum. Der Mechanismus des LSD ist ganz wieder die Schönheit, die Perfektion der Schön-
einfach: Die Tore der Wahrnehmung werden heit. Wenn wir als Naturwissenschaftler sehen,
geöffnet und wir sehen plötzlich mehr – von was hinter dem Wunder der Schöpfung steht,
der Wahrheit... nun, da müßte jeder Naturwissenschaftler zum
Mystiker werden.
Frage: Und das ist manchmal sehr verwirrend...
Man meint ja immer, die Naturwissenschaft sei etwas, das entzaubert. Wenn man aber tiefer
geht, wird es immer wunderbarer. Wenn ich sehe und weiß, wie alles aufgebaut ist, wie unsere
Wahrnehmung funktioniert, wie unser Bewußtsein zustande kommt, dann ist das alles so wun-
derbar planmäßig und raffiniert aufgebaut, daß man nur noch staunen kann. Das sind nicht
einfach Worte. Das sind Fakten!
Suter, Ruedi: Der Schamane des LSD feiert Geburtstag 100
Interview mit Albert Hofmann, in: OnlineReports vom 11. Januar 2006
http://www.onlinereports.ch/2006/HofmannAlbert100.htm
nicht ausschließt, daß die Anwendung der halluzinogenen Droge lebensgefährlich sein kann.
Dennoch: LSD ist derzeit kein bevorzugtes Objekt der Naturstofforschung. Das hat das Seminar
in Basel klar gezeigt. LSD wurde in den 50er- und 60er-Jahren von der Firma Sandoz unter dem
Namen Lysergid® in den Handel gebracht. Daß es nach seiner anfangs Erfolg versprechende
Anwendung in der Psychiatrie zu einem gesellschaftlichen Problem wurde und daraufhin verbo-
ten oder zumindest geächtet wurde, beklagen der Entdecker Albert Hofmann und viele andere
Wissenschaftler – und noch mehr Künstler – bis heute. LSD hat keinen anerkannten Platz in un-
serer Gesellschaft gefunden, das heißt: Wer LSD nimmt, stellt sich außerhalb der Gesellschaft.

LSD und andere Psychedelika als Arzneimittel Ethisch und politisch motivierte Urteile unterliegen dem Zeitgeist und sind vergänglich. Dagegen
ist das Potenzial eines Wirkstoffs eine relativ beständige Größe. Man braucht kein Prophet zu sein,
Fast die Hälfte aller Autoren, die Artikel über das LSD-Symposium verfaßten, widmeten dem um vorauszusagen, daß LSD eine latente Herausforderung für die Wissenschaft darstellt und irgend-
medizinischen Aspekt von LSD wie auch von anderen Psychedelika (vor allem Psilocybin) große wann einmal »wieder entdeckt« wird.
Aufmerksamkeit, wobei jedoch bei weitem nicht alle Autoren auch über die gegenwärtige Forsc-
hung und den heutigen Einsatz von Psychede- Caesar, Wolfgang:
lika in der Medizin und Therapie berichteten, LSD und andere (Arznei-)Drogen in:
obwohl gerade dieses Thema auf dem Sym- Deutsche Apotheker Zeitung vom
posium eine große Rolle spielte und von zahl- 9. Februar 2006, Nr. 6 S. 552; 60
reichen Wissenschaftlern äußerst differenziert
referiert und diskutiert wurde. Die Ursache die- Besonders gut widerspiegelte der Artikel von
ses Phänomens beschrieb Wolfgang Caesar in Jean-Martin Büttner im Tagesanzeiger aus
der Deutschen Apotheker Zeitung (DAZ) vom Zürich vom 18. Januar 2006 die Stimmung auf
9. Februar 2006 mit den Worten: dem Symposium, wobei er differenziert auf
die Bedeutung von LSD und anderen psycho-
LSD – eine verpate Chance? tropen Substanzen für die Medizin und Reha-
bilitation einging und die Aufbruchstimmung,
Was hat nun die moderne Naturforschung die den Kongreß durchwehte, bereits im Titel-
mit LSD zu tun? Nach meinung von Prof. Dr. text mit den Worten »hoffnungsfrohes Labo-
Rudolf Bauer, Graz, dem Präsidenten der Ge- ratorium neuer Anwendungen und Ideen«
sellschaft für Arzneipflanzenforschung und präzise beschrieb. Auch Alex Rühle betonte in
Moderator des Seminars »Arzneistoffe aus seinem Artikel vom 17. Januar 2006 in der Süd-
der Natur«, hat LSD unter allen natürlichen deutschen Zeitung den Wert psychedelischer
Wirkstoffen, die im letzten Jahrhundert iso- Substanzen für die Medizin und hob dabei
liert worden sind, das größte allgemeine insbesondere ihre Bedeutung im Rahmen der
Interesse gefunden. Aus wissenschaftlicher Sterbebegleitung hervor, wie auch Monika
Sicht fasziniert vor allem die Pharmakolo- Wimmer in ihrem Artikel vom 11. Januar 2006
gie des LSD. Es wirkt hochpotent im Mik- in der Berliner Zeitung. In der SonntagsZeitung
rogramm - Bereich, und es scheint nicht aus Zürich vom 15. Januar 2006 berichtete Sa-
einmal toxisch zu sein, was aber natürlich bine Olff, daß Halluzinogene heute wieder zur
Behandlung von Ängsten und Traumata eingesetzt werden und Felix Hasler, Neuropharmakologe Oder dann die Geschichten von Gewaltopfern und Kriegsveteranen, die unter dem posttrauma-
und Halluzinogenforscher an der Psychiatrischen Universitätsklinik in Zürich vertrat in seinem Artikel tischen Streßsyndrom leiden, arbeitsunfähig werden, in Depressionen versinken oder in die Sucht
in der Weltwoche Nr. 3/2006 zwar die Ansicht, daß trotz Kongreß für LSD das Rennen gelaufen sei, abgleiten. Die amerikanische Regierung gibt allein für die Behandlung von Kriegsveteranen jährlich
räumte dem Psilocybin jedoch die Chancen einer gewissen Karriere in der Psychotherapie ein. Ob 4,2 Milliarden Dollar aus, viele von ihnen haben in Afghanistan und im Irak gekämpft. Forscher in den
diese Einschätzung auf Basis der Erkenntnisse beim Kongreß vollzogen wurde oder aufgrund seiner USA haben eine kleine Patientengruppe mit MDMA behandelt. Im Vergleich zur Kontrollgruppe, die
eigenen Forschungen mit Psilocybin, ließ der Autor des Artikels jedoch offen. nur Placebo erhielt, verbesserte sich ihr Zustand in den allermeisten Fällen dramatisch, wobei die
Besserung noch Monate später nachweisbar blieb.
LSD und andere Psychedelika als Medikamente 
– Zitate in Auszügen Das alles sind Geschichten, keine Märchen.
Daß sie zu Ende erzählt werden können, deu-
Es sind Geschichten, die am LSD-Symposium tet auf einen Gesinnungswandel hin. Die Fach-
erzählt werden – Krankengeschichten, an deren welt hofft darauf, die therapeutische Wirkung
Ende die Heilung steht, die Besserung oder solcher Substanzen weiter – und wieder – er-
wenigstens die Linderung. Etwa die Geschichte forschen zu können. Über 80 Experten tre-
einer amerikanischen Krebspatientin im Endsta- ten in Basel auf, Chemiker und Pharmakolo-
dium, deren Schmerzen dermaßen stark gewor- gen, Psychologinnen, Ärzte, Ethnologinnen,
den sind, daß sie nicht einmal mehr auf Morphin Biochemiker, Neurowissenschafter und Psy-
reagiert und sich das Leben nehmen will. Sie er- chiater. Sie haben einen weltweiten Appell
hält eine Kombination von LSD und MDMA, das zuhanden der Behörden unterzeichnet, der
in der Szene als Ecstasy gehandelt wird. Zuerst Forschung und Therapie mit Halluzinogenen
schüttelt es sie in allen Gliedern durch. Dann wieder ermöglichen soll.
weichen die Schmerzen von ihr, sie ist bei klarem
Bewußtsein und kann ihren ganzen Körper wie- Und bei aller Skepsis über Rückfälle in der
der spüren. Zwei Tage später stirbt sie friedlich Drogenpolitik, bei aller Frustration über an-
im Beisein ihrer Eltern. haltende Repression und politische Verbotsre-
flexe durchweht eine Aufbruchstimmung den
Oder die Geschichte jenes britischen Patienten, Kongreß. Seit den Endsechzigern war die Hoff-
der sich am LSD-Symposium über die Behan- nung nicht mehr so groß, die Resultate früh-
dlung so genannter Cluster-Kopfschmerzen erer Experimente weiterzuentwickeln. Und die
informiert. Das sind seltene, äußerst schmer- Fachleute lassen keinen Zweifel an ihrem wis-
zhafte Attacken, gegen die kein Medikament senschaftlichen Anspruch.
mehr weiterhilft. Dem Briten wird in Basel von
Forschern bestätigt, was er von Leidensgenos- Das Bundesamt für Gesundheit verhalte sich
sen im Internet erfahren hat. Daß sich seine sehr aufgeschlossen und bestehe einzig auf
Kopfschmerzen mit Hilfe von LSD oder Psilocy- saubere Versuchsplänen, bestätigt Franz Xaver
bin nicht nur behandeln lassen, sondern auch Vollenweider, weltweit anerkannter Grund-
der Schmerzzyklus vor dem Ausbruch unter- lagenforscher über die Wirkung von Halluz-
laufen werden kann. inogenen. Der Zürcher Psychiater und Hirn-
forscher sieht die Indikation von Halluzinogenen bei der
Behandlung von Depressionen, Zwängen, Bulimie und an-
deren schwer behandelbaren Störungen. Auch in der Sch-
weiz sind Pilotversuche in Vorbereitung oder kurz vor der
Bewilligung, darunter eine Studie über Patienten mit post-
traumatischem Streßsymptom.
Auffälliger gestaltet sich der Gesinnungswandel in den
USA. Die amerikanische Drogenbehörde reagiere viel of-
fener als früher, sagt der Psychologe Rick Doblin, der die
Forschergruppe Multidisciplinary Association for Psyche-
delic Studies (MAPS) anführt und in Basel als energischer
Pragmatiker auftritt. Von den politischen Parteien kämen
positive Signale, sagt er, selbst die Bush - Regierung habe,
die permanent steigenden Gesundheitskosten im Nacken,
das therapeutische Potenzial von Halluzinogenen aner-
kannt. Für Doblin geht es jetzt darum, »diese Substanzen
vom Ruch der Gegenkultur zu befreien«. Sein Ziel ist ihre
Verschreibbarkeit.
Büttner, Jean-Martin: Halluzinigene als
Medikament und Sakrament in:
Tagesanzeiger vom 18. Januar 2006
http://www.tagesanzeiger.ch/dyn/leben/print/gesundheit/582955.html
Aldous Huxley war Anfang der Sechziger einer der großen
Apostel der Droge. Auf dem Totenbett bat er, ihm LSD zu
verabreichen, was ihm laut einem Bericht seiner Frau einen
schmerzfreien Tod bescherte. Seit einigen Jahren bemüh-
en sich verschiedene Ärzte und Psychiater darum, wieder
mit LSD arbeiten zu dürfen. Die Berichte über diese Arbeit
waren Höhepunkte des Symposiums, allein schon deshalb,
weil hier der ganze phantastometaphysische Überbau we-
gfiel. Rick Doblin von der Organisation Multidisciplinary As-
sociation for Psychedelic Studies (MAPS) setzt sich ebenso
für eine kontrollierte Aufnahme medizinischer Studien ein
wie der aus der Tschechoslowakei stammende Psychia-
ter Juraj Styk, der in den sechziger Jahren in Prag LSD in
klinischen Versuchen einsetzte. Die amerikanische Gesund-
heitsbehörde FDA gab dem Psychiater Charles Grob jüngst
grünes Licht für seine Studie mit dem ebenfalls von Albert
Hofmann entdeckten Halluzinogen Psilocybin, mit dem
Grob Sterbenden die letzten schmerzhaften Tage erleich-
tern will. Steht also eine behutsame Renaissance des LSD
bevor?
Rühle, Alex: LSD-Kongreß in Basel –
Kinners, mir wird so blümerant in:
Süddeutsche Zeitung vom 17. Januar 2006
http://www.sueddeutsche.de/kultur/artikel/294/68226/print.html
Auch als Schmerzmittel wurde die Droge eingesetzt. Zum
Beispiel verabreichte der Chicagoer Psychiater Eric Kast
in den 60er-Jahren sterbenskranken Krebspatienten LSD
anstatt eines Schmerzmittels. Die Probanden waren 30- bis
45-mal länger schmerzfrei als Patienten, die herkömmliche
Analgetika erhalten hatten. Außerdem sahen sie dem Tod
gefaßter entgegen. »Sie hatten sich psychologisch von
ihrem Schmerz getrennt und den Schmerz beim Körper
gelassen«, sagte Albert Hofmann später in einem Zeitung-
sinterview.
Wimmer, Monika: Als die Farben zu leuchten begannen
in: Berliner Zeitung vom 11. Januar 2006
http://www.berlinonline.de/berliner-zeitung/wissenschaft/516424.html
Mit der Entdeckung der halluzinogenen Eigenschaften
war LSD plötzlich interessant. Der tschechische Seelena-
rzt Stanislav Grof lobte LSD als »Teleskop der Psychiatrie«:
Es bringe unbewußte, verdrängte Seelenteile ans Licht,
die sonst kaum zugänglich seien. Die Erfolgsaussichten
einer Psychoanalyse würden damit drastisch erhöht. Bis
Mitte der Sechzigerjahre waren über 1.000 Fachartikel
erschienen, in denen LSD bei Depressionen, Angst- und
Zwangsneurosen, Süchten und anderen Leiden eine ver-
heißungsvolle Wirkung attestiert wurde. Zur gleichen
Zeit machte LSD auch als Droge Karriere. Die Folge: LSD
wurde, wie andere halluzinogene Substanzen, vor rund
40 Jahren verboten. Auch die medizinische Anwendung
und Forschung mußte damit auf Eis gelegt werden. Seit
kurzer Zeit kehren psychedelische Drogen jedoch zaghaft in die Medizin zurück. Auch LSD. So be-
reitet John Halpern von der Harvard University in Boston derzeit eine klinische Studie vor, in der
die Wirkung von LSD bei extrem starken Kopfschmerzen, so genannten Clusterkopfschmerzen, ge-
testet werden soll. Allerdings weiß man mittlerweile, daß sich andere Halluzinogene weitaus bess-
er für den medizinischen Einsatz eignen als LSD. Psilocybin beispielsweise, der Wirkstoff der Magic
Mushrooms, oder DMT (Dimethyltryptamin). Die beiden Substanzen wirken deutlich weniger lang
als LSD. Die Gefahr, damit einen Furcht einflößenden Trip zu erleben, ist gering. Ein Team um Felix
Hasler von der Psychiatrischen Universitätsklinik in Zürich konnte kürzlich in einer Studie mit acht
gesunden Probanden zeigen, daß der kurzzeitige Konsum von Psilocybin weder psychische noch
körperliche Schäden hinterläßt. Das Gefahrenpotenzial von DMT soll demnächst in einer Studie in
Deutschland getestet werden. Inwiefern Psilocybin unheilbar kranken Krebspatienten die Angst
vor dem Tod nehmen kann, wird derzeit an der University of California in Los Angeles untersucht.
An der Universität Tucson in Arizona testet man, inwieweit der Magic - Mushroom - Wirkstoff bei
der Behandlung von Zwangsstörungen helfen kann. Für den größten Wirbel sorgt derzeit allerd-
ings der therapeutische Einsatz von Ecstasy. Die Partydroge mit dem chemischen Kürzel MDMA
(3,4-Methylendioxyamphetamin) soll als pharmakologischer
Gefühlsöffner dienen. Der amerikanische Psychiater Michael
Mithoefer setzt MDMA in Kombination mit Psychotherapie
bei Traumaopfern ein. Neuerdings darf er auch Kriegsveter-
anen damit therapieren, bei denen sich schreckliche Erleb-
nisse ins Gedächtnis eingebrannt haben. In Harvard wiede-
rum will John Halpern die Todesangst von Krebspatienten
im Endstadium mit MDMA lindern.
Olff, Sabine: Leises Comeback von LSD und Co.
in: SonntagsZeitung vom 15. Januar 2006
Für LSD, das in den fünfziger und sechziger Jahren ohne
Zweifel große Auswirkungen auf die verschiedensten
Lebensbereiche von der Psychiatrie über die Kunst bis hin
zur Politik hatte, scheint das Rennen trotz Kongreß vorerst
gelaufen zu sein. Immerhin wäre es aber möglich, daß Psi-
locybin, der kleine und weniger berüchtigte Bruder von
LSD, in Forschung und Psychotherapie eine gewisse Kar-
riere macht. Dieses kosmische Gewürz wirkt kürzer, hat
eine überschaubare Pharmakologie und ist auch in der
bewußtseinsverändernden Wirkung deutlich konsumen-
tenfreundlicher als das notorisch zickige und stimmung-
slabile LSD. Ehre, wem Ehre gebührt: Auch diesen Wirkst-
off hat schließlich Albert Hofmann aus Pilzen isoliert und
synthetisch hergestellt. (Und selbstverständlich auch ausprobiert.) Ein guter Vater liebt alle
seine Kinder. Somit kann Hofmann mit Gelassenheit der zukünftigen Entwicklung seines che-
mischen Nachwuchses entgegensehen. Und trotz beträchtlicher ideologischer Reibungsflächen
gibt es an der LSD-Konferenz immerhin einen ganz großen Konsens. Ob Professor im dunklen
Anzug oder Acid - Test - bestandener Althippie mit Batikhemd: Alle lieben Albert Hofmann.
Hasler, Felix: Alle lieben Albert, in: Die Weltwoche, Ausgabe 3/06
http://www.weltwoche.ch/artikel/?AssetID=13001&CategoryID=66
LSD und Bewußtseinserweiterung
Der Psychologe Timothy Leary, Dozent an der Harvard Universität in Cambridge, Massachusetts, emp-
fahl in den 60er Jahren des letzten Jahrhunderts die Einnahme von LSD zur Erweiterung des Bewußt-
seins und propagierte eine Politik der Ekstase. Viele Autoren nannten den Namen Leary in ihren Ar-
tikeln, die meisten im Zusammenhang mit der Flower - Power - Bewegung, den Hippies und Beatniks
sowie dem Verbot von LSD, doch nur wenige in Verbindung
mit Bewußtseinserweiterung – obwohl diverse Referenten am
Symposium zu diesem Thema sehr ausführlich Berichteten. So
äußerte sich beispielsweise der Sozialwissenschaftler Günter
Amendt mehrfach auf dem Podium zum Thema Leary und Be-
wußtseinserweiterung. Doch in den Medien wurde Amendt
fast nur in Verbindung mit dem Thema Drogenpolitik zitiert.
Die Wochenzeitung (WOZ) publizierte jedoch am 12. Januar
2006 einen Artikel mit dem Titel »Are you experienced?« von
Günter Amendt, in dem der Autor u.a. über seine eigene LSD-
Erfahrung, Bewußtseinserweiterung und Leary schrieb.
Günter Amendt zu LSD und Bewußtseinserweiterung
Meine Erfahrungen mit halluzinogenen Drogen haben me-
ine politischen Überzeugungen nicht für eine Sekunde ins
Wanken gebracht. Sie haben meinen Blick geschärft und
meine Wahrnehmung sensibilisiert, sie haben mir sinnlich er-
fahrbar gemacht, was mir analytisches Denken schon lange
vorher bewußt gemacht hatte: Es gibt mehr als nur eine Re-
alität und folglich auch mehr als nur eine Wahrheit. Den che-
misch erzeugten Fehlschaltungen im Hirn und den wilden
Assoziationen, die sie auslösten, verdanke ich außergewöhn-
liche Kommunikationserfahrungen, tiefe Erkenntnisse und
starke Gefühle. Sie zu verarbeiten dauerte Tage, Wochen,
oft Monate. Ich habe mir die Zeit genommen. Auch
wenn ich dem propagandistischen Gerede von einer
Bewußtseinserweiterung unter dem Einfluß von LSD
immer mit Skepsis begegnet bin, kann ich nicht um-
hin, die neuen Einsichten, die ich über das Verhältnis
von Mensch und Natur gewonnen habe, als eine Be-
wußtseinserweiterung zu bezeichnen.
Es ist ratsam, Learys Slogan »Just say know« zu befol-
gen. Die Reise nach seinen Regeln vorzubereiten, lohnt
sich, auch wenn ich manches, was Leary gesagt und
geschrieben hat, für konfus, geschwätzig und reak-
tionär halte. Je mehr er die ihm angetragene Gururolle
annahm und verinnerlichte, desto geringer wurde sein
Gefühl für Verantwortung. ... LSD ist eine Droge nur
für Erwachsene. Das kann gar nicht oft genug gesagt
werden. Denn die Droge zielt unmittelbar auf den Er-
fahrungsschatz eines Menschen. Sie spielt mit diesen
Erfahrungen, verstärkt sie, verzerrt sie und setzt sie neu
zusammen, mal in Farbe, mal in schwarzweiß. Glücklich,
wer dabei auf einen reichen Erfahrungsschatz zurückg-
reifen kann. Sonst bleiben nur Erschöpfung und Leere,
wie nach jedem kräftezehrenden Konsumtrip.
Amendt, Günter: Are you experienced?
in: Die Wochenzeitung vom 12. Januar 2006
http://www.woz.ch/artikel/print_12790.html
Ulrich Schnabel berichtete in der Wochenzeitung »Die
Zeit« vom 12. Januar 2006 in dem Artikel »Die Kernkraft
der Seele« von der Idee des Philosophen Thomas
Metzinger, einen »LSD-Führerschein« einzuführen,
damit man lernen könne, mit der Substanz LSD um-
zugehen und in der Folge diese Substanz auch zur
Bewußtseinserweiterung einsetzen könne.
LSD-Führerschein
Angesichts dieser kommenden Herausforderungen
plädiert der Bewußtseinsphilosoph Thomas Metz-
inger für einen neuen Umgang mit psychoaktiven
Substanzen. Statt diese in die Illegalität abzudrän-
gen (wo sie ihre unheilvolle Wirkung erst recht ent-
falten), sei es wichtig, eine neue »Bewußtseinsethik«
zu schaffen. »Die Forschung hat gezeigt, daß sich
das Kosumentenverhalten durch soziale Kontexte
effektiver steuern läßt als durch neue Gesetze.«
Der Philosoph, der sich schon von Berufs wegen mit
Bewußtseinserweiterung befaßt, kann sich etwa in ei-
nem Pilotprojekt die Einführung eines »LSD-Führers-
cheins« vorstellen: Wer ihn erwerben wolle, müsse
in einem Eignungstest seine psychische Stabilität
nachweisen und eine private Pflegeversicherung
abschließen. Außerdem müsse jeder Kandidat eine
Prüfung in Theorie und fünf »psychedelische Fahrs-
tunden« unter fachkundiger Begleitung absolvie-
ren. Danach solle ihm der Erwerb von maximal zwei
Einzeldosen pro Jahr in der Apotheke erlaubt werden.
Schnabel, Ulrich: Die Kernkraft der Seele
in: Die Zeit vom 12. Januar 2006 Nr. 3
http://www.zeit.de/2006/03/LSD
Ob Hardware oder Software: Computerprobleme
können einen mächtigst auf die Palme bringen. Vor
allem, wenn man beruflich als Techniker damit zu
tun hat. Nun offenbarte der Cisco-Mitarbeiter Kev-
in Herbert seine ungewöhnlichen Helfer zur Prob-
lemlösung: die halluzinogene Droge LSD und Hip-
piemusik. So berichtete die Kronenzeitung am 28.
Januar 2006 unter dem Titel »Aufhören zu denken
– Cisco-Techniker empfiehlt LSD und Hippiemusik«,
daß der Technologieexperte Kevin Herbert LSD zur
Klärung des Bewußtseins bei der Arbeit nehme.
Cisco-Techniker empfiehlt LSD und Hippiemusik
Im Drogenrausch habe Kevin Herbert, Technolo-
gieexperte beim Netzwerkunternehmen Cisco
Systems, die hartnäckigsten Probleme gelöst. Das
gestand er anläßlich des 100. Geburtstages von LSD-Er-
finder Albert Hofmann. Die Droge solle die hirninterne
Kommunikation verändern und ungenützte Regionen
aktivieren. Zudem sei Musik der Gruppe Grateful Dead
äußerst anregend für Programmierer und Techniker.
Die Wirkung von LSD auf seine Arbeit beschrieb er mit
den Worten: »Ich hörte auf zu denken und begann zu
wissen.« Diese Offenbarung machte er vor 2.000 Wis-
senschaftlern und Historikern auf einer Ehrenverans-
taltung für Hofmann in Basel und sprach sich weiters
gegen Drogentests bei Cisco-Mitarbeitern aus.  nissen rund um den Erdball inzwischen zu den bekann-
o.A.: Aufhören zu denken –
Cisco-Techniker empfiehlt LSD und Hippiemusik in:
Kronenzeitung vom 28. Janar 2006
http://www.lsd.info/symposium/presse/Kronen_Zeitung_Asterreich_.pdf
Psychedelische Kunst
Die meisten Zeitungen erwähnten den Einfluß von LSD und
anderen Psychedelika auf die Literatur, Malerei, Film und
Musik in der zweiten Hälfte des zwanzigsten Jahrhunderts,
doch kaum ein Autor beschäftigte sich mit den Gegeben-
heiten in der heutigen Zeit. Die Schriftsteller Ernst Jünger,
Aldous Huxley, Rudof Gelpke, Ken Kesy und Allen Ginsberg
wurden oft genannt. Daß es Bernward Vesper beispiels-
weise gelungen war, in seinem Roman »Die Reise«, LSD-
Erfahrungen so sprachmächtig wiederzugeben, daß viele
LSD-Gebraucher in ihnen ihre eigenen Erfahrungen wie-
dererkannten, beschrieb einzig Günter Amendt in seinem
Artikel »Are you experienced?« in der WOZ und einzig die
Neue Zürcher Zeitung dokumentierte am 16. Januar 2006
im Artikel »Biochemischer Schub für den gesellschaftli-
chen Aufbruch« das berühmte  Zitat von Gottfried Benn
»Potente Hirne stärken sich nicht durch Milch, sondern
durch Alkaloide.«
Oft genannt wurden in den Zeitungen die Musiker Jimi
Hendrix und Bob Dylan oder Bands wie die Gratful Dead
und die Beatles. Daß »Techno« aus dem »Acid House«
hervorgegangen ist, wie Hans Cousto in seinem Semi-
nar »Das psychedelische Revival der 90er Jahre: Techno,
Rave-und Trancerituale« ausführlich schilderte, wurde
in keiner Zeitung erwähnt. Der Einfluß von LSD auf die
zeitgenössische Kultur scheint die meisten Journalisten
nicht zu interessieren. Mit Ausnahme des Mushroom -
Magazine erwähnte auch keine Zeitung die am Sympo-
sium auftretenden Musiker, wie beispielsweise das »Star
Sounds Orchestra« (Steve Schroyder und Jens Zygar),
daß aufgrund seiner Auftritte an totalen Sonnenfinster-
testen Gruppen der psychedelischen Trance - Kultur
avanciert ist. Oder das »Akasha Project«, wie sich der
Komponist und Musiker Barnim Schultze nennt, der
das IR-Spektrum des LSD-Moleküls musikalisch um-
setzte, wurde in der bürgerlichen Presse ebensowenig
erwähnt wie der britische Komponist und Musiker Toby
Marks, der unter dem Namen »Banco de Gaia« auftritt.
Der Schauspieler Cary Grant, dessen Ausspruch nach ei-
nem LSD-Trip »Ich wurde wiedergeboren« in der Litera-
tur immer wieder zitiert wird, wurde in der Presse nach
dem Symposium oft erwähnt. Gleiches gilt auch für den
psychedelischen Künstler und Visionär Alex Grey, der
auf dem Symposium nicht nur seine Bilder präsenti-
erte, sondern auch anschaulich auf einer Großleinwand
viele kleine Details aus seinem künstlerischen Schaffen
zeigte und dabei in humorvoller Weise Anekdoten dazu
erzählte. Von allen anderen Künstlern, deren Werke an
der von »Trigger Art« präsentierten Ausstellung gezeigt
wurden, konnte man in den Medien praktisch nichts er-
fahren. Die Deutsche Apotheker Zeitung druckte drei
psychedelische Kunstwerke ab, bei einem wurde auch
der Name des Künstlers (Fred Weidmann) genannt. Die-
ses Bild zeigt vier Professoren, die im Bereich der Ar-
zneipflanzenforschung tätig sind, vor einem Bild von
Fred Weidmann. Von den anderen am Symposium aus-
stellenden Künstlern wie Robert Venosa (USA), Martina
Hoffmann (USA), Claude Steiner (CH), Nadia Honarchian
(CH), Wolfgang Maria Ohlhäuser (D), Walter Wegmüller (CH), H. R. Giger (CH), Nana Nauwald (D),
Kurt J. Haas (CH), Radovan Hirsl (CH), Otto Placht (CZ) und Stephanie Welk (D) konnte man in der
Berichterstattung über das Symposium in der Presse nichts erfahren, obwohl die Ausstellung
von den Besuchern sehr gut aufgenommen wurde und sich die Schaulustigen vor den Bildern in
den Pausen zwischen den Vorträgen und Seminaren zuhauf oft dicht gedrängt versammelten.
Die Kunsthistorikerin und Ethnologin Claudia Müller-Ebeling zeigte in dem Seminar »Macht
LSD kreativ?« Bilder von Künstlern, die in ihrem Werk LSD-Erfahrungen umsetzten und/oder
mit Albert Hofmann bekannt waren oder sind. Zudem gab sie einen umfaßenden Überblick
der Kreativitätsforschung in den 60er und 70er Jahren des letzten Jahrhunderts. Wer in den
letzten Jahren schon das Vergnügen hatte, eine Präsentation von Müller-Ebeling zur The-
matik »psychedelische Kunst« zu genießen, konnte feststellen, daß sie in Basel weit weni-
ger von »Symbolik« sprach als früher, dafür aber weit mehr von »Erlebnis« und »Erfahrung«.
Offenkundig ist Müller-Ebeling heute weit näher dran an der Materie als noch vor wenigen
Jahren und entsprechend ist der Anreiz gestiegen, die gezeigten Kunstwerke länger und in-
tensiver zu betrachten – ja, die Referentin verstand es, die Pforten der Wahrnehmung für die
psychedelische Kunst weiter zu öffnen. Dennoch wurde ihre Präsentation nur in einer einzi-
gen Zeitung erwänt. Die Süddeutsche Zeitung schrieb am 17. Januar 2006, daß die Kunsthis-
torikerin beklagte, daß nur Künstler, die Neues schaffen, auf dem Markt zur Geltung kämen,
jedoch diejenigen, die etwas aufgreifen, das schon da war, ungerechterweise stigmatisi-
ert werde. Über die Kunst selbst, war auch in diesem Artikel von Alex Rühle nichts zu lesen.
UPS – Underground Press Syndicate
Das Underground Press Syndicate wurde 1966 von John Wilcock und Walter Bowart in den
USA gegründet. Das wurde der effektivste und schönste Medienverbund der alternativen
Szenen, ein phantastisches selbstmotiviertes unmanipuliertes und unkommerzielles schöp-
ferisches Netzwerk selbstgemachter Untergrundzeitungen, welches im freien Austausch das
ganze Sepektrum der Gegen- respektive Subkulturen umfaßte. Die erste UPS-Zeitschrift im
deutschsprachigen Raum wurde von dem Schriftsteller Urban Gwerder ab dem Jahr 1968 in
Zürich herausgegeben. Die Zeitschrift »HOTCHA!« (Fun Embryo Information) von Urban Gw-
erder galt damals als die europaweit beste Untergrundzeitung. 1971 brachte Bernd Brummbär
in Frankfurt am Main die die erste Nummer der Zeitschrift »Germania« heraus, eine stark subkul-
turell ausgerichtete Zeitschrift mit anarchistischen Tendenzen. Die Themen reichten von Musik,
Literatur, Politik, Drogen und Comics bis hin zu Hausbesetzungen und Psychiatrie. 1972 gab
Werner Pieper (Die Grüne Kraft) in Heidelberg die erste Nummer der Zeitschrift »Kompost Mag-
azin« heraus. Dies war eine Publikation für Kommunen, Landleben, Körnerbewußtsein. 1978
gab Werner Pieper das »Humus Magazin« in Löhrbach im Odenwald heraus. Dieses Magazin
löste das »Kompost Magazin« ab. Das frankfurter Szeneblatt »Pflasterstrand« titulierte das »Hu-
mus Magazin« als die beste alternative, grüne, spirituelle, no-wave-Zeitschrift Deutschlands.
Die hier erwähnten Zeitschriften hatten viel Gemeinsames. Sie klärten über Drogen auf, beri-
chteten von der zunehmenden Verschmutzung der Umwelt, plädierten für Umweltschutz, An-
tidiskriminierung respektive Gleichberechtigung, berichteten über Subkulturen und alternative
Lebensformen, ja, sie legten eigentlich das Grundgerüst für die Philosophie und Politikrich-
tung, die in der Folge für die »grünen Parteien« zum Leitmotiv wurden. Werner Piepers »Grüne
Kraft« existierte lange bevor »grüne Parteien« gegründet wurden. So war es am Symposium in
Basel ein außerordentliches Vergnügen, die Herausgeber dieser Zeitschriften, Urban Gwerder,
Bernd Brummbär und Werner Pieper mit Günther Amendt, Ronald Steckel, Simon Vinkenoog
und Sergius Golowin auf einem Podium über die 60er und 70er Jahre reden zu hören. Die neue
Zürcher Zeitung nahm Notiz von dieser Runde und berichtete am 16. Januar 2006 unter dem
Zwischentitel »Zwischen Politik und Spiritualität« von den Pionieren der damaligen Avantgarde.
Zwischen Politik und Spiritualität
Eine Männerrunde – charakteristisch für jene Zeit – zeichnete die eigene Existenz und Befind-
lichkeit im Stichjahr 1966 nach. Urban Gwerder, Zürcher Poet und Ein-Mann-Produzent der
Zeitschrift »Hotscha!« – damals europaweit die beste Untergrundpublikation, wie ihm attesti-
ert wurde –, war gerade 22 Jahre alt und lebte wie viele damals vom Postsack-Verladen. Ronald
Steckel, heute Komponist und Regisseur in Berlin, war dem dumpfen Nachkriegsdeutschland
nach London, diesem Mekka der amerikanischen Kriegsdienstverweigerer, entflohen. Bernd
Brummbär, heute Künstler in Kalifornien, hatte sich der Bundeswehr entzogen und war eb-
enfalls in London gelandet, wo er sich als Pflastermaler über Wasser hielt und später als Zen-
Mönch durch die Welt zog. Alle waren sich einig, daß früher Nischen zum Überleben leich-
ter zu finden waren als heute. Auch Werner Pieper, seit 35 Jahren Verleger in Heidelberg und
Übersetzer amerikanischer Autoren in der »Edition Rauschkunde«, landete 1967 in London,
wo er mit 18 Jahren LSD kennen und mit ihm dealen lernte. Bereits 36 Jahre alt war dam-
als Sergius Golowin, der in Burgdorf aufgewachsene Geschichten - Sammler und -Erzähler. Er
erlebte die sechziger Jahre in Paris. Der Amsterdamer Poet Simon Vinkenoog, Weltbürger in
der Selbstdefinition, hatte als Kind die deutsche Okkupation erlebt und nahm später an ein-
er klinischen Studie mit LSD teil. Mitte der sechziger Jahre erlebte er in London, wie ameri-
kanische Dienstverweigerer ihren Paß zerrissen. Viele Jugendliche aus Europa gingen auf
Distanz zu ihren Heimatländern, da diese ihre Mitschuld am Krieg von sich wiesen. Antiau-
toritäre Impulse kamen aus den USA: die Civil - Rights- und die Flower - Power - Bewegung.
Die Konfliktlinie zwischen »Polit-Freaks« und »Drogen-Freaks«, die die Jugendkulturen
durchzog, kam auch zur Sprache. 1969 sei es in Berlin nicht um Bewußtseinserweiterung ge-
gangen, sondern um die Bewaffnung der Bewegung, die in die Rote - Armee - Fraktion mün-
dete. Andreas Bader habe LSD eingesetzt, »um das Gewissen der Leute zu knacken«. Der Mythos
sechziger Jahre erfuhr hier eine scharfe Korrektur.
 He.: Biochemischer Schub für den gesellschaftlichen Aufbruch
in: Neue Zürcher Zeitung vom 16. Januar 2006
Drogenpolitik Safer Use
http://www.nzz.ch/2006/01/16/il/articleDHGU5.html
Obwohl namhafte Autoren wie Günter Amendt, Matthias Bröckers, Hans Cousto und Rog- Im Foyer des Kongreßzentrums waren mehrere Informationsstände mit Informationen zur
er Liggenstorfer auf diversen Podien am Symposium sich sehr ausführlich zur Drogenpolitik Schadensminderung beim Konsum psychotroper Substanzen (safer use) präsent. »Erowid« aus
äußerten, wurde dieses Thema von den meisten Medien überhaupt nicht oder nur am Rande den USA, das »Alice-Project« aus Frankfurt am Main und »Eve & Rave Schweiz« aus Solothurn
erwähnt. Zitiert wurde vor allem die Aussage von Albert Hofmann, daß das LSD-Verbot ein hielten nicht nur Informationsmaterialien bereit, sondern an den Ständen konnten sich Inter-
politisches Verbot sei und ein essierte persönlich informieren
paar Zeitungen erwähnten, und sachkundig machen. Von
daß Amendt und Bröckers die diesem Angebot wurde auch
allgemeine drogenpolitische reichlich gebraucht gemacht,
Situation eher pessimistisch an den Ständen wurde ein
einschätzten. Das Mushroom- großer Zuspruch seitens der
Magazin übermittelte als Kongreßbesucher registriert.
einziges Pressemedium sein- Repräsentanten dieser Organi-
en Lesern die Botschaft, daß sationen waren auch verschie-
der »War on Drugs« ein Ang- dentlich auf den Podien zu
riffskrieg sei, wie Cousto fest- sehen und zu hören, so Earth
stellte, daß LSD verboten sei, Erowid und Fire Erowid, Wolf-
weil psychedelische Erfahrun- gang Sterneck (Alice-Project),
gen gut seien, wie Rick Dolbin Roger Liggenstorfer (Eve &
meinte und daß die dem LSD Rave Schweiz) und Hans Cous-
zugeschriebenen Wirkungen to (Eve & Rave Berlin). Es ist
für das Gegenteil von dem wirklich erstaunlich (um nicht
stünden, was das System aus- zu sagen bezeichnend), daß ke-
mache und es deshalb ver- ine Zeitung die Gelegenheit im
boten sei, wie sich Amendt Rahmen der Berichterstattung
ausdrückte. Eine ausführliche über das Symposium nutzte,
Analyse der drogenpolitischen präzise Botschaften respe-
Statements am Symposium in ktive nützliche Informationen
Basel würde den Rahmen dies- zur Schadensminderung beim
er Pressemittreilung sprengen Konsum psychedelischer Sub-
und wird deshalb zu einem stanzen abzudrucken.
späteren Zeitpunkt an anderer
Stelle erfolgen.
 St.Petri-Schnee: Vom Mutterkornalkaloid zum Gottesglaube
In der Frankfurter Allgemeinen Zeitung wies Lorenz Jäger in seinem Artikel zu Albert Hofmanns
Geburtstag am 11. Januar 2006 auf den Roman »St.Petri-Schnee« des Schriftstellers Leo Perutz
hin. Perutz hatte 1933 (fünf Jahre, bevor Albert Hofmann erstmalig LSD herstellte und zehn Jahre
bevor er die Wirkung dieser Substanz erkannte) in diesem Roman die Entstehung der Religion,
die sich ihm als Massenhysterie darstellte, auf eine Infektion durch den Getreidepilz Mutterkorn
zurückgeführt. Darauf aufbauend beschrieb Perutz in dem Roman die Arbeit eines auf natur-
wissenschaftlichem Gebiet arbeitenden Barons, der aus dem Mutterkorn einen Stoff extrahi-
erte, der vorübergehende psychische Wirkungen hervorrief und in keiner Weise den Organismus
schädigte. Pikanterweise befand sich das Laboratorium des Barons im Pfarrhaus. Perutz entwick-
elte in dem Roman mit großer erzählerischer Virtuosität zwei Versionen nebeneinander, die so
exakt mit allen Mitteln der erzählerischen Virtuosität konstruiert waren, daß die Leser nicht ents-
cheiden konnten, welche der beiden ‘Realitäten’ die wahrscheinlich(er)e sei ... In diesem Wech-
selspiel von Traum und Wirklichkeit erwies sich der Roman als ein erzählerisches Meisterwerk.
Zitate aus »St.Petri-Schnee« von Leo Perutz
Der Pfarrer: »Glauben heißt begnadet sein. Der Glaube ist das
Werk Gottes in uns und er kann nur lebendig werden durch
geduldige Arbeit, durch dienende Liebe und durch Gebet.« Die
Pharmakzeutin: »Nein, auch durch Chemie.« (S. 114)
Der Baron: »Das, was wir religiöse Inbrunst und Ekstase des
Glaubens nennen, bietet als Einzel- wie Massenerscheinung
fast immer das klinische Bild eines durch ein Rauschgift her-
vorgerufenen Erregungszustandes.« (S. 115)
Der Baron: »Es gibt – oder es gab – eine Getreidekrankheit,
die in früheren Jahrhunderten oft beschrieben worden
ist, und in jeder Gegend, in der sie auftrat, war sie unter
einem anderen Namen bekannt. In Spanien hieß sie ‘die
Magdalenenflechte’, im Elsaß ‘der Armen-Seelen-Tau’. Das
‘Arztbuch’ des Adam von Cremona beschrieb sie unter
dem Namen ‘Misericordia-Korn’, in den Alpen war sie als
‘St.Petri-Schnee’ bekannt. In der Umgebung von St. Gallen
nannte man sie den ‘Bettelmönch’ und im nördlichen Böh-
men die ‘St. Johannis-Fäule’. Hier bei uns im Westfälischen,
wo sie besonders oft auftrat, hieß sie bei den Bauern ‘der
Muttergottesbrand’. (...) Und nun beachten Sie, daß alle
Namen, die ich ihnen aufgezählt habe, etwas gemeinsames besitzen: die Verknüpfung mit
religiösen Vorstellungen.« (S. 121)
Es gelang der Pharmazeutin, durch ein Destillationsverfahren aus dem Pilz das flüssige Rausch-
gift zu gewinnen, und die Analyse, die sie vornahm, ergab: »Die wirksamen Bestandteile sind
eine Anzahl Alkaloide. Außerdem finden sich noch kleinere Mengen harzartiger Produkte und
ein wenig Sphazelynsäure vor und schließlich lassen sich eine Spur einer öligen Substanz nach-
weisen.« (S. 127)
Der Baron: »Dieses Mittel (dieses Alkaloid) schädigt in keiner Weise den Organismus. Es ruft rein psy-
chische Wirkungen hervor, vorübergehende Wirkungen übrigens. Es macht vielleicht den Mann für
kurze Zeit ein wenig glücklicher – das ist alles.« (S. 79)
Leo Perutz: »St.Petri-Schnee«
http://www.dtv.de/dtv.cfm?wohin=dtvnr13405
Vergleicht man die Beschreibungen der »Substanz« aus dem
Mutterkorn im Roman von Leo Perutz mit den Aussagen füh-
render Wissenschaftler zu LSD, dann kann man erkennen, wie
präzise der Autor die Wirkungen jener Substanz vorausgeseh-
en hatte. So bezeichnet Albert Hofmann LSD als sakrale Droge
und am LSD-Symposium in Basel äußerte sich der 100-jährige
Hofmann zur Frage, was er unter sakralen Drogen verstehe,
wie folgt:
Albert Hofmann: LSD ist eine sakrale Droge
Ich verstehe darunter Substanzen, die seit Jahrtausenden im-
mer im zeremoniellen Rahmen gebraucht wurden, und bei
denen ein Tabu lastete. Der gewöhnliche Sterbliche darf diese
Stoffe, diese Pflanzen nur gebrauchen im Rahmen ... einer heili-
gen Feier unter der Leitung des Schamanen. Es waren Drogen,
die deshalb diesen Schutz nötig hatten, weil sie zutiefst in den
Menschen, den Menschen verändern.  .... Das Bewußtsein ist
eigentlich die göttliche Gabe, die den Menschen beschieden
ist. Deswegen waren immer diese bewußtseinsverändernden
Drogen im Gebrauch. Sie konnten nur im rituellen Rahmen ge-
braucht werden. Das ist auch die große Schwierigkeit heute:
Wir haben keinen zeremoniellen Rahmen mehr. Am gleichen
Kongreß meinte Franz Xaver Vollenweider von der Psy-
chiatrischen Uniklinik Zürich, daß LSD auf physisch-
er Ebene unschädlicher als Alkohol oder Nikotin sei.
Wörtlich sagte er:
Franz Xaver Vollenweider über LSD
Körperliche Wirkungen hat man nie gesehen, daß lang-
fristig sich irgendetwas verändert habe oder daß es
Entzugssymptome gäbe. Und der klinische Psychiater
und Drogenforscher Thorsten Passie an der Abteilung
für klinische Psychiatrie und Psychotherapie der Med-
izinischen Hochschule Hannover meinte am LSD-Sym-
posium:
Thorsten Passie über LSD
Herausgefunden hat man, daß man tatsächlich, wenn
man die Leute vernünftig vorpräpariert hat, das heißt
mit ihnen zwei bis drei Gespräche vorher führt und
so eine gewisse Beziehung zu dem Durchführenden
herzustellen und die auch im entsprechend günstiger
gestalteten Räumen mit ein bisschen Musik usw. sit-
zen läßt und quasi sich ihrer inneren Selbsterfahrung
überläßt, daß diese Leute danach doch erhebliche,
mindestens ein Drittel dieser Leute, erhebliche Verän-
derungen im Persönlichkeitsbild, also in positiver
Hinsicht – also weniger Pathologie, weniger pathol-
ogische Charakterzüge, und auch in Bezug auf die
Lebensführung und die Werte der Welt dieser Leute
– sich doch erheblich verändert hat, so daß man ei-
gentlich schon sagen kann, doch, das wurde durchaus
gefunden, daß LSD im angemessenen Rahmen unter
angemessenen Bedingungen durchaus auch positive
Wirkungen hinterlassen kann. Und, was auch noch
aufregend war: Irgendwelche pathologischen Effekte
oder Umbiegungen der Persönlichkeit in negativer
Hinsicht konnten in den Studien gar nicht berichtet
werden, obwohl die doch schon eine Probandenan-
zahl von nahezu 100 hatten.
Eine kurze Geschichte des LSD
in chronologischer Übersicht
1933
Leo Perutz veröffentlichte den Roman »St.Petri-Sch-
nee«, in dem er die Extraktion eines Mittel aus dem
Mutterkorn beschrieb, das ohne den Organismus zu
schädigen psychische Reaktionen hervorruft, die ein-
er religiösen Inbrunst sehr ähnlich sein können und
auch glücklich machen können.
1938
Albert Hofmann synthetisierte in den Labors des Basler
Pharmakonzerns Sandoz erstmals Lysergsäurediäthyla-
mid (LSD). Basis war ein Inhaltsstoff des Mutterkorns. Die
Verbindung wurde im Tierversuch getestet, wo sie keine
besondere Wirkung zeigte.
1943
Albert Hofmann stellte am Freitag, den 16. April 1943,
die Substanz LSD erneut her – aus dem unbestimmten
Gefühl heraus, der Stoff müsse doch irgendetwas be-
wirken. Offenbar gelangte er damit unabsichtlich in
Berührung. Hofmann verspürte plötzlich »ungewöhnli-
che Empfindungen«, fuhr mit dem Fahrrad nach Hause
und versank in einen rauschartigen Zustand, »der sich
durch eine äußerst angeregte Fantasie kennzeichnete«.
Drei Tage später, am Montag, den 19. April 1943, unter-
nahm Albert Hofmann einen Selbstversuch mit der, wie
er meinte, »kleinsten Menge, von der noch irgendein
feststellbarer Effekt erwartet werden konnte« – 0,25 Mil-
ligramm LSD, aus heutiger Sicht eine gewaltige Dosier-
ung. Hofmann hatte das Gefühl, wahnsinnig zu werden.
»Die Substanz, mit der ich hatte experimentieren wollen,
hatte mich besiegt. Sie war der Dämon, der höhnisch über meinen Willen triumphierte. (…) Ich war
in eine andere Welt geraten, in andere Räume, mit anderer Zeit.« Eilig wurde ein Arzt gerufen, der
allerdings keine abnormen Symptome feststellen konnte. Hofmann glaubte an eine Vergiftung, trank
in der Nacht »alle irgendwie beschaffbare Milch« und blieb einen ganzen Tag lang im Bett. »Tags
darauf konnte ich vollkommen normal und frisch die Arbeit im Laboratorium wieder aufnehmen«,
notierte er im Bericht für seine Vorgesetzten.
1947
Sandoz bot LSD (Markenname Delysid®) einigen Wissenschaftlern »zur seelischen Auflockerung bei
analytischer Psychotherapie und für experimentelle Untersuchungen über das Wesen der Psycho-
sen« an.
Die erste wissenschaftliche Publikation über LSD weltweit wurde von Werner A. Stoll unter dem Titel
»Lysersäure - Diäthylamid, ein Phantastikum aus der Mutterkorngruppe« veröffentlicht. In der im
Artikel beschriebenen Studie betreff des Einflusses von LSD auf das Bewußtsein wurde die Gabe von
insgesamt 19 LSD-Applikationen an 16 gesunden Personen und 20 Applikationen an sechs Personen
mit der Diagnose Schizophrenie verglichen.
1949
Der Psychiater Max Rinkel brachte als erster LSD in die USA und begann in Boston mit dieser Sub-
stanz zu experimentieren.
Der Direktor der CIA, Allen Dulles, iniziiert ein Geheimprogramm unter dem Decknamen »Bluebird«
um das Potenzial von LSD zur Bewußtseinskontrolle zu analysieren.
1950
Bei Versuchen mit radioaktivem LSD stellte man fest, daß LSD sich nicht im Gehirn, sondern vor allem
in Magen, Leber und Nieren konzentriert.
Die Operation »Bluebird« der CIA wurde ausgeweitet und unter dem Namen »Artischocke« weiterge-
führt. Die CIA wollte den Nutzen von LSD als Waffe untersuchen wie auch Verteidigungsmöglich-
keiten für den Fall, daß diese Droge gegen Bürger der USA eingesetzt werde, ausloten.
1951
Albert Hofmann lud den befreundeten Schriftsteller Ernst Jünger zu einem Selbstversuch ein, dem
ein intensiver Briefwechsel über die Wirkung von Drogen folgte. Jünger schrieb: »Der Wein hat bere-
its viel verändert, hat neue Götter und eine neue Humanität mit sich gebracht. Aber der Wein verhält
sich zu (…) LSD, wie die klassische zu der modernen Physik. Erprobt sollten diese Stoffe nur in kleinen
Gremien werden.«
1952
Allen Ginsberg und die Beatniks glaubten, man müsse den Verstand übergehen, um ein Zenbewußt-
sein zu entfalten. Halluzinogene Substanzen seien die einfachsten Mittel hierfür.
1953
Die CIA wollte den gesamten LSD-Bestand von Sandoz aufkaufen. Man einigte sich auf Lieferungen
von 100 Gramm pro Woche (100 Gramm entsprechen einer Million Trips à 100 Mikrogramm). Zudem
willigte Sandoz in die Nennung aller Bezieher von LSD an die CIA. Um nicht von der neutralen Sch-
weiz abhängig zu sein, drängte die CIA den US-Pharmakonzern Eli Lilly, LSD zu synthetisieren. Die
CIA erweiterte nochmals ihr LSD-Forschungsprogramm und nannte es fortan »MK-ULTRA«. In den
folgenden 12 Jahren wurden etwa 150 verschiedene Geheimprojekte in Kooperetion mit 150 ver-
schiedenen Institutionen durchgefüht. Am 29. November 1953 stürzte sich Dr. Frank Olson, ein für
das US-Militär tätiger Biologe, aus dem zehnten Stock eines Hotels. Die Angehörigen hielten einen
Selbstmord für ausgeschlossen und forderten eine Untersuchung. Vergeblich. Erst Jahrzehnte später
wurde jene Geheimakte freigegeben, welche die Hintergründe des Todessturzes enthüllte. Es stellte
sich heraus, daß Olson einige Tage vor dem Vorfall bei Kollegen zu Besuch war. Nach dem Abendes-
sen genehmigte er sich ein Glas Cointreau. Er ahnte nicht, daß ein CIA-Offizier zu Versuchszwecken
0,07 Milligramm LSD in sein Getränk gemischt hatte. Er erlitt eine Panikattacke, fühlte sich noch am
folgenden Tag verwirrt und niedergeschlagen. Wie er es schließlich geschafft hatte, durch das ge-
schlossene Fenster des Hotelzimmers zu springen, darüber schwieg sich die Akte aus. Die Psychiater
Humphery Osmond und John Smythies schrieben in einem Essay: »Niemand ist wirklich kompe-
tent, Schizophrenie zu behandeln, der nicht selber die Welt der Schizophrenie erfahren hat. Das ist
möglich, indem man Meskalin nimmt.« Im Mai 1953 trank Aldous Huxley erstmalig unter der Aufsicht
von Humphery Osmond in Wasser gelöste Meskalinkristalle. Danach telegraphierte Huxley seinem
New Yorker Herausgeber Michael Horowitz: »Meskalin ist die außergewöhnlichste und bedeutend-
ste Erfahrung für ein Menschliches Wesen diesseits einer göttlichen Offenbarung.«
 1954
Der Schriftsteller Aldous Huxley veröffentlichte das Buch »The Doors of Perception« (Die Pforten der
Wahrnehmung), in dem er seine Drogenerfahrungen beschrieb. Das Buch wurde in der Folge zu ei-
nem Grundlagenwerk der psychedelischen Bewegung. Dem amerikanischen Pharmakonzern Eli Lilly
gelang die rein chemische Synthese von LSD. Mutterkorn als Grundsubstanz war zur Produktion von
LSD nicht mehr vonnöten. Die USA respektive die CIA waren nicht mehr abhängig von LSD-Lieferun-
gen aus der Schweiz.
Der Psychiater Oscar Janiger nahm LSD. Danach vertrat er vehement die Ansicht, daß LSD nur unter
ärztlicher Kontrolle eingenommen werden dürfe. Den Psychiater aus Los Angeles interessierte je-
doch die Wirkung der Droge auf die Kreativität und auf die Fähigkeit der Künstler, ein Stadium des
»bewußten Verrücktseins« zu erreichen, ohne dabei die Kontrolle über die Umgebung zu verlieren.
Er testete als Psychotherapeut LSD in den Jahren 1954 bis 1962 an etwa 1.000 Freiwilligen. Insgesamt
verbrauchte er 3.000 LSD-Trips für seine Studien, 13 davon konsumierte er selbst, dem Schauspieler
Cary Grant verabreichte er fast 100 Trips.
1955
Der Psychiater Humphrey Osmond prägte den Begriff »psychedelisch« (die Seele erhellend, die Seele
entfaltend) in einem Brief an Aldous Huxley. Der in Prag tätige Psychoanalytiker Stanislav Grof, der
später die »transpersonale Psychologie« begründete, nahm erstmalig LSD. In der Folge setzte er LSD
zu therapeutischen Zwecken ein.
Der Bankier, Vizepräsident der J.P. Morgan & Co., und Pilzfreund Gordon Wasson reiste mit seiner
aus Rußland stammenden Frau Valentina Wasson nach Mexiko, um den Zauberpilz teonanacatl zu
suchen. Als erster Weißer nahm er und sein Reisbegleiter, der Photograph Allan Richardson am 29.
Juni 1955 hoch in den Bergen der Provinz Oaxaca an den geheimen Ritualen der Mazatek-Indianer
teil. Zeremonienmeisterin war Maria Sabina. Wasson postulierte, die rituelle Einnahme psychoaktiver
Substanzen führe zur Religion.
Der Schriftsteller Aldous Huxley nahm erstmalig LSD. Auch seine Frau Laura fand gefallen am LSD:
»Sorgsam und spärlich angewendet, kann LSD ein direkter Weg zum spirituellen Erwachen sein.« Er
und seine Frau begannen danach eine Elite von Künstlern, Wissenschaftlern und Publizisten mit LSD
und anderen Psychedelika bekannt zu machen.
1956
Aldous Huxley veröffentlichte sein Buch »Heaven and Hell« (Himmel und Hölle), das in der Folge zu
einem Klassiker in der psychedelischen Szene wird.
1957
Das Life-Magazin veröffentlichte in einem 17 Seiten langen Artikel die These von Gordon Wasson,
daß die Entstehung von Religion eng mit der rituellen Einnahme psychedelisch wirkender Substan-
zen verbunden sei. Dieser Artikel machte den Psychologen Timothy Leary auf psychedelische Sub-
stanzen aufmerksam.
Gordan Wasson hatte dem in Paris tätigen Mykologen Roger Heim Pilze geschickt, damit dieser die-
selben untersuchen möge. Diesem war es gelugnen, die Pilze auf einem künstlichen Nährboden zu
züchten. Dann übergab dieser Albert Hofmann ein paar Pilze zur chemischen Analyse. Kurze Zeit
später isolierte Hofmann die Wirkstoffe Psilocin und Psilocybin und synthetisierte auch die beiden
Wirkstoffe. Der Psychiater Humphrey Osmond führte den Begriff »psychedelisch« (die Seele erhel-
lend, die Seele entfaltend) an einer Konferenz an der Akademie der Wissenschaften in Ney York als
Fachbegriff in den Wissenschaften ein.
1958
Die Schriftstellerin Anaïs Nin pobierte unter der Aufsicht des Psychiaters Oscar Janiger erstmalig
LSD.
Die Ansicht zahlreicher Therapeuten, daß mit LSD Heilungsprozesse zu beschleunigenseien, ver-
drängte den psychotomimetischen, das heißt Psychosen nachahmenden, Ansatz zur Klassifizierung
von LSD. Duncan Blewett und Nick Chwelos veröffentlichten das erste Handbuch im Sinne eines
Leitfadens für die LSD-gestützte Einzel- und Gruppentherapie.
1959
LSD-Sitzungen wurden in Hollywood populär, ja, sie wurden zu einem Muß für alle in der Filmstadt,
die mitreden wollten. »Ich wurde wiedergeboren« erklärte Cary Grant nach einem LSD-Trip. Aldous
Huxley und Allen Ginsberg propagierten in elitären Zirkeln LSD zur Bewußtseinserweiterung.
 1960
Der Psychologe Timothy Leary machte in Mexiko seine ersten Erfahrungen mit Zauberpilzen und be-
gann dann mit Frank Barron an der Harvard University das Psilocybin Projekt. Das Psilocybin erhielt
er von der Firma Sandoz in Basel, das heißt, bei diesem Projekt wurde synthetisches Psilocybin ver-
wendet. Leary lud viele bekannte Persönlichkeiten zur Teilnahme an dem Projekt ein, so u.a. Aldous
Huxley, Alan Watts, Artur Koestler, Allen Ginsberg, Peter Orlovsky, William Burroughs, Jack Kerouac
und Niel Cassady. Leary verwarf den elitären Ansatz von Huxley und anders als etwa Oskar Janiger
wollte Leary die Drogenerfahrung der ganzen Menschheit zugänglich machen. »Listen! Wake up!
You are God!«
Stanislav Grof, der an der Karls-Universität in Prag Medizin und Medizinphilosophie studierte, be-
gann bei seiner Arbeit am psychiatrischen Forschungszentrum in Prag die Wirkung psychedelischer
Drogen (unter anderem LSD) bei Patienten und an sich selbst zu erforschen. Bis Mitte der 60er Jahre
verabreichte er seinen Patienten (u.a. Alkoholiker) über 4.000 Portionen LSD. Grof lobte LSD als das
»Teleskop der Psychiatrie«.
1961
Timothy Leary verschob bei seinem Psilocybin Projekt an der Harvard Universität die Fragestellun-
gen betreff psychedelische Substanzen vom psychologischen zum religiösen Bereich. Leray wurde
deshalb aufgefordert, die Vorräte an Psilocybin dem Dekan seiner Fakultät zu übergeben. Er leistete
dieser Anweisung ohne Widerspruch Folge, da man dort inzwischen mit LSD experimentierte.
Mit Richard Alpert und Ralf Metzner entwickelte Leary das Konzept von »Drug, Set und Setting« als
Determinanten für psychedelische Reisen. Dabei bedeuten »Drug« die Substanzspezifikation, »Set«
die persönliche Befindlichkeit und Erwartungshaltung und »Setting« das Umfeld, in der die Droge
eingenommen wird. Alle drei Determinanten respektive Faktoren sind gleichermaßen entscheidend
für das Gelingen einer psychedelischen Reise respektive eines guten Trips.
1962
Timothy Leary unternahm mit 21 Theologiestudenten einen nicht genehmigten LSD-Versuch. 11
Studenten erhielten LSD, eine Kontrollgruppe von zehn Studenten bekam statt LSD Nikotinsäure.
Neun Studenten, die LSD erhielten und ein Student, der Nikotinsäure erhielt, berichteten von einer
mystischen Erfahrung. Als die Presse das Thema aufgriff, schritt die amerikanische Food and Drug
Administration (FDA) ein und konfiszierte die LSD-Vorräte.
Der Schauspieler Cary Grant ging unter Aufsicht seines Psychiaters Oscar Janiger auf fast 100 Trips.
Sie halfen ihm, Kindheitstraumata und Potenzprobleme zu überwinden. Seine 72. Drogenerfahrung
im April 1962 beschrieb der Filmstar so: »Ich merkte, wie das Licht im Raum intensiver wurde, und in
kurzen Abständen, erschienen mir Visionen, jedesmal, wenn ich meine Augen schloß. Ich schien in
einer Welt gesunder, rundlicher kleiner Babybeine in Windeln versetzt. Blut war verschmiert, eine Art
genereller Menstruationsaktivität fand statt. Davor ekelte ich mich aber nicht so wie sonst.« Aldous
Huxley entwarf in seinem Buch »Eiland« die Utopie einer psychedelischen Gemeinschaft, in der die
Droge moksha eine zentrale Rolle spielte. Er schickte Hofmann ein Exemplar des Buches, gewidmet
»dem ursprünglichen Entdecker der moksha-Medizin«. Alan Watts veröffentlichte sein Buch »The
Joyous Cosmoloy« (Kosmologie der Freude). Das Buch wurde in der Folge ein Klassiker in der psyche-
delischen Szene.
Im Frühjahr 1962 trafen sich vier Männer in einem Haus auf einem Landgut in Deutschland. Daß dort
der berühmte Hitler-Attentäter Stauffenberg aufgewachsen war, blieb unerwähnt; es ging um Wich-
tigeres. Die vier Männer richteten sich in dem grafschaftlichen Wohnzimmer ein, das mit Stilmöbeln
verstellt war und an dessen Wänden alte französische Stiche hingen. Eine Frau servierte heiße Scho-
kolade. Die vier Männer saßen in Polstersesseln, nippten an ihren Tassen und warten. Der Dichter
Ernst Jünger trug ein kaftanartiges Gewand mit dunkelblauen Streifen, der Pharmakologe Heribert
Konzett steckte in einem bunt bestickten Mandarinkleid, der Orientalist Rudolf Gelpke und Albert
Hofmann hatten sich Hausmäntel übergeworfen. Nichts sollte an die Zumutungen des Alltags erin-
nern. Mit dem Beginn der Abenddämmerung war es so weit: Sie schluckten je 20 Milligramm Psi-
locybin; einen Stoff, der in seiner Wirkung LSD ähnelt. Die vier Herren gaben während der Sitzung
zu Protokoll: »Myriaden von Molekülen beugen sich der Harmonie«, sagte Jünger. »Ein Teil des Ich
geht in die Außenwelt, in die Dinge über, sie beginnen zu leben, bekommen einen anderen, tieferen
Sinn«, meinte Hofmann. »Es ist die einzige Möglichkeit, das Absolute existenziell zu erfahren und den
verschütteten Zugang zur mystischen Wirklichkeit wieder freizulegen«, rief Gelpke aus. »Jetzt ver-
stehe ich, warum ich Gelpke ohne Kopf im Sessel sitzen sah«, erwiderte Konzett, als das Symposium
zu Ende war.
1963
Timothy Leary, wie auch Richard Alpert, wurden im Mai 1963 von der Harvard Universität gefeuert,
weil sie Psychologie, Religion und Politik in einer Art verknüpften, die nicht im Konsens mit dem
gültigen akademischen Reglement war. Daraufhin zogen sie mit der von ihnen gegründeten »Inter-
national Foundation for Internal Freedom« (IFIF) nach Millbrook, New York.
Der Psychiater Roy R. Grinker erklärte in den Archives of General Psychiatry Nr.8 S. 425 im Edito-
rial, daß das affektive Interesse vieler Psychiater, die sich selbst LSD applizierten, an dieser Substanz
so groß sei, daß sie aufgrund ihrer mystischen Erfahrung nicht mehr qualifiziert seien kompetent
zu forschen und behauptete (allerdings ohne experimentellen Beleg), daß bereits ein einmaliger
Konsum von LSD latente Psychosen auslösen könne und daß lang andauernde LSD-Erfahrungen zu
Geisteskrankheit und Abhängigkeit führen. Diese nie belegte Behauptung wurde zur Grundlage der
in der Folge eingeleiteten Prohibition von LSD und anderen psychotropen Substanzen.
Der Schriftsteller Ken Kesey gründete in San Fransico mit Freunden die »Merry Pranksters«. Mit einem
bunt bemalten Bus reisten diese durch die USA und organisierten überall große Acid-Parties unter
dem Motto »Can You Pass The Acid-Test?«
Am 22. November, am selben Tag als John F. Kennedy erschossen wurde, starb Aldous Huxley an
Kehlkopfkrebs. Vor dem Tod ließ er sich von seiner Frau Laura zweimal 100 Mikrogramm LSD intra-
muskulär verabreichen.
Alexander Shulgin synthetisierte erstmalig die Substanz DOM (Dimethoxymethylamphetamin). Die
Substanz, die auch STP genannt wird, wirkt äußerst intensiv und bis zu 20 Stunden. Nach dem Verbot
von LSD in den USA wurde DOM in den Szenen des Undergounds oft als Ersatz genutzt, wobei viele
Leute von der lang andauernden Wirkung sowohl physisch wie psychisch überfordert waren.
1965
Im Stadtteil Haight-Ashbury in San Francisco entstand die Hippie-Bewegung. Die »Merry Pranksters«
organisierten immer mehr Konzerte, die stets mit Acid-Tests verbunden waren. Bei den Konzerten
der Grateful Dead nahmen Tausende von Menschen an Acid-Tests teil. Auch die »Hell’s Angels« wur-
den durch die »Merry Pranksters« auf LSD aufmerksam. Mit den Acid-Tests wollte man ein kollektives
psychedelisches Bewußtsein evozieren. Die »Merry Pranksters« brachten mehr LSD unter die Leute
als die CIA, Leary und alle Psychiater der Welt zusammen.
Der Chemiker Augustus Owsley Stanley begann mit der Produktion von LSD für den Schwarzmarkt, da
Sandoz nicht in der Lage war, den Bedarf in den USA zu decken. Stanley produzierte den Stoff im großen
Stil im Norden von Kalifornien und baute ein großes Vertriebsnetz auf. Damals war LSD noch legal.
1966
Ein Mörder namens Stephen Kessler behauptete, im LSD-Rausch gehandelt zu haben, als er sein
Opfer im April 1966 umbrachte. Obwohl sich herausstellte, daß er unter Alkoholeinfluß und der Ein-
wirkung von Pentobarbital, einem stark wirksamen Barbiturat, stand, machte der »LSD-Mord« welt-
weit Schlagzeilen. Im gleichen Monat stellte Sandoz sowohl die Produktion wie auch die Ausliefer-
ung von LSD und Psilocybin weltweit auf Druck der US-amerikanischen Behörden ein.
Das New England Journal of Medicine forderte ein Ende der LSD-Forschung, da die Ergebnisse zu
uneinheitlich seien. Die Meinung, daß LSD als therapeutisches Mittel unbrauchbar sei, wurde zur
Doktrin erklärt. Der Besitz von LSD wurde in den USA verboten, sämtliche Forschungsgelder wurden
gestrichen. Timothy Leary wurde in Millbrook verhaftet, Ken Kesey wurde in San Fransisco verhaftet
und zu sechs Monaten Gefängnis verurteilt.
1967
In San Francisco brach der »Sommer der Liebe« aus. Drogen wurden zum Teil wahllos konsumiert.
Bad trips waren an der Tagesordnung: Bei Unerfahrenen führten die halluzinogenen Zustände zu
Panikattacken und Selbstmordversuchen, insbesondere weil aufgrund des Verbotes viel DOM (STP)
und relativ wenig LSD im Umlauf waren. Im Stadtteil Haigth-Ashbury in San Francisco wurde die
»Free Clinic« gegründet, in der Drogenabhängige sich kostenlos behandeln lassen konnten. Als im
Oktober Hippies einen Sarg durch den Stadtteil trugen, war für viele die Utopie der psychedelischen
Bewußtseinserweiterung tot. Die Beatles schwörten öffentlich den Drogen ab und begannen mit
transzendentaler Meditation. Das New England Journal of Medicine berichtete in einem Forschun-
gsbericht von Cohen, Hirschhorn und Frosch zum ersten Mal davon, daß LSD Chromosomenschäden
verursache. Der Artikel trug die Überschrift »In Vivo und in Vitro Chromosomenschäden, induziert
durch LSD 25«. Der Artikel sorgte weltweit für Schlagzeilen. Zwei Jahre später stellte sich heraus, daß
LSD gemäß eines kontrollierten Experimentes keine Chromosomenschäden verursache, doch dies
sorgte nicht für neue Schlagzeilen in den Massenmedien.
1969
Der Gouverneur von Kalifornien, Ronald Reagan, ließ Polizisten gegen protestierende Hippies vor-
rücken. Timothy Leary kündigte an, bei der nächsten Gouverneurswahl gegen Ronald Reagan zu
kandidieren. John Lennon schrieb zur Wahlkampagne den Song »Come together«.
Die Forscher Tijo, Pahnke und Kurland veröffentlichten im Journal of the American Medical Associa-
tion (JAMA) den Artikel »LSD und Chromosomen: Ein kontrolliertes Experiment«. Ihre Arbeit wies
nach , daß keinerlei Zusammenhang zwischen dem Gebrauch von LSD und Chromosomenbrüchen
bestand, was aber für die bürgerliche Presse keine einzige Schlagzeile wert war.
1970
Leary wurde erneut verhaftet und von Gerichten in Kalifornien, Texas und New York zu bis zu zwan-
zig Jahren Gefängnis verurteilt. Die linksradikale Untergrundorganisation »Weathermen« verhalf ihm
aus einem kalifornischen Gefängnis zur Flucht. Der »gefährlichste Mensch der Welt« (US-Präsident
Nixon) wurde später (1972) von der CIA in Afghanistan auf dem Flughafen von Kabul gekidnappt
und von dort in die USA verschleppt.
 1971
Im Fachblatt Science erschien ein Bericht, demzufolge reines LSD in vernünftiger Dosierung zu kein-
en Schädigungen führe.
Timothy Leary reiste in die Schweiz, gab Interviews, forderte die Freigabe psychedelischer Drogen,
schrieb die Zehn Gebote fort »Du sollst das Bewußtsein deines Nächsten nicht verändern«, während
das FBI weiterhin auf seinen Fersen war. Zum Glück gab es die Eidgenossen. 1971 weigerte sich die
Schweiz, Leary an die USA auszuliefern.
Am 3. September 1971 trafen sich Albert Hofmann und Timothy Leary im Bahnhofsbuffet in Lausanne.
Die Begrüßung bei diesem ersten Treffen soll, laut Hofmann, »im Zeichen schicksalhafter Verbunden-
heit« erfolgt sein. Viel dürfte den im Aargau aufgewachsenen Chemiker mit dem Drogenapostel aus
Massachusetts allerdings nicht verbunden haben. Hofmann bereitete sich nach 42 Arbeitsjahren bei
der Sandoz AG auf seinen Ruhestand vor, während Leary aus einem kalifornischen Gefängnis geflo-
hen war, in dem er eine zehnjährige Haftstrafe wegen Marihuanabesitzes hätte verbüssen sollen.
1972
Timothy Leary wurde von Agenten des US-amerikanischen Geheimdienstes auf dem Flughafen von
Kabul gekidnappt und nach Kalifornien in die USA verschleppt. Dort wurde er sofort in ein Gefän-
gnis gesteckt. Im Prozeß gegen Leary wurde die von ihm geleitete »Brotherhood of Eternal Love«
als Rauschgiftsyndikat eingestuft und ihm wurde vorgeworfen, Werbemanager für ein gigantisches
Drogengeschäft zu sein. Leary wurde in der Folge zu 15 Jahren Gefängnis verurteilt.
1974
Richard P. Hartmann veröffentlichte seine am Max Plank Institut für Psychiatrie in München durchge-
führte Studie, in der er mit 30 Künstlern LSD-Sitzungen durchführte. Arnulf Rainer und Alfred Hrdlic-
ka zählten zu den prominentesten Teilnehmern dieser Studie.
1975
Stanislav Grof veröffentlichte den ersten Band über seine Forschungen und therapeutischen Arbeit
mit LSD. In der »Topographie des Unbewußten« konzentrierte er sich auf die phänomenologische
Beschreibung der Erfahrungen die bei psychedelischen Sitzungen in Erscheinung traten.
1976
Timothy Leary wurde vorzeitig aus der Haft entlassen.
1977
In den USA wurde bei einer Anhörung des Kongresses bekannt, daß die CIA in den fünfziger Jahren
des letzten Jahrhunderts unerlaubte Drogenversuche mit Ahnungslosen anstellte. Die US-Regierung
zahlte daraufhin an Betroffene über eine Million Dollar an Entschädigungen.
1979
Albert Hofmann, mittlerweile Rentner, zog in seinem Buch »LSD – mein Sorgenkind« Bilanz. Von den
Exzessen der sechziger Jahre war er ebenso enttäuscht wie vom Verbot des LSD. In dem Buch bes-
chrieb Hofmann sehr detailiert diverse psychedelische Reisen mit LSD und Psilocybin, die er u.a. mit
Ernst Jünger und Rudolf Gelpke machte.
1985
Das »Europäische Collegium für Bewußtseinsstudien« (ECBS) wurde auf Initiative von Hanscarl Leun-
er als ein multidisziplinäres Forum von Natur- und Geisteswissenschaftlern gegründet. Grundlage hi-
erzu war die Erkenntnis, daß Themen der Bewußtseinsforschung zunehmend in den Mittelpunkt des
wissenschaftlichen und öffentlichen Interesses rückten und dabei Grenzbereiche und außergewöhn-
liche Bewußtseinszustände von besonderer Bedeutung seien und Grenzerfahrungen, die über das
Alltagsbewußtsein hinausführen, seit Jahrtausenden eine wichtige Rolle im individuellen wie auch
im kollektiven Leben aller Kulturen spielten.
1988
Im Kalifornien wurde die »Albert Hofmann Foundation« gegründet. Ihr gehören viele namhafte
Forscher aus aller Welt an und sie fordert, LSD und andere psychotrope Substanzen zu Forschungsz-
wecken zu legalisieren. In der Schweiz konnten im Rahmen einer Ausnahmebewilligung des Sch-
weizerischen Bundesamtes für Gesundheitswesen (oberste Gesundheitsbehörde) psycholytische
Psychotherapien durchgeführt werden. Die psycholytische Psychotherapie ist eine tiefenpsycholo-
gisch orientierte Gesprächstherapie, ergänzt durch Erfahrungen in verändertem Wachbewußtsein-
szustand. Diese werden durch psychedelische Substanzen (MDMA und LSD) induziert. Die Sonder-
bewilligung lief im Oktober 1993 aus.
 1993
LSD wurde 50 Jahre alt. Aus diesem Anlaß wurden im April in Basel und in San Fransisco Jubiläums-
feiern mit Vorträgen und Parties veranstaltet. Im Oktober veranstaltete die Schweizerische Akademie
für Medizinische Wissenschaften in Agno bei Lugano ein Symposium mit dem Titel »50 Years of LSD«.
Ein gutes Dutzend Wissenschaftler referierten über ihre Fachbereiche und Forschungsergebnisse.
Büttner, Jean-Martin: Halluzinigene als Medikament und Sakrament, in: Tagesanzeiger vom 18. Januar 2006
http://www.tagesanzeiger.ch/dyn/leben/print/gesundheit/582955.html
Büttner, Jean-Martin: LSD ermöglicht gewissermaßen ein Aufwachen, Interview mit Albert Hofmann,
in: Tagesanzeiger vom 11. Januar 2006
http://www.tagesanzeiger.ch/dyn/leben/print/wissen/580679.html

In New Mexico wurde das »Heffter Research Institute« gegründet. Das Institut wurde nach dem Caesar, Wolfgang: Der Naturwissenschaftler als Mystiker, Interview mit Albert Hofmann, in: Deutsche
deutschen Wissenschaftler Arthur Heffter, der den Wirkstoff Meskalin im Peyote enrdeckte, benannt. Apotheker Zeitung vom 9. Februar 2006, Nr. 6 S. 555; 63
Ziel des Instituts ist es, hochqualifizierte Forschung im Bereich psychedelischer Substanzen durch-
zuführen und die Ergebnisse der Forschung zu publizieren. Caesar, Wolfgang: LSD und andere (Arznei-)Drogen, in: Deutsche Apotheker Zeitung vom 9. Februar
2006, Nr. 6 S. 552; 60
2006
Goetsch, Daniel: Entdeckung von LSD. Gott im Selbstversuch, in: der Bund vom 7. Januar 2006
http://www.espace.ch/artikel_166524.html
In Basel fand anläßlich des 100. Geburtstages von Albert Hofmann ein großes LSD-Symposium statt.
Albert Hofmann war persönlich anwesend und berichtete von seinen Erfahrungen sowohl aus wis-
Hasler, Felix: Alle lieben Albert, in: Die Weltwoche, Ausgabe 3/06
senschaftlicher wie auch aus persönlicher Sicht.

http://www.weltwoche.ch/artikel/?AssetID=13001&CategoryID=66
Berlin, den 27. Februar 2006
Redaktion Webteam Eve & Rave e.V. Berlin
He.: Biochemischer Schub für den gesellschaftlichen Aufbruch, in: Neue Zürcher Zeitung vom 16.
Index Pressemitteilungen   •   Eve & Rave Berlin News
Januar 2006
http://www.nzz.ch/2006/01/16/il/articleDHGU5.html
Quellenverzeichnis

Heine Matthias: Cary Grant sah auf dem Trip Babys, in Die Welt vom 11. Januar 2006
Amendt, Günter: Are you experienced?, in: Die Wochenzeitung vom 12. Januar 2006
http://www.welt.de/data/2006/01/11/829525.html
http://www.woz.ch/artikel/print_12790.html

Hövel, Jörg: Appetitlicher Eierschaum, in Telepolis vom 18. Januar 2006

Bauschke, Christian: Letzter Trip – Oscar Janiger, LSD-Forscher, in: Die Welt vom 25. August 2001
http://www.heise.de/tp/r4/artikel/21/21813/1.html
http://www.welt.de/data/2001/08/25/513778.html

Jäger, Lorenz: Albert Hofmann – Rausch, Krieg, Religion, in: Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung vom 11.
Braendle, Christoph: Noch eine kleine geschichte der Zeit. Schlaglichter auf den Umgang mit LSD
Januar 2006, Nr. 9 S. 33
seit seiner Entdeckung, in: Neue Zürcher Zeitung vom 17./18. April 1993, Nr. 88 S. 25 f.
http://www.faz.net/s/Rub117C535CDF414415BB243B181B8B60AE/Doc~E63565070A5C44EED8AB
C4617E9EB9B27~ATpl~Ecommon~Sprintpage.html
Bröckers, Matthias + Liggenstorfer, Roger: Das LSD ist zu mir gekommen, Interview mit Albert Hof-
o.A.: Aufhören zu denken – Cisco-Techniker empfiehlt LSD und Hippiemusik, in: Kronenzeitung vom
mann, in: Die Tageszeitung (TAZ) vom 11. Januar 2006, S. 13
28. Janar 2006
http://www.taz.de/pt/2006/01/11/a0131.1/text
http://www.lsd.info/symposium/presse/Kronen_Zeitung_Asterreich_.pdf
Bröckers, Mathias: Wenn man im Paradies lebt, will man ja nicht so schnell weg, Interview mit Albert
Olff, Sabine: Leises Comeback von LSD und Co.,in: SonntagsZeitung vom 15. Januar 2006
Hofmann, in Telepolis (TP) vom 11. Januar 2006
http://www.telepolis.de/r4/artikel/21/21746/1.html
Riedlinger, Tom: LSD Chronlogy, in: Lysergic World, Petaluma, Kalifornien, 1993, S. 2 f.

Rühle, Alex: LSD-Kongreß in Basel – Kinners, mir wird so blümerant, in: Süddeutsche Zeitung
vom 17. Januar 2006
http://www.sueddeutsche.de/kultur/artikel/294/68226/print.html

Schnabel, Ulrich: Die Kernkraft der Seele, in: Die Zeit vom 12. Januar 2006 Nr. 3
http://www.zeit.de/2006/03/LSD

Schnabel, Ulrich: Im psychedelischen Rausch. Von Spionen, Hippies und Pilzfreunden – eine
kleine Geschichte der Bewußtseinserweiterung, in: Die Zeit vom 12. Januar 2006, Nr. 3
http://www.zeit.de/2006/03/LSD-Geschichte

Scholz, Uwe: 2000 Wunderkinder dankten Albert Hofmann, in: Mushroom-Magazine Februar
2006
http://www.mushroom-online.com/artikel/german/welcome/whats.up/103376.html

Suter, Ruedi: Der Schamane des LSD feiert Geburtstag 100, Interview mit Albert Hofmann, in:
OnlineReports vom 11. Januar 2006
http://www.onlinereports.ch/2006/HofmannAlbert100.htm

Wimmer, Monika: Als die Farben zu leuchten begannen, in: Berliner Zeitung vom 11. Januar
2006
http://www.berlinonline.de/berliner-zeitung/wissenschaft/516424.html

Die meisten dieser Artikel, wie auch zahlreiche weitere Artikel zum LSD-Symposium (zum Teil
in englischer, französischer und italienischer Sprache), sind auch auf dem Internetportal der
Veranstalter des Symposiums im PDF-Format verfügbar.
http://www.lsd.info/symposium/presse

Berlin, den 27. Februar 2006

Redaktion Webteam Eve & Rave e.V. Berlin
Index Pressemitteilungen   •   Eve & Rave Berlin News
 Psychedelika [194]
Psychologie • May 2017

By Maximilian von Heyden und Henrik Jungaberle

Maximilian von Heyden

Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin
Henrik Jungaberle
FINDER + MIND European Foundation for Psychiatry

Psychedelika (klassische bzw. serotonerge Hal-

luzinogene) sind psychoaktive Substanzen,
welche Wahrnehmung, Affekte sowie eine Reihe
kognitiver Prozesse intensiv verändern können.
Die Mehrheit ihrer Vertreter gilt als physiologisch
sicher und nicht addiktiv. Ihre Geschichte reicht
bis in prähistorische Zeit zurück. Mit der Ent-
deckung der Wirkstoffe Meskalin, Lysergsäuredi-
ethylamid (LSD), Dimethyltryptamin (DMT) und
Psilocybin begann sowohl ihre wissenschaftliche
Erforschung als auch die Verbreitung ihres nicht
medizinischen Gebrauchs. Psychedelika stellen
eine pharmakologisch, psychometrisch und tier-
experimentell abgrenzbare Substanzklasse dar,
die zunehmend im Interesse der medizinischen
Grundlagen- und Therapieforschung steht. Dieses
Kapitel strebt hinsichtlich der relevanten Wissens-
gebiete einen ausgewogenen Kurzüberblick über
die Substanzklasse und ihre wichtigsten Vertreter
an, wobei dem historisch komplexen Wirkgefüge
zwischen Medizin- und Sozialgeschichte der
Substanzklasse ein Schwerpunkt gewidmet ist.
 Albert Hofmann
Chemie.de • 2008
Albert Hofmann • 11. Januar 1906 in Baden, Aargau ist
ein promovierter Schweizer Chemiker und der Entdecker des LSDs.
 
Inhaltsverzeichnis
• 1 Leben
• 2 Forschungsarbeiten
• 2.1 Mutterkorn und LSD
• 2.1.1 Der bewusste LSD-Selbstversuch
• 2.2 Abseits von LSD
• 3 Hofmanns Ansichten
• 4 Ehrungen
• 5 Schriften
• 6 Literatur
• 7 Film
• 8 Hörspiel-/CD-Produktionen
• 9 Quellen
Leben
Albert Hofmann wuchs als Ältester von vier Geschwistern auf, der Vater war Werkzeug-
macher. Als sein Vater schwer erkrankte, musste er zum Familienunterhalt mit beitra-
gen und absolvierte daher eine kaufmännische Lehre. Währenddessen bereitete er
sich auf seine Matura vor. Sein Patenonkel finanzierte ihm das Studium. Hofmann be-
gann 1925 sein Chemiestudium an der Universität Zürich und wurde vier Jahre später
mit Auszeichnung promoviert. Anschließend war er für mehr als vier Jahrzehnte bis
zu seiner Pensionierung 1971 bei Sandoz in Basel tätig. Im Jahr 1943 entdeckte er die
halluzinogene Wirkung des LSD. Heute lebt er auf der Rittimatte-Alm am Rande des
Jura. Anlässlich seines 100. Geburtstags fand vom 13. bis 15. Januar 2006 in Basel das
Symposium „LSD – Sorgenkind und Wunderdroge“ statt.
Forschungsarbeiten Mutterkorn und LSD
Im Rahmen von Arzneimittelforschungen mit dem Getreidepilz Mutterkorn und unter der
Zielsetzung, ein Kreislaufstimulans zu entwickeln, synthetisierte Hofmann 1938 verschie-
dene Amid-Derivate der Lysergsäure, darunter – als 25. Substanz dieser Versuchsreihe – das
Diethylamid LSD-25. In Tierversuchen löste der Stoff Unruhe unter den Tieren aus, zeigte
aber keine verwertbaren oder pharmakologisch interessanten Eigenschaften und wurde
daher nicht weiter untersucht. 1943 entschied sich Hofmann dennoch, LSD noch einmal
herzustellen. Während der Laborarbeit veranlasste plötzliche Unruhe und Unwohlsein ihn,
seine Arbeit abzubrechen und heimzufahren. Zu Hause angekommen, hatte er bei ge-
schlossenen Augen für ca. zwei Stunden intensive kaleidoskopartige, farbige Visionen. Ver-
mutlich hatte er unbeabsichtigt und auf ungeklärte Weise eine Spur LSD aufgenommen.
Der bewusste LSD-Selbstversuch
Um diesem ungewöhnlichen Erlebnis auf den Grund zu gehen, entschied er sich, die Sub-
stanz mit der kleinsten für ihn denkbaren wirksamen Dosis im Selbstversuch zu testen, und
protokollierte das Erlebnis:[1]
16:20 Einnahme der Substanz
17:00 Beginnender Schwindel, Angstgefühl, Sehstörungen, Lähmungen, Lachreiz.
Mit Velo nach Hause. Von 18 – ca. 20 Uhr schwerste Krise, siehe Spezialbericht:
Die letzten Worte konnte ich nur mit großer Mühe niederschreiben. […] die Veränderun-
gen und Empfindungen waren von der gleichen Art [wie gestern], nur viel tiefgreifender.
Ich konnte nur noch mit größter Anstrengung verständlich sprechen, und bat meine Labo-
rantin, die über den Selbstversuch informiert war, mich nach Hause zu begleiten. Schon
auf dem Heimweg mit dem Fahrrad […] nahm mein Zustand bedrohliche Formen an. Alles
in meinem Gesichtsfeld schwankte und war verzerrt wie in einem gekrümmten Spiegel.
Auch hatte ich das Gefühl, mit dem Fahrrad nicht vom Fleck zu kommen. Indessen sagte mir später
meine Assistentin, wir seien sehr schnell gefahren. [Zu Hause angelangt] wurden Schwindel und
Ohnmachtsgefühl zeitweise so stark, daß ich mich nicht mehr aufrecht halten konnte und mich auf
ein Sofa hinlegen mußte. Meine Umgebung hatte sich nun in beängstigender Weise verwandelt.
[…] die vertrauten Gegenstände nahmen groteske, meist bedrohliche Formen an. Sie waren in dau-
ernder Bewegung, wie belebt, wie von innerer Unruhe erfüllt. Die Nachbarsfrau […] war nicht mehr
Frau R., sondern eine bösartige, heimtückische Hexe mit einer farbigen Fratze. etc. etc.“
~ Albert Hofmann: Protokoll des LSD-Selbstversuchs
nus wirkende Substanz enthalten, die bei Schwangeren zur Einleitung der Wehen genutzt werden
kann.(Quelle?)
Abseits von LSD
Hofmann erforschte außerdem andere psychoaktive Stoffe wie Psilocybin, psilocinhaltige Pilze, auch
bekannt als Teonanacatl oder Zauberpilze, die LSA-haltigen Samen der Prunkwinden und der Ololiu-
qui sowie das Salvinorin, der Wahrsager- oder Zaubersalbei Salvia divinorum. Weiterhin isolierte und
synthetisierte er die Wirkstoffe bedeutender Arzneipflanzen, um deren Wirkungen zu untersuchen.

Später beim Ausklang des Rausches: Hofmanns Ansichten

Jetzt begann ich allmählich, das unerhörte Farben- und Formenspiel zu genießen, das hinter meinen Hofmann setzt sich zeit seines Lebens dafür ein, dass psychedelische Substanzen wie das LSD zu
geschlossenen Augen andauerte. Kaleidoskopartig sich verändernd drangen bunte phantastische Forschungszwecken legalisiert werden sollen. Optimistisch äußert er die Ansicht, die richtige An-
Gebilde auf mich ein, in Kreisen und Spiralen sich öffnend und wieder schließend, in Farbfontänen wendung von LSD in der menschlichen Kultur sei eine Frage der Zeit.[3]
zersprühend, sich neu ordnend und kreuzend, in ständigem Fluß. Besonders merkwürdig war, wie alle
akustischen Wahrnehmungen, etwa das Geräusch Als in den USA in den 1960er Jahren Timothy Leary
einer Türklinke oder eines vorbeifahrenden Autos, den Massenkonsum von LSD propagierte, übte
sich in optische Empfindungen verwandelten. Hofmann starke Kritik. Mit der Substanz müsse
Jeder Laut erzeugte ein in Form und Farbe ent- vorsichtig umgegangen werden, es handle sich
sprechendes, lebendig wechselndes Bild.“ nicht um eine Genussdroge. Als in dieser Zeit der
CIA zu Forschungszwecken LSD an nicht darüber
~ Albert Hofmann: Protokoll informierte Versuchspersonen verabreichte (mit
des LSD-Selbstversuchs einem folgenschweren Todesfall),[4] bezeichnete
er diese Vorgehensweise als Verbrechen.[5]
Nachträglich stellte sich heraus, dass es sich bei
der von ihm gewählten Dosis (ca. 250 µg) um das Je tiefer man in die lebendige Natur hineinsieht,
drei- bis fünffache der (aus heutiger Sicht) normal desto wunderbarer erkennt man sie. Ich glaube,
wirksamen Dosis handelte. LSD gehört zu den man fühlt sich dann auch geborgen. Man gehört
potentesten und stärksten bekannten Halluzino- ja zu ihr, man kann sie sehen, man kann sie er-
genen (vgl. DMT, Psilocin). Er selbst resümierte leben. Das Bewusstsein ist schon das größte Ge-
später die zufällig geschehene Entdeckung mit schenk des Schöpfers an die Menschen; dass man
den Worten: „Das LSD ist zu mir gekommen“.[2] ein Bewusstsein hat und wir uns unserer Schöp-
Seine von starken Halluzinationen begleitete fung bewusst werden können – nicht nur einfach
Fahrradfahrt vom Labor nach Hause ging unter blind durch das Paradies gehen.“
dem Namen „Fahrradtag“ (Bicycle-Day) in die Ge-
schichte der LSD-Kultur ein. Das Mutterkorn fand ~ Albert Hofmann: im Fernsehinterview zur 3sat-Do-
dennoch Anwendung in der Medizin, da dessen kumentation LSD – Wunderdroge und Horrortrip – Al-
Inhaltsstoffe unter anderem eine auf den To- bert Hofmann, der Erfinder des LSD wird 100, 2005
 Ehrungen
• Für sein wissenschaftliches Werk wurde ihm mehrfach
die Ehrendoktorwürde verliehen.
• 2007 wurde er nach einer Umfrage im Auftrag der Tag-
eszeitung Guardian unter 4.000 Briten zu dem bedeu-
tendsten lebenden Genie gewählt („world’s top 10 living
geniuses“).[6]
Schriften
• LSD – mein Sorgenkind. Die Entdeckung einer „Wunder-
droge“. Klett-Cotta, Stuttgart 1979, ISBN 3-608-94300-5
• Pflanzen der Götter. Die magischen Kräfte der Rausch-
und Giftgewächse (mit Richard E. Schultes). Hallwag,
Bern 1980
• Neuausgabe: AT, Aarau 1995, ISBN 3-85502-645-9
• Einsichten – Ausblicke. Essays, Sphinx, Basel 1986
• überarbeitete und ergänzte Neu-Auflage: Nachtschat-
ten, Solothurn 2003, ISBN 978-3-907080-93-1
• Naturwissenschaft & mystische Welterfahrung. Eine
Volkspredigt. Grüne Kraft, Löhrbach 1992, ISBN 3-
925817-50-6
• Lob des Schauens. Mit Fotos von Werner Huber. Nachts-
chatten, Solothurn 2002, ISBN 3-907080-84-X
Literatur
• Mathias Bröckers: Trans Psychedelischer Express. Eleu-
sis – Basel – Babylon – und weiter. Nachtschatten, Solo-
thurn 2002, ISBN 3-907080-89-0
• Mathias Bröckers / Roger Liggenstorfer: Albert Hof-
mann und die Entdeckung des LSD. Auf dem Weg nach
Eleusis. AT, Aarau 2006, ISBN 978-3-03800-276-5
• Günter Engel / Paul Herrling: Grenzgänge – Albert Hof-
mann zum 100. Geburtstag, Schwabe, Basel 2006, ISBN
978-3-7965-2210-9
Film
• Hofmann’s Potion. Dokumentarfilm, Kanada, 2002, 56
Min., Regie: Connie Littlefield, Produktion: National Film
Board of Canada, Inhaltsangabe
Hörspiel-/CD-Produktionen
• Lob des Schauens. Ein Portrait zum 95. Geburtstag des
LSD-Entdeckers Albert Hofmann, Audio-CD, Nachtschat-
ten, Solothurn 2001, ISBN 978-3-907080-83-2
• Erinnerungen eines Psychonauten. Von der Entdeck-
ung entheogener Drogen, Audio-CD (Originaltonauf-
nahmen) [7], hg. v. Thomas Knoefel, supposé Köln 2003,
ISBN 978-3-932513-38-1
• Die Eleusinischen Mysterien und ihre Bedeutung für die
moderne Welt, DVD-Box, AVR 2004, ISBN 978-3-938317-
06-8
• Hofmanns Elixier oder Die Welt ist perfekt. 2005, 43 Min.,
Regie: Regine Ahrem, Musik: Michael Rodach, Produktion:
Rundfunk Berlin-Brandenburg [8]
• Literatur von und über Albert Hofmann im Katalog der
Deutschen Nationalbibliothek
Wikiquote: Albert Hofmann – Zitate
• LSD – mein Sorgenkind» in englischer Übersetzung
• Albert Hofmann bei Erowid (englisch)
• LSD – Sorgenkind und Wunderdroge: Internationales
Symposium zum 100. Geburtstag von Albert Hofmann.
13. – 15. Januar 2006 – Kongresszentrum Basel, Sch-
weiz.
• Albert Hofmann Foundation
• Kalenderblatt: „18.04.1943: Albert Hofmann entdeckt
das LSD“, BR, 18. April 2007
Interviews
• Stanislav Grof interviews Dr. Albert Hofmann − Esalen
Institute, Big Sur, California, 1984
• Wenn man im Paradies lebt, will man ja nicht so schnell weg“,
Telepolis, 11. Januar 2006, ein Gespräch mit Dr. Albert Hof-
mann und Mathias Bröckers zu Hofmanns 100. Geburtstag
 Videos

• Albert Hofmanns Dankes- und Schlussrede an seinem 100.

Geburtstag in Basel, ca. 4 Min.
• A. Hofmann unterscheidet Psychedelica von süchtig ma-
chenden Drogen, Januar 1999 , ca. 2 Min.

Quellen

1. zitiert aus dem Handbuch der Rauschdrogen, Wolfgang

Schmidbauer & Jürgen vom Scheidt, S. Fischer Verlag, ISBN 3-
596-13980-5
2. Das LSD ist zu mir gekommen“, taz, 11. Januar 2006, Inter-
view zum 100. Geburtstag
3. Video-Dokumentation „Hofmann’s Potion“ von Connie Little-
field, 2002   Hofmann’s Potion in der Internet Movie Database
(englisch)
4. Der Fall Dr. Olson
5. BBC Video-Dokumentation „LSD, The Beyond Within“ von
Max Whitby, 1986
6. Sheer genius: from the web to Homer Simpson“, The Guard-
ian, 29. Oktober 2007
7. Besprechung von ›Psychonauten‹ in 3sat, 2005
8. Inhaltsangabe der ARD mit Audio-Ausschnitten
 The substance ou l’histoire
mouvementée du LSD [110]
Médecine/Sciences • 2013

François Beck1, Nicolas Bonnet2

1 Sociologue, statisticien,chercheur au Cermes 3

ÉquipeCesames (Centre de recherche médecine, sciences, santé
santé mentale, société), université Paris Descartes
Sorbonne Paris Cité/CNRS UMR 8211/Inserm U988/EHESS)
45, rue des Saints-Pères, 75270 Paris Cedex 06, France
2 Pharmacien en santé publique, directeur du réseau
des établissements de santé pour la prévention des addictions (RESPADD)
96, rue Didot, 75014 Paris, France
francois.beck@gmail.com
nicolas.bonnet@respadd.org

Cet article fait le point sur les connaissances récentes is-

sues de différentes disciplines allant de la pharmacologie à
la sociologie et à l’épidémiologie sur le LSD, substance hal-
lucinogène particulièrement puissante produisant des dis-
torsions et des hallucinations auditives, visuelles et tactiles.
Rarement expérimentée (seuls 1,7 % des 15-64 ans l’ont déjà
essayée), cette drogue très puissante suscite une appréhen-
sion très forte au sein de la population, mais les enquêtes
ethnographiques montrent que son image apparaît plutôt
bonne parmi les usagers de drogues. Cette représentation
est liée à la fois aux effets du LSD et à une histoire du produit
très liée à la contre-culture des années 1960-1970.
 Haliucinogeniniai grybai [218]
Medicina (Kaunas) 2005

Adresas susirašinėti: D. Reingardienė

KMU Intensyviosios terapijos klinika
Eivenių 2, 50009 Kaunas

Dagmara Reingardienė, Jolita Vilčinskaitė1, Robertas Lažauskas2

Kauno medicinos universiteto Intensyviosios terapijos klinika
1Kauno medicinos universiteto klinikų Centrinis reanimacijos ir intensyviosios terapijos skyrius
2Kauno medicinos universiteto Fiziologijos katedra

Raktažodžiai: haliucinogeniniai grybai, psilocibinas, psilocinas, psichoak-

tyviosios medžiagos. Santrauka. Haliucinogeninių grybų grupė (kiškiabudės,
karteklės, mėšlinuko, skydabudės, glotniagalvės, gleiviabudės rūšys) yra
psilocibino turintys grybai. Šie magiški psichoaktyvūs grybai turi serotoner-
ginio haliucinogeno psilocibino. Psilocibinas ir jo aktyvus metabolitas psi-
locinas yra panašūs į lizerginės rūgšties dietilamidą (LSD). Jie greitai suke-
lia centrinės nervų sistemos pokyčių: ataksiją, hiperkinezę ir haliucinacijas.
Šiame apžvalginiame straipsnyje analizuojama haliucinogeninių grybų var-
tojimo istorija, epidemiologija, psilocibino farmakodinamika ir farmakoki-
netika, apsinuodijimo šiais grybais klinika, gydymas bei prognozė.
 Nyfikenhet utan gränser
[new knowledge without limits]

Aldous Huxley prövade hallucinogener för att rikta blicken mot en annan värld

[Aldous Huxley tested hallucinogens to direct his eyes to another world]

By Lars Sjöstrand • December 2015

psykiater och beroendeläkare

larsocsjostrand@gmail.com

När Aldous Huxley den 22 november 1963 låg någon verkan alls. Men han konstaterade att Hux-
döende i terminalstadiet av en metastaserad ley slutade sitt liv mycket fridfullt.  Huxleys sista
tungcancer, bad han – för matt att tala mera önskan var slutpunkten på tio års experimenter-
– sin hustru Laura om en papperslapp. På den ande med hallucinogener. Men egentligen följde
skrev han: »LSD – try it intermuscular. 100 mm.«   han ett spår i sin personliga utveckling som gick
ännu längre tillbaka.
Laura berättar om detta i sin självbiografiska
bok, »This timeless moment«. Inget kunde hin- Huxley föddes 1894 in i en engelsk intellektuell
dra henne att uppfylla makens önskan och hon och liberal aristokrati. Hans farfar var den berömde
gav själv injektionen. Några timmar senare avled Thomas Henry Huxley, stor biolog och företrädare
han. Han vårdades i hemmet i Los Angeles, hans för utvecklingsläran. »Darwins bulldog« har han kal-
stad sedan flera år. Läkare och sköterska fanns på lats. Huxleys far var lärare i klassiska språk och blev
plats. Även om läkaren, dr Cutler, var tveksam till själv berömd för en biografi över sin far. Huxleys äl-
att ge LSD, föll han till föga; enligt hans bedömn- dre bror, sedermera adlad till sir Julian Huxley, var
ing skulle injektionen i detta skede knappast ha biolog med vidsträckta intressen och med tiden
generalsekreterare för Unesco. En yngre halvbror, Andrew Huxley, blev läkare och framstående fysi-
olog; han mottog Nobelpriset i medicin några veckor efter Huxleys död.
Huxleys planer på att själv bli läkare hämmades av en svår ögoninfektion när han var 17 år, som gjorde
honom i det närmaste blind under ett drygt år. Den läkte ut, men lämnade kvar bestående grumlin-
gar i hornhinnorna, som satte ned hans syn för resten av livet. Så blev han författare i stället. Seende,
blindhet och kroppens begränsningar av vår inre och yttre perception är teman som återkommer i
hans författarskap. Han debuterade 1916 med en diktsamling, »The burning wheel«, men det är främst
som romanförfattare och essäist han är känd. Sammanlagt publicerade han 56 böcker. Han var en fi-
losofisk författare i en tradition som går tillbaka till Platon. I Huxleys berättarteknik ingår dialoger och
långa monologer, där livshållningar förmedlas och bryts mot varandra. Särskilt hans tidigare förfat-
tarskap har en satirisk udd som riktar sig mot det moderna livets ytlighet. Hans mest berömda bok,
»Brave new world« (1932), är en framtidsdystopi, som skildrar ett samhälle där social ingenjörskonst
i kombination med kollektivism och massproduktion nästan helt utplånat all individualitet. Männis-
korna är framodlade i stora befruktningskantiner till genetiskt determinerade typer med bestämda
roller i den sociala hierarkin. Sexualiteten är frigjord från all barnalstring och kanaliseras i en själlös
promiskuitet. Skulle en person olyckligtvis drabbas av en mer individuellt inriktad åtrå, finns ett sexu-
alregleringstuggummi till hands.
Historielösheten är satt i system; litterära klassiker är förbjudna, och den enda religion som är tillåten
är en åkallan till Ford. En drog, soma, spelar en central roll som ett lättillgängligt lyckomedel och reds-
kap för social kontroll. Även om Huxley var en samtidskritiker, fanns det hos honom också ett inåtvänt
kontemplativt drag. Redan som ung student i Oxford hade han fascinerats av religiös mystik, något
som accidentellt skymtar fram i hans tidiga författarskap för att framträda tydligare mot slutet av hans
liv. En återkommande tanke var att tillvaron består av parallella världar; vid sidan om våra medvetna
upplevelser finns en annan verklighet. 
Huxley läste 1953 en artikel av en engelsk psykiater, Humphry Osmond, verksam på ett mentalsjukhus
i den kanadensiska provinsen Saskatchewan. I artikeln argumenterades för meskalin som medel att
förstå schizofreni. Huxley skrev till Osmond och förklarade varför meskalin lockade honom. Vårt nor-
mala jag, hävdade han med hänvisning till den franske filosofen Bergson, begränsar och selekterar
erfarenheter ur vårt vidsträckta medvetande enligt en nyttoprincip, så att bara det som är biologiskt
fördelaktigt finns tillgängligt för oss. Men sjukdom, emotionell chock, meskalin, kontemplativ mystik
och estetiska upplevelser kan blockera det normala jaget i dess diskriminerande funktion, så att i stäl-
let erfarenheter av den »andra världen« når upp till medvetandet.  Huxley ville söka en harmoniser-
ing mellan det normala jaget och denna andra värld. Därför bad han om ett sammanträffande med
Osmond under en psykiatrisk kongress som skulle hållas i maj 1953 i Los Angeles. Huxley ville pröva
meskalin under Osmonds överinseende. Så blev det också. Hemma hos Huxley löste Osmond upp 400
mg kristalliskt meskalin i ett halvt glas vatten, som värden sedan svalde.
Huxleys förväntningar på vad meskalinruset skulle kunna ge infriades. Med ett maximum under 5–6
timmar skedde en mystisk transcendens. Genomgående framträdde starka färgsensationer som hela
tiden växlade, och tingen framträdde som ting i sig, i sin »Istigkeit«, för att använda ett begrepp hos
den tyske medeltidsmystikern Mäster Eckhart, som Huxley citerar i den skildring som han 1954 gav i
»The doors of perception«. De hade avklätts den barlast av spatiala relationer och begreppsmässiga
innebörder som annars hör till vårt normala seende. Det var som när Adam såg världen för första
gången.  Tingen framträdde som rena former och färger. Huxley jämför med kubistiska målningar av
Juan Gris och Georges Braque. Det egna jaget tycktes upplöst. Även om meskalinruset i huvudsak var
angenämt, fanns det också ett inslag av fruktan. Huxley stod inför ett »mysterium tremendum« när
transcendensen överväldigade honom . I januari 1955 hade Huxley sitt andra och sista meskalinrus,
också nu under Osmonds överinseende. Men denna gång intog han drogen i en gruppseans. Det
ruset fick en helt annan social karaktär än det tidigare. Nu levandegjordes för honom det kristna buds-
kapet (Matteus 7:1) »… döm inte, så blir ni inte dömda …«, och ett buddhistiskt ordspråk, »… att sätta
det du gillar mot det du inte gillar, det är en själens sjukdom«. Den överväldigande känslan, som hans
meskalinrus lämnade efter sig, var tacksamhet. »The doors of perception« blev en kultbok för 1960-ta-
lets hippierörelse. Popgruppen The Doors fick sitt namn från den. Huxley lärde känna Albert Hoffman,
LSD:s upptäckare, och han hade kontakter med Timothy Leary, den urspårade Harvardprofessorn som
blev den psykedeliska rörelsens apostel. Det var Leary som försett Laura med LSD att använda som
lindring för sin döende make. 1956 gav Huxley ut »Heaven and hell«, där han med stor lärdom ger en
fenomenlogisk redogörelse för mystik samt estetiska och drogrelaterade upplevelser, som han menar
är besläktade med mystiken.
Hur många hallucinogena rus Huxley hade under sina sista tio år går inte att med säkerhet ange, men
sannolikt rörde det sig förutom om de två nämnda med meskalin också om två med psilocybin, ett 1961
under ett gruppexperiment, vilket leddes av Timothy Leary, samt ett 1962, som Laura redogör för i »This
timeless moment«; hon förde protokoll under seansen. Därtill kommer sex LSD-rus, vari ingår hans ter-
minala rus. För en journalist berättade han att rusupplevelserna kan variera för människor, så att de för 70
procent är goda och positiva; för en mindre andel skrämmande eller helt likgiltiga. Men för hans del hade
upplevelserna alltid varit goda. I »The doors of perception« för Huxley ett resonemang som går ut på att
människan har ett behov av att öppna en »dörr i väggen« för att undslippa tillvarons påfrestningar. I vår
kultur har alkohol och tobak blivit legala medel för att öppna denna dörr, men dessa droger för med sig
sjukdomar och annat elände, varför man borde utveckla drogteknologin till att framställa en drog med-
goda egenskaper liknande meskalins, men helt utan toxiska biverknin-
gar.  Den fick inte vara vanebildande. Vi lär känna den drogen i Huxleys
sista roman »Island« (1962), som är en god utopi till skillnad från dystopin
»Brave new world«. Den utspelar sig på ön Pala i Indiska oceanen, som
i sekler styrts av en buddhistisk dynasti. I början av 1800-talet landade
en skotsk läkare på ön, och han kom att bli rådgivare åt kungen. Som
ett resultat av detta samarbete som fortsatt genom släktleden har Pala
blivit en lycklig förening av buddhistisk levnadskonst och västerländsk
rationalitet. Med sina klippiga kuster har ön inte lockat utomstående.
Folket är pacifistiskt; man har ingen armé. Till ön kommer i romanens
nutid en främling som invigs i Palas kultur och sociala liv, bland annat
i bruket av moksha-medicin. Moksha är sanskrit och betyder frigörelse.
Det är en drog med hallucinogena egenskaper, utvunnen ur en svamp.
Den bereds i stora laboratorier.  I Pala finns specialiserade kunskaper om
transcendentala upplevelser och mok-sha-medicin genom forskning i
bland annat neuroteologi, mykomysticism och tanatologi. Förutom att
ge transcendentala upplevelser kan moksha-medicin också användas
vid rehabiliteringen av kriminella. I romanen får vi en detaljerad skildring
av ett rus framkallat av moksha-medicin. Enligt »This time-less moment«
går skildringen tillbaka på paret Huxleys gemensamma erfarenheter av
LSD. Likheterna med tidigare meskalinrus är slående. Men förutom de
visuella komponenterna framhålls också hur tids-känslan påverkas. Man
lyssnar på Bachs fjärde Brandenburgkonsert. Musiken flödar i ett tem-
po, som metronomen kan ange, men det är ett tempo utan egentlig tid.
Musiken vilar i en euforisk evighet. Huvudpersonen förklarar skrattande
att denna evighet är »lika verklig som skit«. Huxley idealiserade de hal-
lucinogena rusen och underskattade hur oförutsägbara de kan vara.
Man kan också ifrågasätta hur autentiska hans russkildringar är. Han var
främst författare och hans russkildringar förefaller anpassade till hans
förväntningar och antaganden om rusets plats i en sekulariserad reli-
gion som han hoppades på. Vad drog Huxley till dessa droger? Han var
rastlös, extremt intelligent, öppet sökande och samtidigt harmonisk. Till
sin livsföring var han närmast en renlevnadsman.  Hans gränslösa ny-
fikenhet kanaliserades i encyklopedisk beläsenhet, kreativ fantasi och
ständiga resor.  Den ledde honom också till att med kemins hjälp rikta
blicken mot en annan värld.
 Histoire du LSD:
De l’ergot de seigle
à l’utilisation thérapeutique [242, 85]
Presse Medical France • 2015

Thomas Gicquel 1,2,3, SylvieLepage 1, IsabelleMorel 1,2,3

1. CHU Rennes, laboratoire de toxicologie

biologique et médico-légale
35033 Rennes, France
2. Université Rennes1, faculté de pharmacie
35043 Rennes, France
3. Inserm, UMR 99. Foie, Métabolismes et Cancer
35043 Rennes, France
Correspondance:
Thomas Gicquel, laboratoire de toxicologie
biologique et médico-légale
CHU Pontchaillou, 35033 Rennes, France
thomas.gicquel@chu-rennes.fr
[English Title Translation] LSD history:
From ergot to therapeutic applications

Le LSD, del’allemand Lysergsäure diethylamid, est une

substance hallucinogène utilisé e à but récréatif. Égale-
ment connue sous le nom d’«acide», cette molécule à
propriétés psychotropes est classée en Francec omme
un stupéfiant illicit eselon l’arrêté du 22 février 1990 [1].
Très consommé dans les années 1960–1970, le LSD est
intimement lié à la culture hippie, même si aujourd’hui,
sa consommation se fait surtout dans les rave parties.
 Synesthesieën in het kader van de
persisterende waarnemingsstoornis door
hallucinogenen na gebruik van lsd [109]
Tudshrift Voor Psychiatrie • December 2014

By A. Neven1 and J.D. Blom2

1Psychiater bij Palier, Parnassia Groep, Den Haag

tevens: Landelijke Expertise- en Innovatiecentrum
Dubbele Diagnose (LEDD)
2Psychiater en plaatsvervangendopleider psychiatrie
Parnassia Groep, Den Haag; tevens
universitair docent, vakgroep Psychiatrie
Rijksuniversiteit Groningen

De persisterende waarnemingsstoornis door hallucinogenen

(hallucinogen-induced persistent perception disorder, hppd)
is een hinderlijke complicatie van hallucinogeengebruik. Wij
beschrijven een kunstenaar met visuele, akoestische en olfac-
torische hallucinaties alsmede chromatisch-fonemische synes-
thesieën die twee jaar voortduurden na het stoppen van lyse
rgeenzuurdiëthylamide(lsd)-gebruik. Deze casus laat zien dat
in het kader van hppd ook synesthesieën kunnen voorkomen,
die in fenomenologische zin bovendien kunnen afwijken van
het bekende ‘kleuren horen’ dat bekend is bij middelengebruik.
 Rezidivierende kortikale Blindheit
nach LSD-Einnahme
Recurrent Cortical Blindness
After LSD-Intake [546]
Fortschritte Neurology and Psychiatry • 2009

Autoren M. K. Bernhard1, K. Ulrich2

1 Universitätsklinik und Poliklinik für Kinder und Jugendliche, Leipzig

2 Neurologische Klinik der Universität Erlangen, Erlangen

Rezidivierende Sehstörungen assoziiert mit Kopfschmerzen lassen vor

allem an Migräne denken. Ein 15-jähriges Mädchen litt an einfacher Mi-
gräne. Fünf Tage nach erstmaligem nachgewiesenen LSD-Konsum bekam
die Patientin Kopfschmerzen und Übelkeit. Wenig später entwickelte sich
innerhalb von Sekunden eine vollständige Blindheit beider Augen, die 48 h
lang anhielt. Die erhaltene Lichtreaktion der Pupille sprach für eine Rinden-
blindheit. MRT und MR-Angiografie des Schädels, Liquoranalyse, Gerin-
nungs- und Thrombophilieparameter waren unauffällig, im EEG war eine
seitengleiche überlagernde Deltaverlangsamung über okzipital auffällig.
In den folgenden 3 Monaten hatte das Mädchen 3 weitere Episoden mit
passagerer Blindheit von 12 – 36 h Dauer. Im Intervall und in der nach-
folgenden Beobachtungszeit von 24 Monaten traten keine Sehstörungen
auf, die Kontrolldiagnostik mit Langzeitblutdruckmessung, Doppler-So-
nografie der Halsgefäße und visuell evozierten Potenzialen waren ohne
pathologischen Befund. Im EEG persistierten die okzipitalen Verlangsa-
mungen über 18 Monate. Die für eine komplizierte Migräne ungewöhn-
lich lange und ausgeprägte Sehstörung macht denkbar, dass es sich um
durch die LSD-Einnahme verursachte Flashback-Symptome handelte. Es
ist möglich, dass bei vorbestehender Migräne LSD-Konsum zusätzliche,
lokale kortikale Dysfunktionen z. B. im Okzipital-Bereich triggern kann.

Recurrent disturbances of vision associated with headaches are typical

signs of a migraine. A15-year-old girl suffered from common migraine. The
patient had a headache and nausea five days after a first and proved intake
of LSD. Shortly later, a complete blindness of both eyes developed within
seconds. These symptoms continued for 48 hours. As the pupillar reac-
tions were intact the findings
were consistent with cortical
blindness. MRI and MR-angi-
ography of the brain, analy-
sis of the cerebrospinal fluid
and blood investigations for
thrombophilia were normal.
The EEG showed a bilateral
symmetrical delta wave slow-
ing over the occipital areas.
Within the following three
months the girl had three
more episodes with a com-
plete blindness over a pe-
riod of 12 – 36 hours. There
have never been any visual
disturbances in between the
episodes and afterwards.
Extended diagnosis with
long term blood pressure
measurement, Doppler so-
nography and visual evoked
potentials were normal. The
occipital slowing in the EEG
persisted for 18 months. As
the symptoms were unusu-
ally long and severe for a
complicated migraine it is
possible that the temporary
blindness was the correlate
of flash backs caused by the
LSD. LSD intake could trigger
additional, local cortical dys-
function (e.g. in the occipital
areas) in preexisting migraine.
The Discovery Of LSD In Cartoons • June 2006 • [320]
 Babies Demonstrate
The World’s Biggest Mind Control Secret
By S.W. Wentworth

Letter To The Editor • December 2016

This could be our human farmer’s biggest secret, which is exploited daily in
our culture. Humans are MIMICKERS, right out of the womb. What humans
see, they repeat. What our social engineers want on the street, they simply
throw up on the screen. This effect is well known to psychologists and it’s
known as The Cosby Effect.

In the late 1980’s Mr. and Mrs. Huxtable starred on The Cosby Show. Cliff
Huxtable (Bill Cosby) was a doctor and his wife Claire was a lawyer. African
American enrollment in medical and law school sky rocketed over 50% dur-
ing the running of this show. This was too uplighting of course for our social
engineers to handle so they threw up negative role modelling on TV’s around
the world for the African American community and as the black communities
were drowning in self destructive behaviors of all kinds, they actually called
this, “The Lil Wayne Effect”. Humans mimic. Period. In Burnaby BC, Canada ...
when the movie “Gone in 60 Seconds” premiered, car theft increased by 70
% in the first week after release. The movie of course was about car theft.
The statistics are clear, what you put on the screen ... you get on the streets
and this form of movie magic can be used for evil or for moral progres-
sion and ethical advancement of a culture. You already know what our mas-
ters of mind control are using it for in our society. Our society’s race to the
bottom is organized by the people who sit on top of the golden pyramid.

So if you ever ask yourself on a daily basis why people are so corrupt, un-
ethical, sexually depraved, perverse, inverted, self serving, dark, sadistic, self
centered, short sighted, violent, child-like and self abusive ... you need look
no further than the negative role modelling our human farmers purpose-
ly place up on the screens we watch. Here’s a prime example at this add-
ed link, just a couple of months ago ... a TV series called “The Santa Clairita
Diet” with Drew Barrymore and if you haven’t seen the preview, I dare you to
watch it. I am serious, I dare you to watch this 2 minute trailer after reading
this post. [ http://bit.ly/2n5GVkt ] If you want to know what’s going to hap-
pen on the street in a couple years, just watch the complete shit Hollywood
is pumping out into the defenseless minds of an uninformed public. It’s time
we all understood the tricks and it’s time everyone started to pay attention.”
 INCOMPLETE COPY
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THE LSD STORIES, THE CIA,
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 Since LSD and Psilocybin activate the
same receptors they’re often used inter-
changeably in laboratory research. Ear-
lier this year, the Beckley/Imperial Psi-
locybin and Depression study showed
that two low to medium doses of psilo-
cybin reduced depressive symptoms in
67 per cent of participants, with 42 per
cent remaining depression-free after
three months. Participants in this study
had all suffered from depression for at
least 18 years and been completely
unresponsive to any other forms of
treatment. Next year, a larger, placebo-
controlled study will be conducted to
verify these findings. And that’s not all.
In addition to the focus of psychedel-
ic-assisted therapy for depression and
anxiety, the Johns Hopkins team also
conducted a pilot study investigating
smoking addiction treatment with psi-
locybin. Results showed 80 per cent of
the smokers still hadn’t had a cigarette
at the six month check-up. Presently,
end-of-life care consists of supportive
counselling and pharmaceutical treat-
ments, such as antidepressants, to
quell feelings of isolation, depression
and anxiety commonly associated with
a diagnosis of terminal illness. However
most medications, along with psycho-
therapy, can take months to start work-
ing and are not effective for all patients.
Commonly prescribed drugs such as
the lsd stories • PAGE 1
 benzodiazepines may be addictive and can have
other unpleasant side effects. The approach
highlighted today, known as “psychedelic-
assisted psychotherapy” makes use of the
“magic mushroom” ingredient psi-
locybin. Various studies using this
approach over the last decade
have shown that giving people
psychedelics, with the sup-
port of psychotherapy, can
provide fundamental and
enduring changes much
quicker than counselling
alone. As a result, in re-
cent years, psilocybin has
received increasing atten-
tion in the clinical and sci-
entific research communi-
ties. LSD under an electron
microscope seen at right.

the lsd stories • PAGE 2

 The 3rd Edition of the Psychedelics Encyclopedia [361]
By Peter Stafford • 1978

“LSD is a very curious chemical. When given by injection, it disappears rapidly from the
blood. It can be observed when tagged with carbon 14 in all the tissues, particularly
the liver, spleen, kidneys and adrenal glands. The concentration found in the brain is
lower than in any other organ - being only about 0.01 percent of the administered dose.
Sidney Cohen, in The Beyond Within, has estimated that an average dose results in only
some 3,700,000 molecules of LSD, about 2/100ths of a microgram, crossing the blood-
brain barrier...”

“The Army engaged in covert “field operations” overseas. A notorious example is the
torture of James Thornwell, a black American soldier in France, who was suspected of
having stolen classified documents in 1961. We will probably never know the full story
on at least nine others, referred to as “foreign nationals,” whoe were subjected to the
Army’s LSD interrogation project, “Operation THIRD CHANCE.”

“Thornwell, then twenty-two, was first exposed to extreme stress, which included beat-
ings, solitary confinement, denial of water, food and sanitary facilities and steady verbal
abuse. After six weeks, he was given LSD without his knowledge. The interrogators
threatened “to extend [his shattered] state indefinitely,” according to an Army document
dug up later, “even to a permanent condition of insanity.” In the late 1970s, Thornwell
sued the US government for $10 million; the US House of Representatives approved a
compromise settlement of $650,000 in 1980.”

the lsd stories • PAGE 3

 Standardized Forms Of LSD • 1968 - 1970

the lsd stories • PAGE 4

 Aldous Huxley: Island
New York: Harper & Brothers • 1962

Published in 1962 shortly before his

death, Island was Aldous Huxley’s fi-
nal novel. Though remembered for
his dystopias Brave New World and
Brave New World Revisited, Huxley’s
final work depicts a utopia. The novel
centres around WWll Farnaby, who
deliberately shipwrecks his boat on
the forbidden South Sea island oi
Pala, where he learns the story of this
would-be perfect utopian society. The
Palanese chose to remain secluded
from the modern world, shunning in-
dustrialization and consumerism. Re-
fecting Huxley’s interest in Buddhism,
mysticism, and experimentation with
hallucinogenic drugs, the Palanese
believe in neither religion nor dogma,
but strive for a higher awareness of
earthly life and the life of the senses.
To this end they use a drug called the
‘moksha-medicine,’ to gain a glimpse
of the world as it looks to someone
who has been liberated from the
bondage of the ego and modern so-
ciety. It is through this realization, this
spiritual insight, that they find their
own perfect society, their own utopia.

the lsd stories • PAGE 5

 About The Author
Aldous Leonard Huxley ( July 26, 1894 - November 22, 1963) was a British writer. Best known for
his novels and wide-ranging output of essays, he also published short stories, poetry and travel
199 Pages [398] 1932 writing. Huxley was born in Godalming, Surrey, England, being a son of the writer Leonard Hux-
ley by his first wife, Julia Arnold; and grandson of Thomas Huxley. Julia died in 1908, when Aldous
was only thirteen. Three years later he suffered an illness which seriously damaged his eyesight.
His near-blindness disqualified him from service in World War I. Once his eyesight recovered,
he read English literature at Balliol College, Oxford. Huxley completed his first (unpublished)
novel at the age of seventeen and began writing seriously in his early twenties. He wrote great
novels on dehumanising aspects of scientific progress, most famously Brave New World, and on
pacifist themes (e.g. Eyeless in Gaza). Huxley was strongly influenced by F. Matthias Alexander
and included him as a character in Eyeless in Gaza. During World War I, he spent much of his
time at Garsington Manor, home of Lady Ottoline Morrell. Later, in Crome Yellow (1921) he cari-
catured the Garsington lifestyle, but remained friendly with the Morrells. He married Maria Nys,
whom he had met at Garsington. Huxley moved to Llano, California in 1937, but like his friend
the philosopher Gerald Heard who accompanied him, Huxley was denied citizenship since he
refused to ascribe his pacifism to religious beliefs. In 1938 he befriended J. Krishnamurti, whose
teachings he greatly admired. He became a Hindu in the circle of Swami Prabhavananda, and he
also introduced Christopher Isherwood to this circle. He started meditating and became a veg-
etarian. Thereafter, his works were strongly influenced by mysticism and his experiences with
the hallucinogenic drug mescaline, to which he was introduced by the psychiatrist Humphry
Osmond in 1953. Huxley’s psychedelic drug experiences are described in the essays The Doors
of Perception and Heaven and Hell. The title of the former became the inspiration for the nam-
ing of the rock band, The Doors. Some of his writings on psychedelics became frequent reading
among early hippies. His wife, Maria, died of breast cancer in 1955, and in 1956 he re-married,
to Laura Archera (Huxley). In 1960, Huxley was diagnosed with throat cancer. In the years that
followed, with his health deteriorating, he wrote the utopian novel Island, and gave lectures on
“Human Potentialities” at the Esalen institute. His ideas were foundational to the forming of the
Human Potential Movement. At a speech given in 1961 at the California Medical School in San
Francisco, Huxley said:

“There will be in the next generation or so a pharmacological method of making people love their
servitude and producing dictatorship without tears, so to speak, producing a kind of painless con-
centration camp for entire societies so that people will in fact have their liberties taken away from
them but will rather enjoy it.”

On his deathbed, unable to speak, he made a written request to his wife for “LSD, 100 μg, i.m.”
She obliged, injected him, and he died peacefully the following morning, November 22, 1963,
the same day as John F. Kennedy and C. S. Lewis.
 The Ultimate Revolution • 44:17 Minute MP3 [339]
By Aldous Huxley

Full Transcript • Berkeley Language Center • Speech Archive • March 20, 1962

Aldous Huxley, author of Brave New World, rated Moderator:

number one on the list, “Muse Top 100 Fiction
Books” list, user and advocate of the use of LSD {garbled} Aldous Huxley, a renowned Essayist and
and other hallucinogens, a man that requested Novelist who during the spring semester is resid-
and had 100 micrograms of LSD injected on his ing at the university in his capacity of a Ford re-
death bed, here discusses influence, controlling search professor. Mr Huxley has recently returned
the public mind and government. from a conference at the Institute for the study of
Democratic Institutions in Santa Barbara where
“There will be, in the next generation or so, a phar- the discussion focused on the development of
macological method of making people love their ser- new techniques by which to control and direct
vitude, and producing dictatorship without tears, so human behavior. Traditionally it has been possible
to speak, producing a kind of painless concentration to suppress individual freedom through the ap-
camp for entire societies, so that people will in fact plication of physical coercion through the appeal
have their liberties taken away from them, but will of ideologies through the manipulation of man’s
rather enjoy it, because they will be distracted from physical and social environment and more recent-
any desire to rebel by propaganda or brainwash- ly through the techniques, the cruder techniques
ing, or brainwashing enhanced by pharmacological of psychological conditioning. The Ultimate Revo-
methods. And this seems to be the final revolution.”  lution, about which Mr. Huxley will speak today,
concerns itself with the development of new be-
~ Aldous Huxley havioral controls, which operate directly on the
psycho-physiological organisms of man. That is

the lsd stories • PAGE 6

the capacity to replace external constraint by internal compulsions. As those of us who are familiar was (sounds like Mettenicht) said many years ago, you can do everything with {garbled} except sit on
with Mr. Huxley’s works will know, this is a subject of which he has been concerned for quite a period them. If you are going to control any population for any length of time, you must have some measure
of time. Mr. Huxley will make a presentation of approximately half an hour followed by some brief of consent, it’s exceedingly difficult to see how pure terrorism can function indefinitely. It can func-
discussions and questions by the two panelists sitting to my left, Mrs. Lillian {garbled} and Mr. John tion for a fairly long time, but I think sooner or later you have to bring in an element of persuasion an
Post. Now Mr. Huxley: element of getting people to consent to what is happening to them. It seems to me that the nature
of the ultimate revolution with which we are now faced is precisely this: That we are in process of
Huxley: Thank You. developing a whole series of techniques which will enable the controlling oligarchy who have always
existed and presumably will always exist to get people to love their servitude. This is the, it seems to
{Applause} me, the ultimate in malevolent revolutions shall we say, and this is a problem which has interested
me many years and about which I wrote thirty years ago, a fable, Brave New World, which is an ac-
Uh, First of all, the, I’d like to say, that the conference at Santa Barbara was not directly concerned with count of society making use of all the devices available and some of the devices which I imagined
the control of the mind. That was a conference, there have been two of them now, at the University to be possible making use of them in order to, first of all, to standardize the population, to iron out
of California Medical center in San Francisco, one this year which I didn’t attend, and one two years inconvenient human differences, to create, to say, mass produced models of human beings arranged
ago where there was a considerable discussion on in some sort of scientific caste system. Since then, I
this subject. At Santa Barbara we were talking about have continued to be extremely interested in this
technology in general and the effects it’s likely to problem and I have noticed with increasing dismay
have on society and the problems related to tech- a number of the predictions which were purely fan-
nological transplanting of technology into underde- tastic when I made them thirty years ago have come
veloped countries. true or seem in process of coming true.

Well now in regard to this problem of the ultimate A number of techniques about which I talked seem
revolution, this has been very well summed up by to be here already. And there seems to be a general
the moderator. In the past we can say that all revolu- movement in the direction of this kind of ultimate
tions have essentially aimed at changing the envi- revolution, a method of control by which a people
ronment in order to change the individual. I mean can be made to enjoy a state of affairs by which any
there’s been the political revolution, the economic decent standard they ought not to enjoy. This, the
revolution, in the time of the reformation, the re- enjoyment of servitude, Well this process is, as I say,
ligious revolution. All these aimed, not directly at has gone on for over the years, and I have become
the human being, but at his surroundings. So that Three expressions of the LSD molecule more and more interested in what is happening.
by modifying the surroundings you did achieve, did
one remove the effect of the human being. And here I would like briefly to compare the parable
of Brave New World with another parable which was put forth more recently in George Orwell’s book,
Today we are faced, I think, with the approach of what may be called the ultimate revolution, the Nineteen Eighty- Four. Orwell wrote his book between, I think between 45 and 48 at the time when
final revolution, where man can act directly on the mind-body of his fellows. Well needless to say the Stalinist terror regime was still in Full swing and just after the collapse of the Hitlerian terror
some kind of direct action on human mind-bodies has been going on since the beginning of time. regime. And his book which I admire greatly, it’s a book of very great talent and extraordinary inge-
But this has generally been of a violent nature. The Techniques of terrorism have been known from nuity, shows, so to say, a projection into the future of the immediate past, of what for him was the
time immemorial and people have employed them with more or less ingenuity sometimes with the immediate past, and the immediate present, it was a projection into the future of a society where
utmost cruelty, sometimes with a good deal of skill acquired by a process of trial and error finding control was exercised wholly by terrorism and violent attacks upon the mind-body of individuals.
out what the best ways of using torture, imprisonment, constraints of various kinds. But, as, I think it Whereas my own book which was written in 1932 when there was only a mild dictatorship in the

the lsd stories • PAGE 7

form of Mussolini in existence, was not overshadowed by the idea of terrorism, and I was therefore
free in a way in which Orwell was not free, to think about these other methods of control, these non-
violent methods and my, I’m inclined to think that the scientific dictatorships of the future, and I think
there are going to be scientific dictatorships in many parts of the world, will be probably a good deal
nearer to the brave new world pattern than to the 1984 pattern, they will a good deal nearer not
because of any humanitarian qualms of the scientific dictators
but simply because the BNW pattern is probably a good deal
more efficient than the other.
That if you can get people to consent to the state of affairs
in which they’re living. The state of servitude the state of
being, having their differences ironed out, and being made
amenable to mass production methods on the social level,
if you can do this, then you have, you are likely, to have
a much more stable and lasting society. Much more eas-
ily controllable society than you would if you were rely-
ing wholly on clubs and firing squads and concentration
camps. So that my own feeling is that the 1984 picture was
tinged of course by the immediate past and present in
which Orwell was living, but the past and present of those
years does not reflect, I feel, the likely trend of what is go-
ing to happen, needless to say we shall never get rid of ter-
rorism, it will always find its way to the surface.
But I think that insofar as dictators become more and more
scientific, more and more concerned with the technically
perfect, perfectly running society, they will be more and
more interested in the kind of techniques which I imagined
and described from existing realities in BNW. So that, it
seems to me then, that this ultimate revolution is not really
very far away, that we, already a number of techniques for
bringing about this kind of control are here, and it remains
to be seen when and where and by whom they will first be ap-
plied in any large scale.
And first let me talk about the, a little bit about the, improvement in the techniques of terrorism.
I think there have been improvements. Pavlov after all made some extremely profound observa-
tions both on animals and on human beings. And he found among other things that conditioning
techniques applied to animals or humans in a state either of psychological or physical stress sank
the lsd stories • PAGE 8
in so to say, very deeply into the mind-body of the creature, and were extremely difficult to get rid
of. That they seemed to be embedded more deeply than other forms of conditioning.
And this of course, this fact was discovered empirically in the past. People did make use of many
of these techniques, but the difference between the old empirical intuitive methods and our own
methods is the difference between the, a sort of, hit and miss
craftsman’s point of view and the genuinely scientific point
of view. I think there is a real difference between ourselves
and say the inquisitors of the 16th century. We know much
more precisely what we are doing, than they knew and we
can extend because of our theoretical knowledge, we can
extend what we are doing over a wider area with a greater
assurance of being producing something that really works.
In this context I would like to mention the extremely inter-
esting chapters in Dr. William (sounds like Seargent’s) Battle
for the Mind where he points out how intuitively some of the
great religious teachers/leaders of the past hit on the Pav-
lovian method, he speaks specifically of Wesley’s method of
producing conversions which were essentially based on the
technique of heightening psychological stress to the limit
by talking about hellfire and so making people extremely
vulnerable to suggestion and then suddenly releasing this
stress by offering hopes of heaven and this is a very inter-
esting chapter of showing how completely on purely intui-
tive and empirical grounds a skilled natural psychologist, as
Wesley was, could discover these Pavlovian methods. Well,
as I say, we now know the reason why these techniques
worked and there’s no doubt at all that we can if we wanted
to, carry them much further than was possible in the past.
And of course in the history of, recent history of brainwash-
ing, both as applied to prisoners of war and to the lower
personnel within the communist party in China, we see that
the pavlovian methods have been applied systematically and
with evidently with extraordinary efficacy. I think there can be no doubt that by the application
of these methods a very large army of totally devoted people has been created. The conditioning
has been driven in, so to say, by a kind of psychological iontophoresis into the very depths of the
people’s being, and has got so deep that it’s very difficult to ever be rooted out, and these methods,
I think, are a real refinement on the older methods of terror because they combine methods of ter-
ror with methods of acceptance that the person who is subjected to a form of terroristic stress but
for the purpose of inducing a kind of voluntary quotes acceptance of the
state the psychological state in which he has been driven and the state of
affairs in which he finds himself.

So there is, as I say, there has been a definite improvement in the, even
in the techniques of terrorism. But then we come to the consideration of
other techniques, non-terroristic techniques, for inducing consent and
inducing people to love their servitude. Here, I don’t think I can possibly
go into all of them, because I don’t know all of them, but I mean I can
mention the more obvious methods, which can now be used and are
based on recent scientific findings. First of all there are the methods con-
nected with straight suggestion and hypnosis.

I think we know much more about this subject than was known in the past.
People of course, always have known about suggestion, and although they
didn’t know the word ‘hypnosis’ they certainly practiced it in various ways.
But we have, I think, a much greater knowledge of the subject than in the
past, and we can make use of our knowledge in ways, which I think the
past was never able to make use of it. For example, one of the things we
now know for certain, that there is of course an enormous, I mean this has
always been known a very great difference between individuals in regard
to their suggestibility. But we now know pretty clearly the sort of statistical
structure of a population in regard to its suggestibility. Its very interesting
when you look at the findings of different fields, I mean the field of hypno-
sis, the field of administering placebos, for example, in the field of general
suggestion in states of drowsiness or light sleep you will find the same
sorts of orders of magnitude continually cropping up.

You’ll find for example that the experienced hypnotist will tell one that the
number of people, the percentage of people who can be hypnotized with
the utmost facility (snaps), just like that. is about 20%, and about a cor-
responding number at the other end of the scale are very, very difficult or
almost impossible to hypnotize. But in between lies a large mass of people
who can with more or less difficulty be hypnotized, that they can gradually
be if you work hard enough at it be got into the hypnotic state, and in the
same way the same sort of figures crop up again, for example in relation to
the administration of placebos.

A big experiment was carried out three of four years ago in the general
hospital in Boston on post-operative cases where several hundred men
the lsd stories • PAGE 9
and woman suffering comparable kinds of pain after serious operations were allowed to, were
given injections whenever they asked for them whenever the pain got bad, and the injections
were 50% of the time were of morphine, and 50% of water. And about twenty percent of those
who went through the experiment, about 20% of them got just as much relief from the distilled
waters as from the morphea. About 20% got no relief from the distilled water, and in- between
were those who got some relief or got relief occasionally.
So yet again, we see the same sort of distribution, and
similarly in regard to what in BNW I called Hypno-
pedia, the sleep teaching, I was talking not long
ago to a man who manufactures records which
people can listen to in the, during the light part of
sleep, I mean these are records for getting rich, for
sexual satisfaction (crowd laughs), for confidence
in salesmanship and so on, and he said that its
very interesting that these are records sold on a
money-back basis, and he says there is regularly
between 15% and 20% of people who write indig-
nantly saying the records don’t work at all, and he
sends the money back at once. There are on the
other hand, there are over 20% who write enthu-
siastically saying they are much richer, their sexual
life is much better (laughter) etc, etc. And these of
course are the dream clients and they buy more
of these records. And in between there are those
who don’t get much results and they have to have
letters written to them saying “Go persist my dear,
go on” (laughter) and you will get there, and they
generally do get results in the long run.
Well, as I say, on the basis of this, I think we see
quite clearly that the human populations can be
categorized according to their suggestibility fairly
clearly,. I suspect very strongly that this twenty
percent is the same in all these cases, and I sus-
pect also that it would not be at all difficult to
recognize and {garbled} out who are those who
are extremely suggestible and who are those ex-
tremely unsuggestible and who are those who
the lsd stories • PAGE 10
occupy the intermediate space. Quite clearly, if everybody were extremely unsuggestible organized
society would be quite impossible, and if everybody were extremely suggestible then a dictatorship
would be absolutely inevitable. I mean it’s very fortunate that we have people who are moderately
suggestible in the majority and who therefore preserve us from dictatorship but do permit organized
society to be formed. But, once given the fact that there are these 20% of highly suggestible people,
it becomes quite clear that this is a matter of enormous political importance, for example, any dema-
gogue who is able to get hold of a large number of these 20% of suggestible people and to organize
them is really in a position to overthrow any govern-
ment in any country. And I mean, I think this after
all, we had the most incredible example in recent
years by what can be done by efficient methods
of suggestion and persuasion in the form of Hit-
ler. Anyone who has read, for example, (Sounds
like Bulloch’s) Life of Hitler, comes forth with this
horrified admiration for this infernal genius, who
really understood human weaknesses I think al-
most better than anybody and who exploited
them with all the resources then available. I mean
he knew everything, for example, he knew intui-
tively this pavlovian truth that condition installed
in a state of stress or fatigue goes much deeper
than conditioning installed at other times. This of
course is why all his big speeches were organized
at night. He speaks quite frankly, of course, in
Mein Kampf, this is done solely because people
are tired at night and therefore much less capa-
ble of resisting persuasion than they would be
during the day. And in all his techniques he was
using, he had discovered intuitively and by trial
and error a great many of the weaknesses, which
we now know about on a sort of scientific way I
think much more clearly than he did.
But the fact remains that this differential of sug-
gestibility this susceptibility to hypnosis I do
think is something which has to be considered
very carefully in relation to any kind of thought
about democratic government. If there are 20%
of the people who really can be suggested into
 believing almost anything, then we have to take extremely careful steps into prevent the rise of demagogues who
will drive them on into extreme positions then organize them into very, very dangerous armies, private armies
which may overthrow the government. This is, I say, in this field of pure persua-
sion, I think we do know much more than we did in the past, and obviously we
now have mechanisms for multiplying the demagogues voice and image in a
quite hallucinatory way, I mean, the TV and radio, Hitler was making enormous
use of the radio, he could speak to millions of people simultaneously. This alone
creates an enormous gulf between the modern and the ancient demagogue.
The ancient demagogue could only appeal to as many people as his voice could
reach by yelling at his utmost, but the modern demagogue could touch liter-
ally millions at a time, and of course by the multiplication of his image he can
produce this kind of hallucinatory effect which is of enormous hypnotic and
suggestive importance.

But then there are the various other methods one can think of which, thank heav-
en, as yet have not be used, but which obviously could be used. There is for ex-
ample, the pharmacological method, this is one of the things I talked about in
BNW. I invented a hypothetical drug called SOMA, which of course could not exist
as it stood there because it was simultaneously a stimulant, a narcotic, and a hal-
lucinogen, which seems unlikely in one substance. But the point is, if you applied
several different substances you could get almost all these results even now, and
the really interesting things about the new chemical substances, the new mind-
changing drugs is this, if you looking back into history its clear that man has al-
ways had a hankering after mind changing chemicals, he has always desired to
take holidays from himself, but the, and, this is the most extraordinary effect of all
that every natural occurring narcotic stimulant, sedative, or hallucinogen, was dis-
covered before the dawn of history, I don’t think there is one single one of these
naturally occurring ones which modern science has discovered.

Modern science has of course better ways of extracting the active principals of
these drugs and of course has discovered numerous ways of synthesizing new
substances of extreme power, but the actual discovery of these naturally occur-
ring things was made by primitive man goodness knows how many centuries
ago. There is for example, in the underneath the, lake dwellings of the early Neo-
lithic that have been dug up in Switzerland we have found poppy-heads, which
looks as though people were already using this most ancient and powerful and
dangerous of narcotics, even before the days of the rise of agriculture. So that
man was apparently a dope-bag addict before he was a farmer, which is a very
curious comment on human nature.

the lsd stories • PAGE 11

But, the difference, as I say, between the ancient mind-chang-
ers, the traditional mind- changers, and the new substances is
that they were extremely harmful and the new ones are not.
I mean even the permissible mind-changer alcohol is not en-
tirely harmless, as people may have noticed, and I mean the
other ones, the non-permissible ones, such as opium and
cocaine, opium and its derivatives, are very harmful indeed.
They rapidly produce addiction, and in some cases lead at an
extraordinary rate to physical degeneration and death.
Whereas these new substances, this is really very extraordi-
nary, that a number of these new mind-changing substances
can produce enormous revolutions within the mental side
of our being, and yet do almost nothing to the physiological
side. You can have an enormous revolution, for example, with
LSD-25 or with the newly synthesized drug psilocybin, which
is the active principal of the Mexican sacred mushroom. You
can have this enormous mental revolution with no more
physiological revolution than you would get from drinking
two cocktails. And this is a really most extraordinary effect.
And it is of course true that pharmacologists are producing
a great many new wonder drugs where the cure is almost
worse than the disease. Every year the new edition of medical
textbooks contains a longer and longer chapter of what are
Iatrogenic diseases, that is to say diseases caused by doctors
(laughter} And this is quite true, many of the wonder drugs
are extremely dangerous. I mean they can produce extraor-
dinary effects, and in critical conditions they should certainly
be used, but they should be used with the utmost caution.
But there is evidently a whole class of drugs effecting the CNS
which can produce enormous changes in sedation in eupho-
ria in energizing the whole mental process without doing any
perceptible harm to the human body, and this presents to me
the most extraordinary revolution. In the hands of a dictator
these substances in one kind or the other could be used with,
first of all, complete harmlessness, and the result would be,
you can imagine a euphoric that would make people thor-
oughly happy even in the most abominable circumstances.
the lsd stories • PAGE 12
I mean these things are possible. This is the extraordinary
thing, I mean after all this is even true with the crude old
drugs. I mean, a housemate years ago remarked after reading
Milton’s Paradise Lost, He Says “And beer does more than Mil-
ton can to justify God’s ways to man” (laughter). And beer is
of course, an extremely crude drug compared to these ones.
And you can certainly say that some of the psychic energizers
and the new hallucinants could do incomparably more than
Milton and all the Theologicians combined could possibly do
to make the terrifying mystery of our existence seem more
tolerable than it does. And here I think one has an enormous
area in which the ultimate revolution could function very
well indeed, an area in which a great deal of control could be
used by not through terror, but by making life seem much
more enjoyable than it normally does. Enjoyable to the point,
where as I said before, Human beings come to love a state of
things by which any reasonable and decent human standard
they ought not to love and this I think is perfectly possible.
But then, very briefly, let me speak about one of the more
recent developments in the sphere of neurology, about the
implantation of electrodes in the brain. This of course has
been done in the large scale in animals and in a few cases
its been done in the cases of the hopelessly insane. And any-
body who has watched the behavior of rats with electrodes
placed in different centers must come away from this expe-
rience with the most extraordinary doubts about what on
Earth is in store for us if this is got a hold of by a dictator. I saw
not long ago some rats in the {garbled} laboratory at UCLA
there were two sets of them, one with electrodes planted in
the pleasure center, and the technique was they had a bar
which they pressed which turned on a very small current for a
short space of time which we had a wire connected with that
electrode and which stimulated the pleasure center and was
evidently absolutely ecstatic was these rats were pressing
the bar 18,000 times a day (laughter). Apparently if you kept
them from pressing the bar for a day, they’d press it 36,000
times on the following day and would until they fell down in
complete exhaustion (laughter) And they would neither eat,
nor be interested in the opposite sex but would just go on pressing this bar {pounds on podium}.
Then the most extraordinary rats were those were the electrode was planted halfway between the
pleasure and the pain center. The result was a kind of mixture of the most wonderful ecstasy and
like being on the rack at the same time. And you would see the rats sort of looking at is bar and sort
of saying “To be or not to be that is the question”. (Laughter) Finally it would approach {Pounds on
podium} and go back with this awful I mean, the (sounds
like franken huminizer anthropomorphizer), and he
would wait some time before pressing the bar again, yet
he would always press it again. This was the extraordi-
nary thing. I noticed in the most recent issue of Scientific
American there’s a very interesting article on electrodes
in the brains of chickens, where the technique is very in-
genious, where you sink into their brains a little socket
with a screw on it and the electrode can then be screwed
deeper and deeper into the brainstem and you can test
at any moment according to the depth, which goes at
fractions of the mm, what you’re stimulating and these
creatures are not merely stimulated by wire, they’re fitted
with a miniature radio receiver which weighs less than
an ounce which is attached to them so that they can be
communicated with at a distance, I mean they can run
about in the barnyard and you could press a button and
this particular area of the brain to which the electrode has
been screwed down to would be stimulated. You would
get this fantastic phenomena, where a sleeping chick-
en would jump up and run about, or an active chicken
would suddenly sit down and go to sleep, or a hen would
sit down and act like she’s hatching out an egg, or a fight-
ing rooster would go into depression.
The whole picture of the absolute control of the drives
is terrifying, and in the few cases in which this has been
done with very sick human beings, The effects are evi-
dently very remarkable too, I was talking last summer in
England to Grey Walter, who is the most eminent exponent of the EEG technique in England, and he
was telling me that he’s seen hopeless inmates at asylums with these things in their heads, and these
people were suffering from uncontrollable depression, and they had these electrodes inserted into
the pleasure center in their brain, however when they felt too bad, they just pressed a button on the
the lsd stories • PAGE 13
battery in their pocket and he said the results were fantastic, the mouth pointing down would sud-
denly turn up and they’d feel very cheerful and happy. So there again one sees the most extraordi-
nary revolutionary techniques, which are now available to us. Now, I think what is obviously perfectly
clear is that for the present these techniques are not being used except in an experimental way, but
I think it is important for us to realize what is happening to make ourselves acquainted with what
has already happened, and then use a certain amount of imagination to extrapolate into the future
the sort of things that might happen. What might happen
if these fantastically powerful techniques were used by
unscrupulous people in authority, what on Earth would
happen, what sort of society would we get? And I think it
is peculiarly important because as one sees when looking
back over history we have allowed in the past all those
advances in technology which has profoundly changed
our social and individual life to take us by surprise, I mean
it seems to me that it was during the late 18 century early
19th century when the new machines were making pos-
sible the factory situation. It was not beyond the wit of
man to see what was happening and project into the fu-
ture and maybe forestall the really dreadful consequenc-
es which plagued England and most of western Europe
and this country for sixty or seventy years, and the hor-
rible abuses of the factory system and if a certain amount
of forethought had been devoted to the problem at that
time and if people had first of all found out what was
happening and then used their imagination to see what
might happen, and then had gone on to work out the
means by which the worst applications of the techniques
would not take place, well then I think western humanity
might have been spared about three generations of ut-
ter misery which had been imposed on the poor at that
time. And the same way with various technological ad-
vances now, I mean we need to think about the problems
with automation and more profoundly the problems,
which may arise with these new techniques, which may
contribute to this ultimate revolution. Our business is to
be aware of what is happening, and then to use our imagination to see what might happen, how
this might be abused, and then if possible to see that the enormous powers which we now possess
thanks to these scientific and technological advances to be used for the benefit of human beings and
not for their degradation. Thank You—!
~ Aldous Huxley
 THE BROTHERHOOD OF ETERNAL LOVE
Retracing the Steps of Psychedelic Outlaws
on an LSD Mission From God
November 2016

It sounds like the plot to a Paul Thomas Anderson movie: a cult of Southern
California surfers worships LSD as a deity in the early ’60s, becoming so ob-
sessed with spreading psychedelics to the masses that they move their fami-
lies in together and form a church.

Church members engineer an international smuggling ring to bring hash,

pot, and acid back from sources in Europe and Afghanistan. They trick out
their vans and surfboards with secret compartments to hide the contraband
from border agents. They launder their money through an art gallery in La-
guna Beach, build an LSD lab in Palm Springs, and are ultimately responsible
for distributing over 100 million hits of acid.

What’s being described here is no fiction. It’s the very real — and very colorful
— story of The Brotherhood of Eternal Love, the subject of Orange Sunshine,
an excellent new documentary by director William A. Kirkley. The movie,
which was a breakout hit at SXSW last year, had its theatrical premiere in San
Francisco on Nov. 17, 2016, at Slim’s. The event includes a performance by
Matt Costa, who wrote the film’s wonderfully lysergic sound track.

At their core, the Brotherhood weren’t terribly different from other seekers
of their era. They responded to the violence and chaos of the Vietnam War
abroad and turbulent race relations at home by following psychedelic guru
Timothy Leary’s advice to “turn on, tune in, and drop out.” They yearned for the
higher planes of connection proselytized by the musicians, artists, and aca-
demics around them.

The difference, however, was the fervor behind the Brotherhood’s beliefs.
Theirs was a single-minded intensity that put their safety and that of their
families second to a larger mission of ensuring everyone, countrywide, had
access to affordable psychedelics. To that end, they made fake passports for
themselves and fake school transcripts for their kids. They smuggled drugs
from countries where punishment for such infractions was death. They
the lsd stories • PAGE 14
 moved from their Laguna Beach hub into hidden canyons to evade the law. They
even engineered a jailbreak for Leary after he was incarcerated in San Luis Obispo
for minor drug possession. The influence of this resourceful “Hippie Mafia” grew so
strong that the acid they widely distributed (including the ubiquitous Orange Sun-
shine strain, from which the documentary takes its title) ended up in the hands of
Steve Jobs and the Beatles.

Just when you think you’ve heard all the crazy cult stories the ’60s had to offer, Or-
ange Sunshine tells a thrilling tale with international intrigue. Kirkley, who grew up in
Laguna Beach, writes in a director’s statement that he was inspired to make the film
after hearing rumors of these psychedelic outlaws for years. He wanted to confirm
both their existence and Orange County’s roots as the site of a massive counter-cul-
tural revolution, given the region’s conservative reputation today. But it took years
for these former fugitives to agree to show their faces on camera, which is perhaps
why this story hasn’t been widely told outside of the 2011 book Orange Sunshine by
Nick Schou (who also wrote articles about the group for OC Weekly).

Kirkley shapes Orange Sunshine’s narrative through interviews with the surviving
members of the Brotherhood — and the law enforcement officials who pursued them
— as well as archival photos and newsreel footage. He also uses beautifully-shot re-
enactments that maintain the amber glow of the older material. Scripted scenes of
Brotherhood members in their teens and twenties almost look like home movies,
thanks to Kirkley’s decision to shoot them on Super 8 film.

Unlike The Source Family, another excellent documentary about the rise of a stoned Wendy Bevan,
spiritual cult from the ’60s, Orange Sunshine doesn’t explore how the actions of the a Brotherhood member,
Brotherhood founders trickled down into the lives of their children, which is an un- in the ’70s.
fortunate and conspicuous omission. Being raised around so much acid and operat-
ing under so many different aliases must have had an effect on the kids shown run-
ning around in old photos.

No, the losses described in the documentary are mainly between the adults, whose
love for one another is evident even all these decades later. Kirkley writes that the
movie is fundamentally about “how we discover and define what is important; of social
change in its infancy; of the choices people make, losses suffered and love forged.”

Costa’s music provides another narrative thread. Like the cinematography, it gives

the story a golden ’60s patina. In an email from Argentina, where he’s working on a
new record, the Huntington Beach songwriter tells me that before working on the

the lsd stories • PAGE 15

film, he’d only heard of the
Brotherhood from OC Weekly
articles. When Kirkley asked
Costa to contribute some songs
to the documentary, though,
the music poured out of him.
“Three songs turned into 40,”
Costa says. The soundtrack
swings between jazzier tunes
influenced by Art Blakey and
jangly rock ‘n’ roll in the realm of
psych-folksters Rodriguez and
Allah-Las.

Costa grew up skateboarding

more than surfing, but says he
sees the connection between
psychoactive drugs, surfing, and
art as “just shredding the BS.”

“If you seek something righteous,

whether you seclude yourself in a
monastery or you take LSD and
go surfing,” he says, “the goal is
enlightenment rather than es-
capism.”

In the end, the Brotherhood’s

path comes off in Orange Sun-
shine as equal parts societal
withdrawal and search for en-
lightenment. In attempting to
escape the harsh realities of
their era — as well as interna-
tional drug laws — these radi-
cal hippies lived in an alternate
universe of their own making.
Theirs is a vivid world that was
just made to be projected on
the big screen.

the lsd stories • PAGE 16

 Psychedelia and debauchery
from the golden age of LSD
November 2016

One night in 1960s LA, photographer Lawrence Schiller woke

with a start. He heard noises in the garden, laughing and
splashing. Schiller’s wife left to quiet their three young chil-
dren, while he set out to discover who these intruders were.

In his pool were a bunch of “heads,” acid grins on their fac-

es, tripping out of their skulls. The Merry Pranksters, author
Ken Kesey’s notorious troupe of counter-cultural jesters,
had decided to pay the photographer an unsolicited visit.

“I don’t think I stripped naked,” Schiller, now 80, recalls, “but

the lsd stories • PAGE 17
I jumped right in with them, I can
tell you that!”

The Merry Pranksters at a shoot in

Schiller’s studio, at right.

Fifty-one years later, he chuckles

remembering how upset his wife
was at the time. These sort of hi-
jinks were exactly how the Prank-
sters got their name. And after all,
he had given them his address:
he was one of very few photogra-
phers they trusted to document
their unique way of life.

Romping across the US years be-

fore the Summer of Love, The
Pranksters can lay claim—at least
in part­—to birthing the hippie
movement as we know it. Their
infamous Acid Tests, parties full
of color, experimental music and
light shows—along with Kool-Aid
laced with still-legal LSD—became
their calling card.

October 31 marked the 50th an-

niversary of the troupe’s Acid Test
Graduation, the LSD party to end
all LSD parties. Now Schiller is re-
visiting the era through a Taschen
Books edition that combines his
most memorable photos of the era
with an abridged version of Tom
Wolfe’s New Journalism classic
“The Electric Kool-Aid Acid Test,” the
seminal text on Ken Kesey and The
Merry Pranksters.

the LSD Stories • PAGE 18

 Capturing counter-culture

Schiller first met the Pranksters in November

1965 at an Acid Test 50 yards from his studio
on Sunset Boulevard. The photographer, who
had already covered the first forays into acid by
Berkeley University students, knew The Prank-
sters presented an opportunity to show a dif-
ferent side of LSD.

“The people I photographed in Berkeley and LA

didn’t have a sense of proportion,” he explains.
“They were truly risking certain things. They had
no way of knowing whether the pill that they were
dropping would be harmful or not. They were ad-
venturers for various reasons; young adolescents
that ended up with full-blown psychoses because
they had unsupervised trips.”

“Whereas the Merry Pranksters, (founder and au-

thor Ken Kesey) and that group, came from an
educational point of view ... experimenting with
LSD under controlled situations.”

That night at the Acid Test, Schiller invited the

Pranksters to his studio, dangling the possibility
of a Life magazine cover. Their shoot—“a little
too posed,” he remembers—cemented Schiller
as a man the Pranksters could trust. Over the
next five months Schiller lived on the periphery
of Kesey’s clique, dipping into a whirlwind that
sucked in Hell’s Angels, Beat poet Alan Gins-
berg and groupies, while never adopting the
Prankster lifestyle.

“I was an observer,” he says of the Tests. “I don’t

have to be a participant to understand. I want
to be a sponge on the outside that absorbs
what’s going on.”
the lsd stories • PAGE 19
 The changing times

Schiller’s Life essay, dated March 25, 1966, was

an eyeopener, revealing a new world that most
would never experience themselves.

But would the story be possible today?

“I couldn’t exist in today’s media,” Schiller ad-

mits. “To do a job well, you used to have to in-
gratiate yourself into people’s lives. You had to
point out to them that you weren’t there with a
preconceived idea; you weren’t coming to judge
them or to already have a conclusion.”

“(Journalism has) become not a 100-yard dash,

but a 50-yard dash. Everybody’s racing for the
finish line -- who’s going to get out there first?
That type of journalism, of the ‘60s and ‘70s, into
the ‘80s, doesn’t really exist anymore.”

the lsd stories • PAGE 20

 Augustus Owsley “Bear” Stanley Obituary
March 2011

Prolific high quality LSD producer and supplier to the bands, stars and the rich and famous during the height of the 1960s counterculture

Owsley ‘Bear’ Stanley, below left, with the Grateful Dead’s Jerry Garcia in 1969

The American psychologist Timothy Leary’s famous invi-
tation to “tune in, turn on and drop out” changed a gen-
eration. The key element was “turn on” and it was Owsley
Stanley who provided the means to do just that. Stanley,
who died at the age of 76, produced millions of doses of
“acid”, the psychedelic drug LSD, which fuelled the 1967
Summer of Love in San Francisco’s Haight-Ashbury district,
and spread around the world. Jimi Hendrix’s Purple Haze
was the consequence of Stanley’s Monterey Purple acid;
his varieties included White Lightning and Blue Cheer
and aficionados called the best acid simply “Owsley”. He
supplied the Beatles at the time of their Magical Mystery
Tour television film (1967), and provided the acid to One
the lsd stories • PAGE 21
Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest novelist Ken Kesey and his
“Merry Pranksters”, whose 1964 bus trip across America
was chronicled by Tom Wolfe in The Electric Kool-Aid Acid
Test (1968). Stanley’s acid turned hippies on and he also
tuned them in. The band on Kesey’s bus was the Grateful
Dead, with whom Owsley began an instantly synergistic
relationship. The Dead took to his acid with such enthusi-
asm that Jerry Garcia became “Captain Trips”, while Stanley
funded their career and became their sound engineer, cre-
ating their unique live sound and, by recording each con-
cert, providing the most complete archive of any band of
the era. Along with Bob Thomas, he designed the band’s
“Steal Your Face” lightning bolt and skull logo, originally so
 his masses of sound equipment could be identified easily. Stanley was also the quintessential
drop-out. Born Augustus Owsley Stanley III, his grandfather of the same name had been governor
of Kentucky, a US senator and congressman. His father, a state’s attorney, was pushed by wartime
experiences into alcoholism. After his parents separated, he lived first with his mother in Los An-
geles, then returned to his father and was sent to military school.

Nicknamed “Bear” when he began sprouting body hair, Stanley was expelled from school
for getting his ninth-grade classmates drunk. He spent more than a year as a patient
at St Elizabeth’s, the Washington psychiatric hospital that also housed Ezra Pound,
and tried college, but eventually joined the air force. His electronics training there
led to work on radio stations in Los Angeles, while he studied ballet and worked
as a dancer.

In 1963 he enrolled at the University of California, Berkeley, where he began

smoking marijuana and selling fellow students morning-glory seeds for a legal
high. The next year, he encountered LSD. He spent three weeks studying the
then-legal drug’s chemistry, and began producing it himself. Quitting college
and working at a local radio station, he set up the “Bear Research Group” to
make acid. By the time he met Kesey in September 1965, he had become the
first private producer of LSD on a grand scale.

Along with Tim Scully he set up a massive lab in Port Richmond, at the
northern end of San Francisco Bay; when LSD became illegal in California
in 1966, Scully moved to a location opposite the Denver zoo. Stanley stayed
ahead of the law by keeping his acid in a small trunk which he shipped be-
tween bus stations, but after a 1967 raid his defence was that the 350,000
acid tabs police confiscated were for his personal use. He fought the case for
two years, but his bail was revoked when he and the Dead were busted in New
Orleans in 1970, and he was sentenced to three years in prison. Once released, he
resumed working for the Dead. His mentoring of the band had floundered in 1966,
because while sharing his house in Los Angeles’s Watts ghetto they also had to share
his carnivorous life-style. Stanley believed that carbohydrates poisoned the body and
vegetables interfered with nutrition. Arguing with his fierce but erratic intelligence was
challenging: “There’s nothing wrong with Bear that a few billion less brain cells wouldn’t cure,”
said Garcia. On a practical level, Stanley’s perfectionism meant that sound systems took too
long to set up and take down, and he feuded with the business-first approach of Lenny Hart,
the band’s manager and father of drummer Mickey. But in 1973 he delved into his archive
to release Bear’s Choice, a tribute to the recently deceased Dead co-founder, Ron “Pigpen” The original jewelry design, a skill learned in prison, that became
McKernan, and in 1974, at a concert in San Francisco’s Cow Palace, he inaugurated the 604- the Grateful Deads logo, signed by Owsley Stanley (above).
speaker Wall of Sound.
the lsd stories • PAGE 22
 Owsley (pictured at right) later organized sound for Jefferson Starship and Dead bassist Phil Lesh’s
solo projects, and scraped a living selling marijuana and making jewellery, a trade he learned in
prison. In 1985 he met his third wife, Sheilah, and they moved to the Australian outback, squatting
on 120 acres of remote land outside Cairns, convinced there was an oncoming Ice Age which would
be best survived there. He believed that global warming was part of a natural cycle.

In 2005, Stanley contracted throat cancer, attributing his survival to starving the tumor of glucose through
diet. He died and his wife was injured when his car ran off a road in Queensland and crashed into a tree. He
is survived by Sheilah, two sons, Pete and Starfinder, by two daughters, Nina and Redbird, and he is forever
remembered in the Dead’s song ‘Alice D Millionaire’ and Steely Dan’s ‘Kid Charlemagne’. Augustus Owsley Stan-
ley, drug producer and sound engineer, was born on January 19th, 1935 and left this life on March 13th, 2011.

the lsd stories • PAGE 23

 Augustus Owsley “Bear” Stanley Obituary • Queensland, Australia
March 12, 2011

Owsley Stanley, the prodigiously gifted applied chemist to the stars, who made LSD in quantity
for the Grateful Dead, the Beatles, Jimi Hendrix, Ken Kesey and other avatars of the psychedelic
’60s, died on Saturday in a car accident in Australia. He was 76 and lived in the bush near Cairns,
in the Australian state of Queensland.

His car swerved off a highway and down an embankment

before hitting trees near Mareeba, a town in Queensland,
The Associated Press reported. Mr. Stanley’s wife, Sheilah,
was injured in the accident.

Mr. Stanley, the Dead’s former financial backer, pharmaceu-

tical supplier and sound engineer, was in recent decades a
reclusive, almost mythically enigmatic figure. He moved to
Australia in the 1980s, as he explained in his rare interviews,
so he might survive what he believed to be a coming Ice
Age that would annihilate the Northern Hemisphere.

Once renowned as an artisan of acid, Mr. Stanley turned

out LSD said to be purer and finer than any other. He was
also among the first individuals (in many accounts, the very
first) to mass-produce the drug; its resulting wide availabil-
ity provided the chemical underpinnings of an era of love,
music, grooviness and much else. Conservatively tallied,
Mr. Stanley’s career output was more than a million doses,
in some estimates more than five million. So widely known
was Mr. Stanley that he appears in the Encyclopedia Britan-
nica article on LSD under the apparently un-ironic index
term “Augustus Owsley Stanley III (American chemist).” The
Oxford English Dictionary contains an entry for the noun
“Owsley” as “an extremely potent, high-quality type of LSD.”
In 2007, Mr. Stanley was the subject of a long profile in an
issue of Rolling Stone magazine commemorating the 40th
anniversary of the Summer of Love.

the lsd stories • PAGE 24

 In short, Mr. Stanley lent the ’60s a great deal of its color — like White Lightning, Monterey Pur-
ple and Blue Cheer, the varieties of his LSD that were among the most popular. (He did not, con-
trary to popular lore, release a product called Purple Haze; in interviews, he sounded quite miffed
that anything emerging from his laboratory could
be thought to cause haziness rather than the crys-
talline clarity for which he personally vouched.)

He also lent the era much of its sound, develop-

ing early, widely praised high-fidelity sound sys-
tems for live rock concerts, including the Dead’s
towering “wall of sound.”

Mr. Stanley was previously a ballet dancer and a

member of the United States Air Force. Augustus
Owsley Stanley III was born on Jan. 19, 1935, to a
patrician Kentucky family. His paternal grandfa-
ther, for whom he was named, was a congress-
man, governor of Kentucky and United States
senator. (Somewhat prophetically, given his
grandson’s future pursuits, the elder Mr. Stanley
was a vigorous public foe of Prohibition.

Young Owsley, whose adolescent hirsuteness

caused him to be known ever after as Bear, was
sent to a military preparatory school in Maryland.
He was expelled in the ninth grade for furnishing
the alcohol that, as he told Rolling Stone in 2007,
had nearly all his classmates “blasted out of their
minds” on homecoming weekend.

He briefly attended the University of Virginia be-

fore enlisting in the Air Force, where he learned
electronics. He later worked in Los Angeles as a
broadcast engineer for radio and television sta-
tions. He also studied ballet and for a time was a
professional dancer.

In 1963, Mr. Stanley enrolled at the University of California, Berkeley. The next year, he encoun-
tered LSD, a transformative experience. “I remember the first time I took acid and walked out
the lsd stories • PAGE 25
side,” he said in the Rolling Stone interview. “The cars were kissing the parking meters.” Mr. Stanley had found his calling, and at the time it was at least quasi-legitimate: LSD was not outlawed in California until 1966.
What he needed to do was learn his craft, which he accomplished, as Rolling Stone reported, in three weeks in the university library, poring over chemistry journals. Soon afterward, he left college and a going con-
cern, the Bear Research Group, was born. In 1965, he met Mr. Kesey, and through him the Dead. Enraptured, he became their sound man, early underwriter, principal acolyte, sometime house-mate and frequent
touring companion. With Bob Thomas, he designed the band’s highly recognizable skull-and-lightning-bolt logo. Mr. Stanley also made many recordings of the Dead in performance, now considered valuable docu-
mentary records of the band’s early years. Many have been released commercially. Mr. Stanley remained with the band off and on through the early ’70s, when, according to Rolling Stone, his habits became too
much even for the Grateful Dead and they parted company. (He had insisted, among other things, that the band eat meat — nothing but meat — a dietary regimen he followed until the end of his life.) His other clients
included John Lennon, who, according to “The Beatles,” a 2005 biography by Bob Spitz, contracted to pay Mr. Stanley for a lifetime supply of his wares. In 1970, after a judge revoked Mr. Stanley’s bail from a 1967
drug arrest, he served two years in federal prison. There, he learned metalwork and jewelry making, trades he plied in recent years. Mr. Stanley, who became an Australian citizen in the 1990s, was treated for throat
cancer in 2004. In the Rolling Stone interview, he attributed his survival to his carnivorous diet. (A heart attack he had suffered some years earlier he ascribed to eating broccoli as a child, forced on him by his mother.)

Besides his wife, Sheilah,

Mr. Stanley’s survivors in-
clude two sons, Pete and
Starfinder; two daugh-
ters, Nina and Redbird;
eight grandchildren; and
two great-grandchildren.

Though he helped trans-

form the culture, Mr. Stan-
ley asserted that he had
never meant to do so. As
he told The San Francisco
Chronicle in 2007, he had
set out only to make a
product he knew he could
take, because its ingredi-
ents were known.

“And my friends all wanted

to know what they were
taking, too,” Mr. Stanley
said. “Of course,” he added
“my ‘friends’ expanded very
rapidly.”

the lsd stories • PAGE 26

the lsd stories • PAGE 27
 The Intelligence Agencies and the Hypnosophic Mystery of the Psychedelic Israeli Connection
December 1963

Owing to the work of independent investigators like Jan Irvin and Joe Proprietors of the
Atwill, many have a growing understanding of the role played by the CIA in “Hypnosophic Institute”
popularizing LSD and the psychedelic counterculture. Bravely, they have ac- busted for acid trafficking in 1963
knowledged the largely Jewish origin of the MKUltra experiments and proj-
ects of cultural distortion; but was there ever an actual Israeli component The Associated Press, in an article titled “2 Jailed in Smuggling of Israel Drug to
to the promotion of LSD? U.S.”, reported April 4, 1963,
The answer to this question, on the arrest of Bernard
if one is to be had, requires Roseman and Bernard Cop-
that the case of pioneering ley in San Francisco.
acid pushers Bernard Rose-
man and Bernard Copley be Federal officers arrested
scrutinized. One of these two two men Wednesday and
mysterious figures, “LSD Be- confiscated three pints of
fore Leary” author Steven J. the powerful drug LSD-
Novak speculates, may have 25 which officials said had
been the stranger, encoun- been smuggled into the
tered by guests at a 1962 Hol- United States from Israel.
lywood party, who claimed to U.S. Atty Cecil Poole said
manufacture his own brand the men, Bernard Roseman,
of bootleg LSD. “His sugar 28, and Bernard Copley, 26,
cubes contained 1,000 micro- had been operating as the
grams of LSD, ten times the Hypnosophic Institute in
normal dosage,” Novak writes. Joshua Tree, San Bernadino

the lsd stories • PAGE 28

 County. […] The two men were arrested by food and drug in-
spectors and customs officers in the home of an inspector who
had posed as a buyer for a Chicago firm. […]

The two men had sold a 2-oz. sample of the drug to the undercover
agent last February in a preliminary transaction, officers reported.
The charge placed against the men Wednesday was based on the
February sale, but Poole said that the men would be indicted by
the U.S. grand jury on a smuggling charge. Poole said he was in-
formed that the drug had been manufactured by the Wiseman [sic]
Institute in Israel. Poole also said that investigation into the past ac-
tivities of the pair is being conducted by Southern California federal
officers on the possibility that they might have made other sales
or been working with somebody else. The three pints of the drug,
Poole said, were sufficient to make up 18,000 doses which sell from
$5 to $30 a dose on the black market.

The Dedication Of Weizmann Institute of Science - 1949

LSD, at the time of the Hypnosophic Institute affair was still a legal
substance in the United States; the drug was, however, subject to
regulation, and Roseman and Copley put themselves in jeopardy
through prohibited distribution. Hoping to avoid a conviction for
the smuggling charge, Roseman changed his story about the origin
of his LSD, as the legal document “set out in the light most favorable
to the government” recounts:
WEIZMANN INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE
“Bernard Roseman and Bernard Copley, hereinafter appellants, were
charged in a nine-count indictment in the United States District Court Bernard Copely and Bernard Roseman
for the Northern District of California, Southern Division, with violat- connected to Israeli government and
ing 18 U.S.C. § 545, the conspiracy statute, and various sections of the Israeli Intelligence in Global LSD Sales
Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act, arising out of certain activities of Scheme seized documents reveal. As al-
the appellants concerning the drug LSD. ways, read about it first in High Times!

Counts 1 and 2 charge appellants with concealing, selling, and facilitat-

ing the transportation, concealment, and sale of LSD which the appel-
lants knew had been imported into the United States contrary to law. 

the lsd stories • PAGE 29

 Counts 3 through 8 charge appellants with selling and holding for sale LSD which
had been mislabeled, misbranded or unlabeled in violation of the Federal Food, Drug
and Cosmetic Act.  Count 9 charged appellants with conspiracy to violate the Federal
Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act.

After a waiver of jury, appellants were tried be-

fore the United States District Court. They
were found guilty on all nine counts. A
timely motion for a new trial was denied
and appellants were sentenced as provid-
ed by law. […]”

The charges in the indictment center

around three sales of LSD by appellants
in February, March and April, 1963. It was
stipulated during the trial “that LSD is a
new drug within the meaning of the Federal
Food and Drug Act, and also that the LSD
sold by the defendants, if it had been intro-
duced into commercial channels covered
by the Federal Food and Drug Act, was not
properly labeled.” Appellants never disput-
ed that they made the three sales of LSD.
They contended, however, that the LSD
sold by them originated in California and
never became subject to federal regulation
and that the three sales made by them did not
constitute the offenses charged in the indictment even if the LSD had
been transported into California from a foreign place.

The record is very lengthy and it would serve no useful purpose to attempt to
set out in detail all of the testimony that was presented during the ten-day court
trial. We will, however, set out in the light most favorable to the government, a

the lsd stories • PAGE 30

 short summary of some of the essential testimony presented. In January, 1963, the defendants
in Menlo Park, California, offered to sell LSD to Myron Stolaroff, who was at the time of sale and
trial president of the International Foundation for Advanced Study which was conducting clini-
cal observations of the use of LSD. Roseman at that time stated that the LSD was made in Israel
and that he worked there with some chemists to help them make it. The appellants offered to
sell the LSD for $600 a bottle or $5000 for ten bottles. During this meeting Roseman gave Sto-
laroff a sample, diluted from their concentrated supply of LSD.

On January 31, 1963, appellants met with Leo Aquino in Vancouver, British Columbia. The ap-
pellants showed Aquino a small mason jar partially full of a dark green liquid and told him
it was LSD. That evening the appellants came to Aquino’s home and gave him a dose of LSD
diluted in a glass of water. After drinking the liquid Aquino remained under its influence for
several hours. Appellants told Aquino that they wanted to contact a Dr. MacLean to provide
him with LSD. An appointment was made and appellants met with Dr. MacLean in Westmin-
ster, British Columbia, and told him they had LSD for sale which came from Israel, and asked
whether he wished to purchase it.

A few days later appellants arranged with Aquino to have an “LSD session” involving a number
of people, which appellants said would cost the participants $10 each. On February 4, 1963, the
session was held in Vancouver, British Columbia, at which time Roseman mixed a solution of
what he claimed to be LSD in water glasses, which was consumed by Aquino and others. One
participant, after drinking the solution, left the house and was injured. He was brought back to
the LSD party, and when a suggestion was made that medical help be obtained Copley quickly
stated that “bringing a doctor at this time would result in a report and the report would implicate
everybody in question and that the effects of having taken something would be clearly noticeable
in all of us, and this would in turn jeopardize people’s livelihood.” On February 6, 1963, after ap-
pellants had left Vancouver by automobile and had arrived in Seattle, Washington, Roseman
phoned from Seattle to Stolaroff in Menlo Park, California, inquiring as to whether he was ready
to purchase LSD. Appellants then proceeded by bus to Washington and then by truck through
Oregon to California. On February 8, 1963, appellants talked to Stolaroff in Menlo Park, Califor-
nia, and there sold and delivered to him two bottles of LSD for which they received $1200.00.

On March 29, 1963, appellants talked to Pilson, a government agent who was posing as a dis-
tributor of pharmaceuticals in San Francisco, concerning the sale of LSD. In a telephone con-
versation Copley told him that the supply of LSD was no problem and that what they had was
the result of the labor of a group of chemists in Israel. Appellants later went to Pilson’s house,
at which time they stated that they did not manufacture the LSD, but the LSD they had was
smuggled into this country in high concentration. There was a general discussion between
Pilson and appellants as to the amount of LSD that he wanted to purchase, during which it

the lsd stories • PAGE 31

was mentioned that he might want to buy from $5,000 to $10,000 worth.
Pilson stated that he wanted a small sample to test first. During the conver-
sation appellants indicated they were concerned as to how the LSD was to
be distributed. Roseman stated that anyone taking LSD “especially the wrong
individual might develop a psychosis and could walk through a window and not
even know it.” Pilson assured appellants there would be no notoriety con-
nected with his acquisition of the LSD. Roseman left Pilson’s house to obtain
the sample and returned with it. The amount obtained was “approximately
60 milliliters, supposedly 100 milligrams per milliliter of LSD.” The sample of LSD
delivered was a liquid in a glass bottle of a dark green color. When it was de-
livered to Pilson it did not have any label on it nor any warnings as to use, any
common name, any statement of the ingredients or composition of the drug,
nor any of the other markings required by the Federal Food, Drug and Cos-
metic Act; nor did Pilson give them any prescription in order to procure this
drug. Pilson paid to the appellants for this sample $100.00. In the course of
a discussion as to whether the LSD would decompose, Roseman stated that
he possessed this LSD for about three years and that he had walked around
Europe with the material for about a year. When the sample had been deliv-
ered to Pilson, there was a discussion about the larger purchase. Pilson was
to have the sample tested, and if it was satisfactory, he would obtain the
$10,000 and they would close the large purchase on April 3rd. Pilson talked
on the telephone to both appellants on April 1 and advised them that the
money was being flown in to him from Chicago. Pilson asked Roseman what
denominations he would like the money to be in when it was delivered, and
Roseman stated “$100 bills.” Roseman stated that he was going to fly to Los
Angeles that evening and pick up the $10,000 worth of LSD. On April 3 Cop-
ley telephoned Pilson and told him that the entire Los Angeles stock of LSD
was in town and that he believed it was all made up in two separate portions
— one of $5000 worth and another of $10,000 worth. About an hour or so af-
ter this telephone call the appellants came to Pilson’s home. Roseman had an
attaché case with him. He opened this case and removed one brown quart
plastic bottle and one brown pint plastic bottle, and placed them on the ta-
ble, saying, “This is the material, the $10,000 worth and here is the extra five.”
Pilson started to count out the money, during which time another customs
agent entered the room wearing a badge and carrying a carbine, stating, “We
are federal officers, hands up.”  Copley grabbed the special agent’s carbine and
began wrestling with him. Roseman jumped upon the special agent’s back
and a scuffle ensued. Another agent entered the room and appellants were
subdued. Roseman testified to the following at his trial. He testified that the
LSD was not made in Israel but was made in Los Angeles in 1960 while he
the lsd stories • PAGE 32
was working with a Dr. Grossman, a friend of his, at the California Corporation for Biological Re- made the sales of the LSD set out in the indictment. He did, however, contend that none of
search. Although not a chemist, he worked with Dr. the LSD involved in these sales was imported or
Grossman in making the LSD, at least a portion brought into California from a foreign place.
of which was made into pills. He admitted making various statements
that the LSD was imported from Israel, but
In September, 1960, Dr. Grossman and Rose- he contended that this was not in fact true,
man, who had been sharing an apartment, and that these statements were only made
terminated their employment at the California as a “sales pitch.” He admitted that he and
corporation and decided to take a trip to Eu- Copley had LSD in San Francisco prior to
rope. Roseman took the LSD in plastic bottles leaving for Canada and that they started
out near the Joshua Tree National Monument the trip to Canada with the LSD in their pos-
which is a considerable distance from Los An- session. He testified, however, that on this
geles and is rough, high desert country. He trip they went through some redwood trees
buried the LSD about four and a half feet be- in Northern California about midnight, and
low the surface of the ground and “made the they then stopped their truck and he walked
place look extremely like it wasn’t dug or any- “about 100 yards into a cluster of trees” and
thing.” He put plastic containers filled with liq- with a big tablespoon pushed away a little
uid and bottles filled with pills into a large jar. dirt and left a bottle of LSD under the dirt
After he had buried the LSD, he and Dr. Gross- in a plastic container of about “a quarter of
man left Los Angeles. Dr. Grossman did not a quart.” They then proceeded in the truck
have any knowledge of his, Roseman’s bury- through Oregon and Washington, and
ing the LSD. The two of them drove across the by train into Vancouver, British Columbia,
country to New York City where they took a Canada. He contended that Aquino’s testi-
ship for Rotterdam in November. They trav- mony that appellants had LSD in Canada is
eled through various parts of Europe and not true. He does not deny, however, that
then went to Israel where they stayed about immediately upon appellants’ return from
six weeks. After leaving Israel they went back Canada they sold some LSD to Stolaroff for
to Europe. When they arrived in Zurich they $100.00. Copley did not testify as a witness.
separated, Dr. Grossman going back to Is- Appellants filed separate briefs in this court,
rael and Roseman going to Paris. Roseman in each of which they make 31 specifications
returned to the United States in the fall of of error. Among appellants’ contentions are
1961. Thereafter, Roseman went into business Hagana terrorist Ora Kedem at work in her laboratory at the Weizmann Institute claims that the charges in the indictment do
in Philadelphia, got married, and in the summer not state public offenses, that the evidence is
of 1962 had a visit from appellant Copley. Copley insufficient to sustain those charges, that there
and Roseman associated together for some time in was insufficient evidence to show that the LSD was
the East. In the fall of 1962 Roseman and his wife drove out to California where they again imported into the United States either from Israel or from Canada, and that there was no suf-
met Copley. While in Southern California he went out to the Joshua Tree National Monument, ficient evidence to establish that even if the drug was brought back from Canada, it was not
dug up the LSD which had been buried there, took one of the plastic bottles of liquid LSD properly labeled. Other contentions include claimed improper procedure during the trial. […]
and kept it in his refrigerator. Perhaps one of Roseman’s works of psychedelic evangelism. Whoever fraudulently or knowingly imports or brings into the United States, any merchandise
Roseman did not deny in essence the testimony of the government witnesses that appellants contrary to law, or receives, conceals, buys, sells, or in any manner facilitates the transporta-
the lsd stories • PAGE 33
tion, concealment, or sale of such merchandise after importation, knowing the same to have
been imported or brought into the United States contrary to law Shall be fined not more than
$10,000 or imprisoned not more than five years, or both.

Proof of defendant’s possession of such goods, unless explained to the satisfaction of the jury,
shall be deemed evidence sufficient to authorize conviction for violation of this section.

The essential elements of this charge are (1) that the appellants sold the LSD to Pilson, (2) that
appellants had knowingly brought this LSD into the United States contrary to law, and (3) that
the LSD was not adequately labeled, or that the LSD was a “new drug” within the meaning of 21
U.S.C. § 321(p) for which there was no effective new drug application.

As to item (1), the appellants do not deny that the sale occurred and both Pilson and Roseman
testified as to its occurrence.

As to items (2) and (3), appellants specify many errors which we shall now discuss and answer.
First, they contend that the evidence is insufficient to support a conclusion that the LSD sold
to Pilson was brought into the United States from either Israel or Canada. There is definite evi-
dence that appellants had LSD in California and that they had it with them when they started
to Canada. There was also evidence by government witnesses that they had the LSD in Canada,
and that they there gave some to Aquino to use, and that they there supplied LSD to others for
use in an “LSD session.” The evidence also shows that appellants left Canada shortly thereafter,
that while in Seattle they phoned Stolaroff as to whether he was ready to make a purchase of
LSD, that they then proceeded through Oregon to California, and made a sale to Stolaroff of a
small amount of LSD. The evidence also shows that on March 29, 1963, they sold another small
portion of LSD to Pilson. It is entirely consistent with the evidence that the portion of LSD sold
to Pilson was a part of the same concentrated LSD that appellants had brought to Canada and
brought back with them from Canada through Washington and Oregon to California. The able
and experienced district judge indicated that he did not believe the story of the midnight
burial of the LSD in the redwoods, and in fact the story is so fantastic as to defy belief.

Roseman and Copley were sentenced to seventeen years in prison. Myron Stolaroff, who is
named as one of the informants responsible for their arrest, was an associate of the CIA-con-
nected network of figures including Timothy Leary, Al Hubbard, and Oscar Janiger, with whom
Copley was acquainted. Tim Scully, one-time apprentice to notorious LSD chemist Owsley
“Bear” Stanley, has said he is doubtful that the whole story of the underground acid industry
will ever be known; but, according to his research, “Bernard Roseman believed Al Hubbard had
convinced Myron Stolaroff to turn them in to the FDA.”

the lsd stories • PAGE 34

Investigators at this point are presented with a number of questions. Was Roseman’s initial claim to have
obtained his LSD in Israel merely an interesting “sales pitch” as he testified at his trial? If not, was the
Weizmann Institute of Science indeed the source of the drug he sold? Jan Irvin and Joe Atwill, begin-
ning with their examination of the activities of J.P. Morgan operative and Council on Foreign Relations
MEET THE ZIONOID
member R. Gordon Wasson in the early promotion of what would become the psychedelic movement of
the 1960s, have extrapolated the thesis that the “‘counterculture’ had been developed by elements within
the U.S. government and banking establishment as part of a larger plan to bring about a new Dark Age”, and
banking connections are similarly evident in the personnel of Israel’s Weizmann Institute. One of the
members of the Institute’s Board of Governors and President of the European Committee of the Weiz-
mann Institute during this period was Sir Siegmund G. Warburg, President of S.G. Warburg & Co., which
owned LSD manufacturer Sandoz. Was the Weizmann Institute perhaps running a parallel or competing
series of MKUltra-style projects from the Jewish state — or were Roseman and Copley merely indepen-
dent operators looking to make some money by bootlegging and popularizing psychedelics on their
own? If Scully is correct that Hubbard wanted the pair put out of business, this would seem to suggest
that their activities somehow undermined the objectives of the CIA-linked traffic in the drug.

Nationalist scholar Revilo P. Oliver, in an explanatory note he appended to the text of his 1966 speech “Con-
spiracy or Degeneracy”, makes the following claims:

“A very small quantity of lysergic acid diethylamide tartrate is legally produced, or at least packaged, in this
country by a subsidiary of Sandoz Laboratories of Switzerland, but it is sold only to licensed psychiatrists. It
is now occasionally stated in the press that any competent chemist with a good laboratory at his disposal
could manufacture LSD-25, if he had a supply of lysergic acid. That is true, just as it is true that the same
chemist could produce heroin, if he had a supply of morphine or of opium. It is also true that a good bio-
chemist, if he obtained the proper culture, could produce lysergic acid, and that in the greater part of the
United States anyone can grow the papaver somniferum in his back yard and so obtain opium. Despite the
possibility of domestic production, however, it is a fact that most of the heroin and most of the LSD used by
addicts in this country is smuggled in from abroad.”

Revilo P. Oliver

As was stated in American Opinion in November, 1964 (see also Frank Capell’s Herald of Freedom, July 17,
1964), most of the lysergic acid diethylamide tartrate illicitly brought into the United States is manufactured
in Israel. That was certainly true a few years ago and there is no reason to believe that the situation has
changed. What is, so far as we know, the largest quantity of the smuggled drug obtained at one time by
narcotics agents in the United States … was definitely traced to the Weizmann Institute in Israel. A narcot-
ics agent of long experience, who, for fear of reprisals, asks not to be named, states that 75% of the illicit
supply of LSD still originates in Israel, however it may be transshipped en route to the United States. The
words “which is imported from Israel” were, without his knowledge, deleted from the official tape recording of
Oliver’s speech in Boston. The reader may draw her own conclusions.

the lsd stories • PAGE 35

 “After the ban,” writes Carol Brightman, author of Sweet Chaos: The Grateful
Dead’s American Adventure, “Owsley and Tim Scully found new sources in Is-
rael and Switzerland.”

References

1. Novak, Steven J. “LSD Before Leary: Sidney Cohen’s Critique of 1950s Psy-
chedelic Drug Research”. Isis 88 (1997), p. 107.
2. “2 Jailed in Smuggling of Israel Drug to U.S.”. Los Angeles Times (April 4,
1963), p. 34.
3. Bernard Roseman and Bernard Copley, Appellants, v. United States of
America, Appellee, 364 F.2d 18 (9th Cir. 1966): http://law.justia.com/cases/
federal/appellate-courts/F2/364/18/316848/
4. Novak, Steven J. “LSD Before Leary: Sidney Cohen’s Critique of 1950s Psy-
chedelic Drug Research”. Isis 88 (1997), p. 107.
5. Scully, Tim. “A Sketch of the Early History of LSD Manufacturing” (2013):
https://vimeo.com/75282865
6. Atwill, Joe; and Jan Irvin. “Manufacturing the Deadhead: A Product of So-
cial Engineering”. Gnostic Media (May 13, 2013): http://www.gnosticmedia.
com/manufacturing-the-deadhead-a-product-of-social-engineering-by-
joe-atwill-and-jan-irvin/
7. Michaelis, Anthony R.; and Hugh Harvey, Eds. Scientists in Search of Their
Conscience. New York, NY: Springer-Verlag, 1973, p. 106.
8. Oliver, Revilo P. Conspiracy or Degeneracy? Nedrow, NY: Power Products,
1967, pp. 31-32.
9. Brightman, Carol. Sweet Chaos: The Grateful Dead’s American Adventure.
New York, NY: Pocket Books, 1998, p. 100.

the lsd stories • PAGE 36

 Nicholas Sand
May 10th, 1942 — April 24th, 2017

Clandestine Chemist For The Brotherhood Of Eternal Love

Hippy yoga fan Nicholas Sand sat naked in the lotus position in front of a roaring farmhouse fire.
It was 1964 and the bright young anthropology student had just taken his first hit of the mind-altering drug LSD.
He closed his eyes and waited for the psychedelic ride to begin.
It was a journey which altered the course of his life and saw millions more “turn on, tune in and drop out”.
“My first experience with taking acid changed everything,” Sand recalled years later. “I was floating in this immense black. I said ‘What am I doing here?’
And suddenly a voice came through my body, and it said ‘Your job on this planet is to make psychedelics and turn on the world.’”

Three years later Sand was doing just that, making “Orange Sunshine” LSD tablets,
the purest on the market, from a lab in the back of an old ice-cream van.

“We got
the whole
prison stoned.”
the lsd stories • PAGE 37
He was a laid-back, loved-up, long-haired prototype of Breaking Bad’s Walter White. He fuelled the company as a front for his drug trade. Sand became fascinated with Eastern philosophies and
Summer of Love in 1967 and dreamed of taking took up yoga – which he would perform na-
the whole world on an acid trip to peace. ked for the rest of his life. He became
And Sand, who died recently at the friends with the legendary Harvard
age of 75, also inspired The Beatles’ psychologist Timothy Leary – seen
legendary Sgt Pepper album and as the father of psychedelia. The pills
the single A Day In the Life, consid- were found wherever hippies hung
ered by many their greatest ever out – at Grateful Dead concerts, in
song. His drug opened the mind of communes, Indian ashrams and Af-
a young geek called Steve Jobs who ghan hashish havens.
said the “profound experience, one of
the most important things in my life” Sand later claimed it got to US sol-
inspired him to change the world. diers fighting in Vietnam and he
hoped to bend their minds in the di-
And the Sunshine King also helped rection of brotherly love.
Jimi Hendrix set the music world on
fire at festivals like Woodstock. “The goal was simple,” Sand told
makers of a 2015 documentary.
Now there are fewer safety fears “If we could turn on everyone in
around the drug as “microdosing” the world, then maybe we’d have
—taking it in small quantities— a new world of peace and love. I
has become a craze among young was on a crusade. The only money
professionals. I ever wanted was to live comfort-
ably. I did something I feel was really
Users claim, and the peer review good for millions of people.” But drug
confirms, that it boosts creativity, “... the drug played a major part in the cultural revolution ­enforcement agents took a different
improves their mood and helps with view. Sand was arrested when his truck
mental health issues. LSD is currently a
that swept Britain and America 50 years ago— failed to stop at a border control in Colo-
Class A controlled drug in the UK, carrying Sand (above) was its chemical Che Guevara.” rado. Federal agents found 313,000 doses
a maximum penalty of seven years in prison of LSD and a lab on wheels. In 1974 Sand was
and a fine for possession, while supply or pro- sentenced to 15 years in jail. Scully got 20. But
duction can lead to a life sentence. But the drug played a major part in the cultural revolution while in prison, Sand smuggled in drugs and got his cell-mates high. His girlfriend would arrive
that swept Britain and America 50 years ago—and Sand was its chemical Che Guevara. with a mouthful of drugs hidden in a balloon and kiss them over. “We formed an eight-man psy-
chedelic cell,” he recalled. “Everybody would rather take LSD than just sit in jail. We got the whole
He was born in New York, in 1941, the son of a chemist called Clarence Hiskey who worked prison stoned.” Out on bail during a doomed appeal, Sand went on the run to Canada. He spent
on the top-secret Manhattan Project to develop the atomic bomb – until he was caught spy- the next 20 years continuing his “mission” – growing magic mushrooms and making LSD. In
ing for the Soviet Union. Hiskey’s wife divorced him and gave her son her maiden name. Sand 1996 the Canadian Mounties got their man – they raided Sand’s new lab and returned him to
studied anthropology and sociology at Brooklyn College, graduating in 1966. But several years San Francisco and another nine years in jail before his release in 2001. Partner in crime Scully
before that he began experimenting with drugs, making an hallucinogenic drug called DMT said of him: “Nick made a commitment to being a lifelong psychedelic outlaw.” And in 2011, after a
in the bathtub of his mother’s flat and another called mescaline. He even set up a perfume fatal heart attack at his home in California, that lifelong commitment was finally over.
the lsd stories • PAGE 38
 UNTOLD
THE

HISTORY OF LSD
NARRATED BY THE PEOPLE WHO LIVED & loved IT

THE
US MISSILE SILO
The Brotherhood of Eternal Love
HEADS Underground

MK-Naoimi, MK-Delta, MK-Ultra and Much more ...

the lsd stories • PAGE 39

 I asked them, “Why are you doing it?”.

I said, “You know that at this particular time, with the Nix-
on administration waging all out war on turned on kids,
with all the aid of border guards, secret agents, it’s just not
a cool time to do it. You have got all the land and dope to
center your own lives. Why take chances?”

They thought for a minute

and their answer was interesting.

“We deal because that’s our thing. We believe that dope is

the hope of the human race, it is a way to make people free
... and happy. We wouldn’t feel good just sitting here smok-
ing the dope we have and saving our souls knowing that
there are 30 million kids that need dope to center them-
selves. Our lives have been saved from the plastic night-
mare because of dope and we would feel selfish if we just
stayed here in our beautiful utopia. Our brothers and sis-
ters out there should be as liberated and loving as we are.”

~ Excerpt from an interview with Timothy Leary

the lsd stories • PAGE 40

 ALBERT HOFFMAN 1906-2008 [499]

the lsd stories • PAGE 41

the lsd stories • PAGE 42
the lsd stories • PAGE 43
 Albert Hofmann (1906 –2008) – An Obituary [7]
Planta Medical • 2008

Otto Sticher1, Matthias Hamburger2

1 Professor Emeritus of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich, Switzerland
2 Institute of Pharmaceutical Biology, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland

Albert Hofmann, 102, Swiss chemist, father of LSD, honorary member of ASP and GA and Dr. h. c. maritima). At that time, ill defined Digitalis and Scilla preparations were in use, and scientists at Sandoz
mult. (ETH Zurich, Free University of Berlin, Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm), died April 29, were aiming at chemically defined preparations for safer use. He was involved in the isolation of scil-
2008 – four months after his beloved wife Anita laren A, the first pure glycoside from squill [2], in
– at his home in Burg, a village near Basel, Swit- studies on the enzymatic degradation of cardiac
zerland. Hofmann was born in Baden, a spa and glycosides [3], and later was able to demonstrate
industrial town near Zurich, on January 11, 1906. the gross structure of the bufadienolide [4].
After a commercial apprenticeship he studied
chemistry at the University of Zurich under the In 1935, Hofmann moved on to a promising new
direction of Professor Paul Karrer, a future No- field, the ergot alkaloids. There was a history in
bel laureate. His doctoral thesis dealt with the ergot research at Sandoz, as Stoll himself had
structure elucidation of chitin, the cellulose-like isolated the first ergot alkaloid, ergotamine, in
structural material found in numerous classes of 1918 already. The compound had been in use
animals, such as insects and crustaceans. Hof- since 1921 under the trade name Gynergen® for
mann discovered that an enzyme preparation stopping of postpartum bleeding, later also for
from Helix pomatia efficiently degraded chitin the treatment of migraine. Hofmann’s initial fo-
and conclusively demonstrated that it was a cus was on a practical synthesis of ergometrine
polymer of N-acetylglucosamine [1]. (ergobasine). This minor alkaloid had been iden-
tified shortly before by three research groups,
After completing his PhD thesis he joined San- one of them at Sandoz, as a strongly uterotonic
doz in Basel in 1929 as he had a vivid interest in substance in ergot. Hofmann achieved the syn-
this company’s research program – isolation and thesis via hydrolysis of ergotamine to lysergic
synthesis of the active principles from medicinal acid, which in turnwas derivatised to its propa-
plants for the development of plant-based med- nolamide. It was the first synthesis of an ergot
icines. He worked in the pharmaceutical/chemi- alkaloid, and a practical route to numerous ly-
cal research laboratories of Sandoz until his retirement in 1971, first as a coworker of Prof. Arthur Stoll, sergic acid derivatives [5], [6]. One of these derivatives, methylergometrine (Methergin®), was devel-
later as a group leader and finally – for the last 15 years of his career – as head of the natural products oped for control of postpartum bleeding, as it had a better pharmacological profile than the natural
department. His early research at Sandoz was on the chemistry of cardiac glycosides from squill (Scilla product ergometrine. In 1938, Hofmann synthesised another derivative, lysergic acid diethylamide

the lsd stories • PAGE 44

(LSD), which eventually was to become his most
famous compound. However, he discovered its
potent psychotropic activity only a few years
later, and rather by chance, in a self-experiment
conducted on April 19th, 1943 [7]. His bicycle
ride home from the laboratory on that day has
passed into drug lore as the first LSD trip. Sub-
sequently he became world-renowned as the
father of LSD. The discovery of LSD opened the
door to psychopharmacology, and paved the
way for the understanding of the biochemistry
of the neurotransmitters serotonin and dopa-
mine during the following decades.
After its discovery, LSD was viewed as a won-
der drug with the potential to treat psychical
problems including schizophrenia. Under the
name of Delyside® it was studied clinically for
ten years and showed great promise as a phar-
macological aid in psychoanalysis. However,
LSD not only elicited great interest among psy-
chiatrists but also became the preferred drug of
hippie and other subcultures, and found expres-
sion in the fine arts and in the music. The partly
uncontrolled consumption led to a global ban
of LSD in the sixties, even of its use for thera-
peutic and scientific purposes. According to Dr.
Hofmann this decisiowas politically motivated
rather than scientifically.
From an industrial viewpoint, other discover-
ies in ergot research proved to be of signifi-
cant importance. Hofmann demonstrated that
“ergotoxine” was in fact a variable mixture of
three structurally related compounds which
he named ergocristine, ergocryptine and er-
gocornine [8]. In the same year, he published a
method for the practical catalytic hydrogena-
tion of ergot alkaloids [9]. This seemingly minor
structural modification had far reaching conse-
the lsd stories • PAGE 45
quences, as the dihydro derivatives showed sig-
nificantly improved stability against degrada-
tion by light and oxygen, and had a profoundly
altered pharmacological profile compared to
the natural alkaloids. Dihydroergotoxine (Hy-
dergine®) was initially introduced as a drug for
the treatment of hypertension and circulatory
disorders and later became a major commercial
success for Sandoz when it was used as a noot-
ropic to improve cerebral blood flow in elderly
patients. Dihydroergotamine (Dihydergot®) is
used up to now as a drug to treat orthostatic
hypotention and migraine.
In the late 1940s, the structures of the ergot
alkaloids were still incompletely known. Hoff-
mann and his coworkers investigated the ste-
reochemistry of the lysergic acid moiety and its
isomerisation reactions to pharmacologically
inactive compounds [10], [11], and later turned
their attention to the tricyclic peptide moiety
of the ergopeptines. In 1951, the full structures
of ergotamine and related alkaloids were pub-
lished [12]. This line of research culminated a
few years later in the successful total synthesis
of ergotamine [13], [14]. In a parallel effort, the
reactivity of lysergic acid was systematically ex-
plored and numerous derivatives prepared and
tested. Halogenation reactions turned out to
produce compounds with unique pharmaco-
logical profiles [15].
Among these, bromocryptine (Parlodel®) was
a potent dopaminergic and became a drug for
treatment of hyperprolactinaemia and Parkin-
son’s disease. The compound inspired other
pharmaceutical companies in the development
of ergolin-based anti-Parkinson dopamine
agonists, such as cabergoline, lisuride and per-
golide. With the increasing demand for ergot
alkaloids, securing the production became a serious is-
sue. Initially, ergot alkaloids were extracted from Clavi-
ceps sclerotia obtained from artificially inoculated rye
fields. Initial studies on the fermentative production of
ergot alkaloids were conducted at Sandoz in the 1950s
[16], [17] and paved the way for submerged cultures of
C. purpurea for production of peptide type alkaloids,
and C. paspali for the production of paspalic acid as a
starting material for partial synthesis.
When Ciba, one of the other major pharmaceutical in-
dustries in Basel, introduced reserpine (Serpasil®) in 1953
as one of the first effective antipsychotic and antihyper-
tensive drugs, Sandoz also embarked on a Rauvolfia proj-
ect. Given the indolic nature and pharmacological pro-
file of reserpine, there were obvious common features
with the ergot alkaloids. Hofmann and his team isolated
and characterised a number of new alkaloids [18], even
though this effort eventually did not result in a drug. In
the meantime, Albert Hofmann was well known among
scientists for his discovery of the psychoactive LSD and,
therefore, was approached by the French mycologist
Roger Heim who sought his chemical expertise on hallu-
cinogens. Gordon Wasson, an American banker, and his
wife had witnessed in Mexico the use of the psychoac-
tive mushroom “Teonanacatl”, which Heim identified as
a new Psilocybe species. As a first step, the team at San-
doz established that the psychotropic properties of the
fruiting body were also present in mycelial cultures. This
ensured sufficient supply of raw material for the chemi-
cal investigation. Hofmann isolated the psychotropic
compounds in an activity directed approach. Given that
animal testing with mice and dogs were not conclusive,
Hofmann followed the activity by testing the effect on
himself and on some volunteers among his colleages at
Sandoz [19], [20]. Finally, two indole phosphoric esters,
psilocine and psilocybine, were identified. Pharmaco-
logical investigations later clarified their serotoninergic
mode of action as mixed 5-HT1A/2A receptor agonists.
the lsd stories • PAGE 46
Shortly after, Hofmann elucidated the mystery of anoth-
er Mexican psychotropic drug, “Ololiuqui”. This sacred
drug of the Aztecs had been identified as Rivea corym-
bosa (L.) Hall. f.. Hofmann discovered that the psychoac-
tive principles in the seeds were lysergic acid amide and
related compounds [21]. This was the first discovery of
lysergic acid derivatives in higher plants and, as such, a
major surprise at that time. One assumes today that this
unusual occurrence of ergolin-derived natural products
in some species of the Convolvulaceae family is due to
endophytic fungi.
One of Hofmann’s last publications at Sandoz surpris-
ingly dealt with the characterization of a new structural
class of artificial sweeteners [22]: During the synthesis of
model compounds of lysergic acid, one derivative with
intensive sweetness had been found. The compound,
named “glycergic acid”, was sweeter than saccharin, had
no unpleasant aftertaste and low acute toxicity.
However, the compound was not developed further de-
spite its favourable properties. Albert Hofmann’s career
as chemist had been largely centred on the indole moi-
ety as a scaffold of structurally diverse natural products
and semi synthetic derivatives with an equally diverse
spectrum of pharmacological properties. He synthe-
sised an impressive number of compounds which even-
tually became highly successful drugs and established
the indole moiety as what contemporarym medicinal
chemistry would designate as “priviledged structure”.
Indeed, Hofmann’s legacy influenced medicinal chem-
istry efforts at Sandoz even years after his retirement, as
reflected in the development of several (fully synthetic)
drugs containing the indole moiety as a structural mo-
tif, such as the β-blocker pindolol (Visken®), tropisetron
(Navoban®), a selective antagonist at neuronal serotonin
receptors used as an antiemetic, and tegaserod (Zel-
mac®), a drug against irritable bowel syndrome. Albert
Hofmann authored more than hundred scientific papers
and several books. He published an extensive account
on the complex chemistry of ergot alkaloids in
his book “Die Mutterkornalkaloide” [23]. The leg-
endary story of the LSD discovery and the initial
experiments in humans are vividly recounted by
Hofmann in his book “LSD – mein Sorgenkind”
(1979) which was translated into English as “LSD
– My Problem Child” (1980) [7]. LSD was surely the
most sensational of all compounds ever synthe-
sised in Basel, and the most powerful psychotro-
pic substance known.
After his retirement from professional life, he in-
creasingly devoted himself to philosophical re-
flections on the experience of nature, publish-
ing a collection of assays “Einsichten– Ausblicke”
(published in English as “Insight –Outlook”) [24]
as well as an illustrated volume entitled “Lob des
Schauens” (“In Praise of Contemplation”) [25]. His
fundamental credo is published in “Insight–Out-
look”: “I believe that the significance of the natural
sciences in the evolution of human society does
not lie primarily in the fact that they provided the
basis for the development of modern technolo-
gies and industries that have radically changed
our lives and our planet, but rather in the fact that
they can open people’s eyes to the wonder of cre-
ation and to the unity of all life on earth, of which
humanity is a part. If this knowledge fully entered
public consciousness, it could form the basis of a
new spirituality and help to resolve our current
spiritual, social and environmental problems”.
In 2007 Hofmann was elected by the readers of
the English newspaper “Guardian” as one of the
“world’s top 10 living geniuses”. In celebration
of Albert Hofmann’s 100th birthday (January 11,
2006) a book of a special kind “Grenzgänge” (“Ex-
ploring the frontiers”) [26] has been written by his
friends to pay tribute to the scientist and man.
the lsd stories • PAGE 47
Dr. Hofmannwas not only a scientist with a philo-
sophical bent; he had also remained until the end
of his life a cheerful and good-humoured man. Ev-
eryone was impressed by his phenomenal knowl-
edge not only of chemistry and physics but also
of literature, music and arts in general. He enjoyed
long restorative walks in the woods around his
beautiful house in the countryside, read books of
baroque literature in the original and correspond-
ed with friends and colleagues around the world.
Albert Hofmann was always convinced that only
physicians should handle LSD and other psyche-
delic drugs. He was deeply disappointed by the
worldwide ban of LSD also in therapy and re-
search in the sixties. So it is not surprising that
he judged the approval in 2007 of an LSD study
in Switzerland, the first trial in the past 35 years,
as a fulfillment of a dream. Albert Hofmann was
appointed as the 8th Honorary Member of GA, on
the occasion of the 25th Annual Meeting 1977 at
ETH Zurich, for his outstanding and successful re-
search especially on digitaloids from Urginea ma-
ritima as well as on ergot and Rauvolfia alkaloids,
including the synthesis of LSD and the discovery of
its psychotropic activities. Since the early years of
GA Hofmann was involved in the activities of the
society. He was member of the Advisory Board in
the years 1960/1961. Hofmann was invited several
times as plenary lecturer, e. g. at the 5th annual GA
meeting 1957 in Würzburg (Chemistry of Rauvolfia
alkaloids), the 6th annual GA meeting in Tübingen
(The chemistry of ergot alkaloids), the 8th annual
GA meeting 1960 in Braunschweig (Chairman of
the symposium “Constituents of Fungi”), the 9th
annual meeting 1961 in Bad Oeynhausen (The ac-
tive constituents of the Mexican “magical” plant
Ololiuqui), the 12th annual GA meeting 1964 in
Berlin (Mexican “magical” plants and their constit-
uents), the 2nd Joint Meeting with ASP/23rd annual
GA meeting 1975 in Storrs, USA (Discovery of LSD),
and the 29th annual meeting 1982 in Marburg (Hal-
lucinogenic drugs as psychoactive drugs). Besides,
Albert Hofmann frequently attended GA meetings as
regular participant (19th, 26th, 28th, 30th, 32nd, 34th,
37th, 40th, 41st, 43rd and 46th). On the occasion of the
30th annual meeting 1982 in Graz he wrote in a letter
to the GA president at that time (Prof. O. Sticher) that
he enjoyed participating in the scientific meetings of
GA and appreciated very much to cultivate friendship
with colleagues. At the age of 92, Albert Hofmann at-
tended for the last time a GA congress (46th annual
meeting in Vienna). Dr. Hoffman passed away 10 years
later at the age of 102.
References
1 Karrer P, Hofmann A. Polysaccharide XXXIX. Über den en-
zymatischen Abbau von Chitin und Chitosan I. Helv Chim
Acta 1929; 12: 616–37
2 Stoll A, Suter E, Kreis W, Bussemaker BB, Hofmann A. Die
herzaktiven Substanzen der Meerzwiebel. Scillaren A. (1.
Mitteilung über Herzglucoside). Helv Chim Acta 1933; 16:
703–33
3 Stoll A, Hofmann A, Kreis W. Über Scillarenase. (3. Mit-
teilung über Herzglucoside). Hoppe-Seylers Zeitschr Physi-
ol Chemie 1935; 235: 249–64
4 Stoll A, Hofmann A, Helfenstein A. Die Identität der α-Scil-
lansäure mit Allocholsäure. 11. Mitteilung über Herzgluco-
side. Helv Chim Acta 1935; 18: 644–659
5 Stoll A, Hofmann A. Partialsynthese des Ergobasins, eines
natürlichen Mutterkornalkaloids sowie seines optisch-
en Antipoden. (3. Mitteilung über Mutterkornalkaloide).
Hoppe-Seylers Zeitschr Physiol Chemie 1938; 251: 155–63
6 Stoll A, Hofmann A. Partialsynthese von Alkaloiden vom
Typus des Ergobasins. (6. Mitteilung über Mutterkornalka-
loide). Helv Chim Acta 1943; 26: 944–65
7 Hofmann A. LSD –mein Sorgenkind. Stuttgart: Klett-Cot-
ta; 1979 (English translation: LSD – My Problem Child. New
York:McGraw-Hill; 1980)
8 Stoll A, Hofmann A. Die Alkaloide der Ergotoxingruppe:
Ergocristin, Ergokryptin und Ergocornin. (7. Mitteilung über
Mutterkornalkaloide). Helv Chim Acta 1943; 26: 1570–1603
9 Stoll A, Hofmann A. Die Dihydroderivate der natürlichen linksdrehenden Mutterkornalkaloide. (9.
the lsd stories • PAGE 48
Mitteilung über Mutterkornalkaloide). Helv Chim Acta
1943; 26: 2070–81
10 Stoll A, Hofmann A, Troxler F. Über die Isomerie von Ly-
sergsäure und Isolysergsäure. 14. Mitteilung über Mutter-
kornalkaloide. Helv Chim Acta 1949; 32: 506–521
11 Stoll A, Petrzilka T, Rutschmann J, Hofmann A, Günthard
HH. Über die Stereochemie der Lsysergsäuren und der Dihy-
dro-lysergsäuren. 37. Mitteilung über Mutterkornalkaloide.
Helv Chim Acta 1954; 37: 2039–57
12 Stoll A, Hofmann A, Petrzilka T. Die Konstitution der Mutter-
kornalkaloide. Struktur des Peptidteils. III. 24. Mitteilung über
Mutterkornalkaloide., Helv Chim Acta 1951; 34: 1544–76
13 Hofmann A, Ott H, Frey AJ. Die Totalsynthese des Ergota-
mins. Experientia 1961; 17: 206–7
14 Hofmann A, Ott H, Griot R, Stadler PA, Frey AJ. Die Synthese
und Stereochemie des Ergotamins. (58. Mitteilung über Mut-
terkornalkaloide). Helv Chim Acta 1963; 46: 2306–28
15 Troxler F, Hofmann A. Substitutionen am Ringsystem der
Lysergsäure. III. Halogenierung. 45. Mitteilung über Mutterkor-
nalkaloide. Helv Chim Acta 1957; 40: 2160–70
16 Stoll A, Brack A, Kobel H, Hofmann A, Brunner R. Die Alkaloide
eines Mutterkornpilzes von Pennisetum typhoideum Rich. Und
deren Bildung in saprophytischer Kultur. 36. Mitteilung über
Mutterkornalkaloide. Helv Chim Acta 1954; 37: 1815–25
17 Hofmann A, Brunner R, Kobel H, Brack A. Neue Alkaloide
aus der saprophytischen Kultur des Mutterkornpilzes von
Pennisetum typhoideum Rich. 42. Mitteilung über Mutter-
kornalkaloide. Helv Chim Acta 1957; 40: 1358–73
18 Stoll A, Hofmann A. Sarpagin, ein neues Alkaloid aus Rau-
wolfia serpentina Benth. Helv. Chim Acta 1953; 36: 1143–7
19 Hofmann A, Heim R. Brack A, Kobel. Psilocybin, ein psy-
chotroper Wirkstoff aus dem mexikanischen Rauschpilz
Psilocybe mexicana Heim. Experientia 1958; 14: 107–9
20 Hofmann A, Heim R. Brack A, Kobel H, Frey A, Ott H et al.
Psilocybin und Psilocin, zwei psychotrope Wirkstoffe aus mexi-
kanischen Rauschpilzen. Helv Chim Acta 1959; 42: 1557–72
21 Hofmann A, Tscherter H. Isolierung von Lysergsäure-
Alkaloiden aus der mexikanischen Zauberdroge Ololiuqui
(Rivea corymbosa (L.) Hall F. Experientia 1960; 16: 414
22 Hofmann A. Ein neuer Süssstoff aus der Indolreihe. Helv
Chim Acta 1972; 55: 2934–40
23 Hofmann A. Die Mutterkornalkaloide. Stuttgart: Ferdi-
nand Enke Verlag; 1964
24 Hofmann A. Einsichten – Ausblicke. Solothurn: Nachtschat-
ten Verlag; 2003 (Original edition: Basel: Sphinx; 1986). (English
translation: Insight–Outlook. Atlanta: Humanics;
25 Hofmann A. Lob des Schauens. Solothurn: Nachtschatten
Verlag; 2003
26 Engel G, Herrling P (eds.). Grenzgänge – Albert Hofmann zum 100. Geburtstag.Exploring the Frontiers
– in Celebration of Albert Hofmann’s100th Birthday. Basel: Schwabe Verlag; 2006
 209 Pages • [393] • 1979

the lsd stories • PAGE 49

the lsd stories • PAGE 50
the lsd stories • PAGE 51
 102 Pages • [394] • 1980

102 Pages • [394] • 1980

the lsd stories • PAGE 52
 confirmed the results of his earlier psychoactive experience and revealed a fascinating new dicovery:
Here was the first known substance that produced psychic effects from dosages so tiny they were
measurable only in micrograms! Dr. Hofmann had discovered LSD-25.

Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) was enthusiastically investigated by the European psychiatric pro-
fession as a possible key to the chemical nature of mental illness. Its effects were believed to mimic
the psychotic state. As soon as LSD was introduced to American psychiatry in 1950, interest spread
rapidly among the United States military and domestic security interests. By the middle 1950s, LSD
was being researched as a creativity enhancer and learning stimulant; rumors of its ecstatic, mystic
and psychic qualities began to leak out through the writings of Aldous Huxley, Robert Graves and
An Interview With Dr. Albert Hofmann [251] other literary luminaries.

By Michael Horowitz A large-scale, nonmedical experiment involving LSD and other psychedelic drugs at Harvard in the
early Sixties precipitated a fierce controversy over the limits of academic freedom and focused na-
High Times Magazine • November 1976 tional attention on the drug now known as “acid.” Midway through the turbulent decade, one million
people had tried black-market LSD, engendering a neurological revolution the fallout of which has
At the height of World War II, four months after the first artificially created nuclear reaction was re- not yet been assessed. In 1966, Congress outlawed LSD.
leased in a pile of uranium ore in Chicago, an accidentally absorbed trace of a seminatural rye fungus
product quietly exploded in the brain of a 37-year-old Swiss chemist working at the Sandoz research Dr. Hofmann now Dr. Hofmann now lives in comfortable retirement on a hill overlooking the Swiss-
laboratories in rapidly among the United States military and domestic security interests. By the middle French border. He granted High Times this exclusive interview to discuss not only the implications of
1950s, LSD was being researched as a creativity enhancer and learning stimulant; rumors of its ecstat- his discovery of LSD, but also his less publicized chemical investigations into the active agents of sev-
ic, mystic and psychic qualities began to leak out through the writings of Aldous Huxley, Robert Basel. eral sacred Mexican plants. Considering his life’s work, Dr. Hofmann seems a likely candidate for the
He reported to his supervisor: “I was forced to stop my work in the laboratory in the middle of the af- Nobel Prize in chemistry. Not only have his discoveries broadened our knowledge of psychoactive
ternoon and to go home, as I was seized by a peculiar restlessness associated with a sensation of mild chemicals and triggered the imaginations of thousands of scientists, historians and other research-
dizziness ... a kind of drunken- ers, but they have had a direct
ness which was not unpleasant and revolutionary impact on
and which was characterized by humanity’s ability to understand
extreme activity of imagination and help itself.
... there surged upon me an un-
interrupted stream of fantastic THE INTERVIEW
images of extraordinary plastic- (excerpt)
ity and vividness and accompa-
nied by an intense, kaleidoscope High Times: What work did you
like play of colors .... “ do prior to your discovery of
LSD?
Three days later, on April19,
1943, Dr. Albert Hofmann under- Hofmann: In the early years of
took a self-experiment that both my career in the pharmaceu-

the lsd stories • PAGE 53

 tical research laboratory of Sandoz in Basel, I was occupied
mainly with investigations on the cardiac components, the
glycosides, of squill, or Scilla maritima. These investigations
resulted in the elucidation of the chemical constitution of the
common nucleus of these agents, which provide valuable
medicaments that are often used in the treatment of cardiac
failure. From 1935 I worked on the alkaloids of ergot, resulting
in the development of ergonovine, the first synthetic prepara-
tion of natural ergot alkaloids; Methergine. used in obstetrics
to stop hemorrhage; Hydergine for geriatric complaints. In
1943 the results of this first period of my research in the ergot
field were published in a professional journal, Chimica Acta.
As a result of my first eight years of ergot research, I synthe-
sized a large number of ergot derivatives: amides of lysergic
acid, lysergic acid being the characteristic nucleus of natural
ergot alkaloids. Among these amides of lysergic acid there
was also the diethylamide of lysergic acid.

High Times: Did you have LSD in your laboratory as early as

1938?

Hofmann: Yes. At that time a number of pharmacological ex-

periments were carried out in Sandoz ‘s department of phar-
macology. Marked excitation was observed in some of the
animals. But these effects did not seem interesting enough
to my colleagues in the department. Work on LSD fell into
abeyance for a number of years. As I had a strange feeling
that it would be valuable to carry out more profound studies
with this compound, I prepared a fresh quantity of LSD in the
spring of 1943. In the course of this work, an accidental ob-
servation led me to carry out a planned self-experiment with
this compound, which then resulted in the discovery of the
extraordinary psychic effects of LSD.

(End Excerpt • Please download PDF 251

for the complete interview)

the lsd stories • PAGE 54

the lsd stories • PAGE 55
 Leonard Pickard & The Missile Silo Lab

It has been over ten years since Leonard was—and continues to be—one of the
was arrested for allegedly synthesizing prisoners John discussed, and this pa-
LSD at a missile silo in Kansas. Although per necessarily is being presented in
he had a newborn child with his young absentia.
wife, he chose at great risk to go to trial
so that he might live the rest of his life John had hoped to present this pre-
with his wife and child. As you read this, sentation at Basel 2008, and communi-
he is still in confinement with two life cated on its content until his death. The
sentences, and struggling daily with the author, under presently very difficult
legal intricacies of this case. He practices conditions, wrote this paper by hand,
meditation while in prison, and sends based on personal recall and with lim-
his thoughts for world peace. We ask for ited references that will eventually be
your loving kindness and support for supplemented in web format.
this dear gentle soul, who is a casualty
in the fraudulent war on drugs. The author is incarcerated for multi-
ple life sentences for alleged LSD syn-
“All darkness disappears thesis, in what has been described as
From those who carry the “the largest LSD lab seizure ever
The radiance of the sun made by the Drug Enforcement Admin-
In their hearts.” istration,” discovered in 2000 in an
underground, former Atlas-E nuclear
International LSD Prevalence missile silo in Kansas. After denying
Factors Affecting the charges, he was subjected to the
Proliferation and Control longest trial in Kansas history.

This paper is presented in memory At the time of the incident, the author
of John Spencer Beresford, M.D., who was a researcher in public policy, par-
passed away on September 2, 2007. In ticularly involving new drugs of abuse,
Basel in 2006 John—a psychiatrist and and held appointments as a drug policy
seminal researcher—presented a re- fellow at the John F. Kennedy School
view of LSD prisoners and John’s work of Government at Harvard, and as a
with the Unjust Sentencing Project. The research associate in neurobiology at
author of this paper, Leonard Pickard, Harvard Medical School. His work did

the lsd stories • PAGE 56

not concern LSD other than incidentally, but in-
cluded three issues: 1) studies of heroin traffick-
ing in Central Asia and Afghanistan; 2) the pro-
liferation of clandestine laboratories in Russia
and the Newly Independent States and involv-
ing such drugs as fentanyl, methcathinone and
MDMA; and 3) the advent of new drugs, such
as trimethylfentanyl in Russia and the use of
pharmahuasca mixtures by religious groups in
New Mexico and Amsterdam. More recently the
author has litigated in federal court concerning
DEA and FDA regulation of the proposed aphro-
desic bremelanotide and related compounds.
For some years as a policy analyst, and after incar-
ceration, the author has interviewed numerous
manufacturers and distributors of illicit drugs,
including heroin, cocaine, methamphetamine,
fentanyl, MDMA and LSD, and the observations
that follow are derived in part from those in-
terviews as well as substantive exchanges with
medical and public health researchers, forensic
personnel, criminologists and other policy ana-
lysts. For legal purposes it is necessary to state
that this paper is presented as a preliminary re-
search effort to apply LSD as a model drug in
addressing certain contemporary issues in these
fields, and does not support or condone any il-
legal activity at any time.
The premise of this paper for this gathering in
Basel is that while a significant and growing
number of medical researchers—many of them
in attendance—are looking carefully at initially
a small number of subjects, there are relatively
few researchers rigorously considering the large
numbers of individuals in the population who
have experienced LSD. Thus, in that this forum
provides an opportunity to examine LSD in its
the lsd stories • PAGE 57
uncontrolled, epidemiological context, we will
explore here some of the rarely discussed fac-
tors influencing past and current worldwide
LSD availability and prevalence, as well as future
trends that may be anticipated. In essence, we
ask: “What is the future of LSD use in non-medical
settings, given its special chemical, pharmacologi-
cal and psychological properties?” To answer this
question we review not only the national survey
data but also the known history of LSD produc-
tion and distribution for—although future trends
involving heroin, cocaine and methamphet-
amine have been predicted in forensic settings,
albeit with a large degree of error—there is little
literature on factors influencing LSD availability.
With regard to the debate over medicalization
versus unrestricted use, it is observed that the
interest in medicalization of this compound has
been driven largely by the experiences reported
by the large number of illicit users themselves.
While medicalization of any drug, including LSD,
is a reasonable goal if unbiased, controlled stud-
ies consistently reveal that the drug may have
significant medical application in a limited set
of well-characterized medical or psychiatric dis-
orders, it also has been argued that the nature
of the LSD experience as reported by users can-
not be contained solely within the medical par-
adigm, in part due to variously reported broad
subjective effects characterized, for example,
as religiosity, esthetics, introspection and in-
sight. While medicalization may yet yield suc-
cessful treatment for certain specific disorders,
or may ultimately lead to limited government
sanctioned environments in some countries
where individuals without psychiatric disorders
may safely experience the drug under medical
or otherwise licensed supervision, the fact still
remains that since 1943 only a few thousand indi-
viduals have had supervised sessions with LSD pro-
vided by government sources, whereas survey and
production data suggest that hundreds of millions
of individuals have had LSD from non-government
sources and in medically unsupervised settings.
With such a currently disproportionate ratio of sub-
jects it is this latter population as a whole we wish to
consider, for while the process of medicalization has
been underway for some decades now—with in-
cremental advances well-noted in this forum—the
parallel uncontrolled and informal availability has
continued for 65 years and may do so indefinitely,
influenced by factors we will now discuss.
First, since effectively all LSD available to the pub-
lic is illicit, and we wish to analyze the factors in-
fluencing supply in order to project the future of
non-medical use, it is helpful to know both the
prevalence of LSD in society and the more difficult
to assess figures for the amount produced in clan-
destine settings. Our central question is then, “How
do these percentages vary from year to year and why,
and how may this data be used as a predictive tool for
future trends?” Our analysis here must be guided by,
and very much limited to, the standard U.S. surveys
that have existed for decades describing indicators
of prevalence for all drugs. Although several surveys
exist, we will consider two of the most cited surveys
in public health and criminological literature: the
Drug Abuse Warning Network—or DAWN—and the
Monitoring the Future survey—or MTF. The MTF sur-
vey title is somewhat misleading to granting agen-
cies in that the annual results report data from four
to 16 months in the past rather than anticipating fu-
ture trends, and researchers are regularly surprised
by new development while recording their histories
of drug use reported by different age cohorts. The
DAWN data focus on a wide spectrum of controlled
the lsd stories • PAGE 58
substances and licit medications and recording, for
example, emergency room visits in which the drug
is noted, whether or not the drug is responsible for
the visit. Federal enforcement agencies, which we
will limit here to DEA and the office of National Drug
Control Policy (ONDCP), rely upon these surveys to
describe their concerns or successes during their
annual solicitation of funds from Congressional ap-
propriations committees, and produce public state-
ments and charts showing the declines in preva-
lence or ER visits from year to year for various drugs
while correlating these declines against their sei-
zures of drugs or arrests of individuals or organiza-
tions. However, “correlation does not imply causality,”
that is, a decline in drug availability—in our context
LSD and MDMA—cannot be correlated with any
particular enforcement action. Indeed, the supply of
LSD and MDMA appears to be mainly independent
of such seizures, and dependent on other factors.
Thus, enforcement agencies rationalize their efforts
by asserting an incapacitation effect—the removal
of suppliers by arrests—and a deterrent effect, the
reduction in supply due to fear of arrest. However,
it is suggested that with regard to the variation in
prevalence of LSD and MDMA between 1996–2006,
it is a substitution effect that is a primary factor—
the use of a drug other than LSD—in this instance
MDMA and to a limited degree what MTF and DAWN
classify as “other hallucinogens” by the same age co-
horts. The MTF data for LSD and MDMA are most
interesting to compare for the period 1996–2006.
Although our concern here is LSD prevalence, we
discover that the appearance of MDMA in the sur-
veys, first recorded in 1996, followed by an unprec-
edented and unusually steep rise—for any drug his-
torically—suggests that this great influx of MDMA
availability and use had a displacement or substitu-
tion effect on LSD use among the same cohort. LSD
prevalence as observed by the MTF study, has undergone a steady decline each year since a peak in use had a strongly positive—almost epidemic—800% increase in the same period, thus suggesting
1996. Drug policy analysts who consider these surveys also observed a remarkable and seemingly in- a substitution effect. For when a new drug suddenly becomes widely available to a user population,
explicable drop in prevalence in 2001, to the lowest level of LSD availability and use seen in decades. particularly of a similar class of drugs, substitution effects are inevitable and promoted by the limits
This sudden decrease, due to then unknown factors, prompted written commentary on slate.com of time, cost, and interest of the user population, in this instance the 18–24 age cohort. Although the
and other venues with articles entitled, e.g. “Where Has All the Acid Gone?” MTF explanation in its 2003 annual summary for the LSD decline in 2001 was based entirely on DEA’s
claim of the Kansas seizure, the MTF report in 2005—after MTF received the author’s discussion of
The DEA’s reply to this question, then and now, is that DEA alone was wholly responsible for the substitution effects and unpublished details of the Kansas case—began to include substitution in its
decline in LSD availability due to a single enforcement action in Kansas in 2000 entitled “Operation theory of events in its annual report, although without attribution. In 2007, DEA continues to refer
White Rabbit”, thereafter attempting to utilize the MTF and DAWN data in asserting a 74% decline in only to the earlier MTF report, neglecting to address the reality of substitution effects common to all
LSD availability due to White Rabbit. Indeed, DEA’s annual appropriations requests to the U.S. Con- drug use.
gress in 2005 and 2006 were based in part on this unopposed interpretation of the MTF and DAWN
data and the seizure of one clandestine laboratory. But were they correct? The DEA website shows a What were the unpublished details submitted to MTF supporting the observation that single
simple chart reflecting the DAWN laboratories do not significantly
data and the steady decline since affect national survey results?
1996, but with an arrow pointing According to government tes-
at November, 2000, the month timony, the Kansas lab was not
of the Kansas seizure. There is no operational in 2000 but simply
mention of factors causing the stored, and was allegedly only
decline since 1996. However, a periodically operational in Colo-
more careful review of the MTF rado and New Mexico from 1997
and DAWN data suggests that the through July, 1999. Thus, the lab
DEA interpretation was inaccurate purportedly began production
for—it is submitted—a single lab- the year after the steady decline
oratory or even the several labora- in availability began in 1996.
tories seized between 1996–2000, Any DEA explanation based on
are unlikely to strongly influence the absence of this lab must also
national or international preva- account for its presence. It does
lence figures for LSD due to the not. Put another way, if an agen-
redundancy of the many labs and cy attributes the 2001 drop to a
distributors that cumulatively are single lab, there must also be a
responsible for LSD availability. corresponding and significant
increase in availability when the
In support of this observation, and same lab begins production.
conflicting with the DEA interpre-
tation, are the following facts: Nor, as we shall see, was there a sig-
nificant rise or decline in availabili-
While LSD was experiencing a ty from the presence or absence of
steady decline since 1996 and a any seized LSD lab between 1976
marked decline in 2001, MDMA and 1996. We may begin to infer

the lsd stories • PAGE 59

that LSD availability is not the out-
come of the incapacitation of a single
lab or the small cluster of loosely affili-
ated manufacturers—DEA suggests
six—that allegedly are responsible
for most LSD production, but rather
the outcome of the redundancy of an
unknown and much larger number of
smaller, independent point sources
that arise and disappear due to sever-
al factors—other than enforcement’s
incapacitation and deterrent effects—
that we will discuss. In sum, DEA as-
serts—in the case of LSD—one or a
few labs can supply the international
demand. It is here suggested that
LSD is more similar to MDMA in that
the ubiquity of such labs means the
absence or presence of one or a few
has no observable effect on surveys.
As an extreme example of this phe-
nomenon, the seizure of any metham-
phetamine “superlab”—against the
background of the 6000 or so seized
labs and the greater number of unde-
tected labs—has no discernible effect
on methamphetamine ER admissions.
To explore this lack of correlation be-
tween the MTF and DAWN surveys and
the DEA’s assertions of an incapacita-
tion effect on labs—and further to re-
affirm the lack of observable variations
in availability from either the initiation
or cessation of production of such
labs, as opposed to the aggregate ef-
fect of multiple point sources—a brief
history of the most frequently cited
clandestine LSD laboratories and their
estimated total production is in order.
the lsd stories • PAGE 60
The confidence level on these esti-
mates ranges from medium to high.
Between 1965 and 1967 the well-
publicized efforts of Owsley Stanley
allegedly led—in the U.S.—to the
’60s phenomenon of LSD experimen-
tation. Stanley’s labs in Los Angeles
(1965), Pt. Richmond, California (1966)
and Denver (1967) produced a total
of 400 grams, for which Stanley was
sentenced to three years after his ar-
rest in Orinda, California in December
1967, where 67 grams were seized.
In 1968–1969 the Windsor, California
lab of Nick Sand and Tim Scully pro-
duced 1,100 grams in Windsor, dis-
tributed through the Brotherhood
of Eternal Love as “Orange Sunshine”
in 240-microgram tablets. Nick Sand
was sentenced in 1974 to 15 years
for his work in the 1968–9 Wind-
sor lab and 1972 labs in St Louis and
Fenton, Missouri which produced
an unknown quantity of LSD (also
distributed as “Orange Sunshine”).
Tim Scully was sentenced in 1974 to
20 years (later reduced to 10 years),
and paroled after one-third time un-
der 1980s law for his work in the Pt
Richmond, Denver and the Windsor
labs. While Scully was released after
serving 3-1/3 years due to commu-
nity service and support, Nick Sand,
of course as you’ve read, departed
to Canada and continued his efforts.
In 1968–1970 the Paris and Orleans
labs of Ron Stark and Tord Svenson
purportedly produced several kilograms of LSD and from 1971–1972 their Belgian laboratory report-
edly produced another several kilos,
all distributed via the Brotherhood
of Eternal Love as “Orange Sunshine.”
Stark eventually was arrested in Italy
in 1975, where he served four years.
He was arrested and deported in
1983 from Holland to the US where
he faced conspiracy charges, in US v
Sand and Scully et al. in San Francis-
co, but the charges were eventually
dropped in 1983. He died in San Fran-
cisco in 1984 from a heart attack. In
1975 the MTF survey began collect-
ing data, while DAWN began collect-
ing data in 1994.
In the mid-late 1970s in the UK, the
“Operation Julie” group of Richard
Kemp, Henry Todd, David Solomon,
Andy Munro, et al. produced sever-
al kilograms. In March 1977 British
agents in Operation Julie arrested
over 100 suspects, with the lat-
ter receiving sentences ranging as
high as 13 years.
During the period 1970–1980 in
various locations the manufactur-
ing chemists Bill Weeks and associ-
ates are alleged to have produced
several kilograms, as did Tord Sven-
son from 1974–1990 in locations in
Europe, Arizona and New Mexico.
The Clearlight system allegedly began
small scale production in Santa Cruz in 1968, moving on to larger scale production in San Francisco
in the early 1970s, reportedly producing more than a kilo. In the 1980s the Clearlight group of Denis
Kelly in Burnt Ridge, Oregon began producing the gelatin form of LSD known as “Windowpane.” Sev-
eral individuals were sentenced to ten years, with Kelly eventually surrendering after negotiating a
sentence of two years. In the 1980s sev-
eral major German labs began pro-
duction, although details on these
sites are lacking. In 1988 in Moun-
tain View, California a lab attributed
to Leonard Pickard was seized along
with 34 grams, and for which the max-
imum state sentence of five years was
served. No production figures were
estimated by state or federal authori-
ties. In 1996 in Port Coquitlam, British
Columbia near Vancouver, Nick Sand
was arrested, after 20 years as a fugi-
tive, with a lab and 43 grams. While
the lab was described by Canadian
authorities as the major supplier of
LSD, the production figures are esti-
mated to be about one kilogram. For
both the 1969 Windsor lab and the
1996 Vancouver lab, Nick Sand served
a total of five years. There was no pre-
cipitous decline in 1996, however,
rather a long, steady decline even as
the Kansas lab purportedly began
production from 1997 through July,
1999.
In 2000 in Kansas the DEA an-
nounced the seizure of 50 kilograms
of LSD and a lab alleged again to be
Pickard’s, with this figure consistently
Krystle stands inside the missile silo tunnel
through the current date reported in
where she spent countless hours tripping on various psychedelics DEA websites, Congressional hearings,
and even appellate decisions. However,
at sentencing in 2004 the DEA technician
stated that the 50 kilograms were solvents later discarded by Pickard, and DEA analysis of this dis-
carded material yielded less than 196 grams of unusable LSD that was actually seized. The total pro-
duction of this lab remains unknown. Six kilograms of ergot alkaloid was seized, and months after

the lsd stories • PAGE 61

the incident the primary informant was discovered to have—as government testimony character- marily from the cumulative output of numerous small labs—somewhat similar to the lack of variabil-
ized it—”stolen” an additional twelve kilograms of alkaloid prior to directing enforcement agencies ity in survey results of MDMA availability even after seizures of major MDMA labs, we may note the
to the lab, with this material later seized from the informant in 2001. Interestingly, at trial—in an price structure data in Europe and the U.K., where prices have shown little variability for decades, and
effort to explain the lack of an increase in availability during the time the lab allegedly was operat- cannot be correlated with any single lab seizure. If, then, incapacitation effects on availability from
ing—the government asserted the LSD itself was distributed in Europe rather than the U.S., conflict- the occasional lab seizure are minimal or nonexistent, what is the deterrent effect from fear of arrest
ing with its later assertions to Congress. Indeed, from observing the MTF/DAWN data from 1976– by manufacturers and distributors? More specifically, what are the other deterrent factors—not only
2006, it may be observed that no lab whose seizure was described in the media has had any effect fear of arrest—that limit manufacture? What are the constraints on any one site’s productivity? What
on survey results while beginning production and, arguably, while ceasing production. Since only a is the effect of precursor control programs on such sites, and what factors limit or enhance the pro-
few labs have been seized, most are described in the media as the “largest”, while actual production liferation of multiple sources? In sum, what are the factors that—now and in the future—contract or
figures are usually unavailable. By comparison, the many existing small labs are less easily detected, expand the availability of LSD, excluding demand, price and public perception of effects? Examining
easier to move, and of shorter duration in productivity, yet their aggregate output from many point the intrinsic factors affecting manufacture, the author’s interviews have indicated several of particu-
sources creates the baseline avail- lar consequence. The intrinsic factors
ability of LSD. We may consider the include the physical properties of
2004 case of Casey Hardison in the the clandestine lab itself, the psy-
U.K. as an example, for this lab was chological effects particular to the
small enough to fit into a bedroom, drug itself, and the covert-lifestyle
producing limited quantities of 2C- required of suppliers. The extrinsic
B (1Kg) and DMT (75g), and with factors include the precursor con-
nine grams of LSD later seized, al- trol programs in effect by various
though prosecution argued that at governments; and improvements
total of 188g had been produced in enforcement methodologies di-
calling it the most complex illicit rected at drug control or any crimi-
laboratory since Kemp in 1977. nalized activity.
Although arguing on appeal for a
reduced sentence based on quan- Factors that expand availability
tity and citing the Kansas lab to include the opposing psycho-
demonstrate the disproportionate logical and physical properties
production to the court, Hardison particular to the drug itself and
nevertheless was sentenced to 20 resulting in multiple point sourc-
years. However, under U.K. law, he es, and advances in synthetic
is eligible for parole in half the time, procedures specifically adapted
and will be released from HMP to clandestine environments.
Ford in as little as four years and While reasserting the author’s
six months at the time of writing. caveat on illicit endeavor, each
He invites correspondence from of these factors will be briefly
researchers and other interested discussed, focusing on enforce-
parties. In additional support of the ment strategies that successfully
proposal that the U.S. and interna- contract all drug availability.
tional availability of LSD arises pri- The most widely recognized
The dupe that knew it...
the lsd stories • PAGE 62
constraints on aggregate clandestine lab production—thus availability observed by MTF and author, as a policy analyst, has conducted interviews in the community and in prison settings of
DAWN—include the limited incapacitation and deterrent effects from the obvious legal controls numerous drug manufacturers and distributors of methamphetamine, heroin, cocaine, PCP, fen-
in the U.S., and the onerous mandatory minimum sentences based on the number of doses, the tanyl, MDMA and LSD. We will limit this discussion to LSD, and consider certain rarely addressed
weight in grams, and prior felony convictions of any nature. These are among the most severe special characteristics of clandestine labs that influence availability. Of course, location and size
penalties internationally, although the rational basis for such sentencing relative to more prob- of clandestine labs determine in part total productivity per year. Labs frequently tend to be rural,
lematic drugs remains unclear. For example, in 2005 DAWN indicated that emergency room with sites found in remote desert or mountain environments, although there are exceptions such
visits for LSD—generally for temporary disorientation and anxiety among first-time users—was as the 1967 and 1968 Denver labs and the St Louis, Belgian and Paris labs in the 1970s discussed
only one four-hundredth of the number of visits involving cocaine, the latter with its known earlier. This remoteness, while reducing the probability of detection by enforcement agencies,
addictive properties and lethality. Spe- also makes access to the site more difficult
cifically, there were 1,864 LSD visits ver- and requires lengthy periods of social
sus 816,691 cocaine visits, and with the isolation for the manufacturer. Isolation
cocaine visits strongly disproportionate also reduces productivity due to lack of
for severity of medical problems. In Con- ready access to supplies of chemicals and
gressional testimony on July 25, 2000 a equipment. Another rarely addressed fac-
DEA official admitted, “Most users of LSD tor limiting clandestine production is the
voluntarily decrease or stop using it over unusual potency of LSD. In that special-
time, since it does not produce the same ized devices such as efficient fume hoods,
compulsive, drug-induced behavior of anaerobic conditions, and full protective
cocaine and heroin.” clothing with face shields and breathing
apparatus are less effective or nonexistent
Similarly, LSD use is not criminogenic in in clandestine environments—particu-
the sense of associated criminal activity larly in larger labs—manufacturers have
such as violence and theft, which fre- difficulty during the synthesis in prevent-
quently accompany use of stimulants ing constant exposure to large quanti-
and narcotics. Thus, while allocation ties of LSD and are frequently subjected
of substantial enforcement resources to incidental doses of 50 micrograms to
appears to be misapplied with regard many milligrams of LSD each day. LSD is
to the relatively minor social problems absorbed through skin contact with LSD-
A letter from Sue Bartell to Timothy Leary while he was on the run from the Feds in Europe
associated with LSD use, U.S. penalties containing solvents, through inhalation of
often continue to be described—for all dried particulate forms of LSD, and through
drugs—as “draconian”. For example, among LSD prisoners in the U.S. one physically disabled, chair- ocular solution. This incidental exposure to unknown quantities of LSD as chronic and acute doses
bound 35-year-old father of two—Roderick Walker—is serving a life sentence for 500 doses of LSD. over weeks and months—together with the anxiety from fear of detection and arrest and the sense
While it is conceded that such severe controls have a limited deterrent effect in reducing LSD distri- of dissociation from conducting a covert-lifestyle—all result in psychological stresses beyond that
bution, it is proposed that the aggregate cost to society from such lengthy imprisonment outweighs of a simple low-level LSD experience. The exposure effects are generally proportional to the size
the putative social benefit from the reduction in use. Keeping Roderick Walker alone imprisoned for of the lab, with smaller labs having greater control over incidental LSD. Although manufacturing
life will cost almost three million dollars—for 500 doses—funds that could produce a greater deter- chemists are routinely exposed to LSD for protracted periods, a protective effect has been noted
rent effect or result in greater benefit if applied to social programs and education. Other than the in what has been described as “saturation”, wherein rapid tolerance to the drug is built up in the
deterrent effect of severe penalties, what are other generally unreported factors that result in the first few days of exposure, after which the subjective experience in terms of peak effects are signifi-
contraction of the general drug supply or which apply only to LSD? To answer this question the cantly lessened. Nevertheless, except for periodic breaks, production tends to continue through a

the lsd stories • PAGE 63

series of batch syntheses for indefinite periods—some-
times years—until either an arrest occurs in the distribu-
tion network or of the manufacturer, or otherwise until
a personal decision is made to cease activity, or there is
a temporary or permanent interruption in the supply of
precursors or other requirements.
Exposure effects with other drugs, most notably the syn-
thetic morphine substitute fentanyl, have been observed
and provide an interesting example. While fentanyl expo-
sure can be lethal, and LSD is not, and fentanyl produc-
tion is much rarer than LSD, both are effective at about
100 micrograms. In the U.S. in the 1980s fentanyl sudden-
ly appeared among heroin users in California—resulting
in over 100 deaths—then suddenly disappeared, with
the absence of fentanyl attributed to the death of the
manufacturer from inadvertent contact. If our premise
is correct that LSD supply is redundant—having a larger
number of point sources—and incapacitation appears
not to affect availability, what are the other factors lim-
iting supply? Certainly, other constraints on production
of all drugs include successful enforcement efforts that
control specialized lab apparatus and—particularly—re-
agent chemicals and essential precursors. In the case of
LSD it is this last factor—precursor control—that mer-
its further discussion. Since 2000, interviews by the au-
thor with manufacturers, and review of court transcripts
wherein DEA technicians have publicly and explicitly
described details of various LSD syntheses, indicate that
clandestine production is rarely if ever achieved by us-
ing published procedures or patents involving Claviceps
purpurea, Claviceps paspali and other fungi, even in sub-
merged culture, nor are biotech methods employed in
clandestine situations. Instead, effectively all LSD is syn-
thesized by the initial hydrolysis of ergotamine tartrate
(ET) or other ergot alkaloids to lysergic acid, thereafter to
the diethylamide. The licit world pharmaceutical produc-
tion of ET from source countries is about 15,000 kilograms
annually, with ET subject to strict precursor controls since
the lsd stories • PAGE 64
Partying on the bus was virtually a way of life for Leary (above, front) and
his followers at this point, while relaxing and tripping at the mansion (Leary,
below) was just as equally an important component of their “hippie” lifestyle.
Leary’s turn on and drop out were the words that ended the LSD era.
the early 1990s in most countries—which may be a ma-
jor factor in the decline since 1996—but with fewer or
less effective controls in the third world. Since the ad-
vent of Sumatriptan and other remedies for migraine
headaches, the world demand for this purpose has de-
clined, although offset by the increase in population.
This synthetic bottleneck, the dependency on ET supply,
may be the most important single factor affecting pro-
liferation of clandestine laboratory sites—excluding the
synthetic hurdles themselves—and this effect on world-
wide availability has been successfully exploited by en-
forcement agencies that nonetheless prefer to assign
decreases in availability to more newsworthy arrests. In
the unlikely event a practical alternative synthesis of the
lysergic acid moiety is eventually invented, prevalence
of LSD may be decoupled from the requirement for ET
and increases in availability will be observed due to the
increase in point sources, or numerous small labs. A dra-
matic example of ubiquitous alternative sources arising
from attempts at control may be seen in enforcement
agencies’ efforts in the 1980s to suppress methamphet-
amine labs. After observing a similar synthetic bottleneck
involving phenyl-2-propanone or P-2-P, the synthetic
precursor of choice for methamphetamine and available
in large quantities only from a limited number of chemi-
cal firms, agencies criminalized unlicensed possession of
P-2-P, forcing illicit methamphetamine manufacturers to
seek other synthetic methods using uncontrolled precur-
sors. They arrived at a simple process requiring little or no
equipment and using the cheap, plant-based precursor
ephedrine, available worldwide from thousands of sourc-
es. The result was an unanticipated and explosive increase
in point sources of methamphetamine, with thousands
of labs seized annually in the U.S. alone, and the abuse
of methamphetamine became observed even in rural ar-
eas and among previously naive populations. Precursor
control programs, while effective in reduction of the sup-
ply of synthetic drugs, are somewhat undermined by the
the lsd stories • PAGE 65
the lsd stories • PAGE 66
the lsd stories • PAGE 67
increasing internet availability of chemicals and laboratory apparatus, the advent of simplified syn- involve the use of reagents that result in a one-step reaction producing LSD that does not require
thetic procedures on the net, and the resale of chemicals through the industrial recycling firms. LSD column chromatography to remove the very minimal iso-LSD by-product, and that may be sub-
prevalence alone remains directly proportional to precursor availability, with no alternate sources of ject to standard bench methods to achieve higher purity. Thus, yields of LSD that are now practi-
ET or lysergic acid. Interviews at the Precursor Control Unit of the UN Drug Control Program in Vienna cally achievable reportedly approach the theoretical limit for conversion of lysergic acid to LSD.
in 1996 indicated that precursors or requisite chemicals for all illicit drugs – and particularly heroin,
cocaine, methamphetamine and MDMA—may be diverted along the routes of shipment from the And what of the future, synthetically? For decades, most LSD has been produced in clandestine labs
source countries to the end user, particularly in free-trade zones or during transshipment through in large glass reactors, hydrolyzing as much as one kilogram of ET at once, followed by weeks of
multiple countries, then relabeled and shipped to illicit organizations. Although the UN program further reactions and purification processes, all while the manufacturing chemist is exposed to the
is successful in many instances, the relative rarity and comparatively small bulk of illicit ET ship- effects of LSD. Any single site at this level is estimated to produce less than a few kilograms annually,
ments—perhaps less than 100 ki- as noted earlier in the various lab
lograms worldwide annually—in seizures since the 1960s. However,
contrast to the thousands of tons in recent trials government wit-
of reagents for heroin and cocaine, nesses described the appearance
suggest that efforts to prevent di- of new technologies that may be
version of ET may not be cost-ef- employed by more sophisticated
fective with regard to its relative organizations that reduce or elimi-
social consequence. Proliferation nate the exposure problem while
or constraints on LSD availabil- automating the synthesis into a
ity also relate to either synthetic scalable pilot plant or industrial
problems or advances in the art. procedure. In that, for LSD, a pilot
The early major labs, e.g. those of process would produce in excess
the Brotherhood of Eternal Love of ten kilograms per year, the ad-
in America and abroad, used the vent of micro-reactors in the phar-
“Garbrecht method”—by more maceutical industry must be ad-
recent technologies a difficult dressed. A bank of micro-reactors
and unwieldy but effective proce- is a fully automated, computer
dure—using the noxious reagent controlled, tabletop-size machine
sulfur trioxide and requiring the that produces a few milligrams of a
recycling of the significant quan- substance with each cycle, perhaps
tity of the reaction by-product employing the same reagents and
iso-LSD to achieve higher yields. syntheses previously discussed,
In the 1980s methods using pep- although on a very small scale.
tide-linking reagents such as car- However, this cycling of a bank of
bodiimidazole became widely micro-reactors producing a few
used, with significant increases milligrams is repeated indefinitely
in yield. More recent advances with hundreds of small reactions by
discussed by DEA technicians in each micro-reactor daily, yielding,
public proceedings and thereby for example, 10–30 grams of prod-
potentially influencing availability uct each day. For the pharmaceuti-

the lsd stories • PAGE 68

cal industry, micro-reactor arrays have produced hundreds of kilograms each year of highly specialized
pharmaceuticals that are otherwise difficult to synthesize or problematic due to exposure of workers
to toxic effects. This technology—while requiring highly skilled individuals and having significant
costs of entry—is easily adapted to current syntheses for LSD and may result in the first automatic pro-
cess for its production, with routine bench procedures being relegated to smaller, conventional labs.
And what may be the future for the LSD molecular structure itself, a compound heavily re-
searched for 65 years for potential medical applications, yet subject to severe criminalization
throughout the world? LSD has a de facto status similar to that
of morphine or cocaine, i.e. an old drug with medical appli-
cation but significant uncontrolled use, and no efficacious
substitute. Similar to morphine, there is no replacement for
the special properties of LSD, no analogue or derivative of
the ergolene structure that has substituted directly for it
either in licit research or in general availability. Certainly,
the private organizations that provide research grants do
so almost exclusively to medical researchers and not post-
doctoral medicinal chemists, and this oversight means that
creative research on new variants is quiescent. Yet, many
researchers have suggested that structures be developed
that may reduce the duration of effects from ten hours to
a more medically manageable few hours, or to ameliorate
the dissociative or anxiety-inducing effects, thus improv-
ing the potential for medical use, and at the same time a
second generation structure might yield significant substi-
tution effects and reduce the incidence of complications
in uncontrolled use. Similar arguments may be made for
reducing the toxic properties of MDMA. Yet these develop-
ments must await funding organizations’ awareness that
medical application of any drug is ultimately driven by the
underlying advances in medicinal chemistry as, indeed,
this conference is the outcome of a search for structural
variants in 1943. But what countervailing and increasingly
pervasive and sophisticated enforcement technologies—
applicable to all illicit drugs—oppose these developments and tend to contract availability,
or that affect all criminalized activity? We will first address methods developed in the last 30
years, and computerized since the mid-1990s, that specifically influence all drug prevalence
internationally. This analysis is derived from entirely open source, publicly available records,
including various transcripts of trial and appeals, and is provided for public health and foren-
the lsd stories • PAGE 69
sic research purposes only as one factor influencing drug availability, and is not intended to
assist individuals in illicit endeavors. While investigative methods applied to any crime generate
reports of investigation for data banks—including those already known to the public and routinely
described in the media—some are increasingly effective in reducing crime by employing specialized
technologies earlier utilized by intelligence agencies concerned with more serious national security
and foreign intelligence matters. Indeed, civil libertarians have raised concerns about the applica-
tion of data banks and data mining in the post -9/11 era—arising from the Department of Defense’s
software programs known as TIPSTER—to civilian matters involving nonviolent drug use and other
victimless crimes. Because drug use, drug distribution, and drug
manufacture are in themselves essentially private transactions
between consenting parties—as opposed to public violent
crimes—enforcement agencies must use more intrusive meth-
ods to obtain arrests, and these intrusions may involve argu-
ably extra-Constitutional actions not infrequently unreported
and overlooked by the courts. Some of these generally known
methods include the use of specialized surveillance tech-
niques and the use of informants. Surveillance includes visual
surveillance of people and locations using, e.g. plainclothes
individuals or teams, frequently in radio contact with multiple
vehicles or aircraft, as well as placement of transmitting de-
vices on vehicles or in deliveries to track people or shipments
to their ultimate destinations, for example, rural laboratories.
The requirement for tracking devices has been lessened with
the arrival of anti-theft and positioning systems already in-
stalled in new vehicles. Other routine surveillance methods
known to the public include analysis of credit card informa-
tion and telephone records to identify the time and place of
events, themselves subject to routine and retrievable video
surveillance by security cameras that are ubiquitous in com-
mercial or urban locations. Traffic analysis is employed on local
and long distance telephone records, including records of in-
coming as well as outgoing phone calls—both maintained by
phone companies although the former do not appear on per-
sonal billing statements—and records are kept of incoming and outgoing calls, even of paging de-
vices, public phone booths, prepaid cell phones, and other wireless devices, as well as emails indefi-
nitely maintained by internet service providers. The records can then be subjected to traffic analysis
to develop association trees identifying the subscriber who placed or received the calls, even years
after the event, and with subscriber names being checked for criminal history or suspected activity
against large investigative databases. Thus national and international criminal conspiracies may be the media rely upon for many crime dramas, confidential informants are historically—and remain—
identified and characterized by determining who called whom and when, with the data analyzed the primary source of almost all drug arrests. These are usually individuals who have been arrested or
in support of continuing investigation and eventually submitted as evidence in criminal prosecu- merely threatened with arrest, who then in exchange for reduced charges or sentences or non-pros-
tions. Of course, the use of wiretaps and eavesdropping devices to record private conversation, ecution agreements provide substantial assistance to the government in the prosecution of others.
or court-ordered surreptitious video cameras—even in the home if required—are well-known, as Informants are subjected to numerous interviews, appear before grand juries, and act as witnesses at
may be covert or anticipatory warrants whereby—lacking evidence of a crime—police are permit- trials. Under the mandatory Attorney Generals’ Guidelines of 2001–2002, “cooperating witnesses may
ted to covertly search businesses or residences also be considered informants, but not individuals
looking for evidence of crime, but without classified as sources of information” or SOIs—
thereafter notifying the subject or owner. those not associated with criminal activity, but
The use of “trash pulls” is frequent, whereby who provide information as a result of their em-
unwitting residents’ garbage is searched and ployment or occupation. E.g., bank tellers and
returned after filtering out phone bills, credit hotel clerks. Other individuals extant to these
card receipts, handwritten numbers, names classifications include those with routine con-
and addresses, or indicators of drug use. An tact with federal agencies for research purpos-
expansion of this practice in the U.S. is now es, including forensic scientists, criminologists,
well-established in wide geographic areas of public health and medical researchers, public
problematic drug activity called HIDTA regions and private funding organizations, and drug
or High-Intensity Drug Trafficking Areas, such policy analysts. Actual confidential informants
as the border states or air-entry points for co- customarily conduct “controlled calls” in an ef-
caine trafficking, or the Midwest’s ongoing ru- fort to implicate third parties, whereafter the
ral methamphetamine epidemic. In HIDTA re- recording may be used as evidence in court, or
gions, now including most large metropolitan they may meet with third parties while wear-
areas, the program known as “Pocket-Trash” ing small concealed digital devices to record
is in effect, whereby local seizures or routine drug buys or conspiratorial conversations. The
traffic stops involving one pound or more of primary factor in the arrest of most individuals
heroin, cocaine, methamphetamine—or 500 and the dismantling of drug trafficking organi-
doses of LSD—are subject to careful scrutiny zations remains the pervasive and increasing
of scrap paper with phone numbers, names, use of informants and cooperating witnesses.
addresses, rental and storage receipts, and While informants may be necessary in some
cell phone or pager incoming and outgo- instances to penetrate and compromise large,
ing contact histories, and other records. violent and criminogenic international hero-
in and cocaine cartels, civil libertarians have
NADDIS expressed concerns that the ultimate social
costs from such intrusive methods may out-
All records are then forwarded to DEA for up- weigh the benefits, and that the need for this
LSD, both the most powerful drug ever discovered and at the same time the safest drug
loading into their database called NADDIS, the extreme of intrusion in nonviolent crime—bal-
ever created, according to the current peer review, is measured in micrograms where all
Narcotic and Dangerous Drug Information sys- anced against the attrition of our personal liber-
tem, and the records and associated reports are pharmaceutical drugs are measured in milligrams­—1 milligram equals 1000 micrograms ties and privacy interests—is less clear. But how
then available online to any DEA investigator. As making LSD 1000 times more powerful than all conventional pharmaceuticals. are surveillance reports, toll record analyses, wit-

the lsd stories • PAGE 70

the lsd stories • PAGE 71
ness interviews, use of informants, and other information integrated into a
coherent investigative database that can be employed to compromise
criminal organizations or reduce general drug availability through
incapacitation effects? With regard to DEA, the answer is its
NADDIS database and, indeed, public knowledge of NAD-
DIS arguably may in itself have a deterrent effect. Al-
though NADDIS is the most widely used tool in drug
law enforcement, and inquiry to NADDIS about an
individual is commonly the first step in any in-
vestigation, public information on NADDIS is
so infrequent that even the 7th Circuit Court
of Appeals in the U.S., ultimately ruling on
thousands of drug cases each year in
which NADDIS was regularly employed,
has stated, “It would be nice to know
something about NADDIS.” A review of
the scanty secondary literature has re-
vealed—other than limited mention
in appellate decisions—certain char-
acteristics of this database, however.
Operated by DEA’s Records Manage-
ment Section, or SARI, possibly an
acronym for “Software Agents for Re-
trieval of Information”, NADDIS is now
automated in part using the Defense
Advanced Research Project Agency’s
TIPSTER program for a text processing
of reports of investigation from DEA
field offices, and has—since its incep-
tion in the 1970s—developed files on over
eight million individuals, organizations, and
other “subjects of interest” to DEA by 2007. A
single file on an individual may contain names,
addresses, phone numbers, reports of investiga-
tions over decades, personal histories, analysts’ data,
and other records, with over 40,000 new reports added
to NADDIS each month in 2007 from the U.S. field offices
and from the over 50 international DEA offices. A NADDIS in-
quiry on members of the Colombian congress indicated that more
the lsd stories • PAGE 72
than one-quarter had NADDIS records. How is an individual’s NADDIS file
initiated? If a person’s name is mentioned by an informant or a wit-
ness in an interview by DEA agents, it is entered into an index of
names in a report of investigation, known as a “DEA-6”—to
be prepared from witness or informant interviews, copies
of which are sent to the 100 analysts working in two
shifts at the DEA SARI section—where the analysts
read the report and retype abstracts of the most
salient data, check the names against existing
NADDIS files and either cross-reference the
abstract against multiple individuals’ files
or open a new NADDIS file on a previ-
ously unknown individual, and with the
abstracts finally entered in chronologi-
cal order into the NADDIS summary
or index, an abbreviated collection of
abstracts that becomes a quick refer-
ence for an investigator on all that
is known by DEA on an individual,
an address, a business, or a phone
number. The NADDIS index then
becomes the practical means for lo-
cating the full reports for more de-
tailed review, with the NADDIS index
pointing to the complete reports and
the agents that created them, per-
mitting multiple investigations from
different regions on the same person
not to conflict, and to allow national and
international investigations to be quickly
established. With 40,000 reports being filed
each month to the existing database of over
8,000,000 people, and DEA’s implementation
of automated procedures evolving from the De-
partment of Defense TIPSTER program for docu-
ment processing, the increasing efficiency of this and
other similar databases may also be one factor in greater
incapacitation effects and the reduction of both drug crimes
and all crimes in general since 1996. Yet, to civil libertarians, de-
fense attorneys, and courts concerned with ethics in government, the NADDIS
database provides a historical archive of the chronology of events and actions
that may be of great value in monitoring the integrity of government investiga-
tions and organizations for possible impropriety. For example, not infrequently
prosecutors and agents may be reluctant to disclose at trial events or criminal
investigative histories of cooperating witnesses or informants that may be useful
to the court, the jury, and defense counsel in weighing the credibility of infor-
mants or—for that matter—the agents themselves. In the U.S. the investigative
history of a witness is required to be produced, and this would of course include
the witness’ entire NADDIS index from its inception and all reports from which
it is abstracted. Yet, the NADDIS index is almost never produced, even if spe-
cifically requested. While prosecutors and agents can select what reports they
wish to provide the defense, the NADDIS index itself cannot be altered except by
court order, and contains a permanent record of a witness’ entire history. In the
Kansas trial in 2003, for example, the informant was portrayed as having previ-
ously been an informant in “only one instance”, in an earlier state case. By 2007,
the defense determined that the individual had been a career informant—and
a problematic one—for multiple agencies for decades, a matter now the subject
of an ongoing appeal. Had the NADDIS record been produced, and it is still be-
ing withheld in that case, the problematic and extensive criminal and informant
history of the witness would have been available to the court and jury at trial.

That suppression of Constitutionally-mandated evidence is regularly encoun-

tered in prosecutions so Pickard—by way of civil and criminal litigation in Cali-
fornia and Kansas, respectively—is now examining the structure of the NADDIS
reporting system to clarify the Constitutional requirement for its production in
criminal trials, and this matter is the topic of a forthcoming paper on NADDIS.
However, any U.S. citizen may request a copy of his NADDIS record by submit-
ting a Freedom of Information Act request to DEA, with many countries hav-
ing a variation of this request for its citizens and databases. While the results
are heavily censored, or redacted, and these redactions may be challenged
by a civil procedure in federal court in a very lengthy process, the mere exis-
tence and extent of one’s NADDIS file may prove of some personal interest.

Clearly, advances in enforcement methods oppose the increase in availability of any

controlled substance, including those with special characteristics such as LSD. What
then may we predict for the future of LSD use? Will it continue its stable, long-term
trends, expand in availability, or diminish to an increasingly limited user cohort?
We have considered the several influences that reduce supply, among them the inca-

the lsd stories • PAGE 73

pacitation and deterrent effects of severe legal penalties and international con-
trol regimes, the application of precursor controls and the paradoxical outcomes
of precursor controls such as those on methamphetamine supply and the in-
crease in point sources therefrom, the advent and progression of specialized in-
vestigative methods, the automation of large investigative databases, the con-
cerns of civil libertarians about such domestic intelligence gathering databases
applied to lesser crimes, the limitations on LSD manufacture due to saturation
and isolation, the substitution effects of MDMA and other hallucinogens as char-
acterized by DAWN, the overemphasis on arrests by enforcement agencies as
the primary factor in reducing availability, the general reduction in all drug avail-
ability and all drug and non-drug crime since 1996, and the deterrent effects
of several factors on the user population. Balanced against and opposing these
contracting factors are influences that tend to expand general drug availabil-
ity, and with reference to the special properties of LSD, we have also considered
the existence of many small, portable, less easily detected labs as the aggregate
basis of availability, the unlikelihood of any one lab contributing significantly to
variances in U.S. or international survey data, the absence of any increase in avail-
ability due to the initiation of production by any single lab, the small dosage of
LSD as a factor increasing local supply from a single point source yet with such
single sources inadequate to affect national survey data in similarity to MDMA
and methamphetamine labs, the failure of precursor control programs with re-
gard to LSD due to the compactness of its precursor and the large number of
legitimate end-users in over 170 countries among which diversion may occur,
the availability of apparatus and reagents on the internet and through indus-
trial recyclers, the advances in simplified, high-yield bench methods of synthesis
and the possible application of automated micro-reactors. Some factors remain
upon which we have not elaborated, such as organizational bonding due to
shared drug experiences described by users as “spiritual”, the influence of such
religiosity upon manufacture, distribution or use, and the initiation of new LSD
users as a type of “reverse substitution” from first-time participation in MDMA use.

In this limited time we have discussed only a few of the many factors com-
monly recognized by criminologists and public health researchers, while in-
troducing factors less frequently addressed. With so many confounding and
conflicting influences, the future of LSD availability is not easily predicted.

Attempting predictions based on short-term, year-to-year survey results

is futile. For example, drug enforcement officials have asserted at different
times, based on the 2003 DAWN results, a 74% drop in availability, a 95%
drop, or describing LSD availability as “wiped out”. However, using such non-
the lsd stories • PAGE 74
rigorous procedures and the DAWN database, a counterclaim of a 200% in-
crease in availability from 2003-2006 may also be asserted, in either event
requiring additional funding for federal agencies. A less biased approach
would be to consider that all of the factors we have discussed have existed
in one form or the other for the 40 years in which LSD has been widely
available. However, the survey data since 1976 shows only moderate varia-
tions within a narrow range relative to drugs of greater abuse potential,
and a somewhat greater variation in 2001 due to substitution effects of the
unanticipated peak use of MDMA. In conclusion, what is the future of un-
controlled LSD availability, excluding increases arising from public percep-
tion of any benefits reported by researchers in the medicalization effort?

While observing that the contracting factors we have discussed are not
subject to rapid change, it is submitted that LSD availability—absent a syn-
thetic advance or positive substitution effect from an LSD analog or a nega-
tive substitution effect from a new MDMA variant or other future drug—will
continue in the moderate long-term trend range recorded over the last
three decades, with slow increases and decreases over a period of years, and
with about 10% of the population having experienced LSD over a lifetime.

Finally, any strongly significant change in availability will await the arrival
of a new drug, whether a preferred short-duration LSD variant or another
psychedelic-entheogen-entactogen or—it may be ventured—the substi-
tution effect of an entirely different class of compounds, e.g. structures
under development that affect libido, such as a safer version of bremela-
notide or other melanocortin agonist, or new drugs for the enhancement
of learning and memory, such as experimental compounds in the ampa-
kine series, for example, CX-717. Barring these unusual developments,
LSD itself may well never be subject to strong substitution effects, given
its special properties and characteristics and may be expected to retain
its place in the pharmacopoeia as both a historical and a future drug.

In closing, the author wishes to acknowledge Drs. John Beresford, Les-

ter Grinspoon and Sasha Shulgin, as well as Ann Shulgin, for their en-
couragement and support. The unfailing effort of Dr. Tim Scully is ap-
preciated for historical and production data, and researchers will find
his ongoing scholarly history of LSD laboratories a valuable resource.
My thanks also to the presenter for his quick mastery of arcane terms,
to graduate students Ben Denio and Michael Golden, to attorney Bil-

the lsd stories • PAGE 75

ly Rork, to my family and children in their faith and hope, and to the unnamed researchers and
friends whose courage and kindness in these difficult years remains forever in my memory.
Ninth Circuit Decision Adopted in D.C. District Court
Leonard’s Ninth Circuit FOIA decision has spread to other circuits, opening the door for me-
dia and public interest groups to examine informant records. A D.C. district court has adopted
the 9th Circuit decision in Pickard v. DOJ in a case involving FBI practices in the civil rights era.
the lsd stories • PAGE 76
Ruling could clear path to Withers’ file
FBI fights ‘breakthrough’ decision to release info
Ernest Withers lived life on the edge, skirmishing in the front lines of civil rights battles, serving a
stint in prison, and shooting great photographic records of Negro League baseball and the gritty
blues scene on Beale Street. Now, five years after the legendary Memphis photographer’s death, a
legal fight over FBI files that detail another facet -- his secret life as an informant reporting on the civil
rights movement -- is generating its own story line.
When U.S. Dist. Judge Amy Berman Jack- when she was murdered in 1965, dribbled out
son ruled Jan. 31 in favor of The Commercial during 1970s congressional investigations of
Appeal, culminating a four-year legal fight, FBI abuses.
it marked what lawyers believe is just the
second time a court agreed to open an in- “This is significant. This is unusual,” historian Da-
formant’s file under a process called official vid Garrow said of the Withers decision.
confirmation. The Department of Justice has
asked Jackson to reconsider her ruling. And “This is a breakthrough. But at least for the mo-
in a separate motion filed earlier this month, ment it’s a limited breakthrough. It may have ap-
the FBI also asked for a 60-day stay for offi- plication to other historically important cases.
cials to evaluate a possible appeal. Jackson, a But it may be a case-by-case fight.”
first-year trial judge in the U.S. District Court
in Washington, D.C., hasn’t ruled on either It was only last year that legal footing was
request, but she decided Friday to postpone gained to give rise to Jackson’s decision
a March 16 deadline for the FBI to produce a on Withers. And it came from a very un-
first round of records. likely source.

To survive, her January ruling may have to William Leonard Pickard, a federal inmate serv-
overcome the great weight of law and tradition ing a life sentence for trafficking LSD, had sued
that protects the identity and dealings of infor- the Drug Enforcement Administration hoping
mants. Despite similar historically significant to learn more about the credibility of an infor-
court rulings, such as the unsealing last year of mant who helped put him behind bars.
President Richard Nixon’s grand jury testimony,
transparency advocates say the newspaper A trial judge initially rejected Pickard’s Freedom
may still face a contentious fight. of Information suit, but last July, the Ninth Circuit
Court of Appeals in San Francisco reversed it.
“Unfortunately, we don’t see (favorable court de-
cisions) happening on a broad basis,” said Allison The appeals court determined that because
M. Zieve, litigation director for Public Citizen, a DEA agents testified at Pickard’s trial about the
Washington-based nonprofit that sued to open identity and activities of confidential informant
Nixon’s secret testimony taken in 1975 during Gordon Todd Skinner, the government had “of-
the height of the Watergate scandal. “If (judg- ficially confirmed” Skinner as an informant and
es) don’t feel the government is just really over- his file was subject to the Freedom of Informa-
reaching, they’re inclined to pull for the gov- tion Act. Similarly in the Withers case, the FBI
ernment. They err on that side.” Most of what’s cites a 1986 statute that says information about
known about civil rights-era informants didn’t come from Freedom of Information lawsuits, but an informant can’t be released under FOIA unless the government first “officially confirms” an indi-
from the period’s political fallout. Details about James Harrison, the Southern Christian Leader- vidual as an informant. The FBI says it hasn’t done that. It still refuses to confirm or deny Withers was
ship conference accountant paid by the FBI to inform on Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., and Gary Thomas an informant, despite a large amount of published information, including the handwritten notes of
Rowe, an FBI informant who infiltrated the Ku Klux Klan and was in a car with activist Viola Liuzzo his FBI handler, the late agent William H. Lawrence, saved by the agent’s daughter and given to the

the lsd stories • PAGE 77

newspaper. The FBI argues that releasing
information on any informant, even de-
ceased, would have a chilling effect on
its ability to recruit new informants. But
Judge Jackson determined the FBI offi-
cially confirmed Withers when it released
a 1977 report identifying him by his in-
formant code number, ME 338-R. The FBI
released the report twice, first in 2009 in
answer to a FOIA request by the newspa-
per and again last year, this time with ad-
ditional details.
The Ninth Circuit opined that official
confirmation doesn’t require a press re-
lease or “that the director of a federal law
enforcement agency personally identify
the informant.” Because the statute didn’t
define official confirmation, it must be
interpreted by its “plain language” in a
way that leads to a “rational common-
sense result.”
The newspaper’s attorneys believe the
Pickard and Withers cases are the only
instances in which a court has officially
confirmed an informant. Even with that,
under Jackson’s ruling the newspaper
would first get only an index of With-
ers’ file. The FBI could still then redact
swaths of information citing privacy and
other exemptions.
Public Citizens’ Zieve said court deci-
sions vary widely and it helped in the
Nixon case to have a judge who ap-
preciated historical importance. In her
Withers decision, Jackson cited lan-
guage from an earlier case, saying the
“undisputed historical interest in the re-
quested records ... far outweigh the need
to maintain the secrecy of the records.”
Because the case involves no ongoing
criminal probe, Jackson said she’s “con-
fident that the ruling will not have the
chilling effect feared by the FBI.”
The 91-Pound Acid Trip:
The numbers touted by the
US Government in its
BIG LSD BUST
just don’t add up
How much acid is that?
On November 25th, 2003, a federal judge
sentenced Leonard Pickard and Clyde
Apperson to life and 30 years, respective-
ly, for one count each of conspiracy to
manufacture and distribute more than 10
grams of LSD and one count each of pos-
session with the intent to distribute more
than 10 grams of LSD. That afternoon, the
Department of Justice and Drug Enforce-
ment Administration celebrated the sen-
tencing with a press release describing
the bust in the case as the “Largest LSD
Lab Seizure in DEA History.”
Almost 91 pounds of LSD had been seized
in the case, the release stated. Many news-

the lsd stories • PAGE 78

papers, including the San Francisco Chronicle,
the Arkansas Democrat-Gazette, the Reno Ga-
zette-Journal, the Oakland Tribune, the Los An-
geles Times, as well as the Associated Press re-
peated the poundage number verbatim. Slate
published it, too, in an April 2004 article that I
wrote, “Who’s Got the Acid?” DEA Administrator
Karen P. Tandy repeated the 91-pound figure in
congressional testimony one year ago during
an appropriations hearing. How many hits of
acid is that? The usual dose of LSD has fallen to
about 20 micrograms in recent years, so at that
dosage level, Pickard and Apperson possessed
2 billion hits of acid—enough to give every per-
son in the Western Hemisphere two doses and
still have 250 million hits left over. 91 pounds
of LSD would be worth between $2 billion and
$10 billion on the street. But how real is the 91-
pound number? Pickard answered these que-
stons in a letter and his jail-cell note initiated a
re-interview of sources and a re-consult of the
relevant court testimony to verify the govern-
ment’s claims. Based on those inquiries and
official testimony, the drug operation the DEA
broke up had less than a half-pound of LSD
on hand, enough to make only 10 million hits
of 20-microgram acid. Instead of turning on
both North America and South America twice,
they could have dosed Cuba about once. The
press release derived its 91-pound estimate on
the data collected during an Oct. 31, 2000, “sneak
and peek” search of a suspected LSD operation in
a retired missile silo near Wamego, Kansas. (In a
“sneak and peek” search, a judge authorizes law
enforcement to conduct their search without the
knowledge of the property owner.) According to
court testimony and an interview with DEA Special
Agent Karl Nichols, who worked on the case and was
present during the search, agents found an “operable
the lsd stories • PAGE 79
lab.” The agents obtained between 15 and
20 samples of materials during the search,
says Nichols. A DEA forensic laboratory
found detectable amounts of LSD or LSD-
related chemicals in some of them, accord-
ing to Agent Nichols and testimony given
by DEA forensic chemist Timothy McKibben
in the trial. The press release further states
that LSD precursor chemicals sufficient
to “create an additional 12.4 kilograms” or
27.28 pounds of LSD were captured.
“We found LSD, we found iso-LSD, we found
all the equipment, the chemicals. Basically, we
found everything,” Nichols says.
A couple days after the search, agents watched
from a surveillance point as Pickard dumped
vast amounts of liquid material onto the
ground outside the silo, according to Nich-
ols and court testimony. The agents did not
intercede or make their presence known. On
Nov. 6, they finally closed in on Pickard and
Apperson as the two loaded equipment from
the silo into a Ryder truck and a silver Buick
and drove off. They apprehended Apperson,
who was driving the truck, but Pickard, pi-
loting the Buick, took off on foot and outran
several agents half his age. “We didn’t know
beforehand that Pickard was a marathon run-
ner,” Agent Nichols says. Agents seized empty
containers in the vehicles and in the silo. The
next day, a local farmer spotted Pickard and
turned him in.
Disney characters, cartoons and various corporate advertising icons directed purely at children—poor
quality, unhealthy products at exorbitant prices—became a staple of LSD artwork, perhaps as a When and where did the DEA
protest against what was the beginning of the planned conversion of all Americans to tax- seize the 91 pounds of LSD?
paying consumers. Remember, the 60s also ended an era wherein women stayed home
and raised our children, didn’t work, and didn’t pay taxes. One income allowed The DoJ/DEA press release attributes the number
us all to live comfortable lives yet today, two incomes are required.
to U.S. Attorney Eric Melgren, and
states that he got them from “court
testimony.” According to Agent
Nichols, the prosecution testified
at trial that 41.3 kilograms (approx-
imately 91 pounds) of a substance
containing a detectable amount
of LSD were found in the silo dur-
ing the search. This is a far cry from
seizing 91 pounds of LSD—or even
detecting 91 pounds of LSD. What
the government is really saying is
that its forensic chemists detected
LSD in samples taken from contain-
ers during the search, and that the
contents of the containers weighed
an estimated 91 pounds. How much
LSD did the forensic chemists find?
At Pickard’s Nov. 20, 2003, sentenc-
ing hearing, DEA forensic chemist
McKibben testified that “The actual
amount of all the exhibits contain-
ing LSD was 198.9 grams of LSD,” or
about 7 ounces of LSD.
Yet the government doesn’t seem
to have actually seized 198.9 grams
of LSD in the bust. From the word-
ing of court documents and cor-
respondence with Agent Nichols,
the 198.9 gram figure appears to
be a forensic estimate based on the
concentrations of LSD found in the
samples taken during searches. That
is, 91 pounds of LSD-positive ma-
terial were sampled and, working
backward from the concentrations,
the DEA calculated an actual 198.9
the lsd stories • PAGE 80
grams of LSD in the 91-pound lot.
The office of U.S. Attorney Eric Mel-
gren cooperated in the reporting of
this story by allowing Agent Nichols
to be interviewed. But when asked
direct questions about the validity
of Melgren’s 91-pound press release
claim, the office demurred. It would
neither defend the number nor
abandon it. A Melgrin spokesman
stated, “We’ve given you all the infor-
mation we can on this subject.”
None of this is to suggest that the
owners of the missile silo lab weren’t
in the LSD business. What is clear
is that the government continues
to stand by a 91-pound LSD sei-
zure that didn’t happen. Not every-
body in the government is on the
same page about how much LSD
was seized. On Feb. 10, 2005, “drug
czar” John P. Walters, director of the
White House Office of National Drug
Control Policy, testified before the
Subcommittee on Criminal Justice,
Drug Policy, and Human Resources.
Walters’ testimony, like Tandy’s, was
part of a budget hearing. He said:
“On LSD we certainly disrupted the
supply because we took down a ma-
jor distributor who had, in abandoned
missile silos, had made or had mate-
rial to make 25 million doses.”
Only 25 million hits? Even at 50
micrograms a hit, that’s only 1.25
kilograms, still about 88 pounds
short of 91. Did the Department
of Justice and the DEA neglect to
send the drug czar a copy of their
press release?
Getting High on Krystle
(See: Page 26)
There is no facile synthesis of
the events that transpired at the
Wamego missile silo between Oc-
tober 1 and November 4, 2000. The
available information is a viscous
solution of truths, half-lies, three-
quarter truths, and outright lies,
the fractionation of which yields
no pure product.
Life Is A Cosmic Giggle
On The Breath Of The Universe
The dramatis personae are many and
varied. The chemicals in question of-
ten obscure and untested. What is
known is that in 1997, a virtuosic or-
ganic chemist named Leonard Pick-
ard joined forces with Gordon Todd
Skinner, the heir to a spring-manu-
facturing fortune, to organize what
would later become the world’s
most productive LSD laboratory. A
laboratory that, according to some
sources, produced 90 percent of the
LSD in circulation, in addition to un-
known quantities of MDMA, ALD-52,
ergot wine, and quite possibly LSZ...
but we’ll get to that later.
Leonard Pickard is an anomaly among
the lsd stories • PAGE 81
clandestine chemists—one of very few
who was able to achieve great success
in academia. He studied at Harvard, Pur-
due, and UCLA while producing kilos
of MDA and LSD in secret laboratories
under the auspices of the Brotherhood
of Eternal Love. He was charismatic and
gentlemanly, with excellent posture.
He would advise slouchers to let their
vertebrae fall vertically, like “a beauti-
ful string of pearls”. A notable photo
depicts Leonard at a scientific confer-
ence in Sussex, gently appreciating
the scent of a long-stemmed rose. He
was like that. Gordon Todd Skinner,
known by friends as Todd, is an au-
todidact chemist of uncertain ability;
indeed, whether he is a chemist at all
is subject to debate. He allegedly per-
formed his first mescaline extraction
from L. williamsii at the age of 19. By
25, he was incarcerated and facing life
in a New Jersey prison for trafficking
42 pounds of marijuana. In order to
beat the charges, he began a long and
fruitful career as a government infor-
mant. In 1996, he purchased a decom-
missioned Atlas E nuclear-missile silo
in Wamego, Kansas, and transformed
it into a subterranean psychedelic pal-
ace. Three years later, he purchased a
second silo to house an LSD superlab.
The laboratory, however, only oper-
ated for a short time, and by October
2000 Todd was providing DEA agents
with a guided tour of the premises.
Simply dismissing Todd as a snitch
would ignore the fact that he seemed
to possess a deep and honest commit-
ment to the distribution of psychedelic
drugs for the betterment of the years since the arrests,
mankind, which makes what Krystle has parlayed her
he did all the more complex. experience into a series of
books and YouTube videos,
the most popular of which
Lastly, there is Krystle Cole, involves an in-depth dis-
a former goth stripper from cussion of an intrarectal
Kansas, who fell in love with DMT-administration tech-
Todd and was ushered into nique termed “the sha-
his private circle of chem- manic colonic.” Apparently,
ists and dealers. Krystle met it burns. Krystle is one of
Todd in February 2000, and very few people who par-
they shared six months of ly- ticipated in the LSD opera-
sergic bliss in the silo before tion who is not currently
things began to catabolize incarcerated, and so I flew
into chaos. By August 2000, to Kansas to meet her, ask
Todd was afraid the LSD some questions, and pay a
laboratory was under com- visit to the legendary mis-
plete government surveil- sile silo. Despite all she has
lance and decided to pre- gone through, Krystle is
empt any criminal charges an ebullient bundle of en-
he might face by turning in theogenic energy. When I
Leonard. He furtively began picked her up to drive to
recording conversations and Wamego she was wearing
compiling evidence. This a tie-dyed shirt that read
led to Leonard’s arrest, and “.&.” At one time, the silo
a nationwide (and possibly was a testament to Todd’s
global) LSD drought that unrestrained profligacy.
lasted throughout the ear- The main missile bay was
ly 2000s. In October 2000, filled with fine Persian car-
Todd formally contacted pets and luxurious leather
the DEA and declared, “I have what I believe is the world’s largest LSD conspiracy... and I would like to couches. He owned a $120,000 stereo system, which he used to listen to Deep Forest and Sarah
try to work something out.” Todd received total immunity for his involvement with the laboratory McLachlan at high volumes. The bathroom alone contained a shower with three heads and a bath-
and walked away a free man, while Leonard was given two concurrent life sentences without pa- tub that could easily accommodate half a dozen people. Krystle said it was fun. After the bust,
role. In the wake of the trial, Todd and Krystle traveled across America, dealing kilos of crystalline the silo was gutted, and everything of value was sold. The space was vandalized and abandoned,
MDMA to survive. As time passed, Todd became increasing violent and paranoid, and in Septem- it flooded with water, and eventually Todd’s henchmen broke inside to steal a cache of MDMA,
ber 2003 he was arrested and began a protracted legal battle that culminated with a sentence LSD, and DMT hidden within the varicose pink marble walls. Today, very little of the original silo
of life in prison for assault with a dangerous weapon (a hypodermic needle) and kidnapping. In is intact, and the property is owned by a military-vehicle fanatic, who uses the missile bay to

the lsd stories • PAGE 82

store a collection of WWII-era Soviet
T-34 tanks. After leaving the silo, I
sat down with Krystle for a chat [end
excerpt].
LSD
The Good, the Bad
& the Ugly
In the Beginning: Ancient Ergot
Intel History & Military History
Excerpt from:
Acid Dreams:
The Complete
Social History of LSD:
The CIA,
the Sixties & Beyond
[362]
by Martin A. Lee and Bruce Shlai
Grove Press • 268 Pages • 1985
During the early 1960s Edgewood Ar-
senal, headquarters of the US Army
Chemical Corps and launching pad
for the CIA’s MK-Ultra program, re-
ceived an average of four hundred
chemical “rejects” every month from
the major American pharmaceutical
firms.  Rejects were drugs found to be
commercially useless because of their
undesirable side effects. Of course,
undesirable side effects were pre-
cisely what the army was looking for.
It was from Hoffmann-La Roche in
Nutley, New Jersey, that Edgewood
Arsenal obtained its first sample of a
the lsd stories • PAGE 83
drug called quinuclidinyl benzilate,
or BZ for short. The army learned
that BZ inhibits the production of a
chemical substance that facilitates
the transfer of messages along the
nerve endings, thereby disrupting
normal perceptual patterns. The ef-
fects generally lasted three days,
although symptoms—headaches,
giddiness, disorientation, auditory
and visual hallucinations, and ma-
niacal behavior—could persist for
as long as six weeks. “During the pe-
riod of acute effects,” noted an army
doctor, “the person is completely
out of touch with his environment.”
According to Dr. Solomon Snyder,
one of the leading psychopharma-
cologist at Johns Hopkins University,
which conducted drug research for
the Chemical Corps, “The army’s test-
ing of LSD was just a sideshow com-
pared to its use of BZ.” Clinical stud-
ies with EA-2277 (the code number
for BZ) were initiated at Edgewood
Arsenal in 1959 and continued un-
til 1975. During this period an esti-
mated 2,800 soldiers were exposed
to the super-hallucinogen.   A num-
ber of military personnel have since
come forward claiming that they
were never the same after their en-
counter with BZ. During the early
1960s the CIA and the military be-
gan to phase out their in-house
LSD tests in favor of more power-
ful chemicals such as BZ, which
became the army’s standard inca-
pacitating agent.  By this time the
super-hallucinogen was ready for
deployment in a grenade, a 750-
pound cluster bomb, and at least
one other large-scale bomb. In ad-
dition the army tested a number
of other advanced BZ munitions,
including mortar, artillery, and
missile warheads. The super-hal-
lucinogen was later employed by
American troops as a counterin-
surgency weapon in Vietnam, and
according to CIA documents there
may be contingency plans to use
the drug in the event of a major
civilian insurrection.  As Maj. Gen.
William Creasy warned shortly after
he retired from the Army Chemical
Corps, “We’ll use these things as we
see fit, whenever we think it is in the
best interest of the US.”
Psychiatric History
Sandoz • Delysid • Mothercorn
Born in New York City, Dr. Sidney
Cohen was a psychiatrist and ear-
ly LSD researcher. He received his
PhD from Columbia University in
New York, and his MD from Bonn
University in Germany. He worked
as Chief of Psychosomatic Medi-
cine at the Veterans Administration
Hospital in Los Angeles, as Associ-
ate Clinical Professor of Medicine at
UCLA, and was editor of the Jour-
nal of Psychopharmacology. On
November 10, 1955, Betty Eisner
became Cohen’s first subject in his
the lsd stories • PAGE 84
first LSD study; she worked with Co-
hen studying LSD for about a year
and a half, before moving on to her
own psychedelic research. During
their time working together Cohen
and Eisner took LSD with Bill Wilson,
founder of Alcoholics Anonymous,
resulting in Wilson’s unsuccessful
attempt to incorporate LSD into
the A.A. program. In the late 1960s,
Cohen served as the Director of the
Division of Narcotic Addiction and
Drug Abuse at the National Insti-
tutes of Mental Health in Maryland.
Cohen was the “Dr. C”, referenced by
Laura Huxley in ‘This Timeless Mo-
ment’, who supplied the LSD for Al-
dous Huxley’s deathbed experience.
In 1962 Sidney Cohen presented
the medical community with its
first warning about the dangers of
the drug LSD. LSD had arrived in
the United States in 1949 and was
originally perceived as a psychoto-
mimetic capable of producing a
model psychosis. But in the mid
1950s intellectuals in Southern Cali-
fornia redefined LSD as a psyche-
delic capable of producing mystical
enlightenment. Though LSD was
an investigational drug, authorized
only for experimental use, by the
late 1950s psychiatrists and psy-
chologists were administering it to
cure neuroses and alcoholism and
to enhance creativity. Cohen’s 1960
study of LSD effects concluded that
the drug was safe if given in a super-
vised medical setting, but by 1962
his concern about popularization,
nonmedical use, black market LSD,
and patients harmed by the drug
led him to warn that the spread
of LSD was dangerous. The sub-
sequent government crackdown
and regulation of LSD preceded
the 1960s drug movement and
was alleged to be prompted by
medical, not social, concerns. Of
course it was prompted by the US
governments fear of imsurrection
if everyone used LSD knowing that
it reveals the truths behind war,
murder and conflict engaged in by
governments, especially the USA.
A Pre-History of LSD
The following is a summary of an
extensive collection of notes as-
sembled over nearly 40 years as
a result of interviews and experi-
ences with over a hundred peo-
ple, some living and some dead,
regarding the fascinating history
of LSD. My first personal encoun-
ter with LSD was in late 1967 and,
off-and-on, I’ve been exploring
its relation to human endeavors
ever since.
This summary of the pre-history
of LSD is being published in an-
ticipation of the international
symposium “LSD: Problem Child
and Wonder Drug” being held in
Basel, Switzerland. It has been
the lsd stories • PAGE 85
compiled with a particular mind
towards the conference theme,
“The Spirit of Basel.”
I have not exhaustively cross-
checked all the details and make
no claims about the accuracy or
completeness of what follows. In
addition to a great deal of pub-
lished material in many fields, these
notes are largely the compiled ac-
counts of many discussions with
scholars, witnesses, psychonauts,
initiates, spies and acolytes and
given the nature of each individual
recollection, may very well con-
tain inconsistencies and contradic-
tions. While I have dispensed with
the customary “probably” and “very
likely,” it would be advisable to con-
sider these notes as mere starting
points for further, more rigorous,
investigations.
Summary of the Notes
1) Appreciation for the psychotro-
pic effects of ergot is older than the
human race.
2) In human pre-history, ergot was
extensively used as an aid for moth-
ers in childbirth and less frequently
in the death process.
3) The close association between
ergot and the fertility rites at Eleu-
sis transformed this ancient birth-
ing application into an enduring
cult practice.

4) As the dominant cult for Athens,
the Eleusinian Mysteries and ergot
began to become central to criti-
cal aspects of 2000+ years of West-
ern culture.
5) One of the subjects investigat-
ed at Eleusis was the relationship
between dosage of a “poison” and
one’s fate. What may be medicinal
at small doses can become psy-
chotropic and then lethal at high-
er doses—as shaped by one’s per-
sonal relationship to the Gods.
6) Following the end of ceremonies
at Eleusis after Goths destroyed the
sanctuary around 400, these ergot-
based initiatory practices were pre-
served in the Greek community in
Constantinople and elsewhere.
7) Early crusaders carried a ver-
sion of these ergot-based practic-
es back to southern France along
with the relics of St. Anthony the
Hermit—desert father of monas-
ticism—in the 11th century. Cen-
tered near Arles, on the east side
of the Rhone, the hospice escaped
the Albigensian Crusade.
8) Based around this knowledge
and these artifacts, a Roman Cath-
olic monastic order known as the
Hospital Order of St. Anthony (aka
Antonians or Antonites) was estab-
lished under the rule of Augustine in
the lsd stories • PAGE 86
1247 and spread its influence from
London to Jerusalem and beyond.
According to Sandoz’ corporate his-
tory, the Antonites eventually had
two hospitals in Basel.
9) This Order was assigned the
public role of countering the ef-
fects of ergot poisoning, other-
wise known as St. Anthony’s Fire,
through operating what may have
been the first worldwide pharma-
cy as well as the specialized use
of amputation. According to The
Catholic Encyclopedia, the order
was responsible for caring for the
sick of the papal household.
10) Privately this Order continued to
practice initiations, with the accep-
tance and participation of Church
authorities, based partly on the
use of ergot-derived preparations.
In addition, there were various re-
lated “military” orders related to the
Antonites, including the Knights of
Saint Anthony.
11) There is widespread artistic evi-
dence of these religious practices,
particularly in the work of Antonite-
related painters Hieronymus Bosch
(see his c.1500 “Temptation of St.
Anthony” triptych in Lisbon) and
Mathis Neithardt (aka “Grunewald,”
see the c.1515 Isenheim Altar polyp-
tich, now in Colmar.) W.A. Stoll later
mentions the Isenheim Altar in his
1947 account of the effects of LSD.
12) In the 18th century, the Roman
church became increasingly threatened by
“secret” initiatory societies as shown by the
1738 order excommunicating Catholics who
belonged to Masonic Lodges culminating in
the anti-clerical role of the “Illuminati” dur-
ing the well-known French Revolution.
13) In 1777, after having been nearly wiped
out during the Reformation, a failed reform
of the order in 1630 and confiscation of its
properties in the French Revolution, the An-
tonites were canonically merged into the
Knights of Malta, which in turn was broken
up (and partially re-Romanized) after Na-
polean captured Malta in 1798.
14) There is evidence that these Mysteries-de-
rived and at times ergot-based initiatory prac-
tices did not disappear with the Antonites and
found their way into 19th century Theosophi-
cal and Rosicrucian groups as well as those in-
volved in “Greek” oriented classical studies.
15) In 1847 at Columbia College in New
York, the “Greek” fraternity St. Anthony Hall
(aka Delta Psi) was formed to continue this
“secret tradition” and Col. Henry Steele Ol-
cott, who later joined with Madame Bla-
vatsky to form Theosophy, was one of four
1849 pledges at Columbia.
16) In 1866 at the University of Leipzig, Fred-
erich Nietzsche and Erwin Rohde became
ergot-based initiates of a “neo-Eleusinian”
group that was devoted to understanding
early Greek culture by actually living as the
Greeks did.
17) In 1872 in Basel, Nietzsche published
the lsd stories • PAGE 87
his first work, “Birth of Tragedy,” based on
his close association with his mentor and
prominent Basel citizen Johann Jacob Ba-
chofen—in which he counterpoises Diony-
sis (i.e. Eleusis) with Apollo.
18) Nietzsche, who was removed from the
streets of Turin in 1889 and presumed to have
“gone mad,” was known to have been a wide-
ranging drug taker, in part for his infirmities.
Among the compounds cited is a preparation
that is presumed to have included cannabis
and opium as well as an ergot-derivative, os-
tensibly meant for migraines.
19) In 1896 in Wiemar, German Theosophist
Rudolf Steiner was invited to become Ni-
etzsche’s archivist by his sister, giving him
access to Nietzsche’s private papers. Steiner
had previously studied the esoteric aspects
of Goethe’s work and had begun publish-
ing his own theosophical writings in 1894.
In 1897 in Munich, Ludwig Klages (anoth-
er Leipzig graduate), Stefan George, Otto
Gross and others started a group known as
the “Cosmic Circle.” Explicitly based on recre-
ating “Eleusinian” cult activity and implicitly
on using drugs to achieve “ecstatic” states,
the circle also popularized the works of Ba-
chofen and Nietzsche.
21) In 1918 in Basel, Sandoz scientist Arthur
Stoll isolates the ergot alkaloid Ergotamine,
which is later offered as Gynergen, intend-
ed to be used in birthing to stop post-par-
dum hemorrhaging as well as for severe mi-
graine headaches.
22) In 1922 in Dornach, Rudolf
Steiner’s original wooden Goethea-
num “cathedral” is burned to the
ground, presumed to be on orders
from Steiner’s rival “magician, “ Ad-
olf Hitler. Steiner’s Anthroposophy
continues to have its headquarters
outside Basel to this day, following
Steiner’s death in 1925.
23) In 1927 in Basel, Sandoz hired 21
year-old Albert Hofmann to work as
an organic chemist. Hofmann, who
was born in 1906 in Baden and stud-
ied in Zurich, later describes a series
of natural “mystical” experiences he
had as a youth, perhaps similar to
those described by Capt. Al Hub-
bard in his youth.
Narco-Hypnosis
the morphing social landscape.
“... Within the next generation I be-
lieve that the world’s leaders will dis-
cover that infant conditioning and
narco-hypnosis are more efficient,
as instruments of government, than
clubs and prisons, and that the lust
for power can be just as completely
satisfied by suggesting people into
loving their servitude as by flogging
them and kicking them into obedi-
ence. In other words, I feel that the
nightmare of Nineteen Eighty-Four
is destined to modulate into the
nightmare of a world having more
resemblance to that which I imag-
ined in Brave New World.”
~ Text from a letter to George Or-

The social revolution still casts its

long shadow back from the future.
The 60s were a topsy-turvy time
where nearly every aspect of soci-
ety was converted into its opposite,
precisely according to the blueprint
of the Tavistock Agenda and the
machinations of its allies—the CIA,
UK intelligence, RAND and SRI. To-
gether they created an ersatz uto-
pia with a heavy dark side much like
Huxley’s dystopian novel Brave New
World. It is the forerunner of the
New Age and Conspiracy cultures.
Counterculture and subculture be-
came new buzzwords which sprung
up like Flower Children to describe

the lsd stories • PAGE 88

well, dated October 21st 1949; from the book, “Letters of Aldous Huxley,” edited by Grover Smith at all was watching or even aware. In 1936 Aldous Huxley wrote “Propaganda and Pharmacology”
and published by Harper & Row in – a more detailed prediction of mind-
1969. control drug technology than the
“soma” found in his 1932 novel “Brave
The “Case Officer” for Britain’s Opium New World”. Huxley predicted that the
War was Aldous Huxley. He spearhead- propagandists of the future “will prob-
ed Tavistock’s plan for pharmaceutical ably be chemists and physiologists as
control with LSD’s mind-bending re- well as writers.”
sults which led to the counterculture
[and we can’t have that], the dialecti- ~ Moksha – Writings on Psychedelics and
cal response to the counter-culture the Visionary Experience 1931-1963, Al-
put us squarely on the pathway to a dous Huxley, Penguin, 1983, p.38.
totally controlled society. Those who
thought they were creating a new so- LSD came to America in 1949. Vien-
ciety were unwittingly “sleeping with nese doctor, Otto Kauders traveled to
the enemy” by essentially brainwash- the United States in search of research
ing themselves and paying for that funds. He gave a conference at Bos-
privilege with their hearts, their minds ton Psychopathic Hospital, a pioneer-
and their money. They bought LSD. ing mental-health institution affiliated
with Harvard Medical School. He spoke
Thus, Tavistock channeled and di- about a new experimental drug called
rected youth dissent and rebellion, d-lysergic acid diethylamide.
and disabled the anti-war movement.
Youth culture became distracted and Humphry Osmond was at the cutting
disengaged from practical reality and edge of psychiatric research in the
political activism. The revolution was 1950s. He believed that hallucinogenic
definitely not televised but it was psy- drugs might be useful in treating men-
choelectric shock treatment for sure. tal illness and he studied the effects
The movement was induced from the of LSD on people with alcohol depen-
top down via CIA-Tavistock agendas. dency. His investigations led to his asso-
Socially-engineered ‘hippies’ dropped ciation with the novelist Aldous Huxley
out of the sociopolitical loop. Psycho- and to involvement with the CIA and
tropic warfare came to the home-front. MI6, which were interested in LSD as
Underground chemists, doing what a possible “truth drug” to make enemy
they honestly believed was “God’s work” agents reveal secrets while Tavistock
were permitted to handle the manu- was interested in establishing and then
facturing until the time was right and destroying the youth counter culture
the plug was pulled. Social control had movement for peace, not war.
one of its finest moments and no one

the lsd stories • PAGE 89

Osmond sought a name for the ef-
fect that LSD has on the mind, con-
sulting the novelist Aldous Huxley
who was interested in these drugs.
Osmond and Huxley had become
friends and Osmond gave him
mescaline in 1953. Huxley suggest-
ed “phanerothyme,” from the Greek
words for “to show” and “spirit,” and
sent a rhyme:
“To make this mundane world
sublime, Take half a gram
of phanerothyme.”
Instead, Osmond had chosen: “psy-
chedelic,” from the Greek words
psyche (for mind or soul) and de-
loun (for show), and suggested:
“To fathom Hell
or soar angelic
Just take a pinch
of psychedelic.”
He announced it at the New York
Academy of Sciences meeting in
1957. Huxley was Tavistock’s main
propagandist and recruiter. Huxley
first tried LSD in 1955. He got it from
“Captain” Al Hubbard, rumored to
have connections with the CIA’s
MKUltra program. In a 1961 hand-
written letter from Aldous Huxley
to Timothy Leary, Huxley mentions
meeting Dr. “Jolly” West, a CIA MK-
Ultra operative. Huxley goes on
to note that: “You are right about
the hopelessness of the “Scientific”
the lsd stories • PAGE 90
approach. These idiots want to be
Pavlovians, not Lorenzian Ethnolo-
gists. Pavlov never saw an animal
in its natural state, only under du-
ress. The “Scientific” LSD boys do
the same with their subjects. No
wonder they report psychoses.”
Timothy Leary consulted Hux-
ley, the British philosopher who
wrote the psychedelic manifesto,
The Doors of Perception (from
which Jim Morrision would later
take the name for his band). Hux-
ley was at Harvard on a visiting
professorship. He urged Leary to
form a secret order of LSD-Illu-
minati, to launch and lead a psy-
chedelic conspiracy to brainwash
influential people for human bet-
terment. “That’s how everything
of culture and beauty and philo-
sophic freedom has been passed
on,” Huxley tells him. “Initiate art-
ists, writers, poets, jazz musicians,
elegant courtesans. And they’ll
educate the intelligent rich.”
“Soma” became a cultural reality in
a variety of hypnotic and narcotiz-
ing forms. Drugs became the tec-
nique of choice for crowd control.
For some, psychedelics became
gateway drugs to harder drugs
such as heroin and methamphet-
amine. Pharmaceutical soporifics
from Ritalin to anti-depressants
became the norm for mood and
behavior regulation. In the name
of “human potential,” consciousness was put to sleep.
Psychiatric control of consciousness became an au-
thoritarian imperative.
“There will be, in the next generation or so, a phar-
macological method of making people love their ser-
vitude, and producing dictatorship without tears, so
to speak, producing a kind of painless concentration
camp for entire societies, so that people will in fact
have their liberties taken away from them, but will
rather enjoy it, because they will be distracted from
any desire to rebel by propaganda or brainwash-
ing, or brainwashing enhanced by pharmacological
methods. And this seems to be the final revolution.”
~ Aldous Huxley
Tavistock Group, California Medical School, 1961
The Counterculture
Is A Conspiracy
The post-1930 promotion and use of cannabis and
LSD, was launched from London by the self-de-
scribed “utopian” circles of followers of the 19th-
Century Thomas Huxley—associated with H.G.
Wells, Bertrand Russell, Aleister Crowley, and a
younger generation including Aldous and Julian
Huxley, and George Orwell. The practice of mass-
indoctrination in the use of cannabis and LSD was
launched with a leading role by the British psycho-
logical warfare organization known as the London
Tavistock Clinic and associated circles. The popu-
larization of cannabinol, LSD, and other strongly
psychotropic drugs, including the highly destruc-
tive use of Ritalin among primary and secondary
students, are intended to replicate the fictional role
of “soma” depicted in Aldous Huxley’s cult-novel,
Brave New World. This is a test. Each new drug is
being evaluated for its population control compo-
the lsd stories • PAGE 91
nents. The US and Canadian use of these practices was
pioneered in Los Angeles, Hollywood, and right and
left-wing circles, and in Canadian locations during the
1930s through the 1950s, via circles associated with
Aldous Huxley and with the London Tavistock Clinic
and Tavistock Institute. During the post-war decades,
this work was promoted through the Department of
Defense’s Special Warfare division, including projects
such as “Delta Force.” The post-war “Beatniks,” like Allen
Ginsberg and the orchestrated cult of Elvis Presley, are
typical of the pilot-projects used to prepare the way
for the “rock-drug-sex youth-counterculture” launched,
like a rocket, with the appearance of the “Beatles,” a
virtually uniknown band, on the Ed Sullivan Show.
Marilyn Ferguson wrote her Aquarian Conspiracy
manifesto under the direction of Willis Harman, so-
cial policy director of the Stanford Research Insti-
tute, as a popular version of a May 1974 policy study
on how to transform the United States into Aldous
Huxley’s Brave New World. The counterculture is a
conspiracy at the top, created as a method of social
control, used to drain the United States of its com-
mitment to scientific and technological progress.
That conspiracy goes back to the 1930s, when the
British sent Aldous Huxley to the United States as
the case officer for an operation to prepare the Unit-
ed States for the mass dissemination of drugs. We
will take this conspiracy apart step-by-step from its
small beginnings with Huxley in California to the vic-
timization of 15 million Americans today. With ‘The
Aquarian Conspiracy’, the British Opium War against
the United States has come out into the open.
The high priest for Britain’s Opium War was Aldous
Huxley, the grandson of Thomas H. Huxley, a found-
er of the Rhodes Roundtable group and a lifelong
collaborator of Arnold Toynbee. Toynbee himself
sat on the RIIA council for nearly fifty years, headed
the Research Division of British intelligence from the 1860s under the guiding influence
throughout World War II, and served as war- of Edward Bulwer-Lytton — who, it will be re-
time briefing officer of Prime Minister Win- called, was the colonial minister under Lord
ston Churchill. Toynbee’s “theory” of history, Palmerston during the Second Opium War. In
expounded in his twenty-volume History of 1937, Huxley was sent to the United States,
Western civilization, was that its determining where he remained throughout the period of
culture has always been the rise and decline World War II. Through a Los Angeles contact,
of grand imperial dynasties. Jacob Zeitlin, Huxley and pederast Christo-
pher Isherwood were employed as script writ-
Aldous Huxley, along with his brother Julian, ers for MGM, Warner Brothers, and Walt Disney
was tutored at Oxford by H.G. Wells, the head Studios. Hollywood was already dominated
of British foreign intelligence during World War by organized crime elements bankrolled and
I and the spiritual grandfather of the Aquar- controlled through London. Joseph Kennedy
ian Conspiracy. Ferguson accurately sees the was the front-man for a British consortium that
counterculture as the realization of what Wells created RKO studios, and “Bugsy” Siegel, the
called The Open Conspiracy: Blue Prints for a West Coast boss of the Lansky syndicate, was
World Revolution. The “Open Conspiracy,” Wells heavily involved in Warner Brothers and MGM.
wrote, “will appear first, I believe, as a conscious In effect, Huxley and Isherwood (joined soon
organization of intelligent and quite possibly in afterwards by Thomas Mann and his daugh-
some cases, wealthy men, as a movement hav- ter Elisabeth Mann Borghese) laid the foun-
ing distinct social and political aims, confessedly dations during the late 1930s and the 1940s
ignoring most of the existing apparatus of politi- for the later LSD culture, by recruiting a core
cal control, or using it only as an incidental imple- of “initiates” into the Isis cults that Huxley’s
ment in the stages, a mere movement of a number mentors, Bulwer-Lytton, Blavatsky, and
of people in a certain direction who will presently Crowley, had constituted while stationed in
discover with a sort of surprise the common object India.
toward which they are all moving . . . In all sorts of
ways they will be influencing and controlling the LSD: ‘Visitation from the Gods’
apparatus of the ostensible government.”
“Ironically,” writes Ferguson, “the introduction
What Ferguson left out is that Wells called his of major psychedelics like LSD, in the 1960s, was
conspiracy a “one-world brain” which would largely attributable to the Central Intelligence
function as ”a police of the mind.” Such books Agency’s investigation into the substances for
as the Open Conspiracy were for the priest- possible military use. Experiments on more than
hood itself. But Wells’s popular writings (Time eighty college campuses, under various CIA code
Machine, The Island of Dr. Moreau, and so forth), and those of his proteges Aldous Huxley (Brave names, unintentionally popularized LSD. Thousands of graduate students served as guinea pigs. Soon
New World) and George Orwell (1984 and Animal Farm), were written as “mass appeal” organiz- they were synthesizing their own ‘acid.’ “The CIA operation was code named MK-Ultra, its result was
ing documents on behalf of one-world order. Only in the United States are these “science fiction not unintentional, and it began in 1952, the year Aldous Huxley returned to the United States. Al-
classics” taught in grade school as attacks against fascism. Under Wells’s tutelage, Huxley was first dous Huxley began the counterculture subversion of the United States thirty years before its con-
introduced to Aleister Crowley. Crowley was a product of the cultist circle that developed in Britain sequences became evident to the public. In 1962, Huxley helped found the Esalen Institute in
the lsd stories • PAGE 92
Big Sur, California, which became a mecca for hundreds of
Americans to engage in weekends of T-Groups and Training
Groups modeled on behavior group therapy, for Zen, Hindu,
and Buddhist transcendental meditation, and “out of body”
experiences through simulated and actual hallucinogenic
drugs. As described in the Esalen Institute Newsletter: “Esalen
started in the fall of 1962 as a forum to bring together a wide
variety of approaches to enhancement of the human potential
. . . including experiential sessions involving encounter groups,
sensory awakening, gestalt awareness training, related disci-
plines. Our latest step is to fan out into the community at large,
running programs in cooperation with many different institu-
tions, churches, schools, hospitals, and government.” Several
tens of thousands of Americans have passed through Es-
alen; millions have passed through the programs it has sired
throughout the country. The next leap in Britain’s Aquarian
Conspiracy against the United States was the May 1974 re-
port that provided the basis for Ferguson’s work. The report
is entitled “Changing Images of Man,” Contract Number
URH (489~215O, Policy Research Report No. 414.74, (See:
LSD report #734 linked on Page 2) prepared by the Stanford
Research Institute Center for the Study of Social Policy, Wil-
lis Harman, director. The 268-page mimeographed report
was prepared by a team of fourteen researchers and su-
pervised by a panel of twenty-three controllers, including
anthropologist Margaret Mead, psychologist B.F. Skinner,
Ervin Laszlo of the United Nations and Sir Geoffrey Vickers
of British intelligence, among others. The aim of the study,
the authors state, is to change the image of mankind from
that of industrial progress to one of “spiritualism.” The study
asserts that in our present society, the “image of industrial
and technological man” is obsolete and must be “discarded”:
“Many of our present images appear to have become danger-
ously obsolete, however . . . Science, technology, and economics
have made possible really significant strides toward achieving
such basic human goals as physical safety and security, mate-
rial comfort and better health. But many of these successes have brought with them problems of being
too successful — problems that themselves seem insoluble within the set of societal value-premises that
led to their emergence . . . Our highly developed system of technology leads to higher vulnerability and
the lsd stories • PAGE 93
breakdowns. Indeed the range and interconnected impact of so-
cietal problems that are now emerging pose a serious threat to
our civilization . . . If our predictions of the future prove correct,
we can expect the association problems of the trend to become
more serious, more universal and to occur more rapidly.” There-
fore, SRI concludes, we must change the industrial-techno-
logical image of man fast: “Analysis of the nature of contempo-
rary societal problems leads to the conclusion that . . . the images
of man that dominated the last two centuries will be inadequate
for the post-industrial era.” The counterculture, New Age of
the Aquarian Conspiracy was born. Who provided the drugs
that swamped the anti-war movement and the college cam-
puses of the United States in the late 1960s? The organized
crime infrastructure which had set up the Peking Connection
for the opium trade in 1928—provided the same services in
the 1960s and 1970s it had provided during Prohibition. This
was also the same opium network Huxley had established
contact with in Hollywood during the 1930s.
During the 1960s, the Tavistock Clinic fostered the notion
that no criteria for sanity exist and that psychedelic “mind-ex-
panding” drugs are valuable tools of psychoanalysis. In 1967,
Tavistock sponsored a Conference on the “Dialectics of Lib-
eration,” chaired by Tavistock psychoanalyst Dr. R.D. Laing, a
popularized author and advocate of drug use.
“There will be, in the next generation or so, a pharmacological meth-
od of making people love their servitude, and producing dictatorship That conference drew a number of people who would
without tears, so to speak, producing a kind of painless concentration soon play a prominent role in fostering terrorism; Angela
camp for entire societies, so that people will in fact have their liber- Davis and Stokely Carmichael were two prominent Ameri-
ties taken away from them, but will rather enjoy it, because they will can delegates.
be distracted from any desire to rebel by propaganda or brainwash-
ing, or brainwashing enhanced by pharmacological methods. And Thus, by 1963, Huxley had recruited his core of radicalized
this seems to be the final revolution.” drug “initiates.” All of them—Leary, Osmund, Watts, Kesey,
~ Aldous Huxley, Tavistock Group Speech, California Medical School, 1961 Alpert—became the highly publicized promoters of the
early LSD counterculture. By 1967, with the cult of “Flower
People” in Haight-Ashbury and the emergence of the anti-
war movement, the United States was ready for the inundation of LSD, hashish and marijuana
that hit American college campuses in the late 1960s. The LSD connection begins with one Wil-
liam “Billy” Mellon Hitchcock. Hitchcock was a graduate of the University of Vienna and a scion
 The 55-room Millbrook Mansion
the lsd stories • PAGE 94
of the millionaire Mellon banking
family of Pittsburgh. A member
of the Mellon family had been the
U.S. Treasury Secretary throughout
Prohibition. In 1963, when Timothy
Leary was thrown out of Harvard,
Hitchcock rented a fifty-five-room
mansion in Millbrook, New York,
where the entire Leary-Huxley cir-
cle of initiates was housed until its
later move back to California. Psy-
chedelic therapy never become
popular in Europe and with a few
exceptions has not even been rec-
ognized or accepted by European
therapists. Its use has remained
by and large limited to the North
American continent where it origi-
nated. Its most noted representa-
tives in Canada have been Hof-
fer, Osmond and Hubbard, Smith,
Chwelos, Blewett, McLean, and Mc-
Donald. In the United States, the
beginnings of psychedelic therapy
were associated with the names of
Sherwood, Harman and Stolaroff;
Fadiman, Mogar and Allen; Leary,
Alpert, and Metzner; and Ditman,
Hayman and Whittlesey.
Leonard Pickard
The Acid King
American LSD usage declined in the
1970s and 1980s, then experienced
a mild resurgence in popularity in
the 1990s. Although there were
many distribution channels during
the lsd stories • PAGE 95
this decade, the U.S. DEA identified
continued tours by the psychedelic
rock band The Grateful Dead and the
then-burgeoning rave scene as pri-
mary venues for LSD trafficking and
consumption. American LSD usage
fell sharply circa 2000. The decline is
attributed to the arrest of two chem-
ists, William Leonard Pickard, a Har-
vard-educated organic chemist, and
Clyde Apperson. According to DEA
reports, black market LSD availability
dropped by 95% after the two were
arrested in 2000. These arrests were a
result of the largest LSD manufactur-
ing raid in DEA history. Or so they’d
like us to believe.
Pickard was an alleged member of
the Brotherhood of Eternal Love, the
group that produced and gave away
10s of 1000s of hits of LSD for free in
California during the late 1960s and
early 1970s. It is believed he had
links to other highly skilled chem-
ists associated with this group—an
original source of the drug back in
the 1960s—and his arrest may have
forced other operations to cease
production, leading to the large de-
cline in street availability. And per-
haps not since LSD is still somewhat
easily obtainable in low dosages.
The DEA claims these two individuals
were responsible for the vast major-
ity of LSD sold illegally in the United
States and a significant amount of the
LSD sold in Europe, and that they worked closely
with organized traffickers. While this claim may or
may not have some bearing, the extent of Pickard’s
direct influence on the overall availability in the
United States will never be fully known. Some at-
test that “Pickard’s Acid” was sold exclusively in Eu-
rope, and was not distributed through American
music venues. For more than two decades, au-
thorities believe, Leonard Pickard was a major
player in the LSD underground. Now, sitting in a
federal prison, he’s been given a death sentence
in a cement cell of life plus, without parole, for
trying to help the entire planets human species
advance in creativity, spirituality, empathy, com-
passion and love for all things living.
Late last year, a new prisoner arrived at the Shaw-
nee County Jail in Topeka, Kansas—a polite
beanstalk of a man from the San Francisco Bay
Area who stood out among the petty criminals
who make up the majority of Shawnees inmate
population. He spoke in a rapid whisper, practiced
yoga, meditated in his cell and read difficult books
on mathematics and physics. Along with his pris-
on blues, he wore sandals with socks. A princely
mane of silver hair fell almost to his shoulders. The
mans name was William Leonard Pickard. A few
days before, on November 7th, 2000, the fifty-five-
year-old Harvard graduate had been arrested not
far from an abandoned Atlas E missile silo outside
Topeka and charged with being one of the busi-
est manufacturers of LSD in the world, a chemist
with the means to cook up acid by the kilos. This
makes Mr. Pickard one of the high priests of pure,
high quality LSD manufacture, part of a clandes-
tine fraternity that probably numbers no more
than a dozen people worldwide.
The college educated intellectually motivated acid
the lsd stories • PAGE 96
cookers are notoriously hard to catch. A lab can be
set up quickly and broken down easily, and it only
takes about ten days to perform a series of compli-
cated chemical reactions to produce a sizable batch
of the drug, enough once diluted and dipped onto
blotter paper for hundreds of thousands of hits. The
trickiest part of the process is obtaining the precur-
sor chemical known as ergotamine tartrate, or ET.
Heavily regulated in this country, where it is used to
treat migraines, ET is often smuggled in from Eastern
Europe, where sale of the compound is less restricted.
Acid manufacturing might be one of the last crimi-
nal enterprises where those involved are motivated
by more than the prospect of making money. Even
now, more than three decades after the Summer of
Love, to cook acid is to perform a sacrament, a pub-
lic service. Members of this small band operate with
great stealth and are rarely informed on by their as-
sociates, even those facing long prison terms. The
Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA), FBI, or any
law enforcement agency in the US hasn’t taken down
an LSD lab since 1991 and probably won’t consider-
ing their current 2017 financial obligations and social
engineering goals, false flags, etc.
The case of U.S. v. Pickard is just the latest, and
perhaps final chapter in the strange and often
fantastic tale of William Leonard Pickard and his
journey from a privileged boyhood in Atlanta,
through the manic, hallucinogenic heart of the
1960s, to the forefront of social drugs research in
the 1990s, conducted at some of the nation’s most
prestigious universities. Along the way, under var-
ious aliases, he crossed paths with such rock stars
as Sting, and befriended members of the British
House of Lords, State Department officials and
the district attorney of San Francisco, Terence Hal-
linan. He earned a master’s from Harvard’s Ken-
nedy School of Government, where he studied
 drug trends in the former Soviet Union.
Pickard also has a rap sheet stretch- A supplier, that is—not a chemist. The
ing back to his teens and has served narcs never located the chemist. “LSD
two prison terms for manufacturing today is a much lower dose [20 micro-
drugs, including LSD and the rarely grams versus 200-plus in my day, the
seen synthetic mescaline. Before his 60s and 70s] than the high-test stuff Au-
life sentence, though, his life seemed gustus Owsley Stanley III sold as orange
to come together—he’d fathered a sunshine’’ in the Sixties; more of a par-
child and had become a serious con- ty high than an eight-hour trip. “Triple
vert to Buddhism. He had a Job at a set - LSD that’s reworked three times to
respected drug-policy think tank, and increase purity, it’s not found as often,”
he planned to attend medical school says Dave Tresmontan, special agent in
so he could finally dedicate his life charge of the California Bureau of Nar-
to alleviating the suffering of others. cotic Enforcement’s San Francisco of-
But he had also become bizarrely en- fice. “The LSD today tends to be a little
twined with—and then, he says, hid- dirtier and not nearly as sophisticated
eously betrayed by—a man named as it once was.”
Gordon Todd Skinner, a Porsche-driv-
ing pot dealer from Tulsa, Oklahoma, It’s difficult to tell exactly when Leon-
twenty years younger than Pickard. ard Pickard first involved himself with
During Pickard’s trial the proceed- LSD. BNE believes he was part of the
ings shed light on the dangerous and legendary Brotherhood of Eternal
secret world of LSD manufacturing Love, which operated in and around
for the first time in decades. Perhaps the Acid Triangle in the late 1960s and
greater truths will be revealed, too. In some ways, the story of Leonard Pickard and early 1970s, selling hashish and LSD cooked by Owsley and other important chemists
Todd Skinner is a story about the collision of Sixties idealism with the materialism and like Tim Scully and Nick Sand. The Brotherhood’s philosophy, at least at the beginning,
pragmatism of the nineties—Timothy Leary’s American Dream versus Bill Clinton’s, if was simple and beneficent: with LSD, turning people on, expanding consciousness
you will. And its moral will be clear even before the Judge calls the court to order; The and changing the way people perceived the world took precedence over making a
sweet but easily corruptible dream of the flower-power generation never really stood profit. When the subject of the Brotherhood of Eternal Love came up one day in the
a chance—but It was fun while it lasted. It was unbelievable. Shawnee County jail, Pickard stopped short of admitting any contact with the group,
but did speak of their activities with a certain knowing reverence: “I understand there
The Acid Triangle have been a few LSD chemists that would never make a batch of LSD ever, ever, with-
out offering prayers for the safety of the people that might use it. And it should act as a
Most of the Acid consumed in the past thirty years is believed to have been made in tem- good medicine throughout the world. So I’m told.” He added, “I think their mantra was
porary basement and warehouse labs in and around San Francisco’s Bay Area, a part of something on the order of, ‘Those that say, don’t know. And those that know, don’t say.”
California drug agents call the Acid Triangle. The last time those agents made a significant Pickard smiled, conspiratorially, as he talked, sitting cross-legged and as calm as a
(1 million hits plus) acid bust, in 1993, they identified a supplier who lived in Bolinas, the Buddha on a plastic chair in an interview room barely big enough to contain his six-
northernmost point of the triangle. and-a-half-foot frame.

the lsd stories • PAGE 97

 “If the doors of perception were cleansed every thing would appear to man as it is, infinite.
For man has closed himself up, till he sees all things through narrow chinks of his cavern.”

~ excerpt from William Blake’s poem

‘The Marriage of Heaven and Hell’

neered the art of money laundering for the Mob)

A federal trial in San Francisco in 1973 crippled and his contacts in a French pharmaceutical firm,
Brotherhood operations and seemed to fragment facilitated the mass production and distribution
the cooking culture, or at least send it further un- (via the Brotherhood and other groups) of an even
derground. BNE didn’t take down a lab of any real more powerful strain of LSD nicknamed “orange
size in the Acid Triangle for years after the Brother- sunshine.” In 1967, Dr. Richard Alpert put Hitchcock in
hood case, just a few seizures now and again. “We contact with Augustus Owsley Stanley III. As Owsley’s
might find some pretty good chunks, 15,000 hits or agent, Hitchcock retained the law firm of Babinowitz,
100,000 hits,” says Dave Tresmontan. Then, in 1988, Boudin and Standard to conduct a feasibility study of
reports came into the Bureau of strong chemical several Caribbean countries to determine the best lo-
smells emanating from a warehouse in the city of cation for the mass production and global distribution
Mountain View, California, about forty-five min- of high-quality LSD and hashish. During this period,
utes south of San Francisco. On December 28th, as Hitchcock joined Timothy Leary and his circle in
the narcs arrived to execute a search warrant, a tall, California. Leary had established an LSD cult , so-
pleasant man of forty strolled out of the warehouse, to-speak (and not a cult at all), called the “Brother-
carrying multiple pieces of identification bearing a hood of Eternal Love” and several front companies,
number of different names. His real name was Wil- including Mystics Art World, Inc. of Laguna Beach,
liam Leonard Pickard. California. These California-based entities ran lu-
crative trafficking in Mexican marijuana and LSD
Nick Scully brought in from Switzerland and Britain. The British
connection had been established directly by Hitch-
When the underground manufacture and distribu- cock, who contracted the Charles Bruce chemi-
tion of LSD was suddenly derailed in 1969 due to cal firm to import large quantities of the chemi-
the scarcity of its key ingredient, ergotamine tar- cal components of LSD. With financing from both
trate, and with increasing federal law enforcement Hitchcock and George Grant Hoag, the heir to the
pressure, Stark, via the Laguna Beach, California- J.C. Penney dry goods fortune, the Brotherhood
based Brotherhood of Eternal Love, a small group of Eternal Love set up LSD and hashish produc-
of local surfers led by chemist Nicholas Sand, got tion-marketing operations in Costa Rica in 1968.
it quickly back on track. For five years, Stark, aid-
ed by the Castle Bank of the Bahamas (which pio- Source: Mary Jo Warth, “The Story of Acid Profiteers,” Village
Voice, August 22, 1974. This article is an excerpt from the
the lsd stories • PAGE 98 EIR book. A new edition by Progressive Press (2010).
 Storming Heaven: LSD and the American Dream
“It’s All Class Warfare In The Final Analysis”

“In the 1950s and ‘60s, the CIA engaged in an extensive program of human experimentation, us-
ing drugs, psychological, and other means, in search of techniques to control human behavior for
counterintelligence and covert action purposes.”  According to Walter Bowart of the East Village
Other, the CIA was the world’s largest consumer of San-
doz LSD. They’d worked with the Bureau of Narcotics,
the NIMH, LEAA and other agencies to covertly give
LSD to unwitting persons in “real life settings.”
Once they were done with unwitting individuals, CIA let
the LSD genie out of the bottle into the general popula-
tion with their own choice of High Priest, who they had al-
ready initiated in their trial by fire.  Was “the Pope of Dope”
a “tool” of the cryptocracy? Bowart reports finding stron-
ger evidence of Leary/CIA links: While doing research for
my book, Operation Mind Control (originally published in
1978), I’d come across a CIA document with Leary’s name
on it. The CIA memo directed agents to contact Leary
and company, who were then operating an organiza-
tion called International Federation for Internal Freedom
(IFIF). The memo asked its agents to discover if any agen-
cy personnel were taking acid with this group. The CIA
wanted to determine what IFIF really knew about what
was then billed as “the most powerful drug known to man,”
LSD, a drug which the agency was experimenting with in
an attempt to create mind controlled zombies, which of
course never worked. Another, earlier similar CIA docu-
ment I found ordered agents to contact Aldous Huxley
for the same reason. There were no follow-up documents
to indicate whether the CIA had, or had not, made con-
tact in either instance. Still, other documents indicated
that Leary had received money channeled by the CIA
through various government agencies. The files showed
that, in all, there were eight government grants paid to The CIA wanted to determine what IFIF really knew about what
Leary from 1953 to 1958, most of them paid through the was then billed as “the most powerful drug known to man,” LSD ...
National Institute of Mental Health, now known to have
“fronted” for the CIA in the MKULTRA program. When
Bowart asked, “Do you think CIA people were involved in your group in the sixties?” He reports,
without hesitating Leary said, “Of course they were. I would say that eighty percent of my move-
ments, eighty percent of the decisions I made were suggested to me by CIA people.” Leary admitted
to Bowart that even in the 60s he knew he was being
wittingly used by intelligence agencies.  He claimed
from 1962 forward he operated as an intelligence
agent aware of the world struggle for the control of
minds—of consciousness.  He wanted to be on the
winning side. “What are you doing for the CIA?” Bowart
asked, disbelieving everything he said. “I’m raising
the intelligence of an elite... a very elite group of Ameri-
cans,” he said. “So I think the future of freedom depends
on a very small group of people who are smart enough
to defend that liberty...”’ “…nobody ever recruited me.
People came and advised me to do this or that. I didn’t
know that I was being advised by the CIA. I assume now,
that I was being advised by the CIA...” Then he back-
pedaled, again declaring that CIA sponsored his and
all other personality assessment research, including
that used to assess those for CIA employment and
other intelligence agencies.  They also supported J.B.
Rhine’s ESP experiments at Duke University.  He was
relatively clueless about other LSD researchers, such
as Walter Pankhe and Stanislav Grof. The whole ques-
tion is muddied by the possibility Leary was trying to
make money as a writer on MK Ultra, and wanted to
increase his journalistic credibility.  Many thought he
was just lying, a habit for which his best friends give
him a mixed review. Others contend he himself was
a victim of chemical and electronic mind control in
prison, designed to break and “turn” him.  Did he turn
state’s evidence for a “get out of jail, free card?”  FBI
records indicate it is so. Either way, wittingly or un-
wittingly, truth or lie, Timothy Leary, the “king of the
hippies” was a pawn in the CIA’s Great Game of global
manipulation.  “Why not indeed?”  Isn’t the REAL ques-

the lsd stories • PAGE 99

tion just WHO is directing the Skull and Bones “retail outlet,” CIA? NSA? NATO? Soros?, the Bush derway. The connection was notorious Captain Al Hubbard, the American superspy and uranium
family and the Saudi’s, or all of the above? entrepreneur. He was the first Johnny Appleseed of LSD. Aldous Huxley got his acid from “Captain
Trips” in 1955.  Later, Leary would also acquire his experimental doses through CIA back channels.
Drugs rule, or he who controls the drugs rules and controls by means of drugs and the enormous Hubbard had an angelic vision telling him that something important to the future of mankind would
cash slush funds they generate. Destruction of the real economy and the replacement of develop- soon be coming. When he read about LSD the next year, he immediately sought and acquired LSD,
ment with looting on a global scale is already in an advanced stage throughout the world. The world which he tried for himself in 1951. Although he had no medical training, during the Fifties Hubbard
runs on top of a black market in guns, gold and worked at the Hollywood Hospital with Ross
drugs. McLean, with psychiatrists Abram Hoffer and
Dr. Humphry Osmond, with Myron Stolaroff
In 1969 Ronald Stark appeared at the Brother- at the International Federation for Advanced
hood Ranch. Stark became the Brotherhood’s Study in Menlo Park, and with Willis Harman
chemist, producing an estimated 20kg of LSD at Stanford Research Institute (SRI) running
between 1969 and 1971. He also subsequently psychedelic sessions with LSD.
became its banker, channelling money through
a bank which had originally been set up by the At various times over the next twenty years,
CIA, as a front for covert narcotics and money Hubbard also reportedly worked for the Ca-
laundering operations. Stark was a mysterious nadian Special Services, the U.S. Justice De-
figure, with worldwide contacts, he claimed partment and the U.S. Bureau of Alcohol, To-
to know spies and was suspected of being in- bacco & Firearms. It is also rumored that he
volved with the CIA (and the project later to be was involved with the CIA’s MK-Ultra project.
revealed as MK-Ultra). In 1971 he shut down his How his government positions interacted
European LSD manufacturing operation, hav- with his work with LSD is unknown. Hubbard
ing claimed to have been “tipped off”. I doubt is reputed to have introduced more than
any of us realized we were part of possibly 6,000 people to LSD, including scientists,
the biggest CIA experiment ever unleashed politicians, intelligence officials, diplomats,
on an unwitting public, but later revelations and church figures. He became known as
proved it so. Congress exposed it. LSD experi- the original “Captain Trips”, traveling about
ments and unwitting guinea pigs were major with a leather case containing pharmaceuti-
parts of the CIA dark ops known as MK-Ultra, a cally pure LSD, mescaline, and psilocybin. I
vast, decades long mind control program that became aware of this backstory in my later
continues today in different forms. The CIA re- relationship with the journal, Psychedelic
leased LSD on an unsuspecting public through Monographs & Essays, the first serious jour-
the agenda devised by Tavistock Institute, the nal to recount the early history of dissemi-
“Aquarian Conspiracy”, from SRI and select co- nation and psychedelic culture. No one was
evolving projects. Ultimately, CIA deemed LSD talking about a “hippie mafia” at the time of
useless as a truth serum and abandoned that the psychedelic explosion, at least, not to
avenue of research, but the genie was out of me. It was a spiritual crusade. Later I asked
the bottle and dropped onto the sugar cube. Tim Leary how do you “turn it off,” but he was
The cultural engineering of the 60’s was un- no help on that. Once I tapped my psyche-

the lsd stories • PAGE 100

delic wellspring it became a gusher—an infinity of visionary imagery which continues to flow and of DNA. Others include Stephen Gould, Carl Sagan, Richard Feynman, Dr. Kary Mullis and the notorious
demands its own creative emergence. My question to the answer of drugs was, “How do you do Timothy Leary. Pychedelics gave rise to the Human Potential movement, “Californian” ideology, mind
this without drugs?” Many found that answer in meditation. The drug became irrelevant. Years later, spas like Esalen, Scientology, the Moonies and the so-called Aquarian Conspiracy which has blossomed
another friend would fill me in on what went on in Leary’s Harvard years with “The Pink Power Pills”. into New Age thought. All have a root in CIA experiments in extraordinary human potential, parapsychol-
ogy, and creativity. As with many alchemical pana-
LSD: Weapon or Sacrament? ceas, the substance is both a cure and a poison—a
Counterculture vs. Counterintelligence dream to the majority, a nightmare to the unfortu-
nate few.
In forming counterculture, the whole self disen-
gages from cultural currents, the electronic en- Ther Acid Cult: Weapon or Truth?
vironment and corpo-political propaganda and
Agit Prop. What happens when an entire genera- For many years the CIA’s favorite stepchild
tion questions social norms? This ‘spiritual’ quest was LSD (Lysergic acid diethylamide), devel-
might be alienating if it wasn’t something shared oped at Sandoz Laboratories in Switzerland.
with most of one’s generation. It became the The CIA was their biggest customer because
American psychedelic underground, and many they thought they could weaponize it. Later,
subculture lifestyles followed it. A drug culture acid was manufactured for the government
that began as a narcissistic dissociation from by Eli Lilly. Lilly has been featured as one of
the warring world devolved into a polydrug the most unethical of all drug companies by
abusing culture of self-medication by the the Wall Street Journal. Daddy Bush has run
early 70s.The CIA bait-and-switch tactic, start- both CIA and Lilly during his career. In 1953,
ing with LSD, created the 1970s cocaine fad the CIA asked Eli Lilly to make them up a syn-
and made liberalism synonymous with de- thesized batch of LSD, which they patented
pravity. Any hope of controlling economies (US Patent for Lysergic Acid Amides, Serial
or cultures or unfolding events is doomed to No. 473,443, issued February 28, 1956) and
sub-optimize the results and yield only nasty promoted heavily. In 1955, Aldous Huxley,
unintended consequences. The subversively Britain’s “Timothy Leary,” who wrote the 1932
indoctrinated counterculture failed to realize dystopian novel Brave New World, had his first
that in adopting the hedonistic ‘spiritual’ drug LSD trip and published Heaven and Hell. He
for recreation, they were inadvertently “sleep- had written The Doors of Perception in 1954
ing with the enemy,” the CIA, Tavistock and the detailing his experiences with mescaline. He
billionaire class in their ever-present war on contributed to the debate on “Paradise-engi-
our class. The therapeutic promise of the drug neering,” and issues of universal happiness,
was lost on the conservative government and biotechnology, post-genomic medicine, peak
sanctioned research stopped cold for most of experiences and designer drugs. Hedonism
the rest of the century. Nevertheless, many of and the state-sanctioned sugarcoating the
the wold’s greatest minds were inspired by psyche- “How do you do this without drugs?” Four Horsemen of Pain, Disease, Unhappiness,
delics. For example, Francis Crick was on 50mcg. of and Death. Included were consumption of mass
LSD when he came up with the double-helix structure produced goods and beliefs.

the lsd stories • PAGE 101

Huxley’s conception of a real utopia, was modeled on his experiences of mescaline and LSD. But ened by them in their power.  The church did much the same.  They began losing control when
until we get the biological underpinnings of our emotional well-being securely encoded geneti- the Freemasons sowed Enlightenment thought.  Academia still forms and directs our thinking
cally, then psychedelia is mostly off-limits for the purposes of paradise-engineering. Certainly, processes and what kind of opportunities are open to us. Those whose imaginations range into
its intellectual significance cannot be exaggerated; but unfortunately, neither can its ineffable the areas of suppressed science quickly find out it is neither supported nor tolerated.  Fund-
weirdness and the unpredictability of its agents. Thus mescaline, and certainly LSD and its con- ing and careers are at stake, and in some cases lives.  Are there some things we should not
geners, are not fail-safe euphoriants. The possibility of nightmarish bad trips and total emotional know?  Dangerous subjects? Forbidden subjects? In these days thick with conspiracy theories,
Armageddon is latent in the way our brains are constructed under a regime of selfish-DNA, yet it isn’t hard to imagine yet another one.  But perhaps the most useful approach is to take a
extremely rare. look backward to find the taproot of forces manipulating our society today.  Are sinister forces
shaping our moral, educational, political, economic, and cultural lives? Is the fruit of that poi-
Former State Department officer John Marks in The Search for the “Manchurian Candidate: soned tree coming to fruition? Unfortunately the answer is a hearty, “Yes.”  In fact, insiders say
The CIA and Mind Control, The Secret History of the Behavioral Sciences” (1979)—along with the that no pop culture phenomenon since the 50’s is an accident.  Once TV entered virtually every
Washington Post (1985) and the New York Times home, some mind control experiments came to
(1988)—reported an amazing story about the CIA a rather abrupt halt; they weren’t needed.  Mass
and psychiatry. A lead player was psychiatrist D. mind control from the cradle to the grave had
Ewen Cameron, president of the American Psychi- been accomplished.  The era of Madison Avenue,
atric Association in 1953. Cameron was curious stylish fads in possessions and beliefs, had begun. 
to discover more powerful ways to break down Recent political propaganda, spin doctoring, and
patient resistance. Using electroshock, LSD, and agit-prop have become painfully obvious even
sensory deprivation, he was able to produce se- to the uninitiated. But the antecedents of pro-
vere delirium. Patients often lost their sense of grammed consumerism go back much further to
identity, forgetting their own names and even the time of Freud and fomenting political forces
how to eat. The CIA, eager to learn more about in Great Britain.  The mother of all propaganda
Cameron’s brainwashing techniques, funded him machines can be found in The Tavistock Institute
under MK-Ultra. According to Marks, Cameron of Human Relations in London and its forerunner
was part of a small army of the CIA’s LSD-experi- Tavistock Clinic or Tavistock Institute of Medical
menting psychiatrists. Where did the CIA get its Psychology, which has tremendously influenced
LSD? Marks reports that the CIA had been previ- both left- and right-wing thinking and put itself
ously supplied by the Swiss pharmaceutical cor- in the service of the “racket of war.” A great game
poration Sandoz, but was uncomfortable relying is being played on us unawares, and we are pawns
on a foreign company and so, in 1953, the CIA in that game.  Call it “Global Architectronics.”  Pub-
asked Eli Lilly to make them up a batch of LSD, lic opinion cannot only be manipulated, it can
which Lilly subsequently donated to the CIA. be created—a perception not a reality. But, who
or what would want to shape and control public
Need To Know opinion?  We can ask ourselves like Parcival in the
Grail Castle, “Who do these things serve?” and/or
Buckminster Fuller pointed out that throughout follow the modern investigative imperative to
history the smartest people were directed into “Follow the Money.”
specialties that kept them from getting the “Big
Picture” so kings and the elite remained unthreat-

the lsd stories • PAGE 102

 Synthetic Religion

Since civilization began, monarchs and their militaries have

sought to control their own populations and those who threat-
ened them.  Elitists with overarching ambitions have existed in all
eras.  One of the most effective means of social control predates
civilization, arising in the superstitious world of neolithic period. 

By healing, birth and death rites, and oracles shamans gained a

stranglehold on the minds of their followers with magical medi-
cine and mysterious incantations.  They told the people what to
expect in the future and what fearsome and mysterious forces
were operating out of view in nature. Their rites controlled the
food supply, the weather, and tribal beliefs.  Myths were im-
posed on fresh minds. Drugs were also a staple in the medicine
kit, both to kill pain and to provide pleasure and communion
in tribal celebrations.  These mind expanding drugs revealed a
separate reality, populated by fabulous and fearsome creatures
of the imagination.  After these close encounters, naturally, their
shamans claimed to placate the demonic and serve the greater
good. Shared beliefs bound groups together in common cause
with a groupthink worldview.  They “belonged.”  But shamanism
and sorcery are centered truly around illusion and power, not
spirituality.  It is an attempt to define the reality – to impose a
pre-scientific definition of reality.

Shamanism finds its modern counterpart in psychology/psy-

chiatry but also in the cultural fad of the New Age movement,
a nostalgic, if self-absorbed, spirituality.  And the founding of
Tavistock is rooted in the careers and theories of many of the
most imminent mind doctors of the last century: Freud, Jung,
Laing, Bateson, and more.

in India and forcibly sold them to China during the Opium Wars.
Even tea was notorious during the American Revolution. Black
Ops have a history of being supported via illicit drug trade. Any-
one who is the end-user drives the whole karmic chain of sup-
ply and demand. And, it’s a bloody trail. All drugs, even alcohol,
tobacco and sugar are big business. It’s all part of The Spectacle,
the lsd stories • PAGE 103
 WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGICAL WARFARE?
• HELP ME (Basic Survival)
• TRIBAL We (Collective Survival)
• GRATIFY Me (Immediate Wants)
• RIGHTEOUS We (Stable Authority)
• COMPETETIVE Me (Material Success)
• HOLISTIC Us (Global Harmony)
• INTERDEPENDENT Me (Sustainable World)
• SPIRITUAL We (Collective Renewal)
Today, our minds can be tortured, directed and con-
tained through subtler but more nefarious means.
We are still put in mental stocks by megamedia and
Big Pharma, and their combination—pharmaceutical
adverts. Chemical straightjackets range from Ritalin,
to antidepressants, to hormones, prescriptions and
recreational drugs—the pharmaceuticals ALL have a
myriad of side effects by comparison to LSD which has
virtually none.

Paradoxically, there is an alleged and purely fraudu-

lent War on Drugs by the very governments and agen-
cies who are accused of profiteering on Black Market
importation and distribution of those same drugs. The
CIA has been implicated in the infamous “Air America”
Golden Triangle heroin importations in the Vietnam
era, cocaine running during Iran Contra, the crack epi-
demic in American ghettos, poppy production in Af-
ghanistan (largest crop ever since our military arrived
to protect the poppy crops and harvest), and in pro-
moting Orange Sunshine LSD through the Brother-
hood of Eternal Love, to derail and discredit the peace
movement in the 1960’s. This follows an older tradi-
tion, an aspect of psychological warfare. British profi-
teers grew narcotics in India and forcibly sold them to
China during the Opium Wars. Even tea was notorious
during the American Revolution.

the lsd stories • PAGE 104

 “What happens when an entire generation
questions social norms?”

the lsd stories • PAGE 105

 LSD threatened capitalism itself, the billionaire controllers and their private dynasties built on public sweat

the lsd stories • PAGE 106

whether the source is nation-states, megacorporate drug companies (Big Pharma), global drug rings, Charles Manson’s supply of LSD may have come directly from the CIA. A new type of LSD known as
or designer independents. Humans are hardwired with a “craving for ecstasy.” Social issues include “Orange Sunshine” was being used by the Manson Family immediately prior to the Tate-LaBian-
suppression of direct mystical experience (religious experimentation vs. “pharmacratic inquisition”), ca murders according to Family member Charles “Tex” Watson, who wrote in his prison memoir
modulating your own pleasure/pain axis, sexuality, and self-determination (individual freedom vs. that it was the use of the Orange Sunshine LSD that finally convinced him that Manson’s Helter
state control). We’ve developed even more cruel and unusual punishment for would-be “free think- Skelter, apocalyptic vision was real. And this special LSD may have been supplied by the CIA.
ers,” and dissidents since the era of MK Ultra. During the Cold War, the CIA attempted to outdo Soviet Orange Sunshine was manufactured and distributed by “The Brotherhood of Eternal Love” who
and Asian brainwashing techniques and close the operated out of a beach resort near Los Angeles.
“mind control gap” without success. The Brotherhood had among it’s drug manufactur-
ers and dealers, one Ronald Stark, a person with
With the Manchurian Candidate, they tried to secret- known connections to the CIA. It is believed that
ly manufacture the perfect assassin—a cyborg. Then Stark was responsible for the manufacture of up to
the agency experimented with a variety of drugs de- 50 million hits of LSD).
signed to neutralize or disable the enemy, or to use
as truth serums. They also used electroshock, senso- The Handler - “Captain Trips”
ry deprivation, psychotronics, and radical hypnosis.
Alfred M. Hubbard
Brain washing wipes the mind and numbs the emo-
tions; reprogramming plugs in new “software” that
November 1991
contours thoughts and feelings, and can trigger be-
haviors at the will of the programmer. Though it was
Before Sergeant Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band...
a leading candidate, LSD was determined no good
before Timothy Leary ... before Ken Kesey’s band of
for mind control, but that didn’t mean it couldn’t be
Merry Pranksters and their Electric Kool-Aid Acid Tests
an influential social control. Once the drug became
... before the dawn of the Grateful Dead, there was Al-
associated with the counterculture, it was banned
fred M. Hubbard: the Original Captain Trips. You will
(1967), which only made it more attractive. Yet it
not read about him in the history books. He left no
still worked its magic by deflecting energy and at-
diary, nor chatty relatives to memorialize him in print.
tention into hedonistic druggie lifestyles instead of
And if a cadre of associates had not recently agreed
confrontational political activism.
to open its files, Captain Alfred M. Hubbard might ex-
ist in death as he did in life­—a man of mirrors and
Through its Psychological Warfare Division, the
shadows, revealing himself to even his closest friends
CIA-controlled media used CIA promoted drugs
only on a need-to-know basis.
to discredit the peace movement. It used CBS, The
New York Times, Associated Press, United Press In-
They called him “the Johnny Appleseed of LSD.” He was
ternational, even The National Enquirer, and other
to the psychedelic movement nothing less than the
major United States media to maintain its control
membrane through which all passed to enter into
over sensitive subjects. This gave new meaning to
the Mysteries. Beverly Hills psychiatrist Oscar Janiger
the phrase, “the medium is the message” – it was in-
once said of Hubbard, “We waited for him like a little
fowars (not Alex Jones Infowars).
old lady for the Sears-Roebuck catalog.” Waited for him

the lsd stories • PAGE 107

to unlock his ever-present leather satchel loaded with pharmaceutically-pure psilocybin, mescaline built a hangar for his aircraft and a slip for his yacht from a fallen redwood. But it was the inner voyage
or his personal favorite, Sandoz LSD-25. Those who will talk about Al Hubbard are few. Oscar Janiger that drove the Captain until his death in 1982. Fueled by psychedelics, he set sail and rode the great
told this writer that “nothing of substance has been written about Al Hubbard, and probably nothing wave as a neuronaut, with only the white noise in his ears and a fever in his brain. His head shorn
ever should.” to a crew and wearing a paramilitary uniform with a holstered long-barrel Colt .45, Captain Al Hub-
bard showed up one day in ‘63 on the doorstep
He is treated like a demigod by some, as of a young Harvard psychologist named
a lunatic uncle by others. But nobody is Timothy Leary. “He blew in with that uniform
ambivalent about the Captain: He was ... laying down the most incredible atmosphere
as brilliant as the noonday sun, mysteri- of mystery and flamboyance, and really impres-
ous as the rarest virus, and friendly like sive bullshit!” Leary recalls. “He was pissed off.
a golden retriever. The first visage of His Rolls Royce had broken down on the free-
Hubbard was beheld by Dr. Humphry way, so he went to a pay phone and called the
Osmond, now senior psychiatrist at Ala- company in London. That’s what kind of guy
bama’s Bryce Hospital. He and Dr. John he was. He started name-dropping like you
Smythies were researching the correla- wouldn’t believe ... claimed he was friends with
tion between schizophrenia and the hal- the Pope.”
lucinogens mescaline and adrenochrome
at Weyburn Hospital in Saskatchewan, “Did Leary believe him?”
Canada, when an A.M. Hubbard request-
ed the pleasure of Osmond’s company for “Well, yeah, no question.”
lunch at the swank Vancouver Yacht Club.
Dr. Osmond later recalled, “It was a very The captain had come bearing gifts of
dignified place, and I was rather awed by LSD, which he wanted to swap for psilocy-
it. [Hubbard] was a powerfully-built man... bin, the synthetic magic mushroom pro-
with a broad face and a firm hand-grip. duced by Switzerland’s Sandoz Laborato-
He was also very genial, an excellent host.” ries. “The thing that impressed me,” Leary
Captain Hubbard was interested in obtain- remembers, “is on one hand he looked like
ing some mescaline, and, as it was still legal, a carpetbagger con man, and on the other
so Dr. Osmond supplied him with some. “He he had these most-impressive people in the
was interested in all sorts of odd things,” Os- world on his lap, basically backing him.”
mond laughs. Among Hubbard’s passions Among Hubbard’s heavyweight cheer-
was motion. His identity as “captain” came leaders was Aldous Huxley. Huxley had
from his master of sea vessels certification been turned on to mescaline by Osmond
and a stint in the US Merchant Marine. At in ‘53 and became an unabashed spon-
the time of their meeting in 1953, Al Hub- sor for the chemicals then known as “psy-
bard owned secluded Daymen Island off chotomimetic”—literally and incorrectly,
the coast of Vancouver—a former Indian “madness mimicking.” But neither Huxley
colony surrounded by a huge wall of oyster nor Hubbard nor Osmond experienced
shells. To access his 24-acre estate, Hubbard madness. Quite the opposite.

the lsd stories • PAGE 108

Those who knew Al Hubbard would describe him as just a “barefoot boy from Kentucky,” who bard founded Marine Manufacturing, a Vancouver charter-boat concern, and in his early 40s realized
never got past third grade. But as a young man, the shoeless hillbilly was purportedly visited his lifelong ambition of becoming a millionaire. By 1950 he was scientific director of the Uranium
by a pair of angels, who told him to build something. He had absolutely no training, “but he had Corporation of Vancouver, owned his own fleet of aircraft, a 100-foot yacht, and a Canadian island.
these visions, and he learned to trust them early on,” says Willis Harman, director of the Institute of And he was miserable.
Noetic Sciences in Sausalito, CA. In 1919, guided by
other-worldly forces, Hubbard invented the Hub- “Al was desperately searching for meaning in his life,”
bard Energy Transformer, a radioactive battery says Willis Harman. Seeking enlightenment, Hub-
that could not be explained by the technology bard returned to an area near Spokane, WA, where
of the day. The Seattle Post-Intelligencer report- he’d spent summers during his youth. He hiked into
ed that Hubbard’s invention, hidden in an 11” x the woods and an angel purportedly appeared to
14” box, had powered a ferry-sized vessel around him in a clearing. “She told Al that something tre-
Seattle’s Portico Bay nonstop for three days. Fif- mendously important to the future of mankind would
ty percent rights to the patent were eventually be coming soon, and that he could play a role in it if
bought by the Radium Corporation of Pittsburgh he wanted to,” says Harman. “But he hadn’t the faint-
for $75,000, and nothing more was heard of the est clue what he was supposed to be looking for.” In
Hubbard Energy Transformer. Hubbard stifled his 1951, reading The Hibberd Journal, a scientific pa-
talents briefly as an engineer in the early 1920s, but per of the time, Hubbard stumbled across an article
an unquenchable streak of mischief burned in the about the behavior of rats given LSD. “He knew that
boy inventor. Vancouver magazine’s Ben Metcalfe was it,” says Harman. Hubbard went and found the
reports that Hubbard soon took a job as a Seattle person conduction the experiment, and came back
taxi driver during Prohibition. With a sophisticat- with some LSD for himself. After his very first acid
ed ship-to-shore communications system hidden experience, he became a True Believer.
in the trunk of his cab, Hubbard helped rum-run-
ners to successfully ferry booze past the US and “Hubbard discovered psychedelics
Canadian Coast Guards. He was, however, caught as a boon and a sacrament,” recalls Leary.
by the FBI and went to prison for 18 months. After
his release, Hubbard’s natural talent for electronic A 1968 resume states that Hubbard was at various
communications attracted scouts from Allen Dull- times employed by the Canadian Special Services,
es’s Office of Strategic Services (OSS). Also accord- the US Justice Department and, ironically, what is
ing to Metcalfe, Hubbard was at least peripherally now the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms.
involved in the Manhattan Project. Whether he was part of the CIA mind-control proj-
The captain was pardoned of any and all wrongdo- ect known as MK-ULTRA, might never be known: all
ing by Harry S. Truman under Presidential Pardon paperwork generated in connection with that dia-
#2676, and subsequently became agent Captain Al bolical experiment was destroyed in ‘73 by MK-Ultra
Hubbard of the OSS. As a maritime specialist, Hub- chief Dr. Sidney Gottlieb, on orders from then-CIA
bard was enjoined to ship heavy armaments from Director Richard Helms, citing a “paper crisis.” Under
San Diego to Canada at night, without lights, in the waning hours of World War II—an operations of the auspices of MK-Ultra the CIA regularly dosed its agents and associates with powerful hallu-
dubious legality, which had him facing a Congressional investigation. To escape federal indictment, cinogens as a preemptive measure against the Soviets’ own alleged chemical technology, often
Hubbard moved to Vancouver and became a Canadian citizen. Parlaying connections and cash, Hub- with disastrous results. The secret project would see at least two deaths: tennis pro Harold Blauer

the lsd stories • PAGE 109

died after a massive injection of MDA; and the army’s own Frank Olson, a biological-warfare spe- wood Hills home in the early 1960s. “He showed up for lunch one afternoon, and he brought with
cialist, crashed through a closed window in the 12th floor of New York’s Statler Hotel, after drink- him a portable tank filled with a gas of some kind. He offered some to us,” she recalls, “but we said we
ing cognac laced with LSD during a CIA symposium. Dr. Osmond doubts that Hubbard would didn’t care for any, so he put it down and we all had lunch. He went into the bathroom with the tank
have been associated with such a project “not particularly on humanitarian grounds, but on the after lunch, and breathed into it for about ten seconds. It must have been very concentrated, because
grounds that it was bad technique.” Recently, he came out revitalized and very jubilant,
a researcher for WorldNetDaily and author talking about a vision he had seen of the Vir-
of a forthcoming book based on the Frank gin Mary.” “I was convinced that he was the
Olson “murder,” revealed that he has re- man to bring LSD to planet Earth,” remarks,
ceived, via a FOIA request of CIA declassi- Myron Stolaroff, who was assistant to the
fied materials, documents which indicate president of long-range planning at Am-
that Al Hubbard was, indeed, in contact pex Corporation when he met the captain.
with Dr. Sidney Gottlieb and George Hunt- Stolaroff learned of Hubbard through phi-
er White—an FBI narcotics official who losopher Gerald Heard, a friend and spiri-
managed Operation Midnight Climax, a tual mentor to Huxley. “Gerald had reached
joint CIA/FBI blackmail project in which tremendous levels of contemplative prayer,
unwitting “johns” were given drinks spiked and I didn’t know what in the world he was
with LSD by CIA-managed prostitutes, doing fooling around with drugs.” Heard had
and whose exploits were videotaped from written a letter to Stolaroff, describing the
behind two-way mirrors at posh hotels beauty of his psychedelic experience with
in both New York and San Francisco. The Al Hubbard. “That letter would be priceless-
researcher would reveal only that Al Hub- -but Hubbard, I’m sure, arranged to have it
bard’s name “appeared in connection with stolen ... He was a sonofabitch: God and the
Gottlieb and White, but the material is heav- Devil, both there in full force.” Stolaroff was
ily redacted.” Hubbard’s secret connections so moved by Heard’s letter that, in 1956,
allowed him to expose over 6,000 people to he agreed to take LSD with Hubbard in
LSD before it was effectively banned in ‘66. Vancouver, Canada. “After that first LSD ex-
He shared the sacrament with a prominent perience, I said ‘this is the greatest discovery
Monsignor of the Catholic Church in North man has ever made.’”
America, explored the roots of alcoholism
with AA founder Bill Wilson, and stormed He Was Not Alone By Any Means
the pearly gates with Aldus Huxley (in a
session that resulted in the psychedelic Through his interest in aircraft, Hubbard
tome Heaven and Hell), as well as supply- had become friends with a prominent
ing most of the Beverly Hills psychiatrists, Canadian businessman. The business-
who, in turn, turned on actors Cary Grant, man eventually found himself taking LSD
James Coburn, Jack Nicholson, novelist with Hubbard and, after coming down,
Anais Nin, and filmmaker Stanley Kubrick. told Hubbard never to worry about mon-
Laura Huxley met Captain Hubbard for the ey again: He had seen the future, and Al
first time at her and her husband’s Holly- Hubbard was its Acid Messiah. Hubbard

the lsd stories • PAGE 110

abandoned his uranium empire and, for the just given him IND#1,” says one Hubbard con-
next decade, traveled the globe as a psyche- fidante upon condition of anonymity.
delic missionary. “Al’s dream was to open up a
worldwide chain of clinics as training grounds His Investigational New Drug permit also al-
for other LSD researchers,” says Stolaroff. His lowed Hubbard to experiment with LSD in the
first pilgrimage was to Switzerland, home USA. For the next few years, Hubbard, togeth-
of Sandoz Laboratories, producers of both er with Canadian psychiatrist Abram Hoffer
Delysid (trade name for LSD) and psilocybin. and Dr. Humphry Osmond pioneered a psy-
He procured a gram of LSD (roughly 10,000 chedelic regimen with a recovery rate of be-
doses) and set up shop in a safe-deposit tween 60% and 70%—far above that of AA or
vault in the Zurich airport’s duty-free section. Schick Hospital’s so-called “aversion therapy.”
From there he was able to ship quantities of Hubbard would lift mentally-disturbed life-
his booty without a tariff to a waiting world. long alcoholics out of psychosis with a mam-
Swiss officials quickly detained Hubbard for moth dose of liquid LSD, letting them view
violating the nation’s drug laws, which pro- their destructive habits from a completely
vided no exemption from the duty-free pro- new vantage point. “As a therapist, he was one
vision. Myron Stolaroff petitioned Washing- of the best,” says Stolaroff, who worked with
ton for the Captain’s release, but the State Hubbard until 1965 at the International Feder-
Department wanted nothing to do with Al ation for Advanced Study in Menlo Park, Cali-
Hubbard. Oddly, when a hearing was held, fornia, which he founded after leaving Ampex.
blue-suited officials from the department
were in attendance. The Swiss tribunal de- Whereas many LSD practitioners were con-
clared Hubbard’s passport invalid for five tent to strap their patients onto a 3’ x 6’ cot
years, and he was deported. Undeterred, and have them attempt to perform a bat-
Hubbard traveled to Czechoslovakia, where tery of mathematical formulae with a head
he had another gram of LSD put into tablet full of LSD, Hubbard believed in a comfort-
form by Chemapol—a division of the phar- able couch and throw pillows. He also em-
maceutical giant Spofa—and then flew west. ployed icons and symbols to send the expe-
Procuring a Ph.D. in biopsychology from a rience into a variety of different directions:
less-than-esteemed academic outlet called someone uptight may be asked to look at a
Taylor University, the captain became Dr. Al- photo of a glacier, which would soon melt
fred M. Hubbard, clinical therapist. In ‘57, he into blissful relaxation; a person seeking the
met Ross MacLean, medical superintendent spiritual would be directed to a picture of
of the Hollywood Hospital in New Westmin- Jesus, and enter into a one-on-one relation-
ster, Canada. McLean was so impressed with ship with the Savior. But Hubbard’s days at
Hubbard’s knowledge of the human condition that he devoted an entire wing of the hospital Hollywood Hospital ended in 1957, not long after they had begun, after a philosophical dispute
to the study of psychedelic therapy for chronic alcoholics. According to Metcalfe, MacLean was with Ross MacLean. The suave hospital administrator was getting fat from the $1,000/dose fees
also attracted to the fact that Hubbard was Canada’s sole licensed importer of Sandoz LSD. “I charged to Hollywood’s elite patients, who included members of the Canadian Parliament and
remember seeing Al on the phone in his living room one day. He was elated because the FDA had the American film community. Hubbard, who believed in freely distributing LSD for the world

the lsd stories • PAGE 111

good, felt pressured by MacLean to share in the profits, and ultimately resigned
rather than accept an honorarium for his services. His departure came as the Ca-
nadian Medical Association was becoming increasingly suspicious of Hollywood
Hospital in the wake of publicity surrounding MK-Ultra. The Canadian Citizen’s
Commission on Human Rights had already discovered one Dr. Harold Abramson,
a CIA contract psychiatrist, on the board of MacLean’s International Association
for Psychedelic Therapy, and external pressure was weighing on MacLean to re-
lease Al Hubbard, the former OSS officer with suspected CIA links. Compounding
Hubbard’s plight was the death of his Canadian benefactor, leaving Hubbard with
neither an income nor the financial cushion upon which he had become depen-
dent. His services were eventually recruited by Willis Harman, then-Director
of the Educational Policy Research Center within the Stanford Research In-
stitute (SRI) of Stanford University. Harman employed Hubbard as a security
guard for SRI, “although,” Harman admits, “Al never did anything resembling
security work.” Hubbard was specifically assigned to the Alternative Futures
Project, which performed future-oriented strategic planning for corporations
and government agencies. Harman and Hubbard shared a goal “to provide the
[LSD] experience to political and intellectual leaders around the world.” Harman
acknowledges that “Al’s job was to run the special [LSD] sessions for us.”

According to Dr. Abram Hoffer, “Al had a grandiose idea that if he could give the psy-
chedelic experience to the major executives of the Fortune 500 companies, he would
change the whole of society.”

Hubbard’s tenure at SRI was uneasy. The political bent of the Stanford think-tank was
decidedly left-wing, clashing sharply with Hubbard’s own world-perspective. “Al was
really an arch-conservative,” says the confidential source. “He really didn’t like what the
hippies were doing with LSD, and he held Timothy Leary in great contempt.” Humphry Os-
mond recalls a particular psilocybin session in which “Al got greatly preoccupied with
the idea that he ought to shoot Timothy, and when I began to reason with him that this
would be a very bad idea ... I became much concerned that he might shoot me ...” “To Al,”
says Myron Stolaroff, “LSD enabled man to see his true self, his true nature and the true
order of things.” But, to Hubbard, the true order of things had little to do with the antics
of the American Left.

Recognizing its potential psychic hazards, Hubbard believed that LSD should be
administered and monitored by trained professionals. He claimed that he had
stockpiled more LSD than anyone on the planet besides Sandoz—including the
US government—and he clearly wanted a firm hand in influencing the way it was

the lsd stories • PAGE 112

used. However, Hubbard refused all opportunities to become the LSD Phi-
losopher-King. Whereas Leary would naturally gravitate toward any mi-
crophone available, Hubbard preferred the role of the silent curandero,
providing the means for the experience, and letting voyagers decipher its
meaning for themselves. When cornered by a video camera shortly before
this death, and asked to say something to the future, Hubbard replied
simply, “You’re the future.”

In March of 1966, the cold winds of Congress blew out all hope for Al Hub-
bard’s enlightened Mother Earth. Facing a storm of protest brought on
by Leary’s reckless antics and the “LSD-related suicide” of Diane Linkletter,
President Lyndon Johnson signed into law the Drug Abuse Control Amend-
ment, which declared lysergic acid diethylamide a Schedule I substance;
simple possession was deemed a felony, punishable by 15 years in prison.
According to Humphry Osmond, Hubbard lobbied Vice-President Hubert
Humphrey, who reportedly took the cause of LSD into the Senate cham-
bers, and emerged un-victorious.

“The government had a deep fear of having their picture of reality challenged,”
mourns Harman. “It had nothing to do with people harming their lives with
chemicals because if you took all the people who had ever had any harmful
effects from psychedelics, it’s minuscule compared to those associated with al-
cohol and tobacco.” FDA chief James L. Goddard ordered agents to seize all
remaining psychedelics not accounted for by Sandoz. “It was scary,” recalls
Dr. Oscar Janiger, whose Beverly Hills office was raided and years’ worth of
clinical research confiscated.

Hubbard begged Abram Hoffer to let him hide his supply in Hoffer’s Ca-
nadian Psychiatric Facility. But the doctor refused, and it is believed that
Hubbard buried most of his LSD in a sacred parcel in Death Valley, Cali-
fornia, claiming that it had been used, rather than risk prosecution. When
the panic subsided, only five government-approved scientists were al-
lowed to continue LSD research—none using humans, and none of them
associated with Al Hubbard. In 1968, his finances in ruins, Hubbard was
forced to sell his private island sanctuary for what one close friend termed
“a pittance.” He filled a number of boats with the antiquated electronics
used in his eccentric nuclear experiments, and left Daymen Island for
California. Hubbard’s efforts in his last decade were effectively wasted,
according to most of his friends. Lack of both finances and government

the lsd stories • PAGE 113

 permit to resume research crippled all remaining projects he may have had in the hop- giving God hell. In 2003, I got in touch with Tim Scully. Back then, I was involved in re-
per. After SRI canceled his contract in 1974 Hubbard went into semi-retirement, split- search on The Brotherhood of Eternal Love, and my main reason for getting in touch
ting his time between a 5-acre ranch with Scully was to learn more about
in Vancouver and an apartment in his days with the organization. We
Menlo Park. But in 1978, battling an corresponded by e-mail. The the
enlarged heart and never far away text below is an edited version of
from a bottle of pure oxygen, Hub- these messages:
bard made one last run at the FDA. He
applied for an IND to use LSD-25 on ~ Begin edited text ~
terminal cancer patients, furnishing
the FDA with two decades of clinical “Martin A. Lee and Bruce Shlain’s Acid
documentation. The FDA set the ap- Dreams tells us their story of The Broth-
plication aside, pending the addition erhood, and also frequently mention
to Hubbard’s team of a medical doc- you. The book gives the impression that
tor, a supervised medical regimen, you once were a very devoted man,
and an AMA-accredited hospital. with a firm belief in the inherent spiri-
Hubbard secured the help of Oscar tual qualities of acid— I can’t speak for
Janiger, but the two could not agree everyone. Although when we took LSD
we felt that we all understood each
on methodology, and Janiger bowed
other and agreed on some deep level, I
out, leaving Al Hubbard, in his late
now think that feeling was sometimes
70s, without the strength to carry on
an illusion. When I took LSD, the ex-
alone.
perience was so magical that I wanted
to share it with everyone and make it
Says Willis Harman: available to everyone who wanted it.
I believed that this would make the
“He knew that his work was done.” world a better place, at a time when it
was very troubled, e.g. the war in Viet-
The Captain lived out his last days nam. I believed that others would have
nearly broke, having exhausted his experiences similar to those I had, if
resources trying to harness a dream. they tried LSD, and I believed that such
Like in the final fleeting hour of an an experience would make people
acid trip when the edge softens and gentler, more caring, more conscious
a man realizes that he will not solve and at one with the universe. I thought
the secrets of the Universe, despite of LSD as an entheogen, though that
what the mind had said earlier, Hub- term was not in use at the time. I also
bard smiled gracefully, laid down his believed that this is what the Brother-
six-shooter, and retired to a mobile hood [of Eternal Love] members be-
home in Casa Grande, Arizona. On lieved. Now, in hindsight, it appears
that LSD doesn’t carry a specific message with it. I like the model presented in Acid Dreams,
August 31, 1982, at the age of 81, Al Hubbard was called home, having ridden the dream
that LSD is an amplifier. Given the proper set and setting it can be a powerful entheogen. But
like a rodeo cowboy. On very quiet nights, with the right kind of ears, you can hear him
with different set and setting it can be an interrogation aid for the CIA or a party drug or any
the lsd stories • PAGE 114
 number of other things. So I think a good cultural context is needed for entheogens
to function, such as in Huxley’s Island or as in primitive cultures. I have also learned
that although many idealists were drawn to make and distribute LSD, that this scene
was and is also a magnet for con artists. I think Ron Stark probably was a world class
example. I’m currently skeptical of the theory that he was a CIA agent, by the way. I
only had close contacts with a few brothers during the time I was making acid, for
security reasons. And the years I was making acid were from 1966-1970, with only
the period from late 1968-mid 1970 overlapping with the Brotherhood. My main
contacts were with John Griggs, Mike Randell and Ed May. I believe they were all
sincere in sharing my beliefs. Of the three, only Mike Randell is still alive now. Since
then, I have seen the testimony of several former brothers who became informers. I
have read of the alleged involvement of some Brothers in dealing hard drugs. I don’t
have any personal knowledge of the accuracy of this last allegation. I was always of
the opinion that forcing entheogens into the same channels as other drugs would
corrupt some people, and that certainly happened to some people. It is too bad we
weren’t able to give them away. I have met many people who took LSD. The vast
majority believe they benefited from the experience. A few obviously did not and
I feel bad about them. I think a higher percentage of the people who made or sold
LSD were harmed by doing so. With regard to the accuracy of Tendler and May’s
book [The Brotherhood of Eternal Love], in many areas I am impressed with the
research they did. I hope the Tendler and May book was inaccurate in saying that in
later years the Brothers lost their idealism. Since I wasn’t in touch with them, I don’t
know.”

~ End edited text ~

the lsd stories • PAGE 115

 The Brotherhood of Eternal Love
Timothy Leary and the Rise of LSD
On August 5, 1972, one of the biggest raids staged in America’s so-called “war on drugs” took
place when a task force of state, local and federal law enforcement agencies com-
bined to take down a secretive group of hippie LSD dealers and hashish smug-
glers known as the Brotherhood of Eternal Love.  Police and federal agents
busted dozens of members in California, Oregon and Hawaii and sent an
even larger group scattering around the world.
The group had begun as a self-sustaining, anti-establishment
commune in the mid-1960s, settling into a wooded tract in
Orange County, California, led into the countryside by coun-
terculturalist John Griggs.  By the mid-1960s, however, the
group had evolved into one of the nation’s largest pro-
ducers of LSD. Reported one federal agency, “Between
1966 and 1971 the Brotherhood was virtually untouch-
able, but in the course of the investigation 750 members
had been identified in a business the IRS estimated to be
worth $200 million.” The Feds claimed that nearly 50%
of all the acid sold in the United States during the late
1960s and early 1970s was produced by the Brother-
hood; they even had their own “trademarked” version of
the mind-altering drug, “Orange Sunshine.”
Timothy Leary, the Harvard psychologist who in the
1960s became a leading proponent of the ingestion of
psychedelic drugs to expand consciousness, was a fre-
quent visitor to the commune.  However, his association
with the Brotherhood would take a criminal turn in 1970,
when Leary, behind bars for marijuana charges at a minimum
security prison in San Luis Obispo, California, was sprung free
after the Brotherhood paid the radical, violence-oriented group
the Weatherman $25,000 to engineer his escape.  As to why he at-
tempted the daring move, Leary said, “Consider my situation: I was a
forty-nine year old man facing life in prison for encouraging people to face
up to new options with courage and intelligence. The American government was
being run by Richard Nixon, Spiro Agnew, Robert Haldeman, G. Gordon Liddy, J. Ed-
the lsd stories • PAGE 116
gar Hoover and other cynical flouters of the democratic process.” The Weathermen smuggled Leary
out of the country, into exile in Algeria, and eventually into Switzerland.  In 1972, President Richard
Nixon – who had curiously and perhaps with a tinge of paranoia labeled Leary “the most dangerous
man in America” – ordered his attorney general, John Mitchell, to persuade the Swiss government to
imprison Leary, which it did for a month, but the Swiss ultimately refused to extradite him
back to the United States and he was eventually released.
The Swiss had a long history with LSD; in fact, it was Swiss chemist Al-
bert Hofmann, a researcher for Sandoz pharmaceuticals who synthe-
sized the drug in the late 1930s.  Hofmann began experimentation
with the drug on himself, self-dosing in 1943, totally unaware of
what the consequences might be.  He thought he had hit upon
a fantastic drug, derived from ergot fungus which midwives
had been using for centuries to induce childbirth, a drug
which he thought would be beneficial as a circulatory and
respiratory stimulant but proved to be something entire-
ly different, as he discovered when, after taking a hit of
250 milligrams—about ten times more than a normal
trip—he suffered a couple of moments of horrendously
terrifying visions when he thought he was possessed
by a demon, that his neighbor was a witch, that his
furniture was threatening him, all of which subsided
rapidly into a joyful and compellingly enlightening
experience. It was both a good and a bad trip for Dr. Hof-
mann but a potential cash cow for Sandoz, which began
marketing LSD in the US in 1948 as a cure-all for a host of
psychiatric problems; the pharmaceutical company claimed
it a remedy for everything from schizophrenia to alcoholism
to sexual perversions—and in many cases we’re finding in the
peer review that, in fact, it is and much more.
Researchers in the United States gave LSD to unreformed
drinkers in Alcoholics Anonymous, half of whom after a year of
taking acid had not had another drink, having basically replaced
one high for another.  Cary Grant’s doctors treated the suave movie
star with LSD in an attempt to cure his fears, anxieties and homosexual
tendencies with incredible success with his fears, self-esteem, anxieties
and depressions. At the same time, the CIA launched its top-secret MK-Ultra
project, which for 20 years explored the use of acid, ineffectively, as a mind-con-
trol drug.  Hundreds of government employees and military per-
sonnel, mental patients, prostitutes and average Joes pulled off
the street were dosed without their knowledge for researchers to
record the effects.  The experiments devolved into psychological
torture; many of the test subjects committed suicide or wound up
in psych wards and while the drug proved useless as a truth se-
rum the CIA covertly promoted the use of acid among the 1960s
youth of America as a means of effectively destabilizing the under-
ground culture and its anti-war predilections—soon responsible
for ending the Vietnam War through public pressure—massive
daily public protest in every city across the country. LSD was the
most serious threat to the powers that be since Communism and
the ridiculous “Red Scare,” but the “threat” that LSD posed was even
more outlandish—LSD threatened capitalism itself, the billion-
aire controllers and their private dynasties built on public sweat.
We can’t have that. LSD had to be, repeat, had to be vilified no more
or less than Saddam Hussein, Ghaddafi or Adolph Hitler, and it was
to enormous effect. But up in the rarefied heights of Harvard Uni-
versity, professor Timothy Leary, who was already promoting the
use of magic mushrooms as a means of reforming prisoners, was
turned onto acid by one of his students and LSD quickly became
his mental catalyst of choice.  Leary began experimentally dosing
students – voluntarily, unlike the government — who reported in-
credibly profound mystical experiences – no bad trips like Dr. Hof-
mann – but uptight faculty and administrators at Harvard thought
Leary had become somewhat of a loose cannon and he was sacked
– although the CIA was closely following his research.  Students
began flocking to the drug while Leary split for Mexico.  However,
the Mexican government, labeling him subversive for his pro-drug
writings, kicked him back across the border and he ended up in
New York at the mansion of William Hitchcock, called Millbrook,
where he kept the experiments going while publishing books with
the titles of Psychedelic Prayers & Other Meditations, Start Your
Own Religion and The Politics of Ecstasy. In 1966, the government
classified LSD as Schedule 1, which essentially made it illegal for
the public to own and so acid went deep underground. Deep.

the lsd stories • PAGE 117

 Contact Leonard Pickard
Email: aphrodine.1@gmail.com
Mail: William Leonard Pickard
FRN 82687011
POB 24550. Tucson, AZ 85734
Follow Leonard on Twitter:
@walking_rain (writing, poetry, literature
@societe_anonym (government, drug policy
 Cary Grant [337]
How 100 acid trips in Tinseltown ‘changed my life’
At the height of his fame, Cary Grant turned to LSD therapy for help
He later claimed the drug saved him

In the late 1950s, at the height of his fame, Cary Grant set off on a trip in
search of his true self, un-picking the myth he had spent three decades
perfecting. He tried hypnosis and yoga and felt that they both came up
short. So he began dropping acid under medically controlled conditions
and claimed to have found inner peace. “During my LSD sessions, I would
learn a great deal,” he would later remark. “And the result was a rebirth. I
finally got where I wanted to go.”

Grant’s adventures in psychedelia—an estimated 100 sessions, spanning

the years 1958-1961—provide the basis for Becoming Cary Grant, a fas-
cinating documentary that played at the Cannes film festival. It’s a film
that takes its lead from Grant himself, undressing and probing the star
of North by Northwest to the point where the very title risks feeling like
a red herring. “Like all documentary makers, we started out looking at the
construction of Cary Grant,” says producer Nick Ware. “But we ended up
deconstructing him through the LSD sessions.”

“In one LSD dream I imagined myself as a giant penis

launching off from Earth like a spaceship.”
~ Cary Grant

If the film never quite manages to pin the actor like a butterfly, that’s prob-
ably for the best. Grant spent his life as a creature in flight. His mercurial na-
ture was the making of him—a peculiarly Gatsby-esque urge that allowed a
Bristol street urchin named Archie Leach to re-imagine himself as an Ameri-
can prince, the embodiment of Hollywood grace and glamour. Even so, the
documentary does a good job in showing what spurred him, what spooked
him and how, wittingly or not, he dragged his former identity along for the
ride. “I have spent the greater part of my life fluctuating between Archie Leach
and Cary Grant,” he once confessed. “Unsure of each, suspecting each.” It was
this tension, this friction that struck such sparks on the screen.

the lsd stories • PAGE 118

 In addition to providing a cinematic case study, though, the film opens
a window on to the lost utopia of LSD therapy. Indirectly, it spotlights a
school of experimental medicine that flourished briefly before the ar-
rival of Timothy Leary and the west coast hippie scene. Between 1950
and 1965, around 40,000 patients were prescribed lysergic acid to
treat conditions as diverse as alcoholism, schizophrenia and PTSD. In
the UK, Powick Hospital funded an “LSD clinic”. In the US, the CIA test-
ed the drug as a truth serum. Turned on to the treatment by his third
wife, Betsy Drake, Grant submitted himself to weekly sessions with Dr.
Mortimer Hartman at the Psychiatric Institute of Beverly Hills. The ef-
fects were startling. “In one LSD dream I imagined myself as a giant penis
launching off from Earth like a spaceship.”

“He claimed he was saved by LSD,” explains Mark Kidel, the film’s direc-
tor. “You have to remember that Cary was a private man. He rarely gave
interviews. And yet, after taking acid, he personally contacted Good
Housekeeping magazine and said: ‘I want to tell the world about this.
It has changed my life. Everyone’s got to take it.’ I’ve also heard that
Timothy Leary read this interview, or was told about it, and that his own
interest in acid was essentially sparked by Cary Grant.”

In making his film, Kidel secured access to Grant’s 16mm home mov-
ies, together with snippets from his unpublished autobiography. But
the LSD gave the tale its structure; justified all its flashbacks. “I’m part of
the 60s generation. I’ve taken acid myself,” he says. “Not a lot, but enough
to think, ‘Wow, someone who’s taken it 100 times would have had really
felt the effects’. He would have had a lot going on.”

Grant moved at speed, his demons snapping perpetually at his heels.

He was just 14 when he signed on as an acrobat with the Bob Pender
Stage Troupe; only 16 when he boarded a boat for the US. He changed
his name and his accent. He tried on marriages like tailored suits, dis-
carding them when they began to pinch. His fear of intimacy, he would
later realize, was the result of his troubled relationship with his mother,
who had abruptly vanished when he was still a child. Grant assumed
she had died. He was in his 30s, already a movie star, when he discov-
ered that Elsie Leach had actually been committed to the Bristol Luna-
tic Asylum by his philandering father. When Grant went to rescue her,
Elsie suspiciously looked him up and down. “Archie?” she said. “Is that
really you?” Except that by this point, of course, even he wasn’t sure.

the lsd stories • PAGE 119

 “People looked at Cary Grant as the epitome of accom-
plished, sophisticated survival,” says the film historian
David Thomson. “But I don’t think that he felt it.” The irony
was that it was this whiff of uncertainty that made him
so appealing; the sense that he was always Archie Leach
playing the role of Cary Grant and allowing the audi-
ence in on the joke. Directors Howard Hawks and Alfred
Hitchcock would identify what Thomson refers to as his
“fascinating insecurity” and push it to the fore in films
such as His Girl Friday and Notorious. Through therapy,
it seems, Grant made his peace with it, too.

Ware points out that his LSD sessions coincided with the
star’s professional heyday. “This was the time of North by
Northwest and Charade. So all that period when he is the
biggest box office star in the world is also the period when
he’s taking LSD. He has reached this incredible level of to-
tal minimalism, inner peace. I’m sure the acid informed
the acting.”

And yet both, it transpired, were on borrowed time. LSD

possession was made illegal in 1966, the same year that
Grant announced his retirement from acting. By then he
had already rolled back on his support for the drug. Acid
was a counterculture accessory, it didn’t fit with his im-
age, although it seems that he never regretted the ex-
periences. On his death, in 1986, the actor bequeathed
a gift of £10,000 to Dr Hartman. Today, incidentally, the
treatment appears primed for a comeback. The recent
Psychedelic Science conference in Oakland, California
presented the results of clinical trials that used MDMA
to treat mental illness and trauma.

If acid helped inform Grant’s acting, I wonder if it also

prompted his withdrawal. Acting, perhaps, was his cop-
ing strategy, his brilliant disguise; a symptom he felt he
could eventually afford to let go. But Kidel has his doubts.

the lsd stories • PAGE 120

 He thinks that Grant simply took the decision to
quit while he was at the top of his game. He had
shot enough films and made enough money.
On top of that, his life had changed. “I think he
stopped because he became a father,” Kidel says.

The way Grant tells it, his LSD sessions were a

“beneficial cleansing”. The experience, he said,
“brought him close to happiness” without ever
entirely ironing out all his kinks. In later life, he
largely removed himself from the limelight. His
daughter, Jennifer, was born when he was 62, in
the same year he made his last appearance on
screen. Having been in flight from commitment
for most his life, he reportedly relished his new
role as a parent.

Kidel’s film wraps up with home movie footage

from Grant’s autumn years. It shows father and
daughter lounging in front of the TV, or dancing
together on the terrace of his home. “It was a real
battle to get that footage,” the director explains.
“Jennifer didn’t want to give it up. She said she was
going to use it for a show she was planning with
Gregory Peck’s daughter. They were going to go
touring theatres, talking about their famous fa-
thers. But I had a sense that the show was never
going to happen.”

I’m glad she relented: the footage provides the

documentary with a gorgeous little coda. On
the sunlit terrace, we see the dad and daughter
link arms, switch positions and join hands. Grant
would be about 70 by this point. He is thick-
set, white-haired, sporting heavyweight bifo-
cals. But the man still dances beautifully, his old
grace still intact and he comes skipping across
the flagstones, giving the purest performance of
them all.
the lsd stories • PAGE 121
 The Chemistry That’s Helped Recreational Drugs Evade The Law, And Its Consequences
‘Do you know how many micrograms it takes to make a caterpillar dance?’

This cryptic question – sounding like it’s from Alice in wonderland, noting its sexually stimulating effects. In 2004 the Israeli
but in fact deadly serious – is typical of the psychoactive substance government banned it, but by that time Zee’s work on pest
developer known as Dr Zee. It relates to a scientific project that he control had given him new ideas. Seeing an opportunity
worked on at an Israeli compa- in the new
ny in the early 2000s, seeking cathinone ana-
to control crop-eating pests. This cryptic question – sounding like it’s from Alice in wonder- logues he’d been help-
The researchers took inspira- ing devise, Zee started
tion from the invulnerability of land, but in fact deadly serious – is typical of the psychoactive testing them on himself.
the khat plant, whose leaves While initially nervous,
Israel’s Yemenite community
substance developer known as Dr Zee. It relates to a scientif- he followed carefully in
chew as a legal stimulant. Why ic project that he worked on at an Israeli company in the ear- the footsteps of Alex-
didn’t insects devour it too, ander Shulgin, the ‘psy-
they wondered? ly 2000s, seeking to control crop-eating pests. The research- chonaut’ scientist who
popularised the drug
Perhaps the psychoactive
ers took inspiration from the invulnerability of the khat plant, ecstasy, in ascending the
molecule cathinone might be whose leaves Israel’s Yemenite community chew as a legal logarithmic scale. Zee
responsible, Zee and his col- tested compounds by
leagues theorised. Rather than stimulant. Why didn’t insects devour it too, they wondered? first taking around 10µg,
directly killing the pests that ate then waiting a few days
them, they thought cathinone for it to leave his system.
might make them jittery, rendering them easy targets for predators. He increased the dose tenfold at each step, stopping if at any point
Therefore the researchers started hunting similar molecules that things felt wrong, and discarding compounds if they didn’t do any-
might do it better. “It was the first project in which I learned to take thing at 100mg, a ten-thousand-fold increase.
a molecule, draw out the ‘analogue space,’ figure out which ones we
could make and try in field trials,” he tells Chemistry World. It Spread All Over Europe …
And I Said :
Yet Zee also knew that the small chemical modifications that pro-
duced cathinone analogues might encourage more than just cater- “Oh My God, What Have I Done?”
pillars to dance. Having enjoyed chewing khat leaves himself, Zee de- ~ Dr. Zee
veloped a large-scale method to produce cathinone, making 700kg.
He sold it legally for human use in capsules in Israel from around As with cathinone, once Zee had found a substance with enjoyable
2003 under the name ‘Hagigat’, which people compared to cocaine, effects, he set about producing it in large scale and selling it for

the lsd stories • PAGE 122

recreational use. This molecule – 4-methylmethcathinone – would spread far beyond Israel, mak- discreet trade over the internet,’ Guirguis says. The internet also contributed by helping ‘clandestine
ing headlines under the name mephedrone. ‘Its production method was reverse engineered by Chinese chemists’ access scientific literature and letting psychonauts share information in their search for bet-
labs,’ Zee recalls. ‘Then it spread all over Europe and people said “What have you done?” – and I said, “Oh ter experiences through drug forums, she explains. Beyond psychonauts’ interest, NPSs grew rapidly
my god, what have I done?”’ because they were adopted by people pleased not to be breaking the law. And even as some NPSs
started to be banned, people who were subject to routine drug tests still took them as they couldn’t
Mephedrone’s appearance in Europe coincided with the lowest purity of cocaine and ecstasy on re- be detected. ‘It is extremely challenging to identify something when you don’t know what you are look-
cord in 2008 and 2009, as measured by the UK National Crime Agency. Because there hadn’t yet been ing for,’ underlines Guirguis. ‘Therefore, we need to develop methods to enhance the identification and
any reason to ban it, mephedrone was sold le- classification of these drugs.’ That need brought
gally as ‘plant food’ thanks to its crop science clinical chemist Roy Gerona to the University
roots – and rapidly became popular as a ‘legal of California, San Francisco (UCSF) in 2009, in-
high’. The media in the UK soon connected it tending to help US poison centres. Because
to the deaths of four teenagers, Louis Wain- such centres must choose from targeted tests
wright, Nicholas Smith, Joslyne Cockburn and for specific substances thought well-validat-
Gabrielle Price. ed enough to stand up in a court of law, they
usually can’t spot anything new. Gerona was
Mephedrone is just the tip of the iceberg. Over developing a non-targeted analysis approach,
560 originally legal highs have appeared since just as mysterious substances started causing
the mid-2000s, sending governments scram- hospital admissions.
bling to react. In the UK, these new psychoac-
tive substances (NPSs) have been completely In 2010, his approach proved its worth with
prohibited by the Psychoactive Substance Act a patient exhibiting ‘bizarre behavior, suicidal-
2016. This follows less comprehensive bans ity and hallucinations’ after sniffing ‘bath salts’
that erected barriers to certain parts of the in San Diego. Using liquid chromatography
analogue space psychonauts like Zee explore coupled with time-of-flight mass spectrom-
with their chemistry skills. NPSs pose serious etry (LC–TOF/MS) Gerona and colleagues
questions about the science – particularly the found two synthetic cathinone analogues,
chemistry – and philosophy of drug control. methylenedioxypyrovalerone, and 4-fluoro-
methcathinone, known as flephedrone. His
A Web Of Spice findings soon saw him recruited by the US
Centres for Disease Control (CDC) and Drug
Researchers like University of Hertfordshire Enforcement Administration (DEA) to inves-
pharmaceutical chemist Amira Guirguis are tigate ‘mass intoxication events’, where NPSs
responding. When mephedrone infiltrated the harm many people.
UK in 2008, Hertfordshire researchers tracked
it – and found many other NPSs appearing. ‘By 2012, NPSs here in the US were in full swing,’
‘The accelerated evolution of NPSs has been Gerona recalls, with mass intoxications
driven by organised crime groups and opportu- caused by four different chemical classes. To-
nistic entrepreneurs, and fuelled by free access, day, Gerona specialises in synthetic cannabi-
easy communication and open, anonymous and noids (SCs), sold in products with names like

the lsd stories • PAGE 123

 Black Mamba and Pandora’s Box, commonly called spice in the UK and K2 in the US. The media has
reported their shocking effects widely, including sudden heart attacks after very small doses. One
common issue is an increased burden on emergency services. For example, during a mass intoxica-
tion in Anchorage that Gerona investigated, SCs caused 10% of all call-outs from July 2015 to March
2016. Spice varieties containing 11 different SCs led to 1351 call-outs, involving 535 patients, and
four deaths. Then, in July 2016, a UCSF medical student noticed reports of an SC-related ‘zom-
bie outbreak’ in Brooklyn: people groaning, moving sluggishly, answering questions slowly
and staring blankly. Within four days, Gerona was testing blood and urine samples from those
affected, but couldn’t find anything initially. ‘A lot of synthetic cannabinoids are metabolised
very quickly,’ Gerona explains.

Luckily the police could provide samples of the substance they’d taken, sold as ‘AK-47 24 Karat
Gold’, and Gerona’s team established it contained the SC AMB-FUBINACA. The team predicted how
the users’ bodies broke this molecule down, and found the expected metabolite in all eight cases
they had samples for. Among several similar zombie outbreaks, one in Manchester, UK, in April
2017 also involved AMB-FUBINACA , mixed with other SCs.

There are now more than a dozen different SC classes, with laboratories in China “constantly synthe-
sizing different types,” Gerona says. To understand how these molecules ran riot so spectacularly, it’s
useful to return to one of their origins: the innocent curiosity of John Huffman at Clemson Univer-
sity in South Carolina, USA.

Dose Of Bad News

Huffman’s work in the early 1990s built on the key psychoactive substances in the cannabis plant,
[Delta} δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol. Like most drugs – medicinal or recreation-
al – these molecules fit into and interact with receptor proteins in our cells like keys in locks. The
shape of the cavity in the lock – the receptor – means that only certain keys – or drugs – fit. Can-
nabinoids only fit into human cannabinoid receptor cells in the human endocannabinoid system.

Psychoactive drugs usually target receptors in nerve synapses, interfering with neurotrans-
mitter molecules that influence our behavior. They block or open receptor locks that control
the release of neurotransmitters that in turn cause or prevent nerve signals. THC fits into two
cannabinoid receptor types, CB1 and CB2. Our bodies naturally produce endocannabinoids,
explains Jenny Wiley from RTI International in North Carolina, US, who has worked with Huff-
man on cannabinoid research. Endocannabinoids unlock CB1 and CB2 and reduce the release
of another neurotransmitter to regulate appetite, pain, mood and memory.

the lsd stories • PAGE 124

 Clandestine Chemists
Are Far Ahead Of Research
Scientists had discovered that CB1 receptors are responsible
for THC’s psychoactivity, while drug developers had also de-
vised SCs as potential painkillers. Huffman wanted to design
molecules that might have medicinal effects through CB2,
without unlocking CB1. His team made hundreds of molecules
to explore the analogue space, and what they found has been
pivotal in the spice explosion.

One important insight is that cannabinoid receptors are unusu-

ally easy to unlock, as many different types of molecule will fit into
them. It’s therefore easy to find new SCs that avoid outlawed mo-
lecular structures. Another insight is that psychoactive drugs affect
neurotransmitter release in a similar manner to how turning a tap
controls water flow. Drugs that turn the tap part-way are known as
partial agonists, whereas ones that turn it all the way open are full
agonists.

“SCs can be especially potent because they often have great affinity
for both CB1 and CB2 receptors,” Wiley says, which ‘usually translates
to greater potency to produce intoxication’. ‘A user does not have to
smoke as much of a SC to reach the same level of effect as they would
if they were smoking cannabis,’ she says. ‘SCs also tend to activate the
CB1 receptor to a greater extent than THC. Whereas THC is a partial
agonist, SCs tend to be full agonists.’

One molecule Huffman’s team made, called JWH-018, binds four

times as strongly to CB1 as THC does. It was therefore adopted
by spice makers, becoming one of the first substances identified
in then-legal highs. Consequently, although Huffman has retired,
Wiley still studies the compounds to understand their adverse ef-
fects. For example, she has looked at how readily SCs make mice
go into a rigid trance, known as catalepsy. Though this behaviour
is ‘mediated by SC-induced activation of the CB1 receptor’, Wiley em-
phasises that we don’t know if it’s the same as what’s happening in
the human ‘zombie outbreaks’.

the lsd stories • PAGE 125

Wiley and her colleagues also found that four SCs
block a protein ion channel that controls calcium,
sodium and potassium flow to keep our hearts
beating. JWH-018 was the worst culprit for block-
ing it, and they say this could explain reported
heart problems. ‘It is certainly possible that the sud-
den deaths reported with SCs could be related to car-
diovascular events,’ Wiley observes, although it’s
impossible to say for sure.
Media reports that suggest cannabis and SCs are
similar by calling them ‘fake marijuana’ or ‘synthet-
ic cannabis’ are doing ‘a huge disservice to read-
ers’, Wiley adds. While many people do not think
of cannabis as dangerous, SCs definitely are, she
says. As well as the chemical difference between
THC and SCs, cannabis also contains many other
different compounds, with cannabidiol seeming
to have a calming effect, for example. Spice does
look similar to cannabis as it is usually supplied in
a form that people can roll up and smoke. But to
achieve this, one or more SC powders – without
cannabidiol – is usually dissolved in a solvent like
acetone and sprayed onto dried herbs.
While at first novelty and legality drove UK in-
terest in NPSs, their illegality has dampened de-
mand, says Fiona Measham, a criminologist at the
University of Durham in the UK. Yet SCs’ potency
means users have to take very little to get high,
and can therefore do so very cheaply. This makes
SCs the most obvious remnant defying the ban in
the UK. ‘They attract people with low disposable in-
come, people coming out of prison, living in hostels,
homeless, unemployed and teenagers,’ she says.
the lsd stories • PAGE 126
Pharmacological Bludgeon
The difficulty in detecting spice leads to it being
taken by people being tested for drug use in pris-
on, in rehabilitation, or on court-mandated drug
treatment orders. It can readily be smuggled by
soaking a piece of paper, like a letter, in an SC so-
lution and letting it dry. Users then swallow or
smoke the spice-soaked paper.
‘One real concern in prison is that the drugs
can produce agitation, paranoia and violence,’
Measham says. ‘People are hospitalised, having
very serious medical problems. Also, people are
being spiked for non-payment of debts and other
retaliation. It’s being used as a pharmacological
bludgeon – and for entertainment. The sort of
mannerisms people portray are seen as entertain-
ment. The prisoners I speak to will say that spice is
the number one drug problem in prison. None of
them have a good word to say about it.’
So why do they use it? Part of the answer is that
prisoners, like homeless people, are more likely to
have psychological problems, explains Ian Ham-
ilton, a mental health and addiction researcher at
the University of York in the UK. ‘In my clinical ex-
perience it’s incredible that people survive as long as
they do with quite serious mental health problems,
but survive they do,’ he says. ‘Whether a drug’s legal
or illegal, people migrate towards a substance that
they feel has some benefit for them. I’ve met people
with really quite florid psychosis who’ve survived
for years on the streets. Quite often they use drugs
to keep a lid on that.’ Even if prisoners might pre-
fer to use cannabis to self-medicate, THC stays in
the body longer so it’s easier to test for. Consequently, researchers have pro-
posed reforming mandatory drug testing to reduce harm.

Mental health isn’t the only reason people self-medicate – they often use
spice to deal with ‘difficult social contexts’ like homelessness, says Lydia Dav-
enport from the Bristol Drugs Project (BDP) in the UK. BDP deals with 2000
clients per year, with around half on opiates like heroin, and some homeless
people taking heroin and crack have also started taking spice, she says. But
Davenport goes on to explain that BDP sees two other main groups of NPS
users, albeit small, who might be at university or have full-time jobs.

Whether A Drug’s Legal Or Illegal

People Migrate Towards A Substance That They Feel
Has Some Benefit For Them

The first group are men having sex with men, who use a cocktail involving
typically γ-hydroxybutyrate (GHB) or γ-butyrolactone (GBL), mephedrone
and crystal meth to facilitate long periods of intercourse, known as ‘chem-
sex’. The second group are psychonauts who, perhaps because they adopt
the same cautious approach as Shulgin and Zee, usually only come to
BDP in extreme circumstances.

‘The people we see tend to use several types of NPS and other drugs,’ Daven-
port explains. ‘It could be harming their mental health; they may be spending
too much money, failing their university degree or getting in trouble at work. It
might be that they have a dependency or they’ve got into trouble with one thing.
A lot of our people taking a few NPSs get into the habit of taking one thing for an
experience, another thing to perk them up, and another to get through exams.
That really affects your mental health.’

The emergence of such substances inevitably forced official responses.

Throughout the 2010s, the UK amended the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971, which
makes supply and possession an offence and sets sentencing guidelines ac-
cording to a drug’s classification. The government included mephedrone
and cathinone as ‘class B’ drugs in 2010, some of the first among over 500
substances added. Then, it emulated Ireland and Poland in introducing legis-
lation designed to control all psychoactive substances. The stated intention
was to stop all retail sales, both online and in ‘head shops’ that sell smoking
and drug-related products. But is it working?

the lsd stories • PAGE 127

 Early Wins

In the UK, production and supply of legal highs were banned on

26 May 2016. The Psychoactive Substances Act (PSA) 2016 insti-
tuted a blanket prohibition punishable by up to seven years’ im-
prisonment, with exemptions for medicines, food and drink, as
well as caffeine, nicotine and alcohol. A main concern about the
PSA is its broad scope. ‘A psychoactive effect is something which af-
fects a person’s mental functioning or emotional state by stimulating
or depressing their nervous system,’ states the government advice.
According to Simon Bray, the UK National Police Chiefs’ Council’s
lead on NPSs, the PSA adds to the tools his colleagues had already
been using for ‘enforcing against psychoactive substances’. In one
operation, the UK’s North West Regional Crime unit shut down
a website called ‘Wide Mouth Frogs’ that had earned around £3.8
million. When officers purchased their products in 2013, 77% of
the items contained substances classified illegal by the Misuse of
Drugs Act, including mephedrone. However, adding substances
to the Misuse of Drugs Act requires recommendations from
the UK government’s Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs
(ACMD), whose membership includes both Measham and Bray.
Under the PSA, police don’t need to wait for the ACMD. ‘You’ve
got the option of enforcing if it suddenly starts to become a prob-
lem,’ Bray explains. ‘They’re not draconian powers, because there
isn’t that possession offence, and there are limited powers of sei-
zure and search. It’s mainly targeting overt sale. This cover-all
approach also means that effectively you reduce the incentive
for chemists to create new substances to get around the Misuse
of Drugs Act.’

On December 29th, 2016 the UK’s Home Office announced that us-
ing the PSA’s powers 332 shops had been stopped from selling psy-
choactive substances and 31 such ‘headshops’ had closed. Nearly
500 people had been arrested under the Act, and four jailed. Elle
Wadsworth from King’s College London and her colleagues found
that of 113 online shops that were selling NPSs in October 2015,
only 52% remained in June 2016. Of UK-registered websites, less
than a quarter were still active. In this regard, the PSA has been a
success, Wadsworth says.

the lsd stories • PAGE 128

However Wadsworth questions whether clos- too many packages for the UK’s Border Force
ing down websites is the ultimate goal. ‘If the to screen, she adds. Consequently, at the Bris-
aim was to reduce the access and use of NPSs, tol Drugs Project, Davenport says that while
then we cannot say that it has been a success,’ she has seen a lot less spice use since the PSA
she says. ‘We have seen from research in Ireland came in, clients aren’t generally bothered by
that when they implemented their ban in 2010, drugs’ legal status. ‘Most people carried on buy-
use increased and NPSs were still accessible. ing at the rate they were already off the internet,
The worry is that sales would simply move to especially the students,’ she explains. Similarly,
other markets, such as street-level drug dealing she has seen little change in NPS prices, other
or the cryptomarkets – underground markets than an increase for mephedrone.
without regulation.’ This recognition that drug
prohibition victories are often short-lived is ‘We have to remember that the police is never
sometimes known as the ‘push down, pop up’ planning to stop every drug getting into the
effect. It refers to how crackdowns on drugs country,’ responds Bray. ‘It’s not possible. So
in one place tend to shift the problem some- we have to focus on people who are supplying
where else. NPSs replay this game of whack- them, importing them, making them, or places
a-mole in the realm of chemistry. One reason where they cause the biggest misery, in open
ecstasy purity was low in 2007 and 2008 was drug markets, through links with organized
due to mass seizures of the starting mate- crime and physical harms.’
rial safrole in Cambodia. Whacking that mole
helped mephedrone’s rise to popularity. Pris- Nevertheless, the UK police has been work-
oners adopting spice after their cannabis use ing with postal services to get more options
was prohibited is another example. to detect small quantities of material, Bray
adds. Other efforts include work between
Act In Haste? the EU and China, according to Bray, lead-
ing the Chinese government to introduce
Among the main moles the authorities want- controls on hundreds of substances in 2013
ed the PSA to whack are three top UK NPS re- and 2015. This has led to a definite reduc-
tailers, whose careers Measham has followed. tion in the flow of substances coming into
Two have now left the trade – one of those the UK from China, according to Bray. Dr
considered himself a responsible NPS retailer, Zee has first-hand experience of how new
spraying SCs onto herbs so the final product’s laws have influenced the international NPS
potency was low. Now spice dealers have less trade. He started looking at working with
motivation to care. ‘He said because the chemi- a Chinese supplier in 2015 on compounds
cals are so potent, people could very easily spray that were later banned. ‘He said he didn’t
When officers purchased their products in 2013, 77% of the items contained
too much, and that has happened,’Measham says. care, and was arrested a month later.’ As a
substances classified illegal by the Misuse of Drugs Act, including mephedrone.
NPS sellers who wanted to continue trading have consequence of such moves, Zee says, all the
popped up again, after relocating their websites to cathinones have suddenly ‘faded away’, includ-
places like Spain, she adds. ‘They’ll import from China to Spain to the UK,’ Measham explains. There are ing some which are still ‘generally quite legal in most countries in Europe’.

the lsd stories • PAGE 129

 Is It OK To Take A Drug To Study Longer And Harder But Not To Dance For Longer?

Zee himself is determined not to become a ting caught, they transport as little as possible.
criminal because doing so means ‘fighting Chemists like Guirguis have seen evidence
against forces that are way out of your league’. for this: for the recently reported opiate NPS
However, he says he has successfully fought carfentanil, 100mg is sufficient to produce
cases with customs about his imports in Slova- more than 10,000 doses, she says. And even
kia, the Czech Republic, Switzerland, the Neth- tiny structural differences can also cause big
erlands, Spain and Portugal. ‘The law was on my detection challenges, especially with highly
side – or I was on the law’s side,’ he says. selective color-changing immunoassays used
by probation officers and in prison. With SCs in
The cycle of manufacturing and selling new particular, changing a single atom in a struc-
psychoactive substances before they’re ture can mean the result is ‘all clear’.
banned gives very little chance to collect safe-
ty data, Zee observes. However, the process is Chemical color tests that are used for a wide
like a fast-forward version of how convention- range of drugs, for example using the Marquis
al industrial chemists explore structure–activ- reagent, have the opposite problem, Guirguis
ity relationships, trying to design medicinal adds. A yellow color might mean cathinone
molecules by tweaking their structures. Zee itself, or any slightly modified related sub-
notes that small changes in structure can cre- stance. Worse still, UK seizures in 2014 showed
ate large changes in activity, which had tragic that NPS mixtures contain up to six active in-
consequences in the case of one substance he gredients. This is hard to disentangle, Guirguis
had brought to market, 4,4’-DMAR. says, and the individual NPS amounts are of-
ten so low they don’t show at all in some tests.
Despite testing 4,4’-DMAR himself and with Cutting agents or other adulterants can also
friends, it was soon blamed for 27 deaths in mask the NPS signal when using handheld vi-
Hungary and the UK, so Zee promptly de- brational spectroscopy techniques.
stroyed the rest of his stock. ‘I flushed $250,000
[£195,000] of material down the toilet,’ he con- Guirguis and her University of Hertfordshire
fesses. Yet responding to such risks by push- colleagues have however been able to identi-
ing psychoactive substances into the crimi- fy 29 out of 60 NPSs using a handheld Raman
nal world drives sellers towards the strongest spectroscopy approach. Not only is this useful
products, he adds. Faced with the risk of get- as a ‘first pass’ test, they also spotted similari-

the lsd stories • PAGE 130

ties in the spectra for substances bought from different websites,
suggesting similar supply chains. Yet because there is often no
reference standard to compare entirely new substances against,
developing such tests is difficult. Then, once standards are made,
they’re normally very expensive to buy, and also require an ex-
pensive Home Office licence. ‘Clandestine chemists are far ahead of
research,’ Guirguis admits. But in San Francisco, Gerona and his col-
leagues are looking to seize back the advantage with what they
call ‘synthetic prophetic libraries’.

Troublesome Knowledge

Gerona’s team had grown impatient of waiting up to six months

for commercial labs to make reference samples whenever it iden-
tified new NPSs. Gerona therefore started working with Sam Ban-
ister at nearby Stanford University. ‘Why can’t we pre-empt what
these labs are going to synthesise?’ Gerona recalls thinking. Using
the same kind of small changes from existing molecules that clan-
destine chemists might, Banister has made up to 150 potential
SCs and metabolites for reference. However, the scientists are un-
sure whether to publish their results, in case NPS makers use them
for inspiration.This is ironic, Gerona says, because publishing their
data would also be helpful to other clinical labs thanks to the
method they use. LC–TOF/MS has a key advantage when studying
unknown compounds in how it detects molecules’ masses, the
UCSF scientist explains. The more common tandem mass spec-
trometry method relies on scientists knowing what they’re look-
ing for. That’s partly because it can only distinguish differences be-
tween molecules greater than the mass of one hydrogen atom.

Gerona’s team’s quadrupole time-of-flight spectrometers re-

cord the mass of every molecule and the fragments of them
that form in the instrument. They also detect differences as
small as a thousandth of the mass of a hydrogen atom. ‘You
can query your total ion chromatogram back again and again,’
Gerona adds. ‘I can look back at the samples I did in 2015, if in
2017 I realise the [drug labs] were synthesising a compound
that I didn’t know about. I can’t do that in tandem MS.’

the lsd stories • PAGE 131

Dr Zee too has been forced to rethink his ap- 157 for amphetamines. Just eight death cer-
proach because of how rapidly new substances tificates mentioned SCs, although that may
proliferate. ‘You invent a molecule, it’s copied, the be misleadingly low due to detection diffi-
commerce goes completely out of control very culties. These statistics give weight to what
quickly, and then that market doesn’t exist any academics studying drug use suggest: that
more,’ he says. Consequently, he is seeking pat- NPSs are attracting disproportionate atten-
ents to protect the benefits his inventions could tion – even after considering the spice bur-
bring in legitimate applications. One that he’s den on emergency services and prisons.
working on is using 3-methylmethcathinone in
psychological therapy, for example in treating ‘Banning the cathinones is pretty stupid really,’
post-traumatic stress disorder. comments Imperial College London neuropsy-
chopharmacologist David Nutt, who was sacked
Although Zee says NPSs earn him slightly over from the ACMD after saying taking ecstasy is no
$150,000 a year on average, he maintains that more dangerous than horse riding. He argues
he’s ‘not profit-driven’. ‘I do it because it’s difficult,’ that mephedrone’s arrival was beneficial. ‘Over
he says. ‘I think that there can be a way for new the 10 years I was on the ACMD we had no impact
compounds to be beneficial. You just have to de- on deaths from cocaine – in fact they went up,’
fine what that way is and stick to it, in terms of Nutt says. ‘Then mephedrone comes along, and
dosage and method of administration.’ Zee also cocaine deaths fall.’ Cocaine deaths in the UK hit
acknowledges that for people to be free to take a new high in 2015, which the country’s Office
NPSs, their health effects must be understood. of National Statistics says could be partly due
He argues that the UK government was able to to recent increases in cocaine purity. However,
pass the PSA because lack of knowledge about, Nutt asserts that the prior fall in deaths came
and in turn fear of, the health risks undermined because people switched to mephedrone, not
political resistance. If that fear did drive the because of cocaine’s lower purity at the time.
PSA, it’s particularly unfortunate – because the Nutt says that the cathinone ban is one of two
early UK media stories connecting deaths to primary examples of ‘how the law against recre-
mephedrone were incorrect. ational use has completely fouled up pharmaceu-
tical research’. When the UK added cathinones to
Out Of Proportion the list of substances covered by the Misuse of
Drugs Act, it made a specific exemption for an
Contrary to initial reports, Louis Wainwright, antidepressant called bupropion, which is used
Nicholas Smith and Joslyne Cockburn died to help stop smoking. However, research on any
as a result of mixing heroin-replacement similar substances is held back by the need for
methadone with alcohol. Gabrielle Price died Home Office licences, which Nutt says has ‘ham-
from an infection. It’s true that mephedrone has been connected to deaths – in 2015, 44 mered’ addiction research. ‘There could well be analogues of bupropion that could be even more useful
death certificates in the UK mentioned it, the highest year to date, despite government ef- but because they’re now illegal, no one will work with them,’ he says. A similar situation has happened
forts. But there were 1201 deaths connected to heroin and morphine, 320 for cocaine and with analogues of ketamine, he adds, which is now also being explored as an antidepressant.

the lsd stories • PAGE 132


Has Completely Fouled Up Pharmaceutical Research
Broadening possession offences under the Misuse of Drugs
Act to NPS structures, especially the many SC types, also
affects pharmaceutical companies’ research libraries. For
example, more of GlaxoSmithKline’s compounds are now
covered, according to company spokesperson David Daley.
However, he stresses that GlaxoSmithKline has the licences
needed to continue work unaffected. His company is now
working on the issue with the Association of the British
Pharmaceutical Industry, other companies and academic
institutions. ‘We’ve been talking to the government about
potential barriers to research and how to minimise any im-
pact from the regulations,’ he adds. ‘The ACMD is also explor-
ing their impact on the conduct of legitimate research and we
expect to hear from them later this year.’
The UK’s potentially research-constricting prohibition comes
even though its citizens haven’t picked up on NPSs as much
the US and Australia, according to Measham. She conducts
drug use surveys at clubs and festivals very regularly, where
she says she finds that people ‘like and want the traditional
drugs’. ‘In the UK we have very easy availability of high-purity,
low-price ecstasy, cocaine and ketamine. There’s no need for
them to pursue substances that they don’t really know what the
short-term effects or long-term consequences are.’
She calls the way the PSA bans substances regardless of harms
or benefits ‘an absurdity’. ‘We’ve got a contradiction inherent
within the act because it doesn’t couple criminalisation with any
assessment of harm at all,’ she says. As part of the ACMD, she ad-
the lsd stories • PAGE 133
The Law Against Recreational Use
“Prohibition has arguably made the bad worse, in driving dealers
towards more potent forms of spice, which can bring overdoses.”
vised including a ‘safety valve clause’, where substances consid-
ered to cause very low harm are exempted from the act, which
wasn’t adopted. ‘We were never going to eliminate drug use,’ she
stresses. ‘If we’re not going to get drugs out of the picture, then we
want to steer people towards less harmful substances.’
Measham suggests that the cause of the contradiction might
be judgements about people taking drugs for pleasure. ‘For ex-
ample, how do we feel about someone sitting in a room for eight
hours and taking a psychedelic trip?’ she asks. ‘Is it OK to take a
drug so you can study for longer and harder, but not OK to take
it to go and dance longer and harder? This is very much an issue
for us at the University of Durham, because our undergraduates
are taking cognitive enhancers. We now keep our library open 24
hours a day, so arguably we’re facilitating this. The point being
that we know that some of these are reasonably safe.’ Yet regulat-
ing according to the harmfulness of a substance is tricky too,
as New Zealand has shown.
Legal Questions
In July 2013, New Zealand passed its own PSA. Initially it
aimed to establish a regulated market for ‘low risk’ recre-
ational products, explains Marta Rychert, a drug law and
policy researcher at Massey University in Palmerston North,
New Zealand. ‘The mechanism for approving products is sim-
ilar to medicines,’ Rychert says. ‘Sponsors get their products
approved by a government agency, if they provide scientific
evidence from clinical trials.’
When the New Zealand PSA was passed, a full regulatory testing framework was not in place. The
government therefore allowed products for which there had been no significant reports about
health harms to stay on the market. Then, the government amended the PSA in May 2014, with-
drawing all interim product approvals following public protests, Rychert says. Consequently, as in
the UK, all NPSs are banned. At the time of writing no evidence has been submitted for approval of
any low-risk NPSs in New Zealand. Meanwhile, the most commonly used illegal drug, cannabis, is
increasingly being normalized. In the US, legal medical and even recreational use has gained pace
countrywide. In March 2017, the Israeli cabinet approved a proposal to decriminalize cannabis use.
This follows the Netherlands’ example, where cannabis cafés are credited with contributing to lower
levels of drug use among young people by keeping them away from criminals. In 2001, Portugal fol-
lowed a similar path, relaxing enforcement and penalties to fight a major heroin problem in a strat-
egy that has halved the
number of users of
all drugs. The UK isn’t
currently likely to
follow these examples, with its recently-published Drug strategy 2017, mostly building on existing
criminal justice and recovery measures. ‘This Government has no plans to decriminalise drugs,’ a Home
Office spokesperson tells Chemistry World. ‘Our approach on drugs remains clear – we must prevent
drug use in our communities, support people through treatment and recovery, and tackle the supply of
illegal drugs. It is overly simplistic to say that decriminalisation works. Historical patterns of drug use, cul-
tural attitudes, and the policy and operational responses to drug misuse in a country will all affect levels
of use and harm. Also, different countries have different means of collecting data, so it is often difficult to
directly compare.’ Of course, there is a legal drug, which was linked to 8758 deaths in the UK in 2015:
alcohol. And while spice zombie outbreaks seem stark, they’re not so very different from scenes of
people staggering around and collapsing while extremely drunk. Nutt is therefore seeking to devel-
op an alcohol replacement through a start-up company called Alcarelle. While the product will be
a drink, its effects will
be produced by an
NPS. ‘We’ve got five
candidates, several

of which we’ve tested already,’ he says. ‘We’re close

to a proper investors’ launch later this year.’ Rather
than launching in the UK, where Nutt says ‘no-
body knows whether it’s legal or not’, Alcarelle will
likely initially target China. Why won’t Alcarelle’s
product cause undesirable behavior and health
effects like alcohol or spice? According to Nutt,
‘That’s where partial agonists come in.’ He empha-
sizes that they’re more benign than full agonists,
because they’re not turning the psychoactivity
taps full-on. For example, Nutt previously helped
develop buprenorphine, which he calls ‘a remark-
ably safe partial agonist’ for treating opiate de-
pendence. He also cites another partial agonist,
varenicline, as ‘the best anti-smoking agent’.

Nutt and Zee are right – some NPSs could be ben-

eficial, and even profitable in a legitimate way.
However, by using the PSA’s blanket prohibition
to deal with the very real problems spice causes,
the UK has made it harder to sort the good from
the bad. Prohibition has arguably made the bad worse, in driving dealers towards more potent forms of spice,
which can bring overdoses. More targeted action also struggles because it’s hard to identify rapidly changing,

the lsd stories • PAGE 134

 quickly broken down NPSs that are often taken in tiny amounts. And many people
regularly take drugs regardless of prohibition, Hamilton reminds us. He highlights the
need for better information – not only about drugs’ negative aspects, but also their
appeal. He thinks this is what countries like Portugal and the Netherlands have done
well. ‘That’s a particular success, not through legislation, but through their approach,’
Hamilton says. ‘I think it’s been a much more adult way of communicating the ins and
outs of drug use.’ Likewise, suggestions about rethinking prison drug testing regimes
and steering people towards safer substances seem potentially useful.

The person behind the SC product ‘Pandora’s box’, referring to the Greek myth
about unleashing trouble, may have been on to the reason why such steps are
necessary. Academic SC developer John Huffman recalls having a similar realisa-
tion when he discovered that people were abusing his inventions. ‘I started hear-
ing about some of the bad results, and I thought, “Hmm, I guess someone opened
Pandora’s box.”,’ he told The Washington Post. 

With the box open, economic laws reminiscent of the myth take over. John Maynard
Keynes and Jean-Baptiste Say disagreed whether ‘supply creates its own demand’ or
‘demand creates its own supply’. Either way, today there’s a demand for people to alter
their mental state, and a supply of spice, alcohol and other substances to do it with.
They are all out of the box and show no signs of returning. For now, our hopes of re-
ducing harm seemingly rest on whether we rise to the enormous challenge of finding
more effective solutions than prohibition, or get stuck eternally playing whack-a-mole.

References

1 S L Thornton et al, J. Med. Toxicol., 2012, 8, 310 (DOI: 10.1007/s13181-012-0232-4)

2 A J Adams et al, N. Engl. J. Med., 2017, 376, 235 (DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa1610300)
3 J W Huffman et al, Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett., 1994, 4, 563 (DOI: 10.1016/S0960-894X(01)80155-4)
4 R Lindigkeit et al, Forensic Sci. Int., 2009, 191, 58 (DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2009.06.008)
5 J L Wiley et al, Neuropharmacology, 2016, 110, 143 (DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2016.07.016)
6 R Ralphs et al, Int. J. Drug Policy, 2017, 40, 57 (DOI: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2016.10.003)
7 E Wadsworth et al, Drugs Educ. Prev. Pol., 2017 DOI: 10.1080/09687637.2017.1284417
8 M Philp et al, Anal. Methods, 2013, 5, 5402 (DOI: 10.1039/c3ay40511g)
9 A Guirguis et al, Forensic Sci. Int., 2017, 273, 113 (DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2017.01.027)

the lsd stories • PAGE 135

 The CIA & Psychedelics: From Timothy Leary To The Unabomber

Jeffery St. Clair and the late Alexander Cockburn wrote about the history of CIA-associated psy- ing the therapeutic potential of psychedelics. “Who controls your cortex? Who decides on the range and
chologists such as 1960s psychedelic pitchman Timothy Leary using LSD and psilocybin, and their limits of your awareness? If you want to research your own nervous system, expand your consciousness,
effects on subjects, like the Unabomber, Ted Kaczynski. who is to decide that you can’t and why?” All perfectly rational and logical questions.

Dr. Timothy Leary, the controversial counterculture guru and psychonaut huckster, who facing years in Faulder was one of hundreds of Canadian prisoners who were experimented upon by psychiatrists
jail, sold out his cohorts to the FBI, was associated with the CIA from the beginning. On June 17, 1999 in the 1960s and 1970s. The prison LSD program was run by Dr. George Scott, a staff psychiatrist
the state of Texas put to death by lethal injection John Stanley Faulder, a Canadian who had been for the Canadian Federal Corrections, who had served as director of the Canadian Army’s psycho-
convicted in 1977 of murdering Inez Phillips, an oil heiress. Faulder’s case received more press atten- logical rehabilitation department during World War II. After the war, Scott teamed up with shrinks
tion than most executions these days, mainly because the Canadian government tried to intervene from Allan Memorial Institute, including the notorious Ewen Cameron, to launch a variety of drug,
on his behalf and urged Texas governor George W. Bush to spare his life. Unmoved by arguments electroshock, sensory deprivation and pain tolerance experiments, using prisoners and patients
that after his arrest Faulder had been denied his right to consult with officials from the Canadian em- at mental hospitals as guinea pigs. The LSD for some of the experiments as well as funding for the
bassy, Bush sent him to the death chamber. What went entirely unmentioned by the U.S. press was research was provided by the CIA and the Canadian Defense Department. Scott was stripped of his
that 37 years ago Stanley Faulder had been the unwitting victim of medical experiments partially license to practice medicine. The sanction was not for dosing prisoners with psychotropic drugs,
funded by the CIA. According to Faulder’s sister, Pat Nicholl, who lives in Jaspar, Alberta, “At 15 Stanley but for emulating Sandor Ferenczi by making passes at female patients. Even here Scott used drugs
was arrested for stealing a and electroshock to aid
watch and sent to a boys’ his seductions. Accord-
home for six months. At ing to court records,
17, another theft got him Scott used a technique
six months in jail. At 22 called “narco-analysis” to
he was caught in a stolen manipulate one of the
car and sent to jail in New women into having sex
Westminster, B.C. for two with him. Narco-analysis
years. There, he asked for involves heavy doses of
psychiatric help and was sodium pentothal and
put in an experimental Ritalin. Scott used the
drug program which in- pentothal, in combina-
volved doses of LSD.” tion with electroshock,
to take his victim into a
“A major civil liberties issue near comatose state, im-
of the next decade will be planted erotic sugges-
the control and expansion tions, and then roused
of consciousness,” Timothy her to consciousness
Leary and Richard Alp- with shots of Ritalin. This
ert (Ram Dass) declared continued for a period
in a letter to the Harvard of five years. Scott even
Crimson paper on their prescribed birth control
shuttered project study- pills for the woman.

the lsd stories • PAGE 136

In 1969, Robert Renaud, an inmate at the Kingston Penitentiary, claimed that Scott had given him fero- LSD. I don’t think it was 15 or 20 minutes before Dante’s Inferno. It was obvious. I am locked in. I can’t get
cious jolts of electroshock as a punishment for not cooperating with the doctor. Like Faulder, Renaud away. And the walls start to move in on me. And they melt. The bars turned to snakes and there was an
was in jail for theft and was not considered violent. Scott dismissed Renaud’s allegation, though films awful vibration in my body. Just awful. And I just thought I had gone mad.” Scott shrugged off the claims,
of the psychiatrist shocking prisoners from that time have recently surfaced. In response, Scott said telling the Ottawa Citizen in an interview in 1997 that he had no regrets about his activities. “I am
he only performed electroshock once a week on prisoners who “were sick enough”. Scott was sued by happy with myself. I don’t give a shit.”
24 women inmates who say they were subject-
ed to his LSD experiments. One of the women Renaissance of Psychedelics in Psychiatry
who brought the suit is Dorothy Proctor. She Timothy Leary: “Worse Than Benedict Arnold”
was given LSD at the Kingston women’s prison
in 1961—the same year Faulder was drugged. “I am happy with myself. On July 1, 1999 the Smoking Gun website
Proctor was a 17-year-old Black woman, serving I don’t give a shit.” put up 14 pages from more than 500 FBI
a three-year sentence for robbery, when Scott transcripts and memoranda, showing that
diagnosed her as a sociopath and put her in his LSD guru Timothy Leary was volunteering to
experimental program, which included sensory snitch, then snitching to the feds about his
deprivation (a 52-day stint in the Hole), electro- knowledge of the Weather Underground and
shock and mega-doses of LSD. The lawsuit was almost anyone else Leary thought the feds
settled out of court in 2002. might be interested in, including his former
wife Rosemary, his attorneys and the wife of
In a 1998 interview with the CBC program “This one of his attorneys. This was in 1974 when
Morning” Proctor vividly described the first time Leary was in Folsom prison in northeastern
she was offered LSD as she was in the middle of California, after convictions for a number of
a long stint in solitary: marijuana busts plus time for his jail break.

“The prison psychiatrist comes down to the Hole, It’s not entirely fresh news that the late Timo-
and he has a student with him, a lady psych stu- thy Leary was a squealer and a snitch to the FBI.
dent from Queen’s University and she’s to take The snitching was well known at the time. The
notes. He pulls up a chair for her and him, and they FBI was eager to leak the fact that Leary, high
are outside in the hallway section of the cell, talk- priest of LSD and potentate of the countercul-
ing through the bars. I am on the floor, no mat- ture, was singing about his former associates.
tress just a blanket. Then I am taken out of the cell
that has a commode. I am now in a cell with a hole Lords of The Revolution
in the floor for my toilet. It had backed up so I am
also in my own waste and stench. So he comes out The news, the Bureau seemed to have reasoned,
and presents me with this, you know, we want to would spread fear and despondency and foster
help you so much. We want you to correct yourself rifts. On April 4, 1974, the Chicago Tribune ran
and we want you to rehabilitate yourself. And I am an FBI-inspired leak, headlined “Leary Will Sing”;
your friend, and you are worth saving. So just co- and in the letters that Abbie Hoffman wrote in
operate with me. And I have a pill that just might the mid-1970s, edited by wife Anita, To America
help you. I am going to rescue you. That was the With Love: Letters From the Underground, vitriol
was poured on Leary the Snitch. Himself on the
the lsd stories • PAGE 137
run after his cocaine bust, Hoffman wrote, “I’m digesting news of Herr Doktor Leary, the swine. It’s obvi-
ous to me he talked his fucking, demented head off to the Gestapo… God, Leary is disgusting. It’s not just
a question of being a squealer, but a question of squealing on people who helped you. The curses crowd
my mouth. Timothy Leary is a name worse than Benedict Arnold.” Leary’s awfulness was somewhat for-
gotten by the time he’d become a staple of the Hollywood gossip columns and before his ashes were
fired off into the space that he roamed so freely in his acid-sodden years. Leary began his career as a
the lsd stories • PAGE 138
research psychologist at the Kaiser Foundation in Oakland, where he developed a personality test to
help the authorities classify prisoners, allocating them to various levels of incarceration. When Leary
himself was convicted, he was handed the very test that he had devised years earlier, and thus was
able to frame answers that put him in a minimum security facility in San Luis Obispo, from which he
was sprung by the people he later ratted on. From Kaiser, Leary went on to become a lecturer at Har-
vard. It seems likely that the “Leary Test,” as it was known, had attracted the attention of the chairman
of the Dept. of Social Relations, Dr. Henry Murray, whose
experiments on Ted Kaczynski are noted below. Murray’s
“Thematic Aptitude Test” was being used by the CIA, which
then took up the “Leary Test,” no doubt with handsome fees
to both Kaiser and to Leary. By the time Leary got to Har-
vard, Murray already had contracts with the Pentagon and
CIA to test student volunteers, including Kaczynski.
Leary took the drugs to be tested and sallied forth to
the Massachusetts Correctional Institute in Concord, a
maximum-security prison, where he embarked on ex-
periments designed, so he said, to see if LSD and psi-
locybin could be successful agents in behavior modi-
fication. As with all research on prisoners, there were
certainly other aspects Leary didn’t publicly own up to,
such as investigation into the properties of these psy-
chotropic drugs in interrogation.
The CIA helped spring Leary from his prison in Algeria,
where he’d been consigned by Eldridge Cleaver, who had
instantly seen Leary for the miscreant he was. At the time
Cleaver put him in jail, the exiled information minister of
the Black Panthers said, “There’s something wrong with
Leary’s brain. We want people to gather their wits, sober up
and get down to the serious business of destroying the Baby-
lonian empire. To all those of you who look to Dr. Leary for in-
spiration and leadership, we want to say to you that your God
is dead, because his mind has been blown by acid.” Leary’s
wife Rosemary didn’t want to deal with the CIA agent who
sprang them from prison in Algeria. For once Leary was on
the mark. “He’s liberal CIA,” Leary told Rosemary. “And that’s
the best mafia you can deal with in the 20th century.”
It turns out that Theodore Kaczynski, a.k.a. the Unabomber, was a vol-
unteer in mind-control experiments sponsored by the CIA at Harvard
in the late 1950s and early 1960s. Michael Mello, author of The United
States of America vs. Theodore John Kaczynski notes that at some point
in his Harvard years–1958 to 1962–Kaczynski agreed to be the subject
of “a psychological experiment.” Mello identifies the chief researcher for
these only as a former lieutenant colonel in World War II, working for the
CIA’s predecessor organization, the Office of Strategic Services. In fact,
the man experimenting on the young Kaczynski was Dr. Henry Murray,
who died in 1988. Murray became preoccupied by psychoanalysis in the
1920s, drawn to it through a fascination with Herman Melville’s Moby
Dick, which he gave to Sigmund Freud, who duly made the excited diag-
nosis that the whale was a father figure. After spending the 1930s devel-
oping personality theory, Murray was recruited to the OSS at the start of
the war, applying his theories to the selection of agents and also presum-
ably to interrogation.

As chairman of the Department of Social Relations at Harvard, Murray

zealously prosecuted the CIA’s efforts to carry forward experiments in
mind control conducted by Nazi doctors in the concentration camps. The
overall program was under the control of the late Sidney Gottlieb, head
of the CIA’s technical services division. Just as Harvard students were fed
doses of LSD, psilocybin and other potions, so too were prisoners and
many unwitting guinea pigs.

Sometimes the results were disastrous. A dram of LSD fed by Gottlieb

himself to an unwitting U.S. army officer, Frank Olson, plunged Olson into
escalating psychotic episodes, which culminated in Olson’s fatal descent
from an upper window in the Statler-Hilton in New York. Gottlieb was the
object of a lawsuit not only by Olson’s children but also by the sister of
another man, Stanley Milton Glickman, whose life had disintegrated into
psychosis after being unwittingly slipped a dose of LSD by Gottlieb.

What did Murray give Kaczynski? Did the experiment’s long-term ef-
fects help tilt him into the Unabomber’s homicidal rampages? The CIA’s
mind experiment program was vast. How many other human time
bombs were thus primed? How many of them have exploded, with the
precipitating agent never identified?

the lsd stories • PAGE 139

 In the summer of 1942, Jack Kerouac (pictured at right) followed in the
footsteps of Joseph Conrad and Eugene O’Neill and went to sea. After
dropping out of Columbia University the previous Fall, the 20-year-old
Kerouac signed up for the merchant marine and shipped out aboard
the U.S. Army Transport ship Dorchester.

Although World War II had broken out at about the time of his depar-
ture from Columbia, Kerouac’s motives for going to sea were more per-
sonal than patriotic. “My mother is very worried over my having joined
the Merchant Marine,” Kerouac wrote in his journal at the time, “but I
need money for college, I need adventure, of a sort (the real adventure of
rotting wharves and seagulls, winey waters and ships, ports, cities, and
faces & voices); and I want to study more of the earth, not out of books, but
from direct experience.”

In October of 1942, after completing a voyage to and from an Army

command base in Greenland (which he would later write about in Van-
ity of Duluoz), Kerouac left the merchant marine and returned to Co-
lumbia. That was lucky, because most of the Dorchester’s crew—more
than 600 men—died three months later when the ship was torpedoed
by a German U-boat. But the restless Kerouac lasted only a month at
Columbia before dropping out again and making plans to return to
sea. In December of 1942 he enlisted in the U.S. Naval Reserve. He
wanted to join the Naval Air Force, but failed an aptitude test. So on
February 26, 1943 he was sent to the Naval Training Station in New-
port, Rhode Island. That’s apparently when the photograph at right
was taken of the young Kerouac with his military haircut. It would have
been right around the time of his 21st birthday. Kerouac lasted only 10
days in boot camp. As Miriam Klieman writes at the National Archives,
“The qualities that made On the Road a huge success and Kerouac a pow-
erful storyteller, guide, and literary icon are the same ones that rendered
him remarkably unsuitable for the military: independence, creativity,
impulsivity, sensuality, and recklessness.” According to files released by
the government in 2005, Naval doctors at Newport found Kerouac to
be “restless, apathetic, seclusive” and determined that he was mentally
unfit for service, writing that “neuropsychiatric examination disclosed
auditory hallucinations, ideas of reference and suicide, and a rambling,
grandiose, philosophical manner.” He was sent to the Naval Hospital in
Bethesda Maryland and eventually discharged.

the lsd stories • PAGE 140


How the ‘Acid King’ Won a Lawsuit Against the US Government
Vice Magazine No. L25 • Vol S25 Issue D25
This is a true story. Everything else in this is-
sue of Vice might be satire. William Leonard
Pickard was sentenced to life without parole
in 2003 for manufacturing massive amounts
of acid at a decommissioned nuclear missile
silo. But last week, Pickard—one of the big-
gest LSD manufacturers in American histo-
ry—won a decade-long lawsuit against the
Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) for
records on the confidential informant that
helped put him behind bars. Pickard, now 70,
filed the Freedom of Information Act (FOIA)
lawsuit in 2006. The suit plodded along for
ten years in an epic case of government foot-
dragging and stonewalling, according to his
current lawyer, Mark Rumold, a staff attorney
with the Electronic Frontier Foundation. Ru-
mold is representing Pickard pro bono—and
not as part of his day job—and the way he
sees it, Pickard’s case represents “absolute
government and DEA obstinance.”
“I’ve done a lot of FOIA litigation, and I’ve nev-
er encountered something like this,” Rumold
tells me. Last Monday, Pickard finally caught
a break when a federal magistrate ruled the
government must produce at least some of
Page 1 • Vice Magazine
M A G A Z I N E
September 31, 2017 Always Just .25 cents
By CJ Ciaramella
the documents he requested. The decision
doesn’t mean the convict will somehow over-
come his life sentence, but it does offer prom-
ise for transparency advocates concerned
about the obstruction of FOIA requests in the
Obama era.
Pickard was originally busted in 2000 after a
DEA raid on his LSD superlab inside the old
Atlas E nuclear missile silo site near Wamego,
Kansas. According to court records, the spot
was owned by Gordon Todd Skinner, who lat-
er received immunity in exchange for his tes-
timony against Pickard (and a second defen-
dant in the case). The DEA claimed the raid
recovered nearly 91 pounds of LSD, which
might have been the largest acid bust ever. Of
course, the actual figure was probably closer
to half a pound but it was still a historic haul,
considering there have only been a handful
of seizures of complete LSD labs in the his-
tory of the DEA, according to the agency.
After Pickard and another man were busted,
the DEA also claimed—much more dubious-
ly—that the US acid supply dropped by 95
percent. In prison, Pickard became an ardent
PRINTED ON RECYCLED PAPER
FOIA activist, suing the DEA to get informa-
tion on Skinner, and initially represented him-
self in court. Justice Department attorneys
originally tried to argue that the DEA could
neither confirm nor deny Skinner’s status as
a government informant, a strong-arm move
typically employed by the CIA. (The DOJ de-
clined to comment for this story). A district
court ruled against Pickard, but in 2011, the
Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals rejected the
government’s arguments, declaring that,
since Skinner had testified in an open and
public trial, the government had officially
confirmed his status as an informant for the
purposes of FOIA. Rumold says there’s a pub-
lic interest in finding out more about the
DEA’s use of Skinner as a confidential infor-
mant, especially given its problematic use of
informants in general.
“The DOJ told the court in trial that Skinner had
only been an informant once before in his life,”
Rumold says. “That turned out not to be true.
I think we’ve found five or six different times
Skinner had been an informant.”
Skinner was also charged with manslaugh-
ter after a man visiting the silo overdosed on
drugs, but those charges were dismissed be-
tween the time of Pickard’s arrest and Skin-
ner’s testimony in court.
“Here’s the government’s star witness in an LSD
manufacturing trial in the middle of Kansas, and
those charges just disappear,” Rumold adds.
“That raises some pretty serious red flags.”
Skinner was later convicted of kidnapping, as
well as assault and battery with a dangerous
weapon (a hypodermic needle), for abduct-
ing an 18-year-old teenager for six days) and
sentenced to 30 years in prison.
Prior to his life sentence, Pickard was a gifted
chemist, an ordained Buddhist priest and
a UCLA researcher who received a master’s
degree from the Kennedy School of Govern-
ment at Harvard. He also had a string of
prior arrests for drug possession and man-
ufacturing. According to lengthy profiles
in the San Francisco Chronicle and Rolling
Stone, the DEA suspected he was connect
Vice Magazine • Page 2

How the ‘Acid King’ Won a Lawsuit Against the US Government
Vice Magazine No. L25 • Vol S25 Issue D25
ed to the “Brotherhood of Eternal Love,”
a clandestine group of acid cooks who
operated out of California starting in the
late 60s. They also suspected that Pickard
laundered LSD profits—with the help of
three exotic dancers in San Francisco—to
a well-heeled research institute that stud-
ied psychedelic drugs. Pickard, the exotic
dancers, and the research institute all de-
nied those claims. And the Brotherhood
of Eternal Love has never been avail-
able for comment. For now, Pickard and
Rumold will have to wait and see which
records the DEA actually turns over. The
lawyer suspects there’s plenty of waiting
left. “It’s been a wild ride, and I hope this is
the beginning of the end, but something
in me says it’s not,” Rumold says [actual
date of this story was mid to late 2016).
DONALD TRUMP ON LSD
by Jeffrey J. Prager
When I met with Don in the Oval Office yes-
terday we kept our discussion limited to il-
legal drugs and specifically LSD and natu-
rally Don did all the talking. “My best trip on
Orange Sunshine, I play golf with the CEO of
Page 3 • Vice Magazine
M A G A Z I N E
September 31, 2017 Always Just .25 cents
Sandoz, was with that little blonde ... I can’t
remember her name right now but boy did
she love blotter acid and small schlongs and
I had both! Wait, is this on the record? Never
mind, my base adores me, I can do nothing
wrong. So as I was saying, my golf partner
gave me 100 hits of Orange Sunshine manu-
factured just that day in a vial about 2 inches
around and 4 inches long. About the size of
my ... well, me and this little blonde, you know,
one hit of acid and you can grab their pussy,
everything, they love it, believe me they do,
they may not say so when you ask them, they
won’t admit it, but they love every second of
it! After all, I’m Donald Trump, The Donald,
Leader of the Free and not so Free World.”
OWSLEY PURPLE MICRODOT
10 Hits = $50 or $7.50 each
Contact Owsley Stanley (Bear)
LSD-255-2525
ostanley@lysergicdiethylamide.com
PRINTED ON RECYCLED PAPER Vice Magazine • Page 4

M A G A Z I N E
How the ‘Acid King’ Won a Lawsuit Against the US Government Continued
Vice Magazine No. 25 • Vol 25 September 31, 2017 Issue #LSD25 - .25 Cents
By CJ Ciaramella
“The DOJ told the court in trial that Skinner
had only been an informant once before in his
life,” Rumold says. “That turned out not to be
true. I think we’ve found five or six different
times Skinner had been an informant.” Skin-
ner was also charged with manslaughter
after a man visiting the silo overdosed on
drugs, but those charges were dismissed
between the time of Pickard’s arrest and
Skinner’s testimony in court.
“Here’s the government’s star witness in an LSD
manufacturing trial in the middle of Kansas, and
those charges just disappear,” Rumold adds.
“That raises some pretty serious red flags.”
Skinner was later convicted of kidnapping,
as well as assault and battery with a dan-
gerous weapon (a hypodermic needle),
for abducting an 18-year-old teenager for
six days and he was sentenced to 30 years
in prison. Prior to his life sentence, Pickard
was a gifted chemist, an ordained Buddhist
priest and a UCLA researcher who received
a master’s degree from the Kennedy School
of Government at Harvard—and a helluvan
acid maker. He also had a string of prior ar-
rests for drug possession and manufactur-
Page 5 • Vice Magazine
PAID ADVERTISEMENT
ing. According to lengthy profiles in the San
Francisco Chronicle Pickard the “Acid King”,
the DEA suspected he was connected to the
“Brotherhood of Eternal Love,” a clandestine
group of acid cooks who operated out of
California starting in the late 60s. They also
suspected that Pickard laundered LSD prof-
its—with the help of three exotic dancers
in San Francisco—to a well-heeled research
institute that studied psychedelic drugs.
Pickard, the exotic dancers, and the research
institute all denied those claims. And the
Brotherhood of Eternal Love has never been
available for comment. For now, Pickard and
Rumold will have to wait and see which re-
cords the DEA actually turns over. The law-
yer suspects there’s plenty of waiting left.
“It’s been a wild ride, and I hope this is the be-
ginning of the end, but something in me says
it’s not,” Rumold says.
“It’s been a wild ride
and I hope this is the
beginning of the end ...”
PRINTED ON RECYCLED PAPER Vice Magazine • Page 6
Manson is a studio based in Barce- food that they shouldn’t eat, and
lona that involves a diverse group buy things that they didn’t need,
of artists who work together in a and we thought their techniques
range of different media, involv- were the ones we wanted to use,
ing live-action video or anima- so we packed up and moved to
tion but knowing no boundaries. Hollywood, and decided to be-
In this recent biographic anima- come subversive.”
tion — co-created by Google Play
and California Sunday magazine DEVO’s Jerry Casale has been
— Mark Mothersbaugh of DEVO quoted as saying, “All I can tell
talks about being affected by the you is that it completely and ut-
shootings at Kent State University, terly changed my life. I was a
on May 4, 1970, where four protest- white hippie boy and then I saw
ing students were killed by National exit wounds from M1 rifles out of
Guardsmen: the backs of two people I knew. I
would not have started the idea of
“When we first started DEVO, Jerry DEVO unless this had happened.”
and Bob and I, we were artists who
were working in a number of differ- Devo’s Mark Mothersbaugh and Jerry Casale remember the Kent State Massacre In 2015, Kevin C. Smith wrote
ent medias, and we were around about Night Flight for the Dan-
for the shooting at Kent State, and May 4, 2017 gerous Minds blog. Recombo
it affected us… We were thinking, DNA is the first book to evalu-
like, ‘What are we observing?’, and we decided we weren’t observing evolution, we were observ- ate in the proper context the innovations and accomplishments of this truly ground-breaking
ing de-evolution, and so we decided to write music about that. We were wondering ‘how do you band. Beginning in 1970, with the transformative effects of the Kent State University shootings
change things?’, and we looked at Madison Avenue, and they were getting people to eat horrible which the band-members witness firsthand, and ending a decade later with DEVO on the cusp

the lsd stories • PAGE 144

 to wo rk ...
s i s n’t going
e
flowers in rifl
Putting

the lsd stories • PAGE 145

 of superstardom (with “Whip It”), it traces the sounds he was launching incur-
and ideas that the group absorbed and in turn sions into formerly neu-
brought to prominence as unlikely rock stars. tral Cambodia to attack
For anyone who has ever wondered where the Viet Cong who had taken
the band who fell to earth came from, here refuge there. This escalation
is the answer. of the already unpopular
“... Nixon had appeared on all three TV networks Vietnam War was intended
In the book, Smith charts the progress of the lawsuits to announce that he was launching incursions to capture “the headquarters
filed by the families of the murdered Kent State students into formerly neutral Cambodia to attack the Viet Cong of the entire communist military
throughout the text. These periodic updates are presented in sim- who had taken refuge there.” operation” in South Vietnam.” “It is
ple, one-paragraph form, so they do not detract from the DEVO story, but not our power but our will and charac-
provide a fascinating counter-narrative. Here’s an exclusive excerpt from Kevin C. Smith’s ter that is being tested tonight,” he continued.
“Recombo DNA: The Story Of Devo, Or How the 60s Became the 80s,” about what happened on the “The time has come for action.” Perhaps predictably, a
th
campus of Kent State on May 4 , 1970: protest was organized, not by the banned SDS but instead a small group of history graduate students
with the provocative moniker World Historians Opposed to Racism and Exploitation (or WHORE), as well
“Mark’s younger brother, Bob, was nearing the end of his senior year of high school, but on Friday, May as a group of younger faculty members and graduate students from the more soberly named New Univer-
1, 1970 he was playing hooky and spending the day hanging out at the SDS headquarters at Kent State. sity Conference. They held a peaceful rally during which they ceremoniously buried a copy of the United
The previous night, at 9:00pm, President Nixon had appeared on all three TV networks to announce that States Constitution near the campus landmark Victory Bell, claiming it had been “murdered” when Nixon

the lsd stories • PAGE 146

invaded Cambodia without either a declaration of war or consultation with Congress. An ominous sign
fixed to a nearby tree asked: “Why is the ROTC building still standing?”
“As the day turned to night and the weekend alcohol began to flow, however, a crowd began to clus-
ter around the downtown bars on North Water Street and soon
clashed with police. Within an hour the crowd had lit bonfires,
vandalized local stores, and blocked traffic.”
“Among them that night was Mothersbaugh’s former band-
mate, Chrissie Hynde, then an 18-year-old art student at
Kent State. “We took these big garbage cans from the side of
the road, wheeled them into the middle of the street and set
them on fire,” she recalled. “It was an awesome sight.””
“When a lone car tried to travel down the street,” she added,
“we just jumped on his car and kicked all the windows out
to punish the driver for having the gall to interfere with our
protest.”
The SDS-affiliated Casale would later dismiss these events
as “spring-break-type violence ... students with raging hor-
mones mixed with some political ideas.”
Nonetheless, Kent Mayor Leroy Satrom declared a state of
emergency at 12:30am and ordered the bars to close—
which only had the adverse effect of increasing the
crowds gathered in the street. Eventually, combined city
and county police forces used tear gas to herd the crowd
back toward the university. They had expected Kent State
to take over at that point, unaware that the university’s
Police Chief, Donald L. Schwartzmiller, had instead in-
structed his forces to guard campus buildings. A standoff
Ready, Aim, Fire!
developed between police who would not cross the cam-
pus border and protesters who were afraid to venture be-
yond it. By the time the standoff ended, 15 people had
been arrested. The following day, in an effort to quell further unrest, Mayor Satrom banned the sale
of alcohol, firearms, and gasoline (unless pumped directly into the tank of a car). He also instituted
a curfew from 8:00pm to 6:00am, subsequently amending it to 1:00am to 6:00am for those at the
university, perhaps sensing the futility of an 8:00pm curfew for a campus full of restless college kids.
the lsd stories • PAGE 147
Not everybody was aware of the different curfew times, however, and far from averting further vio-
lence the measure seemed to have precisely the opposite effect. By the end of the evening, around
1,000 students—who would most likely have otherwise been downtown on a Saturday night—had
gathered around the ROTC building, which had long been a source of irritation among anti-war activ-
ists. As a mob mentality took hold the wooden structure was
bombarded with a combination of rocks, garbage cans, and
railroad flares.
Bob Mothersbaugh had returned to campus that day and
found himself in the middle of the melee. He participated
in the burning of an American flag, which may or may not
have been the ultimate cause of the building’s demise.
Hynde was there too and recalled: “Though we were angry,
the whole scene was kind of a gas too…it was awesome to
see the hated ROTC building going up in flames. It was defi-
nitely a night to remember.”
Bob Lewis, meanwhile, had attended professor Dick My-
ers’s Kent film festival that night. “The first showing got out
about 9:30 or so,” he recalled. “When we came out of the au-
ditorium we could see the light from the burning ROTC build-
ing. It was pretty much gone by that time.”
It was at this point that Mayor Satrom called for the
National Guard. Guardsmen were redirected from the
Rubber Bowl stadium in Akron, where they had been
stationed three days earlier to monitor a truckers’ strike,
and promptly dispersed the protestors with teargas.
No one was apprehended for the ROTC fire, although
FBI agents later visited the Mothersbaugh household
and presented Bob’s mother, Mary, with photographs
of her son holding a flaming American flag over the
building. There were accusations from both sides that
outside agitators had been sent to the university to in-
stigate and fuel conflicts. It was most likely these indi-
viduals that Ohio Governor Jim Rhodes had in mind when he delivered a speech the following
morning in which he pounded the table and described the protestors as “worse than the Brown-
shirts, and the Communist element, and also the Night Riders, and the vigilantes. They’re the worst
type of people that we harbor in America ... They are not going to take over campus, and the campus
now is going to be part of the county and the state of Ohio.” “There’s no sanctuary for these people to though the National Guard had been given orders to put a stop to it. Bob Lewis and some friends had
burn buildings down,” he added, perhaps referring to the standoff at the gates of the university on just finished breakfast at the Commuter’s Cafeteria and were on their way out onto the Commons,
Friday night. Having effectively declared martial law after taking control of the campus through the where a few students had been making brief speeches. “There’s these walkways on campus that are
National Guard, the Governor also banned all demonstrations. just overarched on both sides with 80, 90-year-old lilac bushes,” he later recalled. “May 4 was this beauti-
ful, beautiful sunny day, and you could smell the lilacs.”
Nevertheless, a group of students assembled on the Commons that evening, until an immediate  
curfew was declared around 9:00pm. Teargas was once again used to disperse the crowd and 51 peo- Just before noon, however, approximately 116 National Guard troops arrived on the scene
ple were arrested, mostly for curfew violations. and were ordered by Ohio National Guard
Bob Lewis later recalled that his roommate, Bob General Robert Canterbury to “lock and load”
Webb, had been arrested at gunpoint after tak- their M1 Garand rifles—an order that is only
ing his telescope (“he was an amateur astrono- given when troops expect to have a reason-
mer”) out onto the back porch to observe the able chance of firing their weapons. Chris
proceedings from a distance. Butler characterized the mood on campus as
“extremely irate” due to the events of the pre-
Classes resumed on Monday May 4 — even after vious night. As the students were ordered to
a reported bomb threat — but most were still disperse they responded with increasing an-
focused on the weekend’s events. Word soon ger and chants of “pigs off campus” and “sieg
spread that the National Guard had arrived at heil.” Of course no protest even resembling
Kent State. Jerry Casale was in a drawing class this would happen today.
that morning when it was announced that
classes would be cut short. Around 10:30am, an By now around 2,000 students were either par-
impromptu meeting was called at the student ticipating in or observing the confrontation,
union (commonly referred to as the Hub). Aspir- some of them stood on steps or balconies of
ing musician Chris Butler and his friend Jeffrey nearby buildings or up on the slopes of the sur-
Miller witnessed members of the university’s rounding hills.
radical political factions debate what sort of ac-
tion, if any, should be undertaken that morning. The gas-masked National Guard formed a line,
Butler was a transplanted Clevelander major- having affixed bayonets to their rifles, and fired
ing in Sociology while Miller was originally from teargas into the crowd, although this proved in-
Long Island and had recently transferred from effective due to the heavy wind that day. They
Michigan State University. The assembled group then marched up Blanket Hill, pushing students
had collectively decided against taking any de- past Taylor Hall and effectively clearing the Com-
cisive action. “If there ever was going to be a con- mons before attempting to push the crowd down
spiracy to cause trouble,” Butler recalled, “that the other side of the hill, across an access road,
would have been it, and those were the people and past a football practice field. A small group
who would have done it.” of students followed the soldiers and continued
to taunt them and pelt them with rocks from a
A previously announced noon rally was still nearby construction site. The Guard would peri-
scheduled to take place on the Commons, al- odically launch canisters of teargas, which were

the lsd stories • PAGE 148

often hurled back at them. When they reached the football field the Guardsmen kneeled
down and aimed their rifles at the group of students—among them Casale, Butler, and Mill-
er—now gathered in an adjacent parking lot. There are conflicting reports as to whether a
warning shot was fired at this point; according to Butler, many of the assembled students
laughed at this point, finding the whole situation “extremely ridiculous.”
After ten minutes in formation the Guardsmen headed back up Blanket Hill, with students
continuing to pelt them with rocks all the while. Bob Lewis had been behind the troops but
now found himself being pushed back up the hill. As Casale later described it, the whole
thing looked “like party games. It’s kind of almost laughable.”
Chrissie Hynde had just arrived on campus around this time and had been told that a
“peaceful demonstration” was to take place, but the sight of troops armed with rifles gave
her a “very bad vibe.” It was then that she heard what she thought were fireworks. Casale was
watching the troops when, from the crest of Blanket Hill at 12:24pm, a number of the Guard
stopped, turned, kneeled down, and opened fire on the students. He turned to run when
the hail of bullets began and immediately saw a student, Allison Krause, lying face down
in a pool of blood. A single bullet had entered and exited her left arm and lodged in her
chest. She had been standing approximately 20 feet behind Casale when was she shot, the
pair of them more than 300 feet from the National Guard. Butler had been carrying a small
bucket of water, which he was using to soak bandanas in order to filter the tear gas. When
it had run dry he went into nearby Prentice Hall to refill it from a water fountain. He would
later estimate that he had been separated from Miller for about 30 to 45 seconds before the
shots were fired. As he walked back to the parking lot, Butler heard gunfire and ducked be-
hind a car, which moments later had its windows shot out, covering him in broken glass. He
and the rest of the students were soon marched off campus, and it wasn’t until he watched
the evening news that he discovered that Miller was one of the four killed that day. A single
bullet had entered his open mouth and exited the base of his skull, killing him instantly. Ca-
sale sat down shaking when the 13 seconds of shooting stopped and the bullhorns ordered
everybody to “stay where you are.” Moments earlier, he had seen a girl he would later learn
was 14-year-old runaway Mary Ann Vecchio screaming and gesturing in the crowd. Only
later, after seeing John Filo’s Pulitzer Prize-winning photographer of the scene, did he real-
the lsd stories • PAGE 149
ize that Vecchio had been standing over Jeffrey Miller’s dead body. Casale had befriended
both Miller and Krause as underclassmen the previous summer while he was working as a
counselor. Mark Mothersbaugh was off campus setting up his new art studio at the Davey
Warehouse, an art facility on Water Street, when the shooting took place. “I was decorating
[the studio] when there were police cars going down the street with megaphones going: The
school is shut down. The city is shut down. Please go to your homes.”
After staying put for what seemed like hours, the students were eventually marched off
campus single file. To add insult to injury, hostile locals had been deputized and were pa-
trolling the streets with guns; newspaper reports that night erroneously stated that stu-
dents had killed Guardsmen. Casale was forced to walk the four miles to his Water Street
apartment in fear of his life. Altogether, four students were killed and nine were injured,
with one permanently paralyzed from the chest down. Sandra Scheuer, a 20-year-old hon-
ors student, was shot in the throat while walking between classes, and William Schroeder, a
19-year-old ROTC applicant, was shot in the back while laying down in an attempt to avoid
the gunfire. Prior to the shooting, Allison Krause had been distributing flowers, which she
reportedly said were “better than bullets.” She had probably been inspired by a photograph
taken by Bernie Boston and published in the Washington Star of another protestor, mop-
topped and turtlenecked George Harris, placing carnations in the barrels of soldiers’ rifles
outside the Pentagon on October 12th, 1967. Two years earlier, beat poet Allen Ginsberg
had written a 12-point plan for diffusing tensions with police or what he described as “pa-
triotic” Hell’s Angels, the first of which noted:
“Masses of flowers ... can be used to set up barricades, to present the Hell’s Angels, police, politi-
cians, and press and spectators whenever needed or at parade’s end.”
Fellow Beat writer William S. Burroughs, whose influence would overtake Ginsberg’s dur-
ing the following decade, disagreed. “Giving flowers to cops just isn’t going to work,” he later
remarked. “The only way I like to see cops given flowers is in a flower pot from a high window.”
The 2015 PBS documentary The Day the ’60s Died — written and produced by Jonathan
Halperin and Anna Bowers, and directed by Jonathan Halperin — is a thorough and vivid
 hour-long exploration of the events leading up to
the shootings at Kent State University on May 4th,
1970, in which four students were killed by Na-
tional Guardsmen during a campus protest over
President Richard M. Nixon’s invasion of Cambodia
during the Vietnam War. The filmmakers use news
footage of the war in Southeast Asia and protest-
ers here at home to illustrate the national divide
over our involvement. Interviews with soldiers,
students, National Guardsmen, members of the
Nixon administration and leaders of the anti-war
movement bring back the turbulent and violent
tenor of those times. Jerry Casale said that the
shooting broke the back of the peace movement.
“I think a lot of kids felt resigned. It was like, ‘OK, Dad,
I’ll work at the hardware store.’ “

“‘OK, Dad, I’ll work at the hardware store.’ “

the lsd stories • PAGE 150

 [370]

268 Pages

the lsd stories • PAGE 151

New Left Books • 2010 • 433 Pages [379]
 Project MK-Ultra:
The US Governments
Psychedelic Mind Control
Failures and Its Legacy
[322 & 323]
June 2007

“It’s a sunny afternoon in a beautiful residential

neighborhood on San Francisco’s Telegraph Hill,
just below Coit Tower. Succulent gardens frame
a stunning view of Alcatraz and the bay. It was
in an apartment building on this street that the
CIA dosed unsuspecting civilians on LSD over the
course of a decade.

As I walk beside the high-end condos crowd-

ing the block, I try to imagine what it must have
been like. I picture myself stumbling through the
streets, all the rich reds and blues of the flower-
ing trees kaleidoscoping around me in fractured
patterns. Blood pounding in panic, I wouldn’t
know what was happening—only that I was ap-
parently losing my mind.

The more I learn about the use of psychoactive

drugs by the U.S. Intelligence Community and mili-
tary, the more I feel driven to try to make sense of it
on a human level. Two themes consistently emerg-
ing in my research are: 1) uncertainty combined
with urgency often distorts human conduct, and
2) genuine accountability is vital to constrain the
darker impulses of exercising power.”

the lsd stories • PAGE 153

 THE MK-ULTRA FILES

Folder [MKULTRA1]
Contains 892 folders with a total of approximately 1,500+ documents

Folder [MKULTRA2]
Contains 734 folders with a total of approximately 1,500+ documents

Folder [MKULTRA3]
Contains 85 folders with a total of approximately 1,500+ documents

Folder [MKULTRA4]
Contains 69 folders with a total of approximately 1,500+ documents

Folder [X Huxley-The Ultimate Revolution 1]

Contains over 10 audio and/or video files

Folder [X Huxley-The Ultimate Revolution 2]

Contains over 10 audio and/or video files

Total documents in the above files: 35,000+

the lsd stories • PAGE 154

 174 Pages • [367]

the lsd stories • PAGE 155

 [369] • 17 Pages • September 1994

the lsd stories • PAGE 156

 MK-Naomi
MK-Delta
MK-Ultra
&
The CIA 1952-1967 [371]

Declassified and approved for release • August 2012

the lsd stories • PAGE 157

 [372]

the lsd stories • PAGE 158

 [373]

Harvard Outlines Its CIA Work [374]

Boston Globe • September 1977

60 Minutes Press Release [375]

Radio TV Reports, Inc. • December 1984

the lsd stories • PAGE 159

 [376]

170 Pages

the lsd stories • PAGE 160

 70 Pages
[377]

the lsd stories • PAGE 161

In 1955, on behalf of the Central Intelligence the highest-ranking members of the Catholic
Agency (CIA) project MKULTRA, former Federal clergy in Europe, Mindszenty was arrested by
Bureau of Narcotics officer George White rented Hungarian police and tried for treason in 1949.
a three-story building on Telegraph Hill in San Before stunned global television audiences,
Francisco. For the next ten years, the CIA paid he confessed to crimes he had not committed,
prostitutes to lure men to this location and sur- while staring off into space and showing other
reptitiously dose them with LSD or other psy- signs of aberrant behavior. The CIA feared that
choactive drugs. Known as “Operation Midnight he had been brainwashed.
Climax”, this project was one of several explor-
ing LSD’s potential use as a mind control tool In 1953 CIA Director Allen Dulles warned the
by the U.S. Intelligence Community. American public that the U.S.S.R. may have de-
veloped brainwashing technology. Using lan-
The Cold War Context guage similar to the 1945 report quoted above,
Dulles warned that the Cold War was becoming
The CIA’s interest in mind control began in “a battle for men’s minds. [...] We might call it in
the final days of World War II. With the ad- its new form, brain warfare.” That same month
vent of nuclear weapons, the fear of mutu- Dulles authorized Project MKULTRA as a coun-
ally-assured destruction prohibited military ter-offensive to this perceived threat. The pur-
conflict between the United States and the pose of MKULTRA was “to investigate whether
Soviet Union. Future struggles would in- and how it was possible to modify an individual’s
stead rely heavily on covert operations, in- behavior by covert means.” Sidney Gottlieb, di-
telligence gathering, and propaganda. rector of the CIA’s Technical Services Staff, was
placed in charge, and existing operations in
In 1945 a U.S. intelligence officer warned that: mind and behavior control were transferred to
MKULTRA. Sub-projects investigated hypno-
“[W]e must expect a very marked increase in sis, neurosurgery, electroshock, torture, sexual
the importance of “peaceful” methods [in com- blackmail, stage magic, and poison, but their
bating the Soviet Union]. Our enemies will be primary interest was psychoactive drugs.
even freer than [ever] to propagandize, subvert,
sabotage, and exert pressures upon us, and we A CIA behavior control psychologist once said,
ourselves shall be more willing to bear these af- “The problem of every intelligence operation is
fronts and ourselves to indulge in such meth- how do you remove the human element?” This
ods—in our eagerness to avoid at all costs the statement embodies the mentality driving the
tragedy of open war.” CIA’s interest in mind control techniques: the
desire to eliminate complex human variables in
Frances Saunders, author of The Cultural Cold War, comments that this “offers a definition of the Cold order to achieve certainty and control. But how can someone control another’s mind? When MKUL-
War as a psychological contest, of the manufacturing of consent by ‘peaceful’ methods, and of the use of TRA operative Morse Allen studied hypnosis, he found that he could not persuade people to do things
propaganda to erode positions.” Just two years later, in 1947, the CIA was created, and the U.S. infra- against their will. Subjects in a trance would refuse to shoot their friends. However, Allen found that
structure for prosecuting this new conflict was established. According to most accounts, the CIA’s he could circumvent resistance by convincing people that the friend was actually a deadly enemy.
interest in mind control began with the Hungarian show trial of Cardinal Josef Mindszenty. One of He had to change their perception of reality—create what he called a “pseudo-reality”—and then
the lsd stories • PAGE 162
let them act naturally. If he could create the right reality, he could manipulate
people into doing almost anything.

Controlling perception facilitates control of actions, and the CIA developed

projects designed to control perception on many scales. Projects ranged from
dosing individuals with LSD to influencing entire societies through planting
false news stories or covertly shaping art and culture. The perception-altering
properties of LSD and other psychoactive drugs fit well with the CIA’s agenda.

The CIA focused on three potential applications for psychoactive drugs: “truth
serums” that could be used during interrogation, drugs that could induce am-
nesia, and brainwashing techniques that could create what is often described
as a “Manchurian Candidate” (after the popular 1959 novel). In fiction, a “Man-
churian Candidate” is someone who has been brainwashed to carry out covert
actions such as assassinations or sabotage against their will, without having
the awareness that anything is amiss.

In pursuit of these goals, MKULTRA scientists investigated dozens of psycho-

active agents, including psilocybin, bufotenin, scopolamine, DMT, amphet-
amines, barbiturates, cannabis, and cocaine. They particularly focused on LSD,
funneling hundreds of thousands of dollars through covert channels into LSD
studies at clinics and hospitals. Much of the basic research into LSD’s pharma-
cology conducted in the 1950s was funded by either the military or the CIA. By
1952 Boston Psychopathic Hospital alone was receiving $40,000 a year for such
studies, overseen by LSD researcher Dr. Robert Hyde.

A Saucerful of Secrets

MKULTRA operatives routinely violated ethical and legal guidelines. For at

least a decade, the CIA gave many U.S. citizens LSD without their knowl-
edge, with the most infamous case involving Army officer Frank Olson.
After being dosed with LSD on the orders of MKULTRA director Sidney
Gottlieb at a joint CIA/Army retreat in 1953, Olson plunged into a deep
depression and, according to the official story, committed suicide. Yet in
1994 a forensic pathologist examined Olson’s body and found compelling
evidence that Olson was murdered. In fact, we now know Oson was pushed
out of his hospital room window by his physician.

the lsd stories • PAGE 163

Dr. Harris Isbell, director of the Addiction Research Center at the Public Health Service Hospital in Lex- can Psychiatric Association in 1953, and Isbell’s findings were published in scientific journals and his
ington, Kentucky, was paid by MKULTRA to perform basic research on psychoactive drugs, including tolerance studies are cited to this day. MKULTRA covertly funded the Society for the Investigation for
several psychedelics. He drew test subjects from his captive patient population of opiate addicts, of- Human Ecology, a think tank that issued grants to leading figures like Carl Rogers, Margaret Mead,
fering them heroin in exchange for “volunteering” for and Jean Piaget in exchange for their opinions on
his experiments. Subjects were administered LSD, key subjects.7 CIA official David Rhodes recalls, “If
DMT, mescaline, methamphetamine, psilocybin we picked up a Newsweek one morning and dis-
and other drugs, sometimes in very large doses.5 covered so-and-so was doing something exciting
In one experiment, Isbell administered LSD to in such-and-such field, I would get on the phone
seven men for 77 consecutive days. ... and say ‘I’m a rep of the Human Ecology Fund,
and I’m excited about what you’re doing. Can I
Dr. Ewen Cameron of McGill University in Montre- come by and have lunch with you?’—which at
al developed experimental techniques to rebuild the time was a lot easier than saying ‘I’m from the
personalities in his clinic. Cameron became inter- CIA...’”2 R. Gordon Wasson’s trip to participate in a
ested in altering the structure of personality as second mushroom velada (ceremony) with María
a possible treatment for psychological disorders Sabina was underwritten by MKULTRA. Wasson
such as schizophrenia. He believed that he could was contacted “out of the blue” by James Moore,
cure mental illness by replacing schizophrenic who had heard of Wasson’s discovery of psycho-
personalities with newly created ones. The CIA active mushrooms and asked to accompany him
had no interest in treating schizophrenia, but it on his next expedition. Wasson accepted without
was very interested in the possibility of rebuild- knowing that Moore was a CIA agent, who would
ing personality; MKULTRA began covertly fund- collect mushroom specimens for government
ing Cameron’s experiments in 1957. Cameron’s analysis. While not part of MKULTRA, related psy-
“depatterning” process consisted of two stages. In chedelic research was funded by the U.S. Army
the first stage, amnesia was induced through an in its investigation of chemical weapons. George
extreme form of “sleep therapy”, where subjects Aghajanian, a respected professor of Psychiatry at
were heavily sedated and given daily electro- Yale, worked with LSD in the 1960s at the Edge-
shock treatments over a period of several weeks. wood Arsenal, where the Army looked into the
Cameron would next attempt to construct a new use of LSD as an incapacitating agent. Aghajanian
personality through “psychic driving” during was involved with research investigating aerosol-
which subjects were forced to listen to repeating ized administration of LSD, a technique previously
tape loops, designed to restructure their psyches, explored by MUKLTRA.8 Current LSD research still
for as long as sixteen hours a day for another sev- prominently cites his work. Psychiatrist Sidney Co-
eral weeks. They were sometimes restrained in hen, author of important early papers on LSD’s ef-
beds, and frequently given doses of LSD. fects, also worked at Edgewood.9 It is difficult to
find researchers of psychedelics in the 1950s and
At least 86 universities or institutions were in- 1960s who were not funded by or involved with
volved in MKULTRA projects in varying capaci- Cold War agendas in some capacity, either wit-
ties.6 Many MKULTRA researchers were highly tingly or unwittingly. This leads to an uncomfort-
regarded; Cameron was president of the Ameri- able conclusion: the history of psychedelic drugs

the lsd stories • PAGE 164


in the United States in the twentieth century is saturated with influence from the intelligence com-
munity and military.
Of the CIA’s three primary objectives for working with
psychoactive drugs, the Agency was only successful
in finding techniques to induce amnesia through the
combination of barbiturates and electroshock thera-
py. Attempts to develop truth serums and selective
brainwashing techniques were largely unsuccessful.
Cameron was unsuccessful in creating new per-
sonalities. He found that personality characteris-
tics might become dormant after inducing am-
nesia, but they would consistently re-emerge. His
research suggests that personalities can be tem-
porarily wiped out but not recreated—at least not
through “depatterning”. The hypnosis techniques
developed by Morse Allen were deemed insuffi-
cient for operational use, because gains in control
were offset by a critical loss of initiative. “If you
have one hundred percent control, you have one
hundred percent dependency,” an MKULTRA veter-
an says of Allen’s experiments. “If something hap-
pens and you haven’t programmed it in, you’ve
got a problem. If you try to put flexibility in, you
lose control. To the extent that you let the agent
choose, you don’t have control.”3
The CIA investigated dozens of drugs searching for
a truth serum, but they were mostly unsuccessful.
Their primary candidates, sodium pentothal, LSD,
and THC, all worked in roughly the same way—sub-
jects became bewildered and forgot who they were
talking to and what they were saying. This technique
was successful in getting subjects to lower their
guard, but it introduced new problems.
the lsd stories • PAGE 165
Mixed Results
Interrogators found that subjects, having lost the ability to distinguish between fantasy and re-
ality, would sometimes confess to things that they clearly had not done. Two truth drug psychia-
trists wrote, “In some respects the demands on [the
psy
“The best safeguard against abuses in the future chiatrist’s] skill will be increased by the baffling mix-
is a complete public accounting of the abuses of the past.” ture of truth and fantasy in drug-induced output.”2
Despite early fears of communist brainwashing,
~ Senator Edward Kennedy on MK-ULTRA several studies concluded that the use of psycho-
active drugs behind the Iron Curtain was negli-
gible. In one prominent 1953 MKULTRA study,
psychiatrists Lawrence Hinkle and Harold Wolff
concluded that China and the Soviet Union relied
on brutality and re-education to change behav-
“where ior. A 1956 CIA report found that the most reli-
some people able technique for converting subjects to new
see tools of liberation ideologies was a combination of sleep depriva-
and insight, others tion, repeated interrogation, and isolation. “The
see weapons.” prisoner invariably feels that something must be
done to find a way out. [...] Ultimately, he finds
himself faced with the choice of continuing in-
terminably under the intolerable pressures of his
captors or accepting the way out which the in-
terrogator offers.”10 While brute force achieved
impressive results, the surgical precision sought
by the Agency was not available through this
method.
Aftermath and Legacy
MKULTRA was discontinued in 1964, and many
of its sub-projects—including the San Francis-
co LSD project—were incorporated into its suc-
cessor MKSEARCH. Sidney Gottlieb remained in
charge. When CIA Director Richard Helms left of-
fice in 1972, he and Gottlieb ordered all records
of the operation destroyed.
MKULTRA came to light in 1974 following a New York Times article written by Seymour Hersh. The There is considerable evidence that the U.S. intelligence community continues to tolerate or even
article revealed that the CIA had conducted clandestine operations inside the U.S. in violation of its encourage a similar culture of human rights violations in its execution of the “War on Terror”.12
mandate, including the commission of crimes such as opening citizens’ mail. Still in the throes of Former CIA Director George Tenet has publicly defended “enhanced interrogation techniques” (e.g.
Watergate, the nation was outraged, and the Senate responded by investigating abuses of power waterboarding, stress positions) in the wake of 9/11. Former CIA and FBI Director William Webster
by the U.S. Intelligence Community. Committees led by Edward Kennedy6 and Frank Church11 is- advocated the use of truth drugs on captives held in Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, in 2002.13 The law-
sued extensive reports documenting MKULTRA and other illegal operations such as the notorious yer for Jose Padilla, the detained American accused of planning to detonate a radiological “dirty
FBI program COINTELPRO. Frank Olson’s death (described at the time as a suicide) became public bomb”, has repeatedly insisted that Padilla was given “LSD or some other truth drug” during inter-
knowledge, prompting President Gerald Ford to apologize to the Olson family. Coming to terms rogation.14 There is no clear way to confirm or deny this claim. Ultimately, MKULTRA was a small
with MKULTRA helps illuminate the shadow of psychedelic history, and serves as a valuable and not-terribly-successful project at the CIA’s massive Directorate of Science and Technology.
reminder that where some people see tools of liberation and insight, others see weapons. While Gottlieb and Morse were experimenting with LSD and hypnosis, agents down the hall were
Journalist John Marks later located seven boxes of designing the world’s first spy satellites and manag-
MKULTRA records that had escaped destruction ing a fleet of U-2 spy planes.15 But despite its small
due to a filing error. In 1977 Marks obtained heav- scope, MKULTRA is central to the history of psyche-
ily-redacted copies of the documents after filing a delics because the project touched so many key fig-
Freedom of Information Act request. Those records ures involved with the early psychedelic movement.
became the basis for his excellent 1979 book The Coming to terms with MKULTRA helps illuminate the
Search for the Manchurian Candidate. In response shadow of psychedelic history, and serves as a valu-
to public outcry, Presidents Ford and Reagan signed able reminder that where some people see tools of
executive orders (11905 and 12333) forbidding tests liberation and insight, others see weapons.
on humans by the intelligence community without
informed consent. However, MKULTRA already vio- References
lated existing policies and laws, which raises trou-
bling questions. Does covert testing on humans 1. Saunders FS. The Cultural Cold War. New Press. 2001. P 17.
continue today? There is certainly no indication that 2. Streatfeild D. Brainwash. St. Martin’s Press. 2007. p
23,162,66,56.
the CIA experienced a change of heart. In 1954 the 3. Marks J. The Search for the Manchurian Candidate. W.
Agency found Gottlieb responsible for violations of W. Norton. 1979. p 62,53,203.
Agency policy and law that led to the death of Frank 4. Starr J. A Voice for the Dead. Putnam Adult. 2005.
Olson, yet Gottlieb remained in charge of MKULTRA 5. Isbell H, Belleville RE, Fraser HF, et al. “Studies on lysergic
and MKSEARCH until 1972. The CIA’s sole response acid diethylamide (LSD-25). I. Effects in former morphine
addicts and development of tolerance during chronic in-
to Olson’s death was an internal memo noting that toxication”. Arch Neurol Psychiatr. Nov 1956;76:468–78.
Gottlieb had shown “poor judgment”. In 1977 Gott- 6. Select Committee on Intelligence and Committee on
lieb was granted immunity from prosecution in ex- Human Resources [Kennedy Commission]. Joint Senate
change for providing testimony at the Senate hear- Hearing Report. Hearing, Aug 3, 1977. p 109.
ings. No employee of the CIA was ever terminated 7. Greenfield P. “CIA’s Behavior Caper”. APA Monitor. Amer-
ican Psychological Association. Dec 1977:1,10–11.
for dosing subjects with LSD without their knowl- 8. Ketchum JS, Aghajanian GK, Bing OHL. “The human as-
edge,6 and despite the strident tones of the Senate sessment of EA1729 [LSD] and EA3528 by the inhalation
hearings, no criminal charges have ever been filed route”. Chemical Research and Development Labs, Edge-
related to MKULTRA. wood Arsenal MD. 1964.
9. Ketchum JS. Chemical Warfare. James S. Ketchum. 2006. p 231.
10. Central Intelligence Agency. “Brainwashing from a Psy-
chological Viewpoint”. Feb 1956. p 45.
the lsd stories • PAGE 166
11. Senate Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to
Intelligence Activites [Church Committee]. Senate Report Series. 1975–6.
12. Hersh SM. Chain of Command. Harper Perennial. 2005.
13. Johnson K, Willing R. “Ex-CIA chief revitalizes ‘truth serum’ debate”. USA Today.
Apr 26, 2002.
14. Anderson C. “Judge rejects bid to have terror charges dismissed”. Associated
Press. Apr 10, 2007.
15. Richelson JT. The Wizards of Langley. Westview Press. 2002.
The Family Jewels
Aka: The Bush Family Jewels [817] • 702 Pages
The “Family Jewels” report was the result of a general order by CIA Director
James Schlesinger given May 7, 1973 to all CIA employees instructing them
to report any activity “which might be construed by reasonable people to
be outside the legislative charter of [the CIA]” (see pp. 3-4). Schlesinger ap-
parently issued the order to prepare for his role in the ongoing Watergate
investigations, and indeed much of the resulting 703 page report pertains
to persons and operations related to Watergate crimes. This collection of
documents and memos became known as the “Family Jewels”.
The “Family Jewels” report gained notoriety after part of it was leaked to in-
vestigative reporter Seymour Hersh, who wrote an article for the New York
Times in December 1974. His article describes a National Security Agency
(NSA) operation in which more than 250,000 pieces of domestic first-class
mail were intercepted and photographed by that agency – a serious violation
of their charter and of Federal law. The New York Times article precipitated
an outcry that led directly to three investigations led by Vice President Nel-
son Rockefeller, Senator Edward “Ted” Kennedy, and Senator Frank Church.
The Church Committee convened for nearly three years and eventually pro-
duced an enormous report that copiously documented numerous illegal op-
erations. Among the most notorious were CIA Project MKULTRA in which US
citizens were given LSD by CIA agents without their knowledge or consent,
and the FBI operation COINTELPRO in which putatively-subversive people
and groups ranging from the Black Panther Party to the Parent Teacher Asso-
ciation were scrutinized and, in some cases, made the target of harassment
and even assassination. In 2007, amid much fanfare and press coverage, the
original “Family Jewels” document was released. While a complete analysis
of the 703-page report has not yet been completed, the report appears to
contain few, if any, revelations. Most of the material documented in the re-
the lsd stories • PAGE 167
port has been a matter of public record since the time of the
Church Committee hearings. In addition, the “Family Jewels”
report has been heavily redacted, and a full 15% of the pages
in the report have been completely blanked out. Nonethe-
less, some of the documents have some historical interest.
Documents that pertain to areas of Erowid interest, especial-
ly projects involving drugs or “narcotics”, have been collected
and sorted into one volume.
Contents
Director James Schlesinger’s original general order to report
actions outside of the CIA charter
MKULTRA and Edgewood Arsenal
CIA/Army project in which behavioral drugs that had been
rejected because of negative side effects are delivered to
the US Army Edgewood Arsenal for animal experiments and
testing on US Military volunteers
Senior CIA official Carl Duckett believes the Director would
be ill-advised to say he is acquainted with MKULTRA
MKULTRA Director Sidney Gottlieb reports the support the
Technical Services Division has given other Agencies
CIA and BNDD Corruption
Howard Osborn describes Project TWO-FOLD (also TWO-
FOLD) in which the CIA assisted the Bureau of Narcotics and
Dangerous Drugs (BNDD) in forming an internal security unit
to investigate corruption within the BNDD
BNDD head Robert Ingersoll asked CIA Director Richard
Helms for assistance in recruiting agents for narcotics inves-
tigation as well as internal affairs issues
Excerpt from a memo by Harry Pisner describing Project
TWOFOLD
CIA Directorate of Intelligence sets “Trap” on leaks of Narcot-
ics Intelligence
CIA and Narcotics Crime Investigation
CIA assists law enforcement in monitoring putatively drug-
related telephone communication between the United
States and South America. Deputy Director for Intelligence
and the Director of Domestic Contact Service describes the
conditions under which the CIA will accept information on
the narcotics trade
Miscellaneous Drug-Related Operations
The Poppy Project
Memo on an undescribed CIA-funded “heroin study”
Telephone and Mail Surveillance
“CIA Narcotics Activities Having Domestic Implications”
Procedural Items of Interest
Director of CIA described as talking to Agency employees
about misleading press
General Counsel Lawrence Houston recommends against il-
legal surveillance
Inspector General Report about the use of Psychoactive
Drugs for Interrogations at Guantanamo Bay Prison Camp
The Pentagon Inspector General has released a declassified
report under FOIA discussing the use of psychoactive drugs
on inmates in Gitmo. The report is titled “Investigations of Al-
legations of the Use of Mind-Altering Drugs to Facilitate In-
terrogations of Detainnees (U)”. The report may have been
triggered by widely-reported allegations that Guantanamo
Bay detainee José Padilla was given a “truth serum” by intra-
venous injection. The report describes an incident in which
an unnamed detainee alleges he or she was given an intravenous LSD injection, and concludes that January 30, 1943
LSD was not administered. The report asserts that the detainee was given a routine flu shot, and was OSS unsuccessfully tests a mescaline and scopolamine cocktail as a truth drug on two volunteers at
told that the shot was a truth serum or hallucinogen “as a ruse”. ((U) Appendix 2, pg. 14) The Pentagon St. Elizabeth’s Hospital. 1  
contends the alleged injections were flu shots, and that is mostly what is found in this report. Some May 1943
inmates were diagnosed as schizophrenic and administered Haldol, others were given sedatives, OSS unsuccessfully tests THC as a truth serum. 1  
and effects probably persisted into interrogation sessions. In short, at least as far as the Pentagon 1945
has publicly maintained, psychoactive drugs were never intentionally administered for the sole or The French Medico-Legal Society determines that confessions extracted under sodium pentothal are
primary purpose of interrogation. too unreliable to be used as evidence in court. Its conclusion was accepted by legal systems around
the world. 1  
US CIA Project MK-Ultra September 20, 1945
OSS is disbanded by Harry Truman. Planning immediately commences for the formation of a non-
Basic Timeline
wartime intelligence service.   
1946
1916
The Nuremberg Code is written after Nazi experiments on concentration camp inmates come to light
Scopolamine is observed to promote unguarded speech by obstetrician Robert E. House. It will even-
during the Nuremberg Trials. The Code states that researchers must obtain full voluntary consent
tually be explored as a possible truth serum. 1  
from all subjects, which is official US policy to this day.
1931
1946
Research on the barbiturate sodium pentothal (the proverbial “truth serum”) begins. 1   [Details]. J.
US military intelligence concludes after exploring a number of compounds that the most effective
Stephen Horsley at London Hospital notices that patients treated with the barbiturate Nembutal ap-
truth drugs available are cannabis, followed closely by a combination of alcohol and caffeine. 1  
peared to lose their inhibitions and share very personal information. Interested in this phenomenon
1947
as a possible aid to psychotherapy, he continued experimenting with sodium amytal and sodium
The National Security Act creates the CIA and the National Security Structure.   
pentothal.
1947
1942
The US Navy begins Project CHATTER, a “truth extraction method” research program. The project
Franklin Delano Roosevelt orders the creation of a US intelligence service, designated the Office of
begins investigating possible truth serums.   
Strategic Services (OSS), under the direction of General William “Wild Bill” Donovan.   
1949
1942-43
Hungary tries Cardinal Josef Mindszenty, who publicly confesses to crimes he clearly did not commit.
The OSS “truth drug” committee experiments with barbiturates, scopolamine, and Cannabis indica
The CIA fears that he has been brainwashed by unknown means, reigniting US intelligence interest
as possible truth serums. From its earliest days, US intelligence research into psychoactive drugs de-
in mind control.   
pended heavily on the cooperation of civilian researchers. This research was directed by Dr. Winfred
early 1950s
Overholser of St. Elizabeth’s Hospital, Washington, D.C.
The US Army Edgewood Arsenal begins investigating MDA (designated EA 1298) and MDMA (EA
1942
1475) for possible use as interrogation tools. Toxicity studies are conducted on animals. 2  
British Special Operations Executive (SOE) begins Project SACCHARINE, investigating the use of vari-
1950
ous drugs to aid troops in combat. They evaluate several amphetamines as sources of emergency
The term “brainwashing” appears for the first time in a Miami news article written by Edward Hunter,
energy. 1  
a CIA covert propaganda operator.   
October 1942
April 20, 1950
The OSS is charged with investigating the use of truth drugs to interrogate prisoners of war.   
CIA director Richard Hillenkoetter authorizes CIA Project BLUEBIRD, charged to investigate through
1943
scientific means various forms of mind control including interrogation techniques, brainwashing,
Nazi doctors experiment with mescaline as a truth serum at Dachau and Auschwitz.   
and other behavioral research. The Nazi Dachau experiments are scrutinized, but are determined to
be too saturated with sadism to be useful.   

the lsd stories • PAGE 168

 July 1950 an individual’s behavior by covert means.” The operational division is called MKDELTA, and the whole
Project BLUEBIRD operatives experiment with interrogation techniques on a suspected double agent project is run out of the CIA Technical Services Staff.
in Japan. They investigate debilitating heat, combinations of benzedrine and sodium amytal, and 1953
picrotoxin. Details are scarce, but the operation is considered a success.    MKULTRA focuses its attention strongly on LSD. They continue funneling large amounts of money
December 1950 through various direct and indirect conduits into LSD research. Two primary conduits are the the Ge-
Project BLUEBIRD begins experiments in applying electricity to the brain to effect mind control.    schickter Fund for Medical Research and (for a year or two) the Josiah Macy, Jr. Foundation. Much of
Late 1950 the basic research on LSD over the next several years in the United States may not have been funded
Psychology professor G. Richard Wendt receives $300K from Project CHATTER, along with 30 grams of were it not for MKULTRA.
pure heroin and 11 pounds of cannabis from the Federal Bureau of Narcotics. Student volunteers are May 1953
administered drugs in double-blind studies. Volunteers are never told what they had been given.    MKULTRA hires former Narcotics Bureau officer George White to run a safe house in New York City.
1951 In an operation that will come to be called Midnight Climax, the safe house is used to surreptitiously
Sidney Gottlieb becomes director of the CIA Technical Services Staff.    slip drugs to civilians so their responses can be monitored.   
Late 1951 1953
Project BLUEBIRD concludes that electroshock treatments can produce amnesia, though it also Under the direction of MKULTRA, Dr. Harris Isbell, director of the Addiction Research Center, begins
causes excruciating pain and sometimes reduces subject to a vegetative state.    performing drug tests on his inmate population.    [Details]
1951 Patients, who are confined to the facility to receive treatment for addiction, are paid for participation
Project BLUEBIRD is renamed Project ARTICHOKE and becomes a joint operation between the CIA in Isbell’s experiments with hard drugs. Inmates are injected with large doses of bufotenine, psilocy-
and the US Army, Navy, and Air Force.    bin, scopolamine, LSD, mescaline, and DMT.
1952 1953
Project ARTICHOKE investigates neurosurgery as a tool for behavior modification.    The Sandoz patent on LSD expires, allowing US companies to legally manufacture LSD for the CIA for
1952 the first time.   
Robert Hyde at Boston Psychopathic Hospital begins overseeing $40K a year in CIA funds for LSD September 1953
research.    The CIA negotiates a deal with Sandoz not to sell LSD to the Soviet Union. 1  
Spring 1952 Late 1953
Harvard professor Henry Beecher alerts the British Joint Intelligence Bureau (JIB) to LSD. 1   CIA operatives regularly dose one another unawares with LSD as an ongoing operational experi-
Summer 1952 ment. Some agents have extremely negative reactions.   
CIA Operation CASTIGATE, directed by US Navy Project CHATTER personnel, conducts experiments Late 1953
on a truth serum in Germany. The operation is an embarrassing failure for the Navy, and Project British intelligence administers LSD to Royal Air Force volunteers. They eventually conclude that ‘Re-
CHATTER never recovers. The CIA now has primary ownership of mind control research. 3   [Details] search is desirable into the use of LSD-25 as a possible effective agent for use in interrogation.’ 1  
The Navy’s embarassment was primarily due to the incompetence of their favorite researcher, Pro- Late 1953
fessor G. Richard Wendt, who had assured his Navy handlers that he had developed a reliable truth CIA director Dulles commissions Dr. Harold Wolff to conduct a study on communist brainwashing
serum. After flying Wendt and his mistress to Europe and setting a covert operation in motion, the techniques. After conducting an exhaustive study, Wolff concludes that the Chinese and Soviets use
CIA and Navy operatives were chagrined to learn that Wendt’s truth serum consisted of a thoroughly- a combination of coercion, stress, and pressure, and have no machines, pills, or rays.   
studied and unreliable cocktail of Seconal, Dexedrine, and THC. November 19, 1953
Late 1952 Sidney Gottlieb doses Frank Olson and several other US Army Special Operations Division
Morse Allen, head of Project ARTICHOKE, hears rumors of psychoactive mushrooms, and begins the officers at a CIA/Army joint retreat. Olson responds badly, and falls into lasting depression,
CIA search for them.    vacillating between apparent normalcy and severe paranoia and depression. 3  Although the
April 13, 1953 CIA staffs psychiatrists with security clearances to help people in these circumstances, Got-
CIA director Allen Dulles authorizes Project MKULTRA under the direction of Sidney Gottlieb. Gottlieb tlieb refers Olson to Dr. Harold Abramson, an immunologist with no training in psychiatry, for
later testifies that MKULTRA’s mission was “to investigate whether and how it was possible to modify treatment. Gottlieb is clearly trying to cover for his malfeasance, as dosing Olson and subse-
the lsd stories • PAGE 169
quently failing to report it were in violation of CIA policy and federal law. November 1957
November 28, 1953 The CIA Intelligence Center at Fort Holabird and the Chemical Warfare Laboratories at Edgewood
Frank Olson falls from a hotel window to his death. The event is described as a suicide, though serious begin working together. Thrity to thirty-five volunteers are administered LSD, some of them as many
questions are later raised about this explanation (see 1994). The Olson family made numerous inqui- as twenty times in a two-year period 4  
ries into how Frank Olson was brought from contentment to suicidal depression literally overnight. 1958
The CIA responded by denying any role whatsoever in Olson’s death, but an internal review uncov- John Lilly resigns from NIH, in part because of fears that the military will use his consciousness re-
ered that Gottlieb had violated CIA policy and federal law in dosing Frank Olson. The total fallout of search in unethical ways.   
the internal investigation is a classified memo noting that Gottlieb exercised “poor judgment”, but 1958
also stressing that this should not be considered a reprimand. Under US Army contract, Dr. Gerald Klee administers LSD to volunteers in doses as large as 1200 ug.   
1954 1959
US pharmaceutical company Eli Lilly develops an entirely-synthetic fabrication procedure for LSD. No Albert Hofmann publishes the synthesis of psilocybin, which the CIA has been unable to identify. Dr.
longer constrained by limited ergot supplies, Eli Lilly produces LSD in quantity for the CIA.    Harry Isbell soon procures a quantity and orders it injected into nine inmates at his facility.   
1955 Late 1950s
CIA agent Morse Allen and Dr. Maitland Baldwin of the NIH propose extreme sensory deprivation US Army doctor Van Sim and his colleagues covertly dose Edgewood Arsenal volunteers with LSD.   
experiments. The proposal is shot down during review by CIA medical agents, who suggest that the Late 1950s
experimenters consider “volunteer[ing] their heads for use in Dr. Baldwin’s ‘noble’ project.” 3   Five civilian volunteers at Edgewood Arsenal are given PCP in a search for incapacitating agents.
Early 1955 Experiments are discontinued after one subject ends up in the hospital for six weeks with paranoid
George White opens additional safe houses in San Francisco and Marin, and oversees them along psychosis.   
with the New York safe house. Prostitutes are paid to surreptitiously dose their customers with LSD, April 15, 1961
while being monitored by CIA operatives. This operation is now referred to as Operation Midnight Bay of Pigs invasion ends in disaster. President Kennedy vows to “splinter the CIA into a thousand
Climax.    pieces”. CIA Director Dulles and Deputy CIA Director Charles Cabell are forced to resign. John Mc-
June 29, 1955 Crone is appointed the new Director and is instructed to clean house. 3  
R. Gordon Wasson participates in a psilocybin mushroom velada in Mexico. A few months later he 1963
is contacted by Professor James Moore, who asks to accompany Wasson on his next expedition the Newly-appointed CIA Inspector General John Earman urges CIA director John McCrone to close the
following summer, and offers to underwrite the trip with a $2K grant from the Geschickter Fund. Un- Operation Midnight Climax safe houses. 3   Earman finds “the concepts involved in manipulating hu-
beknownst to Wasson, Moore is a CIA agent, and the Geschickter Fund is an MKULTRA conduit.    man behavior ... to be distasteful and unethical.” He finds that numerous unwitting civilian subjects
1956 became ill for hours or days because of substances they were given, and notes that outside doctors
Dr. Ewen Cameron tests LSD in conjunction with “depatterning” experiments designed to reprogram should be discouraged from learning the real reasons of illness. Gottlieb’s supervisor Richard Helms
personalities. His research soon comes to the attention of the CIA.    advocates for the continuance of Midnight Climax. McCrone takes no action and the safe houses
Summer 1956 remain operational.
CIA operative James Moore accompanies Wasson and Robert Heim to Mexico and brings back sam- 1964
ples of psilocybin mushrooms. CIA agents are unable to isolate the active principle.    Project MKULTRA becomes Project MKSEARCH. Several programs are discontinued, while several
1957 more carry on under new administration, including George White’s safe houses, funding for LSD test-
A CIA report states that six psychoactive drugs have been moved out of the experimental stage and ing on Federal penitentiary inmates, sensory deprivation experiments, and covert funding for psy-
into operational use.    choactive research made through the Geschickter Foundation.
1957 1965
The CIA begins issuing sizable grants to Dr. Ewen Cameron to support his “depatterning” research. The CIA closes the San Francisco Midnight Climax safe house.   
Cameron also begins studying sensory deprivation in this year.    1966
The CIA closes the New York City Midnight Climax safe house.   

the lsd stories • PAGE 170

 1966 1975
The CIA continues drug-assisted interrogations until at least this year.    Harry Isbell tells a Senate Subcommittee “The ethical codes were not so highly developed, and there
1966 was a great need to know in order to protect the public in assessing the potential uses of narcotics ...
MKSEARCH funds the Amazon Natural Drug Company to investigate plant-based toxins and drugs. I personally think we did a very excellent job.”
The group researches yage/ayahuasca and numerous other psychoactive substances.    July 1975
1967 The Olson family learns that Frank was surreptitiously dosed with LSD, after decades of denial by
The Geschickter Fund is discontinued as a CIA conduit.    the CIA that there were any unusual circumstances to his death. Frank’s widow describes Gottlieb as
1968 “despicable”.   
CIA Project OFTEN begins at the US Army Edgewood Arsenal to investigate the effects of various August 1975
drugs on animals and humans.    The US Army discloses its role in Harold Blauer’s 1953 death (see above). His daughter initiates a se-
1972 ries of lawsuits and is eventually awarded more than $700K in damages.    [More Info]
Gottlieb ends MKSEARCH, observing “It has become increasingly obvious over the last several years February 18, 1976
that this general area has less and less relevance to current clandestine operations.” 3   President Ford signs Executive Order 11905, stating that “Foreign intelligence agencies shall not
1972 engage in experimentation with drugs on human subjects, except with the informed consent...”.   
Richard Nixon purges CIA director Richard Helms for reasons that are unclear. James Schlesinger is 1977
named head of the Agency.    John Marks files a FOIA request, eventually obtaining redacted versions of the surviving seven boxes
1972 of MKULTRA records. He begins the research that leads to the publication of his book The Search for
Helms and Gottlieb order destruction of all MKULTRA records. As a result of a clerical error, seven the Manchurian Candidate.   
boxes of documents are spared.    1977
1972 Sidney Gottlieb is granted immunity from prosecution in exchange for senate testimony. He is now
In the aftermath of Watergate, CIA director Schlesinger orders all CIA employees to inform him of 59 years old.   
illegal actions they have conducted in their operations, and he learns of Frank Olson’s death. Part of December 4, 1981
the resulting report is leaked to investigative journalist Seymour Hersh.    Ronald Reagan signs Executive Order 12333. All human subjects experiments conducted by the In-
1973 telligence Community must meet DHS requirements, including informed consent.    [More Info]
Project OFTEN is canceled.    1993
May 1974 The Chemical Weapons Convention is presented to the United Nations. The United States ratifies it,
Seymour Hersh writes an article for the New York Times detailing criminal CIA domestic operations, accepting its provisions in banning chemical weapons research.   
creating an uproar. President Ford appoints committee chaired by VP Nelson Rockefeller to investi- 1994
gate intelligence improprieties.    James Starrs, a George Washington University forensic pathologist, examines Frank Olson’s exhumed
June 1974 corpse and calls the evidence “rankly and starkly suggestive of homicide.” He describes clear evi-
President Ford’s Chief of Staff Donald Rumsfeld and his deputy Dick Cheney advocate prosecuting dence of blunt force trauma to the head prior to Olson’s fall. 3   [More Info]
Hersh for revealing classified information. The matter is referred to the Justice Department.    [More
Info] References
1974
Senator Frank Church heads a Senate committee investigation of CIA malfeasance.    1. Streatfeild, D. Brainwash. St. Martin’s Press. 2007.
1975 2. Grob CS, Polond RE. “MDMA”. In: Lowlinson JH, Ruiz P, Millman RB, Langrod JG (Eds). Substance
Senator Edward Kennedy’s Subcommittee on Health and Scientific Research holds public hearings Abuse: A Comprehensive Textbook. Williams & Wilkins. 1997. pp. 269-275.
on MKULTRA. The investigation is something of a showboating opportunity. The Subcommittee does 3. Marks J. The Search for the Manchurian Candidate. W. W. Norton & Co, 1979.
not pursue any of the numerous, obvious perjuries.    [More Info] 4. Ketchum JS. Chemical Warfare: Secrets Almost Forgotten. James S. Ketchum, 2006.

the lsd stories • PAGE 171

 take part in pregame warm-ups, where they could be seen
by early-arriving fans, he was ordered by management to
remove them henceforth before setting foot onto the
Doc On LSD field. An angry Ellis denounced the order to the press,
Doc Ellis’ 1970 No Hitter • A Baseball First maintaining that it was discriminatory and had been
issued at the behest of the commissioner’s of-
June 1970 fice: “I know the orders came from [baseball
commissioner] Bowie Kuhn, and I don’t
like it. Look around, there are fellows
Dock Phillip Ellis, best remembered as the winningest pitcher on who wear white shoes in prac-
the champion 1971 Pittsburgh Pirates baseball club, was also tice. Some wear jackets. Oth-
one of his sport’s more colorful personalities, although his ers don’t wear hats. I wasn’t
exploits were generally overshadowed by those of players going to say anything,
like Curt Flood, Richie Allen and Reggie Jackson­—more tal- but since they seem to
ented and more controversial. Ellis’ intolerance for slights
which he perceived to be related to the color of his skin
was well-established long before he reached the major
leagues. He declined to play on his high school’s baseball
team because it was coached by a “racist,” and while in the
minor leagues he once took a bat into the stands in pursuit of
a racially-motivated heckler. He was also the subject of several
headline-grabbing altercations with others during his prime years
in the big leagues:

On May 5th, 1972, Dock Ellis engaged in an argument with a se-

curity guard who barred him from entering through the play-
ers’ gate at Cincinnati’s Riverfront Stadium and then maced
him. The guard, David Hatter, maintained that Ellis had failed
to adequately identify himself, “made threatening gestures with
a clenched fist,” and was carrying a half-empty bottle of wine; El-
lis denied that he had intended to punch the guard or was carry-
ing a bottle of wine and claimed he was rebuffed (and sprayed with
mace) despite proffering his World Series ring as proof of identity. Ellis
was brought before Municipal Court in Cincinnati for disorderly conduct
a few months later, but the charges were dropped after his attorney re-
ported to the court that Ellis and Hatter had settled their differences. The
Cincinnati Reds ball club later apologized to Ellis and fired Hatter, and
the Pirates’ general manager issued ID cards to all the Pittsburgh players.
In August 1973, after Ebony magazine ran a piece featuring Ellis’ variety
of hair styles, the pitcher took to wearing curlers to the ballpark. When
Ellis started leaving the curlers in place as he exited the clubhouse to

the lsd stories • PAGE 172

be aiming in my direction, I’m going to say things. They didn’t put out any orders about Joe Pepitone when
he wore a hairpiece down to his shoulders.” In 1974, feeling that his teammates had lost their aggres-
siveness and were too easily intimidated, Ellis decided to put on a show against the Cincinnati Reds
who had come from behind to defeat the Pirates for the 1972 National League pennant on a run-
scoring wild pitch in the bottom of the ninth inning of the final playoff game. In a May 1 start against
the Reds—having announced before the game that “We gonna get down. We gonna do the do. I’m go-
ing to hit these motherfuckers.” — Ellis opened the contest by drilling lead-off hitter Pete Rose in the
ribs; hitting the next batter, Joe Morgan, in the side; and then plunking Dan Driessen in the back to
load the bases. Although clean-up hitter Tony Perez managed to dodge Ellis’ pitches long enough to
draw a walk before being hit, Dock aimed his next two offerings at Cincinnati catcher Johnny Bench’s
the lsd stories • PAGE 173
head, whereupon he was unceremoniously yanked from the game by Pittsburgh manager Danny
Murtaugh. But, oddly enough, the most notorious aspect of Dock Ellis’ playing days wasn’t disclosed
until several years after he had retired, and it involved an accomplishment that is usually the highlight
of any pitcher’s career caused by a pharmaceutical that’s not. On June 12th, 1970, Ellis hurled the first
no-hitter of the 1970 season as he blanked the Padres 2-0 in the opening game of a double-header
in San Diego. Ellis’ feat was a bit unusual in that he seemed particularly wild that day, walking eight
batters and hitting one, but many pitchers have achieved stellar results despite laboring with obvi-
ous control problems. Yankee hurler Bill Bevens came within one out of throwing a no-hitter against
Brooklyn in the fourth game of the 1947 World Series despite issuing the Dodgers an astounding ten
bases on balls. In post-game interviews Ellis said he had been thinking about a no-hitter from the
fourth inning onwards and attributed his wild-
ness to his efforts to keep the ball away from
hitters:
“I know guys who don’t want to talk about it, but
if you’re going to throw [a no-hitter], you’re go-
ing to throw it. The ball I was throwing was mov-
ing. I was keeping the ball away from the hitters.
That’s why I walked so many.”
Fourteen years later, however, Dock Ellis re-
vealed an alternative explanation for his lack
of control that day: he was under the influence
of LSD at the time. According to accounts he
gave the press in April 1984, Ellis had spent
the morning of June 12th, 1970 relaxing in his
home town of Los Angeles, under the mistaken
belief that the Pirates had the day off. Ellis said
he ingested LSD around noon, but at about
1:00 PM his girlfriend picked up a newspaper
and discovered that not only were the Pirates
scheduled to play a double-header in San Di-
ego that evening, but Ellis was slated to start
the first game for Pittsburgh. Ellis’ compan-
ion hustled him off to the airport by 3:30 PM
and got him on a flight to San Diego, where
he arrived at 4:30 PM, in time for the double-
header’s 6:05 PM start. Ellis told reporters he
remembered little of what took place during
the game itself:
“I can only remember bits and pieces of the game.
I was psyched. I had a feeling of euphoria.”
“I was zeroed in on the [catcher’s] glove, but I
didn’t hit the glove too much. I remember hitting
a couple of batters and the bases were loaded two
or three times. The ball was small sometimes, the
ball was large sometimes, sometimes I saw the
catcher, sometimes I didn’t. Sometimes I tried to
stare the hitter down and throw while I was look-
ing at him. I chewed my gum until it turned to
the lsd stories • PAGE 174
powder. They say I had about three to four field-
ing chances. I remember diving out of the way of
a ball I thought was a line drive. I jumped, but the
ball wasn’t hit hard and never reached me.”
Only Dock Ellis knows whether or not he actu-
ally took LSD the day he pitched his no-hitter
[Editor’s note: Ellis’ use of LSD on game day is
now reliably verified by Ellis himself ], and even
if he did ingest LSD that day, judging by the
extent to which the drug can affect different
people in different ways by the time he took
part in that evening’s game whether he was
still under the influence of LSD is no longer
questionable. Baseball is a difficult game to
play at the major league level, even for skilled
professionals free from the effects of mind-al-
tering substances, yet Ellis managed to pitch
a complete game that evening, apparently
did not act so unusually that his teammates
or manager took notice, and was quite lucid
while conducting post-game interviews with
the press. Of course, since it’s a long-stand-
ing baseball superstition that players should
avoid speaking to a teammate who is in the
midst of pitching a no-hitter, the other Pirates
likely had little or no interaction with Ellis in
the dugout during the latter half of the game.
Although Ellis might correctly be described as
having been “under the influence of LSD” dur-
ing his no-hitter, quite possibly the drug’s pri-
mary effects had peaked and were wearing
off by game time. Dock Ellis’ recollections are
also somewhat questionable. Ellis maintained
that he never pitched again while under the
influence of LSD after his 1970 no-hitter, but
he later said he had also taken the drug before
the 1974 Cincinnati game in which he inten-
tionally threw at the first several batters. An
unfortunate aspect of Dock Ellis’ admission is
that he is now remembered by many people,
especially those too young to have seen him
play during his heyday with the Pirates, as “the guy who pitched a no-hitter on LSD,” a characterization
which not only slights a baseball career that included some very fine moments, but also obscures the
many acts of charity and conscience in which Ellis engaged both during and after his playing days. He
worked with the Pennsylvania Department of Corrections to rehabilitate black prisoners, helped start
the Black Athletes Foundation for Sickle Cell Research, and served as the coordinator of an anti-drug
program in Los Angeles before passing away from liver disease in 2008.

Sources:
Goldaper, Sam.   “Roundup: Ellis of
Pirates Stops Padres on No-Hitter.”
The New York Times.   13 June 1970 
(p. 39).
Goldstein, Richard.   “Dock Ellis, All-
Star Pitcher Who Overcame Long-
time Addictions, Dies at 63.”
The New York Times.   20 December
2008.
Hall, Donald.   Dock Ellis in the
Country of Baseball.
New York: Fireside Press, 1976.   ISBN
0-671-65988-X.
Rogers, Thomas.   “Personalities:
Back in Groove.”
The New York Times.   11 July 1972 
(p. 30).
Rogers, Thomas.   “People in Sports:
Aussies Call on Laver.”
The New York Times.   14 August
1973   (p. 26).
White, Gordon S., Jr.   “Personalities:
Ellis vs. Guard.”
The New York Times.   10 July 1972 
(p. 41).
Associated Press.   “Pirates to Get
I.D. Cards.”
The New York Times.   9 May 1972 
(p. 53).
Jet.   “Former Star Dock Ellis Says
Fear of Success Drove Him to Use
Drugs.” 30 April 1984   (p. 49).
The New York Times.   “Sports Peo-
ple: No-Hitter and Drugs.” 8 April
1984   (Sports; p. 9).
The Washington Post.   “Baseball.” 8
April 1984   (p. F2).

Dock Ellis (above, left), Roberto Clemente, and Willie Stargell

accompanied by 3 gorgeous women in the early 70’s at a Pirates game

the lsd stories • PAGE 175

 Mind Control:
My Mother, The CIA & LSD
October 1994

Elizabeth Nickson

In the 1950s the CIA set up a secret project called MKUltra to develop techniques for controlling hu-
man behaviour, with the ultimate aim of creating political assassins. As part of its experiments, thou-
sands of civilians “African-Americans, prostitutes and Canadian psychiatric patients“ were subjected,
often unwittingly, to the most extreme exposure to mind-altering drugs. The project’s chief psychia-
trist treated the author’s mother. She was lucky. Many others lost everything, including their lives ...
In 1954 my mother was admitted to the Allan Memorial Institute in Montreal suffering from post-na-
tal depression. She spent two months in the hospital and while there came under the care of Ewen
Cameron, the head of the American Psychiatric Association, who re-diagnosed her as a paranoid
schizophrenic. The diagnosis was to be repeated and hardened as years went by, even though she
never re-entered the hospital, only seeing Dr Cameron as an out-patient and even then only occa-
sionally. In 1967, Cameron died and she was released to a mostly happy, productive and creative life.
She was one of the lucky ones.
In 1957, three years after my mother’s release, Cameron had stepped up his treatments under the
direct encouragement of the CIA, who financed him in a behavioural control project called MKUltra.
For the next six or seven years, hundreds of Canadians were experimented on, without their consent,
while the psychiatric profession stood silently by, bound by the codes of its calling. From 1957 until

the lsd stories • PAGE 176

1963, despite the misgivings of many in government and clinical medicine, Cameron became one of
the most funded, published and renowned psychiatrists in the West. Cameron had been a friend of
Allen Dulles, the head of the CIA, ever since Dulles had chosen him to serve as the American psychi-
atric representative at Nuremberg, where he was to judge whether Rudolf Hess was fit to stand trial.
The Scots-born psychiatrist was a naturalised American who, though he refused to become a Cana-
dian resident, after the war became the chief of his own hospital in Montreal, a 30-minute drive from
the US border. Crucially to the CIA, this meant that the experiments they wanted Cameron to carry
out could be conducted on Canadians. As CIA psychologist John Gittinger pointed out in a deposi-
tion made during the 1980s, Canadians were deemed to be of little interest to the American public.
In 1977, with the release of documents under the US Freedom
of Information Act, Cameron was discovered to have run the
most extreme trials in mind control, using massive amounts
of shock treatments, drugs like LSD and PCP, and particularly
invasive forms of therapy he had devised called ‘depatterning’
and ‘psychic driving’.
The Montreal Experiments, as they were later to be known,
were instituted in 1953, at the start of the cold war. They were
arguably the most extravagant example of the US govern-
ment’s widespread programme in human experimentation.
Much of it is only now coming to public attention. The CIA has
admitted to supporting human behaviour control research at
150 institutions, including 44 universities and various hospi-
tals, prisons and drug companies. In the 1970s, thousands of
soldiers were unwittingly given LSD. They had been told they
were testing gas masks and protective gear. The army also
exposed up to 3,000 soldiers to BZ, a powerful hallucinogen,
under development as a chemical weapon. The drug attacks
the nervous system, causing dizziness, vomiting and immo-
bility.
Thousands more participated in a Medical Volunteer pro-
gramme testing nerve gas, vaccines and antidotes. The ori-
gins of the MKUltra programme were forged in 1951, after the
Soviets had apparently persuaded Hungary’s Cardinal Joszef
Mindszenty, an outspoken anti-communist, to confess to es-
pionage. Allen Dulles, head of the newly-born CIA, reasoned that the Soviets had made substantial
scientific breakthroughs in behavioural control. When fresh-faced American kids, released POWs
from Korean prison camps, were decanted on to the streets of American cities, passing out leaflets
on the joys of communism, Eisenhower demanded action. Dulles responded by initiating an entire
series of programmes in mind control, with acronyms like Bluebird, Artichoke, MKUltra, MKDelta and
the lsd stories • PAGE 177
with snares and whirlpools of danger. We decided to hate the place where we grew up and we dis-
trusted everyone, including, as time went by, our childhood friends. We clung to each other in an
interlocking net of dependency and fear that only loosened when we grew much older. Nothing
was ever deemed real until we had decided it to be real. And under all that complication was the
overwhelming fear that we might lose our mother again, forever. In the event my mother did suffer
some temporary memory loss, but nothing to compare with some other patients who were admitted
nearer to the formal start of the CIA programme. Leslie Orkilov, for example, who would later bring a
suit against the Canadian government, lost her mother for two years. Velma Orkilov had complained
of not wanting to have sex with her husband after Leslie’s birth. Cameron submitted her to the entire
depatterning programme. When she came home, Leslie re-
ported to the Winnipeg Free Press: “She was never a complete
person again. It was no joy living in that family. I wonder how we
lived through it. It was one long nightmare.”
Other patients lost their families. Linda MacDonald, a 57-year-
old Vancouver woman, was admitted to the Allan when she
was 25, for fatigue and depression following the birth of her
fifth child. She was put into a drug-induced sleep for at least
86 days. She lost all memory of her life, including the ability to
read and write. After she was released, she needed toilet train-
ing, and eventually lost her husband and six children. Many
more of Cameron’s former patients became destitute. Still
others wasted away and died. Ewen Cameron read science
fiction every night before he went to sleep. In 1948, news re-
ports of the invention of the Cerebrophone, a tape machine
that taught people while they slept, caught his eye. He had
one built at the Allan. He used the repeating messages, the
speaker under the pillow, the subliminal approach to a sup-
posedly defenceless human mind, to form the bedrock of the
procedure he was to call “psychic driving”.
Cameron wanted to automate psychotherapy and most of all
he wanted to cure schizophrenia. He also wanted to win the
Nobel prize. By 1953, he had become convinced of the effi-
cacy of repetition. Repetition of a key phrase, uttered by the
patient in taped interviews, caused, as he wrote ‘discomfort, embarrassment, aversion and resent-
ment’. In all this storm of emotion, he reasoned, must lie insight. He had a technician create a loop
in tapes so that he could play back to the patient 30-second-long repetitions of significant things
she or he had related to the doctor. The impact was powerful. The patient would become obsessed
by the phrase, losing sleep, losing the ability to concentrate on anything else. Cameron would often legs and shocking them at the end of the message. After three weeks, a positive message would
have to sedate the patient. From sedation to experimenting with psychoactive drugs was a short replace the negative, with the purpose of rebuilding a new personality on the wreckage of the old.
step. It seemed that it was now possible, through compounds found in antihistamines, a forerunner After 10 days of this, the patient was drugged into a complete sleep for two weeks, while his or her
of chlorpromazine, and barbiturates to keep the patient in a controlled sleep for 65 days without se- unconscious absorbed the new dominating force and conveniently forgot everything he or she had
rious side-effects. Since patients objected strenuously to repetition, he tried to make them more re- experienced.
ceptive through chemistry. One of the drugs used
was LSD. In the early 1950s, there were few alternatives
to Cameron’s methods. The first half of the 20th
Cameron’s next step was to overwhelm totally century provides a litany of maltreatments of the
the patients’ old behavior patterns. The best ‘mad’: procedures that swung the patient around
way to do this was through electro-shock ther- in a rotary machine to induce vomiting, or a Ger-
apy, reinforced by drugs. Page-Russell shock man practice which placed the patient in a cof-
treatment, one of the forms of shock therapy fin with holes drilled into the lid and lowered the
used at the time, was named after the two Brit- coffin into water until it was submerged. Many
ish doctors who developed it and involved an were cured to death.
initial shock followed by five to nine smaller
shocks. Page and Russell recommended using In America, from 1907 to 1933, the renowned
the treatment once or twice a week. By the time and much praised Henry Cotton was so desper-
Cameron’s treatment was standardised in 1955, ate for a cure for mental ‘disease’ that he would
he was using the procedure two or three times systematically remove the organs of his patients
a day and called it ‘depatterning’. at Trenton State Hospital, starting with teeth,
then leading to tonsils, the stomach, the small
Depatterning usually lasted from 15 to 30 days. intestine, the bladder and so on. He had a death
According to reports from hospital workers at rate of 25 per cent but by the 1920s was claiming
the time, the screaming echoed down the halls an 85 per cent recovery rate. People flocked to
of the hospital. When the sedatives wore thin, him. By comparison, Cameron’s procedures were
patients would try to escape and the staff would relatively benign.
have to chase after them. Once the patient was
completely confused in all spheres, psychic driv- In 1957, Cameron received his first CIA grant and
ing began. For the first three weeks, the patient stepped up the intensity of his psychic driving
was drugged into a half sleep, a football helmet procedure. He also began work on sensory de-
clamped on to his or her head and the ‘nega- privation, another even more extreme ‘therapy’
tive’ driving message played up to 20 hours a of which he and Dulles were hopeful. He had a
day. The message would say something simple- ‘box’ built in the converted stable behind his hos-
minded like: ‘My mother hates me, my husband pital and left one woman in the box for 35 days.
wants to divorce me, my children hate me. I am Before prescribing this treatment, Cameron had
a failure at everything I try,’ in the patient’s own diagnosed the 52-year-old Mary C: “... conversion
voice. With some patients, Cameron intensified reaction in a woman of the involutional age with
the negative effect by running wires to their mental anxiety: hypochondriatic.’” Mary C was go-

the lsd stories • PAGE 178

ing through menopause. Cameron also injected some sen-
sory deprivation patients with curare, a paralytic, presum-
ably to immobilise them further.
The CIA claims that it ceased funding Cameron in 1961.
Some researchers insist that the agency continued up un-
til the end of 1963. Either way, Cameron left the Allan Me-
morial in 1964 after his funding evaporated. Three years
later he died of a heart attack while mountain climbing
near his home in Lake Placid, New York. The same year an
independent study by Doctors Swartz and Termansen,
commissioned by Cameron’s successor, found that 50 per
cent of patients relapsed within a year and of those who
had reached the third stage of depatterning, 23 per cent
suffered physical complications and 60 per cent persistent
amnesia. Depatterning and psychic driving did not work.
By the beginning of the 1980s information about the Cam-
eron experiments began to trickle into the press. To say
that it hit our family broadside would be an understate-
ment. For my brothers and I, these revelations confirmed
and amplified our childhood fears. A bad science fiction
movie had dropped into the middle of our safe, ordinary
lives. The amorphous fears of childhood took on a real and
fearsome shape that disoriented us all. The newspaper
reports that alerted us had been generated by a lawsuit
brought against the CIA by nine of Cameron’s patients in
Washington in 1979. Years of discovery and pre-trial mo-
tions by lawyers Joe Rauh and Jim Turner had turned up tens of thousands of pages of docu-
the lsd stories • PAGE 179
mentation and depositions that outlined CIA financing
of Ewen Cameron and other doctors and clinicians. Joe
Rauh, a celebrated human rights advocate who had
fought Senator McCarthy and represented the Mississippi
Freedom Democratic Party in their bid for desegregated
delegations to party conventions, had taken on the case
partly in order to prove that ‘the law is the only check on
a secret agency in a democratic society’. After more than
10 years of depositions and CIA diversions and delay the
lawsuit wound to an end. Finally, at the beginning of the
Bush presidency, the CIA settled for the largest sum of
money possible without the formal approval of the At-
torney-General. To the nine plaintiffs and the lawyers it
was a hard-won victory, but it was not enough.
In Canada, there are still some 50 lawsuits lodged against
the Royal Victoria Hospital, home of the Allan Memorial
Institute. Despite a $ 100,000 pay-off to each of 69 pa-
tients, many remain dissatisfied, claiming their lives and
those of their families were ruined. There has been no
apology from the Canadian government, even though it
continued to fund Cameron’s mind control experiments
after the Americans had stopped. Moreover, there has
been no admission of guilt from either the Canadian or
American government. Richard Helms, in his deposition
to Joe Rauh in 1985, admitted that he had destroyed
most of the MKUltra documents in 1973, during the gov-
ernment-wide panic caused by Watergate. But MKUltra
continued well into the 1970s, and many CIA observers say there is little reason to believe it
does not continue today under a different set of acronyms.
 July 2006 • [319]

the lsd stories • PAGE 180

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Simmons JQ, Benor D, Daniel D.
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Shirvaikar RV, Kelkar YW.
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